AVANT-GARDE AND KITSCH (1939)

Clement Greenberg
This is Greenberg's break hr!"gh essa# $r!% 1939& 'ri en $!r he Partisan Review 'hen he 'as 'en #-nine #ears !$ age an( a he i%e %!re in)!*)e( 'i h *i era "re han 'i h +ain ing, He -a%e& *a er& ! re.e- %"-h !$ he essa# -- n! ab*# he (e$ini i!n !$ ki s-h 'hi-h he *a er be*ie)e( ! be i** h!"gh !" (as& in(ee(& i is,) /a er he -a%e ! i(en i$# he hrea ! high ar as -!%ing $r!% %i((*ebr!' as e& 'hi-h in an# e)en a*igns %"-h %!re -*!se*# 'i h he a-a(e%i- han ki s-h e)er (i( !r -!"*(, The essa# has an air an( ass"ran-e !$ '30s 1ar2is%& 'i h +e-"*iar ass"%+ i!ns s"-h as ha !n*# "n(er s!-ia*is% -!"*( he as e !$ he %asses be raise(, 3" $!r a** ha & he essa# s akes !" ne' erri !r#, A* h!"gh he a)an -gar(e 'as an a--e+ e( $a- in he '30s, Greenberg 'as he $irs ! (e$ine i s s!-ia* an( his !ri-a* -!n e2 an( -"* "ra* i%+!r , The essa# a*s! -arrie( 'i hin i he see(s !$ his n! i!n !$ %!(ernis%, Des+i e i s $a"* s an( s!%e i%es hea(# +r!se& i s an(s as !ne !$ he i%+!r an he!re i-a* (!-"%en s !$ 40 h -en "r# -"* "re, -- T5 I 6NE AND THE SA1E -i)i*i7a i!n +r!("-es si%"* ane!"s*# '! s"-h (i$$eren hings s a +!e% b# T, S, E*i! an( a Tin 8an A**e# s!ng& !r a +ain ing b# 3ra9"e an( a Saturday Evening Post -!)er, A** $!"r are !n he !r(er !$ -"* "re& an( !s ensib*#& +ar s !$ he sa%e -"* "re an( +r!("- s !$ he sa%e s!-ie #, Here& h!'e)er& heir -!nne- i!n see%s ! en(, A +!e% b# E*i! an( a +!e% b# E((ie G"es -- 'ha +ers+e- i)e !$ -"* "re is *arge en!"gh ! enab*e "s ! si "a e he% in an en*igh ening re*a i!n ! ea-h ! her: D!es he $a- ha a (is+ari # s"-h as his 'i hin he $ra%e !$ a sing*e -"* "ra* ra(i i!n& 'hi-h is an( has been aken $!r gran e( -- (!es his $a- in(i-a e ha he (is+ari # is a +ar !$ he na "ra* !r(er !$ hings: 6r is i s!%e hing en ire*# ne'& an( +ar i-"*ar ! !"r age: The ans'er in)!*)es %!re han an in)es iga i!n in aes he i-s, I a++ears ! %e ha i is ne-essar# ! e2a%ine %!re -*!se*# an( 'i h %!re !rigina*i # han hi her ! he re*a i!nshi+ be 'een aes he i- e2+erien-e as %e b# he s+e-i$i- -- n! he genera*i7e( -- in(i)i("a*& an( he s!-ia* an( his !ri-a* -!n e2 s in 'hi-h ha e2+erien-e akes +*a-e, ;ha is br!"gh ! *igh 'i** ans'er& in a((i i!n ! he 9"es i!n +!se( ab!)e& ! her an( +erha+s %!re i%+!r an 9"es i!ns, A s!-ie #& as i be-!%es *ess an( *ess ab*e& in he -!"rse !$ i s (e)e*!+%en & ! ."s i$# he ine)i abi*i # !$ i s +ar i-"*ar $!r%s& breaks "+ he a--e+ e( n! i!ns "+!n 'hi-h ar is s an( 'ri ers %"s (e+en( in *arge +ar $!r -!%%"ni-a i!n 'i h heir a"(ien-es, I be-!%es (i$$i-"* ! ass"%e an# hing, A** he )eri ies in)!*)e( b# re*igi!n& a" h!ri #& ra(i i!n& s #*e& are hr!'n in ! 9"es i!n& an( he 'ri er !r ar is is n! *!nger ab*e ! es i%a e he res+!nse !$ his a"(ien-e ! he s#%b!*s an( re$eren-es 'i h 'hi-h he '!rks, In he +as s"-h a s a e !$ a$$airs has "s"a**# res!*)e( i se*$ in ! a %! i!n*ess A*e2an(rianis%& an a-a(e%i-is% in 'hi-h he rea**# i%+!r an iss"es are *e$ "n !"-he( be-a"se he# in)!*)e -!n r!)ers#& an( in 'hi-h -rea i)e a- i)i # ('in(*es ! )ir "!si # in he s%a** (e ai*s !$ $!r%& a** *arger 9"es i!ns being (e-i(e( b# he +re-e(en !$ he !*( %as ers, The sa%e he%es are %e-hani-a**# )arie( in a h"n(re( (i$$eren '!rks& an( #e n! hing ne' is +r!("-e(< S a i"s& %an(arin )erse& R!%an s-"*+ "re& 3ea"2-Ar s +ain ing& ne!-re+"b*i-an ar-hi e- "re,

I is a%!ng he h!+e$"* signs in he %i(s !$ he (e-a# !$ !"r +resen s!-ie # ha 'e -- s!%e !$ "s -- ha)e been "n'i**ing ! a--e+ his *as +hase $!r !"r !'n -"* "re, In seeking ! g! be#!n( A*e2an(rianis%& a +ar !$ ;es ern b!"rge!is s!-ie # has +r!("-e( s!%e hing "nhear( !$ here !$!re< -- a)an -gar(e -"* "re, A s"+eri!r -!ns-i!"sness !$ his !r# -- %!re +re-ise*#& he a++earan-e !$ a ne' kin( !$ -ri i-is% !$ s!-ie #& an his !ri-a* -ri i-is% -- %a(e his +!ssib*e, This -ri i-is% has n! -!n$r!n e( !"r +resen s!-ie # 'i h i%e*ess " !+ias& b" has s!ber*# e2a%ine( in he er%s !$ his !r# an( !$ -a"se an( e$$e- he an e-e(en s& ."s i$i-a i!ns an( $"n- i!ns !$ he $!r%s ha *ie a he hear !$ e)er# s!-ie #, Th"s !"r +resen b!"rge!is s!-ia* !r(er 'as sh!'n ! be& n! an e erna*& =na "ra*= -!n(i i!n !$ *i$e& b" si%+*# he *a es er% in a s"--essi!n !$ s!-ia* !r(ers, Ne' +ers+e- i)es !$ his kin(& be-!%ing a +ar !$ he a()an-e( in e**e- "a* -!ns-ien-e !$ he $i$ h an( si2 h (e-a(es !$ he nine een h -en "r#& s!!n 'ere abs!rbe( b# ar is s an( +!e s& e)en i$ "n-!ns-i!"s*# $!r he %!s +ar , I 'as n! a--i(en & here$!re& ha he bir h !$ he a)an -gar(e -!in-i(e( -hr!n!*!gi-a**# -- an( ge!gra+hi-a**#& !! -'i h he $irs b!*( (e)e*!+%en !$ s-ien i$i- re)!*" i!nar# h!"gh in E"r!+e, Tr"e& he $irs se *ers !$ b!he%ia -- 'hi-h 'as hen i(en i-a* 'i h he a)an -gar(e -- "rne( !" s!!n ! be (e%!ns ra i)e*# "nin eres e( in +!*i i-s, Ne)er he*ess& 'i h!" he -ir-"*a i!n !$ re)!*" i!nar# i(eas in he air ab!" he%& he# '!"*( ne)er ha)e been ab*e ! is!*a e heir -!n-e+ !$ he =b!"rge!is= in !r(er ! (e$ine 'ha he# 'ere n! , N!r& 'i h!" he %!ra* ai( !$ re)!*" i!nar# +!*i i-a* a i "(es '!"*( he# ha)e ha( he -!"rage ! asser he%se*)es as aggressi)e*# as he# (i( agains he +re)ai*ing s an(ar(s !$ s!-ie #, C!"rage in(ee( 'as nee(e( $!r his& be-a"se he a)an -gar(e's e%igra i!n $r!% b!"rge!is s!-ie # ! b!he%ia %ean a*s! an e%igra i!n $r!% he %arke s !$ -a+i a*is%& "+!n 'hi-h ar is s an( 'ri ers ha( been hr!'n b# he $a**ing a'a# !$ aris !-ra i- +a r!nage, (6s ensib*#& a *eas & i %ean his -- %ean s ar)ing in a garre -- a* h!"gh& as 'e 'i** be sh!'n *a er& he a)an -gar(e re%aine( a a-he( ! b!"rge!is s!-ie # +re-ise*# be-a"se i nee(e( i s %!ne#,) >e i is r"e ha !n-e he a)an -gar(e ha( s"--ee(e( in =(e a-hing= i se*$ $r!% s!-ie #& i +r!-ee(e( ! "rn ar!"n( an( re+"(ia e re)!*" i!nar# as 'e** as b!"rge!is +!*i i-s, The re)!*" i!n 'as *e$ insi(e s!-ie #& a +ar !$ ha 'e* er !$ i(e!*!gi-a* s r"gg*e 'hi-h ar an( +!e r# $in( s! "n+r!+i i!"s as s!!n as i begins ! in)!*)e h!se =+re-i!"s= a2i!%a i- be*ie$s "+!n 'hi-h -"* "re h"s $ar has ha( ! res , Hen-e i (e)e*!+e( ha he r"e an( %!s i%+!r an $"n- i!n !$ he a)an -gar(e 'as n! ! =e2+eri%en &= b" ! $in( a +a h a*!ng 'hi-h i '!"*( be +!ssib*e ! kee+ -"* "re %!)ing in he %i(s !$ i(e!*!gi-a* -!n$"si!n an( )i!*en-e, Re iring $r!% +"b*i- a* !ge her& he a)an -gar(e +!e !r ar is s!"gh ! %ain ain he high *e)e* !$ his ar b# b! h narr!'ing an( raising i ! he e2+ressi!n !$ an abs!*" e in 'hi-h a** re*a i)i ies an( -!n ra(i- i!ns '!"*( be ei her res!*)e( !r besi(e he +!in , =Ar $!r ar 's sake= an( =+"re +!e r#= a++ear& an( s"b.e- %a er !r -!n en be-!%es s!%e hing ! be a)!i(e( *ike a +*ag"e, I has been in sear-h !$ he abs!*" e ha he a)an -gar(e has arri)e( a =abs ra- = !r =n!n!b.e- i)e= ar -- an( +!e r#& !!, The a)an -gar(e +!e !r ar is ries in e$$e- ! i%i a e G!( b# -rea ing s!%e hing )a*i( s!*e*# !n i s !'n er%s& in he 'a# na "re i se*$ is )a*i(& in he 'a# a *an(s-a+e -- n! i s +i- "re -- is aes he i-a**# )a*i(? s!%e hing gi)en& in-rea e& in(e+en(en !$ %eanings& si%i*ars !r !rigina*s, C!n en is ! be (iss!*)e( s! -!%+*e e*# in ! $!r% ha he '!rk !$ ar !r *i era "re -ann! be re("-e( in 'h!*e !r in +ar ! an# hing n! i se*$, 3" he abs!*" e is abs!*" e& an( he +!e !r ar is & being 'ha he is& -herishes -er ain re*a i)e )a*"es %!re han ! hers, The )er# )a*"es in he na%e !$ 'hi-h he in)!kes he abs!*" e are re*a i)e )a*"es& he )a*"es !$ aes he i-s, An( s! he "rns !" ! be i%i a ing& n! G!( -- an( here I "se =i%i a e= in i s Aris ! e*ian sense -- b" he (is-i+*ines an( +r!-esses !$ ar an( *i era "re

he%se*)es, This is he genesis !$ he =abs ra- ,=(1) In "rning his a en i!n a'a# $r!% s"b.e%a er !$ -!%%!n e2+erien-e& he +!e !r ar is "rns i in "+!n he %e(i"% !$ his !'n -ra$ , The n!nre+resen a i!na* !r =abs ra- &= i$ i is ! ha)e aes he i- )a*i(i #& -ann! be arbi rar# an( a--i(en a*& b" %"s s e% $r!% !be(ien-e ! s!%e '!r h# -!ns rain !r !rigina*, This -!ns rain & !n-e he '!r*( !$ -!%%!n& e2 r!)er e( e2+erien-e has been ren!"n-e(& -an !n*# be $!"n( in he )er# +r!-esses !r (is-i+*ines b# 'hi-h ar an( *i era "re ha)e a*rea(# i%i a e( he $!r%er, These he%se*)es be-!%e he s"b.e- %a er !$ ar an( *i era "re, I$& ! -!n in"e 'i h Aris ! *e& a** ar an( *i era "re are i%i a i!n& hen 'ha 'e ha)e here is he i%i a i!n !$ i%i a ing, T! 9"! e >ea s< N!r is here singing s-h!!* b" s "(#ing 1!n"%en s !$ i s !'n %agni$i-en-e, 8i-ass!& 3ra9"e& 1!n(rian& 1ir!& Kan(insk#& 3ran-"si& e)en K*ee& 1a isse an( C@7anne (eri)e heir -hie$ ins+ira i!n $r!% he %e(i"% he# '!rk in,(4) The e2-i e%en !$ heir ar see%s ! *ie %!s !$ a** in i s +"re +re!--"+a i!n 'i h he in)en i!n an( arrange%en !$ s+a-es& s"r$a-es& sha+es& -!*!rs& e -,& ! he e2-*"si!n !$ 'ha e)er is n! ne-essari*# i%+*i-a e( in hese $a- !rs, The a en i!n !$ +!e s *ike Ri%ba"(& 1a**ar%@& Va*@r#& A*"ar(& 8!"n(& Har Crane& S e)ens& e)en Ri*ke an( >ea s& a++ears ! be -en ere( !n he e$$!r ! -rea e +!e r# an( !n he =%!%en s= he%se*)es !$ +!e i- -!n)ersi!n& ra her han !n e2+erien-e ! be -!n)er e( in ! +!e r#, 6$ -!"rse& his -ann! e2-*"(e ! her +re!--"+a i!ns in heir '!rk& $!r +!e r# %"s (ea* 'i h '!r(s& an( '!r(s %"s -!%%"ni-a e, Cer ain +!e s& s"-h as 1a**ar%@ an( Va*@r# (3) are %!re ra(i-a* in his res+e- han ! hers -- *ea)ing asi(e h!se +!e s 'h! ha)e rie( ! -!%+!se +!e r# in +"re s!"n( a*!ne, H!'e)er& i$ i 'ere easier ! (e$ine +!e r#& %!(ern +!e r# '!"*( be %"-h %!re =+"re= an( =abs ra- ,= As $!r he ! her $ie*(s !$ *i era "re -- he (e$ini i!n !$ a)an -gar(e aes he i-s a()an-e( here is n! 8r!-r"s ean be(, 3" asi(e $r!% he $a- ha %!s !$ !"r bes -!n e%+!rar# n!)e*is s ha)e g!ne ! s-h!!* 'i h he a)an -gar(e& i is signi$i-an ha Gi(e's %!s a%bi i!"s b!!k is a n!)e* ab!" he 'ri ing !$ a n!)e*& an( ha B!#-e's Ulysses an( Finnegans Wake see% ! be& ab!)e a**& as !ne 5ren-h -ri i- sa#s& he re("- i!n !$ e2+erien-e ! e2+ressi!n $!r he sake !$ e2+ressi!n& he e2+ressi!n %a ering %!re han 'ha is being e2+resse(, Tha a)an -gar(e -"* "re is he i%i a i!n !$ i%i a ing -- he $a- i se*$ -- -a**s $!r nei her a++r!)a* n!r (isa++r!)a*, I is r"e ha his -"* "re -!n ains 'i hin i se*$ s!%e !$ he )er# A*e2an(rianis% i seeks ! !)er-!%e, The *ines 9"! e( $r!% >ea s re$erre( ! 3#7an i"%& 'hi-h is )er# -*!se ! A*e2an(ria? an( in a sense his i%i a i!n !$ i%i a ing is a s"+eri!r s!r !$ A*e2an(rianis%, 3" here is !ne %!s i%+!r an (i$$eren-e< he a)an -gar(e %!)es& 'hi*e A*e2an(rianis% s an(s s i**, An( his& +re-ise*#& is 'ha ."s i$ies he a)an -gar(e's %e h!(s an( %akes he% ne-essar#, The ne-essi # *ies in he $a- ha b# n! ! her %eans is i +!ssib*e !(a# ! -rea e ar an( *i era "re !$ a high !r(er, T! 9"arre* 'i h ne-essi # b# hr!'ing ab!" er%s *ike =$!r%a*is%&= =+"ris%&= =i)!r# !'er= an( s! $!r h is ei her ("** !r (ish!nes , This is n! ! sa#& h!'e)er& ha i is ! he social a()an age !$ he a)an -gar(e ha i is 'ha i is, C"i e he !++!si e, The a)an -gar(e's s+e-ia*i7a i!n !$ i se*$& he $a- ha i s bes ar is s are ar is s' ar is s& i s bes +!e s& +!e s' +!e s& has es range( a grea %an# !$ h!se 'h! 'ere -a+ab*e $!r%er*# !$ en.!#ing an( a++re-ia ing a%bi i!"s ar an( *i era "re& b" 'h! are n!' "n'i**ing !r "nab*e ! a-9"ire an ini ia i!n in ! heir -ra$ se-re s, The %asses ha)e a*'a#s re%aine( %!re !r *ess in(i$$eren ! -"* "re in he +r!-ess !$ (e)e*!+%en , 3" !(a# s"-h -"* "re is being aban(!ne( b# h!se ! 'h!% i a- "a**# be*!ngs -- !"r r"*ing -*ass, 5!r i is ! he *a er ha he a)an -gar(e be*!ngs, N! -"* "re -an (e)e*!+ 'i h!" a s!-ia* basis& 'i h!" a s!"r-e !$ s ab*e in-!%e, An( in he -ase !$ he a)an -gar(e& his 'as +r!)i(e( b# an e*i e a%!ng he r"*ing -*ass !$ ha s!-ie # $r!%

'hi-h i ass"%e( i se*$ ! be -" !$$& b" ! 'hi-h i has a*'a#s re%aine( a a-he( b# an "%bi*i-a* -!r( !$ g!*(, The +ara(!2 is rea*, An( n!' his e*i e is ra+i(*# shrinking, Sin-e he a)an -gar(e $!r%s he !n*# *i)ing -"* "re 'e n!' ha)e& he s"r)i)a* in he near $" "re !$ -"* "re in genera* is h"s hrea ene(, ;e %"s n! be (e-ei)e( b# s"+er$i-ia* +hen!%ena an( *!-a* s"--esses, 8i-ass!'s sh!'s s i** (ra' -r!'(s& an( T, S, E*i! is a"gh in he "ni)ersi ies? he (ea*ers in %!(ernis ar are s i** in b"siness& an( he +"b*ishers s i** +"b*ish s!%e =(i$$i-"* = +!e r#, 3" he a)an -gar(e i se*$& a*rea(# sensing he (anger& is be-!%ing %!re an( %!re i%i( e)er# (a# ha +asses, A-a(e%i-is% an( -!%%er-ia*is% are a++earing in he s ranges +*a-es, This -an %ean !n*# !ne hing< ha he a)an -gar(e is be-!%ing "ns"re !$ he a"(ien-e i (e+en(s !n -- he ri-h an( he -"* i)a e(, Is i he na "re i se*$ !$ a)an -gar(e -"* "re ha is a*!ne res+!nsib*e $!r he (anger i $in(s i se*$ in: 6r is ha !n*# a (anger!"s *iabi*i #: Are here ! her& an( +erha+s %!re i%+!r an & $a- !rs in)!*)e(: II ;here here is an a)an -gar(e& genera**# 'e a*s! $in( a rear-g"ar(, Tr"e en!"gh -si%"* ane!"s*# 'i h he en ran-e !$ he a)an -gar(e& a se-!n( ne' -"* "ra* +hen!%en!n a++eare( in he in("s ria* ;es < ha hing ! 'hi-h he Ger%ans gi)e he '!n(er$"* na%e !$ Kitsch< +!+"*ar& -!%%er-ia* ar an( *i era "re 'i h heir -hr!%e! #+es& %aga7ine -!)ers& i**"s ra i!ns& a(s& s*i-k an( +"*+ $i- i!n& -!%i-s& Tin 8an A**e# %"si-& a+ (an-ing& H!**#'!!( %!)ies& e -,& e -, 5!r s!%e reas!n his gigan i- a++ari i!n has a*'a#s been aken $!r gran e(, I is i%e 'e *!!ke( in ! i s 'h#s an( 'here$!res, Ki s-h is a +r!("- !$ he in("s ria* re)!*" i!n 'hi-h "rbani7e( he %asses !$ ;es ern E"r!+e an( A%eri-a an( es ab*ishe( 'ha is -a**e( "ni)ersa* *i era-#, 8ri!r ! his he !n*# %arke $!r $!r%a* -"* "re& as (is ing"ishe( $r!% $!*k -"* "re& ha( been a%!ng h!se 'h!& in a((i i!n ! being ab*e ! rea( an( 'ri e& -!"*( -!%%an( he *eis"re an( -!%$!r ha a*'a#s g!es han( in han( 'i h -"* i)a i!n !$ s!%e s!r , This "n i* hen ha( been ine2 ri-ab*# ass!-ia e( 'i h *i era-#, 3" 'i h he in r!("- i!n !$ "ni)ersa* *i era-#& he abi*i # ! rea( an( 'ri e be-a%e a*%!s a %in!r ski** *ike (ri)ing a -ar& an( i n! *!nger ser)e( ! (is ing"ish an in(i)i("a*'s -"* "ra* in-*ina i!ns& sin-e i 'as n! *!nger he e2-*"si)e -!n-!%i an !$ re$ine( as es, The +easan s 'h! se *e( in he -i ies as +r!*e aria an( +e # b!"rge!is *earne( ! rea( an( 'ri e $!r he sake !$ e$$i-ien-#& b" he# (i( n! 'in he *eis"re an( -!%$!r ne-essar# $!r he en.!#%en !$ he -i #'s ra(i i!na* -"* "re, /!sing& ne)er he*ess& heir as e $!r he $!*k -"* "re 'h!se ba-kgr!"n( 'as he -!"n r#si(e& an( (is-!)ering a ne' -a+a-i # $!r b!re(!% a he sa%e i%e& he ne' "rban %asses se "+ a +ress"re !n s!-ie # ! +r!)i(e he% 'i h a kin( !$ -"* "re $i $!r heir !'n -!ns"%+ i!n, T! $i** he (e%an( !$ he ne' %arke & a ne' -!%%!(i # 'as (e)ise(< ersa 7 -"* "re& ki s-h& (es ine( $!r h!se 'h!& insensib*e ! he )a*"es !$ gen"ine -"* "re& are h"ngr# ne)er he*ess $!r he (i)ersi!n ha !n*# -"* "re !$ s!%e s!r -an +r!)i(e, Ki s-h& "sing $!r ra' %a eria* he (ebase( an( a-a(e%i-i7e( si%"*a-ra !$ gen"ine -"* "re& 'e*-!%es an( -"* i)a es his insensibi*i #, I is he s!"r-e !$ i s +r!$i s, Ki s-h is %e-hani-a* an( !+era es b# $!r%"*as, Ki s-h is )i-ari!"s e2+erien-e an( $ake( sensa i!ns, Ki s-h -hanges

a--!r(ing ! s #*e& b" re%ains a*'a#s he sa%e, Ki s-h is he e+i !%e !$ a** ha is s+"ri!"s in he *i$e !$ !"r i%es, Ki s-h +re en(s ! (e%an( n! hing !$ i s -"s !%ers e2-e+ heir %!ne# -n! e)en heir i%e, The +re-!n(i i!n $!r ki s-h& a -!n(i i!n 'i h!" 'hi-h ki s-h '!"*( be i%+!ssib*e& is he a)ai*abi*i # -*!se a han( !$ a $"**# %a "re( -"* "ra* ra(i i!n& 'h!se (is-!)eries& a-9"isi i!ns& an( +er$e- e( se*$--!ns-i!"sness ki s-h -an ake a()an age !$ $!r i s !'n en(s, I b!rr!'s $r!% i (e)i-es& ri-ks& s ra age%s& r"*es !$ h"%b& he%es& -!n)er s he% in ! a s#s e%& an( (is-ar(s he res , I (ra's i s *i$e b*!!(& s! ! s+eak& $r!% his reser)!ir !$ a--"%"*a e( e2+erien-e, This is 'ha is rea**# %ean 'hen i is sai( ha he +!+"*ar ar an( *i era "re !$ !(a# 'ere !n-e he (aring& es! eri- ar an( *i era "re !$ #es er(a#, 6$ -!"rse& n! s"-h hing is r"e, ;ha is %ean is ha 'hen en!"gh i%e has e*a+se( he ne' is *!! e( $!r ne' = 'is s&= 'hi-h are hen 'a ere( (!'n an( ser)e( "+ as ki s-h, Se*$-e)i(en *#& a** ki s-h is a-a(e%i-? an( -!n)erse*#& a** ha 's a-a(e%i- is ki s-h, 5!r 'ha is -a**e( he a-a(e%i- as s"-h n! *!nger has an in(e+en(en e2is en-e& b" has be-!%e he s "$$e(-shir =$r!n = $!r ki s-h, The %e h!(s !$ in("s ria*is% (is+*a-e he han(i-ra$ s, 3e-a"se i -an be "rne( !" %e-hani-a**#& ki s-h has be-!%e an in egra* +ar !$ !"r +r!("- i)e s#s e% in a 'a# in 'hi-h r"e -"* "re -!"*( ne)er be& e2-e+ a--i(en a**#, I has been -a+i a*i7e( a a re%en(!"s in)es %en 'hi-h %"s sh!' -!%%ens"ra e re "rns? i is -!%+e**e( ! e2 en( as 'e** as ! kee+ i s %arke s, ;hi*e i is essen ia**# i s !'n sa*es%an& a grea sa*es a++ara "s has ne)er he*ess been -rea e( $!r i & 'hi-h brings +ress"re ! bear !n e)er# %e%ber !$ s!-ie #, Tra+s are *ai( e)en in h!se areas& s! ! s+eak& ha are he +reser)es !$ gen"ine -"* "re, I is n! en!"gh !(a#& in a -!"n r# *ike !"rs& ! ha)e an in-*ina i!n !'ar(s he *a er? !ne %"s ha)e a r"e +assi!n $!r i ha 'i** gi)e hi% he +!'er ! resis he $ake( ar i-*e ha s"rr!"n(s an( +resses in !n hi% $r!% he %!%en he is !*( en!"gh ! *!!k a he $"nn# +a+ers, Ki s-h is (e-e+ i)e, I has %an# (i$$eren *e)e*s& an( s!%e !$ he% are high en!"gh ! be (anger!"s ! he nai)e seeker !$ r"e *igh , A %aga7ine *ike he ew !orker& 'hi-h is $"n(a%en a**# high--*ass ki s-h $!r he *"2"r# ra(e& -!n)er s an( 'a ers (!'n a grea (ea* !$ a)an -gar(e %a eria* $!r i s !'n "ses, N!r is e)er# sing*e i e% !$ ki s-h a* !ge her '!r h*ess, N!' an( hen i +r!("-es s!%e hing !$ %eri & s!%e hing ha has an a" hen i- $!*k $*a)!r? an( hese a--i(en a* an( is!*a e( ins an-es ha)e $!!*e( +e!+*e 'h! sh!"*( kn!' be er, Ki s-h's en!r%!"s +r!$i s are a s!"r-e !$ e%+ a i!n ! he a)an -gar(e i se*$& an( i s %e%bers ha)e n! a*'a#s resis e( his e%+ a i!n, A%bi i!"s 'ri ers an( ar is s 'i** %!(i$# heir '!rk "n(er he +ress"re !$ ki s-h& i$ he# (! n! s"--"%b ! i en ire*#, An( hen h!se +"77*ing b!r(er*ine -ases a++ear& s"-h as he +!+"*ar n!)e*is & Si%en!n& in 5ran-e& an( S einbe-k in his -!"n r#, The ne res"* is a*'a#s ! he (e ri%en !$ r"e -"* "re in an# -ase, Ki s-h has n! been -!n$ine( ! he -i ies in 'hi-h i 'as b!rn& b" has $*!'e( !" !)er he -!"n r#si(e& 'i+ing !" $!*k -"* "re, N!r has i sh!'n an# regar( $!r ge!gra+hi-a* an( na i!na* -"* "ra* b!"n(aries, An! her %ass +r!("- !$ ;es ern in("s ria*is%& i has g!ne !n a ri"%+ha* !"r !$ he '!r*(& -r!'(ing !" an( (e$a-ing na i)e -"* "res in !ne -!*!nia* -!"n r# a$ er an! her& s! ha i is n!' b# 'a# !$ be-!%ing a "ni)ersa* -"* "re& he $irs "ni)ersa* -"* "re e)er behe*(, T!(a# he na i)e !$ China& n! *ess han he S!" h A%eri-an In(ian& he Hin("& n! *ess han he 8!*#nesian& ha)e -!%e ! +re$er ! he +r!("- s !$ heir na i)e ar & %aga7ine -!)ers& r! !gra)"re se- i!ns an( -a*en(ar gir*s, H!' is his )ir"*en-e !$ ki s-h& his irresis ib*e a ra- i)eness& ! be e2+*aine(: Na "ra**#& %a-hine-%a(e ki s-h -an "n(erse** he na i)e han(%a(e ar i-*e& an( he +res ige !$ he ;es a*s! he*+s? b" 'h# is ki s-h a s! %"-h %!re

+r!$i ab*e e2+!r ar i-*e han Re%bran( : 6ne& a$ er a**& -an be re+r!("-e( as -hea+*# as he ! her, In his *as ar i-*e !n he S!)ie -ine%a in he Partisan Review" D'igh 1a-(!na*( +!in s !" ha ki s-h has in he *as en #ears be-!%e he (!%inan -"* "re in S!)ie R"ssia, 5!r his he b*a%es he +!*i i-a* regi%e -- n! !n*# $!r he $a- ha ki s-h is he !$$i-ia* -"* "re& b" a*s! ha i is a- "a**# he (!%inan & %!s +!+"*ar -"* "re& an( he 9"! es he $!**!'ing $r!% K"r /!n(!n's #he Seven Soviet $rts< =, , , he a i "(e !$ he %asses b! h ! he !*( an( ne' ar s #*es +r!bab*# re%ains essen ia**# (e+en(en !n he na "re !$ he e("-a i!n a$$!r(e( he% b# heir res+e- i)e s a es,= 1a-(!na*( g!es !n ! sa#< =;h# a$ er a** sh!"*( ign!ran +easan s +re$er Re+in (a *ea(ing e2+!nen !$ R"ssian a-a(e%i- ki s-h in +ain ing) ! 8i-ass!& 'h!se abs ra- e-hni9"e is a *eas as re*e)an ! heir !'n +ri%i i)e $!*k ar as is he $!r%er's rea*is i- s #*e: N!& i$ he %asses -r!'( in ! he Tre #ak!) (1!s-!''s %"se"% !$ -!n e%+!rar# R"ssian ar < ki s-h)& i is *arge*# be-a"se he# ha)e been -!n(i i!ne( ! sh"n '$!r%a*is%' an( ! a(%ire 's!-ia*is rea*is%,'= In he $irs +*a-e i is n! a 9"es i!n !$ a -h!i-e be 'een %ere*# he !*( an( %ere*# he ne'& as /!n(!n see%s ! hink -- b" !$ a -h!i-e be 'een he ba(& "+- !-(a e !*( an( he gen"ine*# ne', The a* erna i)e ! 8i-ass! is n! 1i-he*ange*!& b" ki s-h, In he se-!n( +*a-e& nei her in ba-k'ar( R"ssia n!r in he a()an-e( ;es (! he %asses +re$er ki s-h si%+*# be-a"se heir g!)ern%en s -!n(i i!n he% !'ar( i , ;here s a e e("-a i!na* s#s e%s ake he r!"b*e ! %en i!n ar & 'e are !*( ! res+e- he !*( %as ers& n! ki s-h? an( #e 'e g! an( hang 1a2$ie*( 8arrish !r his e9"i)a*en !n !"r 'a**s& ins ea( !$ Re%bran( an( 1i-he*ange*!, 1!re!)er& as 1a-(!na*( hi%se*$ +!in s !" & ar!"n( 194D 'hen he S!)ie regi%e 'as en-!"raging a)an gar(e -ine%a& he R"ssian %asses -!n in"e( ! +re$er H!**#'!!( %!)ies, N!& =-!n(i i!ning= (!es n! e2+*ain he +! en-# !$ ki s-h, A** )a*"es are h"%an )a*"es& re*a i)e )a*"es& in ar as 'e** as e*se'here, >e here (!es see% ! ha)e been %!re !r *ess !$ a genera* agree%en a%!ng he -"* i)a e( !$ %ankin( !)er he ages as ! 'ha is g!!( ar an( 'ha ba(, Tas e has )arie(& b" n! be#!n( -er ain *i%i s? -!n e%+!rar# -!nn!isse"rs agree 'i h he eigh een h--en "r# Ba+anese ha H!k"sai 'as !ne !$ he grea es ar is s !$ his i%e? 'e e)en agree 'i h he an-ien Eg#+ ians ha Thir( an( 5!"r h D#nas # ar 'as he %!s '!r h# !$ being se*e- e( as heir +arag!n b# h!se 'h! -a%e a$ er, ;e %a# ha)e -!%e ! +re$er Gi! ! ! Ra+hae*& b" 'e s i** (! n! (en# ha Ra+hae* 'as !ne !$ he bes +ain ers !$ his i%e, There has been an agree%en hen& an( his agree%en res s& I be*ie)e& !n a $air*# -!ns an (is in- i!n %a(e be 'een h!se )a*"es !n*# ! be $!"n( in ar an( he )a*"es 'hi-h -an be $!"n( e*se'here, Ki s-h& b# )ir "e !$ a ra i!na*i7e( e-hni9"e ha (ra's !n s-ien-e an( in("s r#& has erase( his (is in- i!n in +ra- i-e,

/e$ < Re+in& Cossacks? Righ < 8ia-ss!&Woman with a Fan

/e "s see& $!r e2a%+*e& 'ha ha++ens 'hen an ign!ran R"ssian +easan s"-h as 1a-(!na*( %en i!ns s an(s 'i h h#+! he i-a* $ree(!% !$ -h!i-e be$!re '! +ain ings& !ne b# 8i-ass!& he ! her b# Re+in, In he $irs he sees& *e "s sa#& a +*a# !$ *ines& -!*!rs an( s+a-es ha re+resen a '!%an, The abs ra- e-hni9"e -- ! a--e+ 1a-(!na*('s s"++!si i!n& 'hi-h I a% in-*ine( ! (!"b -- re%in(s hi% s!%e'ha !$ he i-!ns he has *e$ behin( hi% in he )i**age& an( he $ee*s he a ra- i!n !$ he $a%i*iar, ;e 'i** e)en s"++!se ha he $ain *# s"r%ises s!%e !$ he grea ar )a*"es he -"* i)a e( $in( in 8i-ass!, He "rns ne2 ! Re+in's +i- "re an( sees a ba *e s-ene, The e-hni9"e is n! s! $a%i*iar -- as e-hni9"e, 3" ha 'eighs )er# *i *e 'i h he +easan & $!r he s"((en*# (is-!)ers )a*"es in Re+in's +i- "re ha see% $ar s"+eri!r ! he )a*"es he has been a--"s !%e( ! $in( in i-!n ar ? an( he "n$a%i*iar i se*$ is !ne !$ he s!"r-es !$ h!se )a*"es< he )a*"es !$ he )i)i(*# re-!gni7ab*e& he %ira-"*!"s an( he s#%+a he i-, In Re+in's +i- "re he +easan re-!gni7es an( sees hings in he 'a# in 'hi-h he re-!gni7es an( sees hings !" si(e !$ +i- "res -- here is n! (is-!n in"i # be 'een ar an( *i$e& n! nee( ! a--e+ a -!n)en i!n an( sa# ! !nese*$& ha i-!n re+resen s Bes"s be-a"se i in en(s ! re+resen Bes"s& e)en i$ i (!es n! re%in( %e )er# %"-h !$ a %an, Tha Re+in -an +ain s! rea*is i-a**# ha i(en i$i-a i!ns are se*$e)i(en i%%e(ia e*# an( 'i h!" an# e$$!r !n he +ar !$ he s+e- a !r -- ha is %ira-"*!"s, The +easan is a*s! +*ease( b# he 'ea* h !$ se*$-e)i(en %eanings 'hi-h he $in(s in he +i- "re< =i e**s a s !r#, = 8i-ass! an( he i-!ns are s! a"s ere an( barren in -!%+aris!n, ;ha is %!re& Re+in heigh ens rea*i # an( %akes i (ra%a i-< s"nse & e2+*!(ing she**s& r"nning an( $a**ing %en, There is n! *!nger an# 9"es i!n !$ 8i-ass! !r i-!ns, Re+in is 'ha he +easan 'an s& an( n! hing e*se b" Re+in, I is *"-k#& h!'e)er& $!r Re+in ha he +easan is +r! e- e( $r!% he +r!("- s !$ A%eri-an -a+i a*is%& $!r he '!"*( n! s an( a -han-e ne2 ! a Saturday Evening Post -!)er b# N!r%an R!-k'e**, E* i%a e*#& i -an be sai( ha he -"* i)a e( s+e- a !r (eri)es he sa%e )a*"es $r!% 8i-ass! ha he +easan ge s $r!% Re+in& sin-e 'ha he *a er en.!#s in Re+in is s!%eh!' ar !!& !n h!'e)er *!' a s-a*e& an( he is sen ! *!!k a +i- "res b# he sa%e ins in- s ha sen( he -"* i)a e( s+e- a !r, 3" he "* i%a e )a*"es 'hi-h he -"* i)a e( s+e- a !r (eri)es $r!% 8i-ass! are (eri)e( a a se-!n( re%!)e& as he res"* !$ re$*e- i!n "+!n he i%%e(ia e i%+ressi!n *e$ b# he +*as i- )a*"es, I is !n*# hen ha he re-!gni7ab*e& he %ira-"*!"s an( he s#%+a he i- en er, The# are n! i%%e(ia e*# !r e2 erna**# +resen in 8i-ass!'s +ain ing& b" %"s be +r!.e- e( in ! i b# he s+e- a !r sensi i)e en!"gh ! rea- s"$$i-ien *# ! +*as i- 9"a*i ies, The# be*!ng ! he =re$*e- e(= e$$e- , In Re+in& !n he ! her han(& he =re$*e- e(= e$$e- has a*rea(# been in-*"(e( in he +i- "re& rea(# $!r he s+e- a !r's "nre$*e- i)e en.!#%en ,(F) ;here 8i-ass! +ain s -a"se& Re+in +ain s e$$e- , Re+in +re(iges s ar $!r he s+e- a !r an( s+ares hi% e$$!r & +r!)i(es hi% 'i h a sh!re -" ! he +*eas"re !$ ar ha (e !"rs 'ha is ne-essari*# (i$$i-"* in gen"ine ar , Re+in& !r ki s-h& is s#n he i- ar , The sa%e +!in -an be %a(e 'i h res+e- ! ki s-h *i era "re< i +r!)i(es )i-ari!"s e2+erien-e $!r he insensi i)e 'i h $ar grea er i%%e(ia-# han seri!"s $i- i!n -an h!+e ! (!, An( E((ie G"es an( he In(ian /!)e /#ri-s are %!re +!e i- han T, S, E*i! an( Shakes+eare, III I$ he a)an -gar(e i%i a es he +r!-esses !$ ar & ki s-h& 'e n!' see& i%i a es i s e$$e- s, The nea ness !$ his an i hesis is %!re han -!n ri)e(? i -!rres+!n(s ! an( (e$ines he re%en(!"s in er)a* ha se+ara es $r!% ea-h ! her '! s"-h si%"* ane!"s -"* "ra* +hen!%ena as he a)an gar(e an( ki s-h, This in er)a*& !! grea ! be -*!se( b# a** he in$ini e gra(a i!ns !$ +!+"*ari7e( =%!(ernis%= an( =%!(ernis i-= ki s-h& -!rres+!n(s in "rn ! a s!-ia* in er)a*& a s!-ia* in er)a* ha has a*'a#s e2is e( in $!r%a* -"* "re& as e*se'here in -i)i*i7e( s!-ie #& an( 'h!se '!

er%ini -!n)erge an( (i)erge in $i2e( re*a i!n ! he in-reasing !r (e-reasing s abi*i # !$ he gi)en s!-ie #, There has a*'a#s been !n !ne si(e he %in!ri # !$ he +!'er$"* -- an( here$!re he -"* i)a e( -- an( !n he ! her he grea %ass !$ he e2+*!i e( an( +!!r -- an( here$!re he ign!ran , 5!r%a* -"* "re has a*'a#s be*!nge( ! he $irs & 'hi*e he *as ha)e ha( ! -!n en he%se*)es 'i h $!*k !r r"(i%en ar# -"* "re& !r ki s-h, In a s ab*e s!-ie # ha $"n- i!ns 'e** en!"gh ! h!*( in s!*" i!n he -!n ra(i- i!ns be 'een i s -*asses& he -"* "ra* (i-h! !%# be-!%es s!%e'ha b*"rre(, The a2i!%s !$ he $e' are share( b# he %an#? he *a er be*ie)e s"+ers i i!"s*# 'ha he $!r%er be*ie)e s!ber*#, An( a s"-h %!%en s in his !r# he %asses are ab*e ! $ee* '!n(er an( a(%ira i!n $!r he -"* "re& !n n! %a er h!' high a +*ane& !$ i s %as ers, This a++*ies a *eas ! +*as i- -"* "re& 'hi-h is a--essib*e ! a**, In he 1i((*e Ages he +*as i- ar is +ai( *i+ ser)i-e a *eas ! he *!'es -!%%!n (en!%ina !rs !$ e2+erien-e, This e)en re%aine( r"e ! s!%e e2 en "n i* he se)en een h -en "r#, There 'as a)ai*ab*e $!r i%i a i!n a "ni)ersa**# )a*i( -!n-e+ "a* rea*i #& 'h!se !r(er he ar is -!"*( n! a%+er 'i h, The s"b.e- %a er !$ ar 'as +res-ribe( b# h!se 'h! -!%%issi!ne( '!rks !$ ar & 'hi-h 'ere n! -rea e(& as in b!"rge!is s!-ie #& !n s+e-"*a i!n, 8re-ise*# be-a"se his -!n en 'as (e er%ine( in a()an-e& he ar is 'as $ree ! -!n-en ra e !n his %e(i"%, He nee(e( n! ! be +hi*!s!+her& !r )isi!nar#& b" si%+*# ar i$i-er, As *!ng as here 'as genera* agree%en as ! 'ha 'ere he '!r hies s"b.e- s $!r ar & he ar is 'as re*ie)e( !$ he ne-essi # ! be !rigina* an( in)en i)e in his =%a er= an( -!"*( (e)! e a** his energ# ! $!r%a* +r!b*e%s, 5!r hi% he %e(i"% be-a%e& +ri)a e*#& +r!$essi!na**#& he -!n en !$ his ar & e)en as his %e(i"% is !(a# he +"b*i- -!n en !$ he abs ra- +ain er's ar -- 'i h ha (i$$eren-e& h!'e)er& ha he %e(ie)a* ar is ha( ! s"++ress his +r!$essi!na* +re!--"+a i!n in +"b*i- -- ha( a*'a#s ! s"++ress an( s"b!r(ina e he +ers!na* an( +r!$essi!na* in he $inishe(& !$$i-ia* '!rk !$ ar , I$& as an !r(inar# %e%ber !$ he Chris ian -!%%"ni #& he $e* s!%e +ers!na* e%! i!n ab!" his s"b.e- %a er& his !n*# -!n rib" e( ! he enri-h%en !$ he '!rk's +"b*i- %eaning, 6n*# 'i h he Renaissan-e (! he in$*e- i!ns !$ he +ers!na* be-!%e *egi i%a e& s i** ! be ke+ & h!'e)er& 'i hin he *i%i s !$ he si%+*# an( "ni)ersa**# re-!gni7ab*e, An( !n*# 'i h Re%bran( (! =*!ne*#= ar is s begin ! a++ear& *!ne*# in heir ar , 3" e)en ("ring he Renaissan-e& an( as *!ng as ;es ern ar 'as en(ea)!ring ! +er$e- i s e-hni9"e& )i- !ries in his rea*% -!"*( !n*# be signa*i7e( b# s"--ess in rea*is i- i%i a i!n& sin-e here 'as n! ! her !b.e- i)e -ri eri!n a han(, Th"s he %asses -!"*( s i** $in( in he ar !$ heir %as ers !b.e- s !$ a(%ira i!n an( '!n(er, E)en he bir( ha +e-ke( a he $r"i in Ge"2is' +i- "re -!"*( a++*a"(, I is a +*a i "(e ha ar be-!%es -a)iar ! he genera* 'hen he rea*i # i i%i a es n! *!nger -!rres+!n(s e)en r!"gh*# ! he rea*i # re-!gni7e( b# he genera*, E)en hen& h!'e)er& he resen %en he -!%%!n %an %a# $ee* is si*en-e( b# he a'e in 'hi-h he s an(s !$ he +a r!ns !$ his ar , 6n*# 'hen he be-!%es (issa is$ie( 'i h he s!-ia* !r(er he# a(%inis er (!es he begin ! -ri i-i7e heir -"* "re, Then he +*ebian $in(s -!"rage $!r he $irs i%e ! )!i-e his !+ini!ns !+en*#, E)er# %an& $r!% he Ta%%an# a*(er%an ! he A"s rian h!"se-+ain er& $in(s ha he is en i *e( ! his !+ini!n, 1!s !$ en his resen %en !'ar( -"* "re is ! be $!"n( 'here he (issa is$a- i!n 'i h s!-ie # is a rea- i!nar# (issa is$a- i!n 'hi-h e2+resses i se*$ in re)i)a*is% an( +"ri anis%& an( *a es !$ a**& in $as-is%, Here re)!*)ers an( !r-hes begin ! be %en i!ne( in he sa%e brea h as -"* "re, In he na%e !$ g!(*iness !r he b*!!('s hea* h& in he na%e !$ si%+*e 'a#s an( s!*i( )ir "es& he s a "e-s%ashing -!%%en-es,

IV Re "rning ! !"r R"ssian +easan $!r he %!%en & *e "s s"++!se ha a$ er he has -h!sen Re+in in +re$eren-e ! 8i-ass!& he s a e's e("-a i!na* a++ara "s -!%es a*!ng an( e**s hi% ha he is 'r!ng& ha he sh!"*( ha)e -h!sen 8i-ass! -- an( sh!'s hi% 'h#, I is 9"i e +!ssib*e $!r he S!)ie s a e ! (! his, 3" hings being as he# are in R"ssia -- an( e)er#'here e*se -- he +easan s!!n $in(s he ne-essi # !$ '!rking har( a** (a# $!r his *i)ing an( he r"(e& "n-!%$!r ab*e -ir-"%s an-es in 'hi-h he *i)es (! n! a**!' hi% en!"gh *eis"re& energ# an( -!%$!r ! rain $!r he en.!#%en !$ 8i-ass!, This nee(s& a$ er a**& a -!nsi(erab*e a%!"n !$ =-!n(i i!ning,= S"+eri!r -"* "re is !ne !$ he %!s ar i$i-ia* !$ a** h"%an -rea i!ns& an( he +easan $in(s n! =na "ra*= "rgen-# 'i hin hi%se*$ ha 'i** (ri)e hi% !'ar( 8i-ass! in s+i e !$ a** (i$$i-"* ies, In he en( he +easan 'i** g! ba-k ! ki s-h 'hen he $ee*s *ike *!!king a +i- "res& $!r he -an en.!# ki s-h 'i h!" e$$!r , The s a e is he*+*ess in his %a er an( re%ains s! as *!ng as he +r!b*e%s !$ +r!("- i!n ha)e n! been s!*)e( in a s!-ia*is sense, The sa%e h!*(s r"e& !$ -!"rse& $!r -a+i a*is -!"n ries an( %akes a** a*k !$ ar $!r he %asses here n! hing b" (e%ag!g#,(D) ;here !(a# a +!*i i-a* regi%e es ab*ishes an !$$i-ia* -"* "ra* +!*i-#& i is $!r he sake !$ (e%ag!g#, I$ ki s-h is he !$$i-ia* en(en-# !$ -"* "re in Ger%an#& I a*# an( R"ssia& i is n! be-a"se heir res+e- i)e g!)ern%en s are -!n r!**e( b# +hi*is ines& b" be-a"se ki s-h is he -"* "re !$ he %asses in hese -!"n ries& as i is e)er#'here e*se, The en-!"rage%en !$ ki s-h is %ere*# an! her !$ he ine2+ensi)e 'a#s in 'hi-h ! a*i arian regi%es seek ! ingra ia e he%se*)es 'i h heir s"b.e- s, Sin-e hese regi%es -ann! raise he -"* "ra* *e)e* !$ he %asses -- e)en i$ he# 'an e( ! -- b# an# hing sh!r !$ a s"rren(er ! in erna i!na* s!-ia*is%& he# 'i** $*a er he %asses b# bringing a** -"* "re (!'n ! heir *e)e*, I is $!r his reas!n ha he a)an gar(e is !" *a'e(& an( n! s! %"-h be-a"se a s"+eri!r -"* "re is inheren *# a %!re -ri i-a* -"* "re, (;he her !r n! he a)an -gar(e -!"*( +!ssib*# $*!"rish "n(er a ! a*i arian regi%e is n! +er inen ! he 9"es i!n a his +!in ,) As a %a er !$ $a- & he %ain r!"b*e 'i h a)an -gar(e ar an( *i era "re& $r!% he +!in !$ )ie' !$ $as-is s an( S a*inis s& is n! ha he# are !! -ri i-a*& b" ha he# are !! =inn!-en &= ha i is !! (i$$i-"* ! in.e- e$$e- i)e +r!+agan(a in ! he%& ha ki s-h is %!re +*iab*e ! his en(, Ki s-h kee+s a (i- a !r in -*!ser -!n a- 'i h he =s!"*= !$ he +e!+*e, Sh!"*( he !$$i-ia* -"* "re be !ne s"+eri!r ! he genera* %ass-*e)e*& here '!"*( be a (anger !$ is!*a i!n, Ne)er he*ess& i$ he %asses 'ere -!n-ei)ab*# ! ask $!r a)an -gar(e ar an( *i era "re& Hi *er& 1"ss!*ini an( S a*in '!"*( n! hesi a e *!ng in a e%+ ing ! sa is$# s"-h a (e%an(, Hi *er is a bi er ene%# !$ he a)an -gar(e& b! h !n (!- rina* an( +ers!na* gr!"n(s& #e his (i( n! +re)en G!ebbe*s in 1934-1933 $r!% s ren"!"s*# -!"r ing a)an -gar(e ar is s an( 'ri ers, ;hen G! $rie( 3enn& an E2+ressi!nis +!e & -a%e !)er ! he Na7is he 'as 'e*-!%e( 'i h a grea $an$are& a* h!"gh a ha )er# %!%en Hi *er 'as (en!"n-ing E2+ressi!nis% as Kulturbolschewismus, This 'as a a i%e 'hen he Na7is $e* ha he +res ige 'hi-h he a)an gar(e en.!#e( a%!ng he -"* i)a e( Ger%an +"b*i- -!"*( be !$ a()an age ! he%& an( +ra- i-a* -!nsi(era i!ns !$ his na "re& he Na7is being ski**$"* +!*i i-ians& ha)e a*'a#s aken +re-e(en-e !)er Hi *er's +ers!na* in-*ina i!ns, /a er he Na7is rea*i7e( ha i 'as %!re +ra- i-a* ! a--e(e ! he 'ishes !$ he %asses in %a ers !$ -"* "re han ! h!se !$ heir +a#%as ers? he *a er& 'hen i -a%e ! a 9"es i!n !$ +reser)ing +!'er& 'ere as 'i**ing ! sa-ri$i-e heir -"* "re as he# 'ere heir %!ra* +rin-i+*es? 'hi*e he $!r%er& +re-ise*# be-a"se +!'er 'as being 'i hhe*( $r!% he%& ha( ! be -!7ene( in e)er# ! her 'a# +!ssib*e, I 'as ne-essar# ! +r!%! e !n a %"-h %!re gran(i!se s #*e han in he (e%!-ra-ies he i**"si!n ha he %asses a- "a**# r"*e, The *i era "re an( ar he# en.!# an( "n(ers an( 'ere ! be +r!-*ai%e( he !n*# r"e ar an( *i era "re an( an#

! her kin( 'as ! be s"++resse(, En(er hese -ir-"%s an-es +e!+*e *ike G! $rie( 3enn& n! %a er h!' ar(en *# he# s"++!r Hi *er& be-!%e a *iabi*i #? an( 'e hear n! %!re !$ he% in Na7i Ger%an#, ;e -an see hen ha a* h!"gh $r!% !ne +!in !$ )ie' he +ers!na* +hi*is inis% !$ Hi *er an( S a*in is n! a--i(en a* ! he r!*es he# +*a#& $r!% an! her +!in !$ )ie' i is !n*# an in-i(en a**# -!n rib" !r# $a- !r in (e er%ining he -"* "ra* +!*i-ies !$ heir res+e- i)e regi%es, Their +ers!na* +hi*is inis% si%+*# a((s br" a*i # an( (!"b*e-(arkness ! +!*i-ies he# '!"*( be $!r-e( ! s"++!r an#h!' b# he +ress"re !$ a** heir ! her +!*i-ies -- e)en 'ere he#& +ers!na**#& (e)! ees !$ a)an -gar(e -"* "re, ;ha he a--e+ an-e !$ he is!*a i!n !$ he R"ssian Re)!*" i!n $!r-es S a*in ! (!& Hi *er is -!%+e**e( ! (! b# his a--e+ an-e !$ he -!n ra(i- i!ns !$ -a+i a*is% an( his e$$!r s ! $ree7e he%, As $!r 1"ss!*ini -- his -ase is a +er$e- e2a%+*e !$ he dis%onsibilit& !$ a rea*is in hese %a ers, 5!r #ears he ben a bene)!*en e#e !n he 5" "ris s an( b"i* %!(ernis i- rai*r!a( s a i!ns an( g!)ern%en -!'ne( a+ar %en h!"ses, 6ne -an s i** see in he s"b"rbs !$ R!%e %!re %!(ernis i- a+ar %en s han a*%!s an#'here e*se in he '!r*(, 8erha+s 5as-is% 'an e( ! sh!' i s "+- !-(a eness& ! -!n-ea* he $a- ha i 'as a re r!gressi!n? +erha+s i 'an e( ! -!n$!r% ! he as es !$ he 'ea* h# e*i e i ser)e(, A an# ra e 1"ss!*ini see%s ! ha)e rea*i7e( *a e*# ha i '!"*( be %!re "se$"* ! hi% ! +*ease he -"* "ra* as es !$ he I a*ian %asses han h!se !$ heir %as ers, The %asses %"s be +r!)i(e( 'i h !b.e- s !$ a(%ira i!n an( '!n(er? he *a er -an (is+ense 'i h he%, An( s! 'e $in( 1"ss!*ini ann!"n-ing a =ne' I%+eria* s #*e,= 1arine i& Chiri-!& et al,& are sen in ! he !" er (arkness& an( he ne' rai*r!a( s a i!n in R!%e 'i** n! be %!(ernis i-, Tha 1"ss!*ini 'as *a e in -!%ing ! his !n*# i**"s ra es again he re*a i)e hesi an-e 'i h 'hi-h I a*ian 5as-is% has (ra'n he ne-essar# i%+*i-a i!ns !$ i s r!*e, Ca+i a*is% in (e-*ine $in(s ha 'ha e)er !$ 9"a*i # i is s i** -a+ab*e !$ +r!("-ing be-!%es a*%!s in)ariab*# a hrea ! i s !'n e2is en-e, A()an-es in -"* "re& n! *ess han a()an-es in s-ien-e an( in("s r#& -!rr!(e he )er# s!-ie # "n(er 'h!se aegis he# are %a(e +!ssib*e, Here& as in e)er# ! her 9"es i!n !(a#& i be-!%es ne-essar# ! 9"! e 1ar2 '!r( $!r '!r(, T!(a# 'e n! *!nger *!!k !'ar( s!-ia*is% $!r a ne' -"* "re -- as ine)i ab*# as !ne 'i** a++ear& !n-e 'e (! ha)e s!-ia*is%, T!(a# 'e *!!k ! s!-ia*is% si%+*# $!r he +reser)a i!n !$ 'ha e)er *i)ing -"* "re 'e ha)e righ n!',
1, The e2a%+*e !$ %"si-& 'hi-h has *!ng been an abs ra- ar & an( 'hi-h a)an -gar(e +!e r# has rie( s! %"-h ! e%"*a e& is in eres ing, 1"si-& Aris ! *e sai( -"ri!"s*# en!"gh& is he %!s i%i a i)e an( )i)i( !$ a** ar s be-a"se i i%i a es i s !rigina* -- he s a e !$ he s!"* -- 'i h he grea es i%%e(ia-#, T!(a# his s rikes "s as he e2a- !++!si e !$ he r" h& be-a"se n! ar see%s ! "s ! ha)e *ess re$eren-e ! s!%e hing !" si(e i se*$ han %"si-, H!'e)er& asi(e $r!% he $a- ha in a sense Aris ! *e %a# s i** be righ & i %"s be e2+*aine( ha an-ien Greek %"si- 'as -*!se*# ass!-ia e( 'i h +!e r#& an( (e+en(e( "+!n i s -hara- er as an a--ess!r# ! )erse ! %ake i s i%i a i)e %eaning -*ear, 8*a !& s+eaking !$ %"si-& sa#s< =5!r 'hen here are n! '!r(s& i is )er# (i$$i-"* ! re-!gni7e he %eaning !$ he har%!n# an( rh# h%& !r ! see ha an# '!r h# !b.e- is i%i a e( b# he%,= As $ar as 'e kn!'& a** %"si- !rigina**# ser)e( s"-h an a--ess!r# $"n- i!n, 6n-e& h!'e)er& i 'as aban(!ne(& %"si- 'as $!r-e( ! 'i h(ra' in ! i se*$ ! $in( a -!ns rain !r !rigina*, This is $!"n( in he )ari!"s %eans !$ i s !'n -!%+!si i!n an( +er$!r%an-e, HRe "rn ! e2 I 4, I !'e his $!r%"*a i!n ! a re%ark %a(e b# Hans H!$%ann& he ar ea-her& in !ne !$ his *e- "res, 5r!% he +!in !$ )ie' !$ his $!r%"*a i!n& S"rrea*is% in +*as i- ar is a rea- i!nar# en(en-# 'hi-h is a e%+ ing ! res !re =!" si(e= s"b.e- %a er, The -hie$ -!n-ern !$ a +ain er *ike Da*i is ! re+resen he +r!-esses an( -!n-e+ s !$ his -!ns-i!"sness& n! he +r!-esses !$ his %e(i"%, HRe "rn ! e2 I 3, See Va*@r#'s re%arks ab!" his !'n +!e r#, HRe "rn ! e2 I

F, T, S, E*i! sai( s!%e hing ! he sa%e e$$e- in a--!"n ing $!r he sh!r -!%ings !$ Eng*ish R!%an i- +!e r#, In(ee( he R!%an i-s -an be -!nsi(ere( he !rigina* sinners 'h!se g"i* ki s-h inheri e(, The# sh!'e( ki s-h h!', ;ha (!es Kea s 'ri e ab!" %ain*#& i$ n! he e$$e- !$ +!e r# "+!n hi%se*$: HRe "rn ! e2 I D, I 'i** be !b.e- e( ha s"-h ar $!r he %asses as $!*k ar 'as (e)e*!+e( "n(er r"(i%en ar# -!n(i i!ns !$ +r!("- i!n -- an( ha a g!!( (ea* !$ $!*k ar is !n a high *e)e*, >es i is -- b" $!*k ar is n! A hene& an( i 's A hene 'h!% 'e 'an < $!r%a* -"* "re 'i h i s in$ini # !$ as+e- s& i s *"2"rian-e& i s *arge -!%+rehensi!n, 3esi(es& 'e are n!' !*( ha %!s !$ 'ha 'e -!nsi(er g!!( in $!*k -"* "re is he s a i- s"r)i)a* !$ (ea( $!r%a*& aris !-ra i-& -"* "res, 6"r !*( Eng*ish ba**a(s& $!r ins an-e& 'ere n! -rea e( b# he =$!*k&= b" b# he +!s -$e"(a* s9"irear-h# !$ he Eng*ish -!"n r#si(e& ! s"r)i)e in he %!" hs !$ he $!*k *!ng a$ er h!se $!r 'h!% he ba**a(s 'ere -!%+!se( ha( g!ne !n ! ! her $!r%s !$ *i era "re, En$!r "na e*#& "n i* he %a-hine age& -"* "re 'as he e2-*"si)e +rer!ga i)e !$ a s!-ie # ha *i)e( b# he *ab!r !$ ser$s !r s*a)es, The# 'ere he rea* s#%b!*s !$ -"* "re, 5!r !ne %an ! s+en( i%e an( energ# -rea ing !r *is ening ! +!e r# %ean ha an! her %an ha( ! +r!("-e en!"gh ! kee+ hi%se*$ a*i)e an( he $!r%er in -!%$!r , In A$ri-a !(a# 'e $in( ha he -"* "re !$ s*a)e-!'ning ribes is genera**# %"-h s"+eri!r ! ha !$ he ribes ha +!ssess n! s*a)es,