On-line and Off-line Control If the process parameters are measured and controlled then and there itself

while the process is going, we call it as on-line control. For example, we want to measure the temperature in a jam making process. We measure the temperature with a thermometer or thermocouple by inserting it into the broth and measure the temperature. Subsequently, the temperature is compared with the set value. Corrective measures are implemented like reducing or increasing the flow rate of stream, increasing or reducing the wattage input to the heater. It is known as on-line measurement and controlling. Similarly, we could do for measurement of pressure, weight of the system or any other process parameter; compare it with the set value and implement the corrective action immediately.

As contrast to the above, in case of off-line measurement-cum-control, some quantity of material is taken away from the processing vessel to another room/hall and measurements are made. Comparisons are made with the set points, and then corrective measures are implemented. For example, in the measurement of the viscosity of the broth, the material is withdrawn from the processing vessel, and the viscosity of the broth is measured by using some kind of viscometer.

The corrective step depends upon the purpose for which the viscosity is a parameter. If it is for manufacture of some soups or gravies, we may stop the process at the moment when desired consistency is reached. Ofcourse, the off-line control process has the disadvantage that by the time we measure the process parameter and try to implement the corrective measure the process conditions may change, and warrant a different type of corrective measure.

This problem is absent in the case of on-line control as the corrective action is immediate. But the instrumentation in the case of on-line control is elaborative, which may add for the initial cost of the project. Most of the offline control methods are manual and they do not require elaborative instrumentation.

CONTROLLING METHODS Precise control of most of the process parameters is a prerequisite for a successful operation in a chemical plant, petrochemical plant, fertilizer plant or a fermenter or a food processing plant. Almost in all these cases, the process parameters are the same; could it be temperature, pressure, weight, pH, flow rate of fluids, liquid level control, foam, agitator speed, and agitator shaft power. In view of this, we can say that a control loop strategy essentially consists of a process parameter, a measuring/sensing element, a set point, a controlling loop, and a final control element. For example, in case of making of jam, we heat all the ingredients along with the fruit pulp and sugar until the final brix reaches 68C. But in a controlling strategy, we may not measure the brix(sugar content). We measure the temperature of the broth. So the sensing element is a temperature sensor. The moment the temperature reaches 105.5 C, we stop cooking as the temperature controller signals for stoppage of heating and further processing. Here, the measurement of temperature is an indirect indication of the brix. Thus, in this case, The process parameter is brix. Measuring or sensing element is thermocouple. Set point is temperature. Controlling loop is stoppage of heating. Final control element is the shutting off of the solenoid valve/steam valve to stop supply of steam. Thus, controlling can be done by activating/deactivating a valve, a pump or some other instrument/accessory. The controlling can be done in the following ways:

1. Manual Control In manual control, the process parameter to be controlled is adjusted manually by comparing the measured parameter with the set value. When the measured value reaches the set value, corrective action is implemented. For example, in the control of heating of a vessel with the contents, the temperature is measured using a thermometer or a thermocouple. The measured value is compared with the set value. Then the corrective measure of adjusting the steam valve / adjusting the wattage input to the electrical heating element is implemented manually (Figure 1).

Thus, the control of heating is achieved. Similarly other process parameters can also be controlled manually. This control system is simplest and easy to implement except that it involves human bias/experience in adjustment of the process parameter. Since no instrumentation is involved in operation, the initial investment costs are low, but the operational costs are high, because of high labour costs. The controlling operation is also unreliable since it depends upon the skill of the operator.

Figure 1 Control of temperature by adjusting the steam valve manually

2. Automatic Control In automatic control systems, the controlling of the process parameter is done by an instrument, and hence, human biased error can be avoided. The instrument measuring the process produces a signal or an impulse which in turn will be compared with the set value in the control loop. Based on the comparison, an output signal is generated which implements the controlling strategy. Thus, the whole controlling is done by an input-output signal. We shall revert back to the earlier example of controlling the temperature.

The temperature is measured by a thermocouple which generates an output in the form of emf (millivolts). The thermocouple is connected to a temperature controller for which the temperature is set. Based on the comparison of the measured value and set value, the controller activates a solenoid valve to continue or stop the flow of steam. Accordingly, the temperature is maintained. The arrangement is shown in Figure 2.

Figure 2 Control of temperature by adjusting steam valve with automatic control arrangement

The efficiency of automatic control depends upon how the controlling strategy is implemented. The automatic control is done by any one of the following ways:

(a) On-off controller: If the temperature is maintained by totally cutting off the steam supply or totally allowing the steam supply to pass through in full swing, we find fluctuations in temperature from the set point. The fluctuations are mainly due to overshooting or undershooting of the process parameter even after shutting off or putting on of the monitoring parameter. The pattern is shown in Figure 3. At point a when the temperature has reached the set point, the steam supply is stopped. Still the temperature raises upto point b, and subsequently starts falling down upto point c.

The moment the temperature starts falling down below the set point, the steam supply starts. But the temperature will not pick up instantaneously; it falls upto point d and starts raising upto point e. Again the cycle of stoppage of steam supply starts. The raise continues upto point f and falls down to point g. Thus, the cycle continues with a positive and negative deviation of the temperature to an extent of T0 C. Even though we set the temperature at TC, it deviates as T T0. This is the disadvantage with an on-off controller.

Figure 3 Performance of an on-off controller for maintaining the bath temperature.

(b) Proportional controller: We have seen the difficulty in using the on-off controller which causes a positive and negative drift from the set process parameter. Subsequently attempts have been made to overcome this difficulty. This has resulted in emergence of a number of complex controllers. We shall describe them briefly here. One of them is a proportional controller.

In a proportional controller, unlike as in the case of an on-off controller, the on-off process starts much before the set point is reached. We take the earlier example of maintaining the constant temperature. As shown in Figure 4, the heat input stopped at point z instead of point a. Similarly heating will start at point y which is much earlier than point c. This will help reduce the drift T0 By proper adjustment and experience, T0 can be brought down to minimum. T0 is known as offset which indicates deviation from the set value.

Figure 4 Performance of a proportional controller for maintaining the bath temperature.

The performance of a proportional controller can be mathematically expressed as: where I stands for output signal, I0 stands for controller output signal without error, stands for error signal, and kp stands for controller sensitivity coefficient. Depending upon the error, the corrective action is proportionately adjusted.

(c) Integral controller: It also functions like proportional controller except that the error signal is integrated over the time frame, and the corrective action is implemented to the output signal. The performance is shown in Figure 5. The performance of an integral controller can be mathematically expressed as:

where ti is integral time. The error is more in the integral controller initially as it takes some time for integration to take place as per the second term of RHS in the above Equation, and accordingly corrective action in implemented. As time progresses, this becomes smooth and we find the deviation from the set point decreases and smoothens of.

Figure 5 Performance of an integral controller for maintaining bath temperature.

(d) Derivative controller: The derivative controller functions by sensing the rate of change of error signal and implements the controlling strategy. The performance of a derivative controller can be mathematically expressed as:

where td is derivative time rate constant. The correction for the output signal is based on the rate of change of error. If there is no rate of change of error (still there could be error!), controlling strategy will not work as the second term in RHS of the above Equation becomes zero; and hence, the error becomes constant.

(e) P-I-D controller: The Proportional-Integral-Derivative (P-I-D) controller takes care of the set- backs in each of the controllers, and reduces the offset to the minimum. It is shown in Figure 6. Even though the drift (off set) is slightly there in the initial stages (which is much less compared to the integral controller), it vanishes as time progresses. The temperature is well controlled, and is almost equal to the set point. Thus, the automatic controllers can be made to perform to the desired setting. Table 1 shows a comparison between the manual and automatic controllers.

Figure 6 Performance of a P-I-D controller for maintaining bath temperature.

Table 1 Comparison of the Manual and Automatic Control Systems

Computer Control: Computers have revolutionized the whole of process control operations in any process industry. Whenever a large number of process parameters need to be controlled with precision, especially like those in a petrochemical complex, computer control is the only option left out. Another characteristic feature of the computer controlled systems is that the controlling is done on-line, but the controlling process is done from a remote place.

Particularly in case of petrochemical complexes in which the explosion hazards are more likely to occur, the computer control room is far away from the process hall, anywhere between 200 500 meters away. The computers have high memory power, and hence, they can handle a large number of process parameters; and all the process parameters can be controlled by a single computer. The automatic controlling units are required, but they are fed with instructions through the computer with precision.

The computer is interphased with the process equipment, particularly the process control units through an Analogue-to-Digital (A/D) converter. Initially the operator issues instructions to the computer. Sensors send input signals to the computer. The logic control unit in the computer compares the sensor inputs with set values, and gives information to the operator.

Based on the outcome of the logic control unit (comparing the measured values with the set values), computer gives manipulationinstructions to the actuator(adjuster). Thus, the actuator manipulates the controlling parameter. Computer also gives communicative messages to the operator through various output devices.

The physiological changes in a process vessel are manifested in the form of some quantifiable environmental parameters in the on-line experiments. For example, if we want to control the temperature of the processing fluid in a vessel, the temperature is measured by thermocouple which give output signals in the form of millivolts, which in turn is fed to the computer through an A/D (Analogue/Digital) converter. The set temperature data which is already fed to the computer is converted into millivolts, and will be compared with the output stimuli of the

measuring instrument by the CPU (Central Processing Unit). Instructions will then be issued to the actuator. Accordingly, the actuator will increase or decrease the electrical wattage input or steam valve to maintain the temperature. Figure 6 shows interphasing a computer to the process vessel to activate a pump.

Figure 7 Interphasing a computer with a process equipment to control the operation of a pump.