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DPM
17,2 An overview on static electricity
Ibrahim Mohamed Shaluf
Department of Chemical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering – Sbrata,
University of 7th April, Al-Zawia, Libya
212
Abstract
Purpose – This paper aims to provide graduate students, researchers, governmental and
independent agencies with an overview on static electricity.
Design/methodology/approach – Static electricity has been studied by researchers, academicians,
company specialists, governmental and independent agencies. Static electricity incidents have been
collected from several sources such as the technical, general articles, internet web sites, and internal
reports. The static electricity definition, incidents, hazards, and static electricity prevention have been
reviewed. The static electricity incidents have been arranged and classified into fire, and explosions.
Findings – Static electricity can be the cause of problems in many areas of industry. It presents a
source of ignition for flammable gases, liquids and powders. It can cause fires and explosions in
tankers, aircraft and petrochemical plant and in printing, pharmaceutical, food products and
explosives industries.
Originality/value – This paper presents an overview on static electricity, the incidents, and the
methods to prevent static electricity generation and accumulation.
Keywords Electrostatics, Fire, Hazards, Explosions
Paper type General review

Disaster Prevention and Management
Vol. 17 No. 2, 2008
pp. 212-220
q Emerald Group Publishing Limited
0965-3562
DOI 10.1108/09653560810872514
Introduction
Static electricity is a potential source of ignition wherever there is a flammable
mixture of gas or of powders or dusts (Lees, 1996). Static electricity is created when
two objects or materials that have been in contact with each other are separated.
When in contact, the surface electrical charges of the objects try to balance each
other. This happens by the free flow electrons (negatively charged particles) from one
object to the other. This causes both objects to become electrically charged. If these
charges do not have a path to the ground, they are unable to move and become
“static”. If static electricity is not rapidly eliminated, the charge will build up. It will
eventually develop enough to jump as a spark to some nearby ground or less highly
charged object in an attempt to balance the charge (Industrial Accident Prevention
Association, 2006).
An atmosphere becomes flammable when the ratio of oxygen to combustible
material in the air is neither too rich nor too lean for combustion to occur. Combustible
gases or vapors will accumulate when there is inadequate ventilation in areas such as
confined spaces. Flammable atmospheres may also be formed by chemical reactions.
These occur when surfaces are initially exposed to the atmosphere or when chemicals
combine to form flammable gases (The University of Tennessee, 2006).
Static can be a cause of problem in many areas of industry. It presents a prospective
source of ignition for flammable gases, liquids and powders. It can cause fires and
explosions in tankers, aircraft and petrochemical plant and in printing,
pharmaceutical, food products and explosives industries. The chemical,
petrochemical industries and the petrol filling stations have experienced fire and
explosion incidents due to static electricity. The incidents have been rearranged and
reviewed. It has been noted that eight explosion incidents occurred in storage tanks An overview on
and crude oil storage tankers in the period of 1953 to 1969 resulted in 29 fatalities. static electricity
Overall, 303 fire and explosion incidents occurred during the filling of containers
(storage tanks, road, rail tanks and drums) in the period of 1979 to 1988 resulted in five
fatalities and 100 injuries. The majority of incidents have occurred in earthed
containers. Earthling alone does not eliminate the hazard of static electricity. A total of
243 fire incidents occurred in petrol station worldwide in the period of 1993 to 2004. 213
The incidents are sufficient to indicate the importance of static electricity as an ignition
source. This paper presents an overview on the static electricity, the incidents and the
methods to prevent the static electricity generation and accumulation.

Static ignition incidents

Electrostatic spark in the presence of flammable atmosphere (gas, vapor, and aerosol or
dust cloud) can present a fire or explosion hazard. An analysis of the incidents
statistics shows that 11 of the incidents (4 percent) were known to be caused by
electrostatic sparks. (In Germany 9 percent of all reported incidents were caused by
static sparks.) It is normally very difficult, after an incident, to establish exactly what
caused the mishap. Ignition sources such as welding or mechanical failure are more
easily traceable than an electrostatic spark. The large percentage (27 percent) of
incidents with unknown sources of ignition probably has a significant number that can
be attributed to statistic (Ball, 1996). Lees (1996) summarized some incidents which
occurred due to static ignition. Explosions have occurred due to generation of static
charge by the discharge of carbon dioxide fire protection systems. Such a discharge
caused an explosion in a large storage tank at Biburg in Germany in 1953, which killed
29 people. In 1954, a large storage tank at Shell refinery at Pernis in the Netherlands
exploded 40 minutes after the start of pumping of tops naphtha into straight-run
naphtha. The fire was quickly put out. The next day, a further attempt was made to
blend the materials and again an explosion occurred 40 minutes after the start of
pumping. The cause of these incidents was determined as static charging of the liquid
flowing into the tank and incendive discharge in the tank. These incidents led to a
major program of work by Shell on static electricity. An explosion occurred in 1956 on
the Esso Paterson during loading at Baytown, Texas, the ignition being attributed to
static electricity. Another incident involving a carbon dioxide discharge occurred in
1966 on the tanker Alva Cape. In 1969, sever explosions occurred on three of Shell’s
very large crude carries (VLCCs): the Marpesa, which sank, the Mactra and the King
Haakon VII. In all three cases tanks were being cleaned by washing with high-pressure
water jets, and static electricity generated by the program process was identified as the
ignition source. Following this set of incidents, Shell initiated an extensive program of
work on static electricity in tanker cleaning. Explosion due to static ignition occur from
time to time in the filling of liquid containers, whether storage tanks, road and rail
tanks or drums, with hydrocarbon and other flammable liquids. Abbott (1988) pointed
out that the published statistics revealed that there were 303 incidents of fire or
explosion reported to the Health and Safety Executive during the period 1979 to 1988.
These incidents resulted in five deaths and 100 injuries. The majority of incidents have
occurred in earthed containers. Earthling alone does not eliminate the hazard of static
electricity. Renkes (2006) reported the fire at refueling sites that appear to be static
related incidents in the USA. Renkes pointed out that in the period of 1992 to 2006 there
DPM have been 166 fire incidents that caused the damage to vehicles and stations. These
17,2 incidents resulted in one fatality and 68 injuries. In the period of 1993 to 2004, there
were 243 reported incidents of fires breaking out at petrol stations around the world
(Australian Government, 2006). These incidents are sufficient to indicate the
importance of static electricity as an ignition source. Table I summarizes the incidents
which have resulted from static electricity.
214
Static electricity in industrial processes
The industrial situations in which undesired static charges are generated are largely
those in which two surfaces move relative to each other, with initial contact followed
by subsequent separation. When the surfaces are separated, one body tends to be left
with a positive charge and the other with a negative charge. If the bodies are good
conductors of electricity, the charge moves quite freely and both bodies are effectively
restored to their original uncharged state through the last points of contact at
separation. But if one or both of the bodies are poor conductors, the charge does not
flow freely and booth bodies retain charge after separation.
There are many industrial processes that involve surface contact, movement and
separation of poorly conducting materials. These processes may be classified in terms
of: the phase involved, e.g. gas-solid; the general type of system, e.g. dusts and
powders; or the particular type of processes or equipment, e.g. pneumatic conveying.
Some systems in the processes industries where static effects are important are listed
in Table II. The hazard of static electricity occurs in the process industry in: fluid
handling operation such as pipeline flow, setting of drops, agitation, filling of storage
tanks, filling of tankers; powder and dust and pneumatic conveying; in sprays and
mists such as in steam cleaning and steam leaks; moving equipment such as conveyer

Incident
Incident type number Facility Date Location Casualties

Explosion 1 Large storage tank 1953 Germany 29 fatalities

Explosion 2 Large storage tank 1954 The Netherlands –
Explosion 1 Loading tanker 1956 USA –
Explosion 1 Tanker 1966 USA –
Explosion 3 Crude oil tankers 1969 The Netherlands
Fire and 303 Filling of containers 1979-1988 UK 5 fatalities and
Table I. explosion (storage tanks, road, 100 injuries
Summary of the static rail tanks and drums)
ignition incidents Fire 243 Petrol stations 1993-2004 Around the world –

Liquid – solid Flow of liquid through pipes, filters splash filling of tanks
Table II. Liquid – liquid Mixing of immiscible liquids; settling of drops of one liquid through another
The systems in process Gas – liquid Cleaning with wet steam; spraying with water; leakage of wet steam
industries where static Gas – solid Pneumatic conveying; fluidized beds
effects are important Solid – solid Belt derives; conveyers belt; reeling of papers or plastics; human body
belt and bucket elevators, and the human body. Static electricity is essentially a An overview on
phenomenon of low current but high voltage. static electricity
The static charge may discharge causing an incendive spark or it may give a less
hazardous corona discharge spark or may leak away to earth. Sparks from good
conductors are more incendive than are those from poor conductors.
The hazard of static electricity may be estimated by comparing the energy of an
electrostatic charge with minimum ignition energy of flammable gas mixtures and 215
powder or dust suspensions (Lees, 1996).

Static generation
Static charge build up is a result of physically separating a poor conductor from a god
conductor or another poor conductor. When different materials touch each other, the
electrons move across the interface from one surface to the other. Upon separation,
more of the electrons remain on one surface than on the other; one material becomes
positively charged and the other negatively charged. If both the materials are good
conductors, the charge buildup as a result of separation is small because the electrons
are able to scurry between the surfaces. If, however, one or both of the materials are
insulators or poor conductors, electors are not as mobile and are trapped on one of the
surfaces, and the magnitude of the charge is much greater. Common industrial
examples are pumping a nonconductive liquid through a pipe, mixing immiscible
liquids, pneumatically conveying solids, and leaking steam that contacts an
ungrounded conductor. The static charges in these examples accumulate to develop
large voltages. Subsequent grounding produces large and energetic sparks.
For industrial operations where flammable vapors may be present, any charge
accumulation exceeding 0.1mJ is considered dangerous. Static charges of this
magnitude are easy to generate; the static buildup created by walking across a carpet
averages about 20mJ and exceeds several thousand volts (Crowel and Louvar, 2002).
An electrostatic discharge occurs when two materials at different potentials or
polarities come close enough together to generate a charge transfer. In an explosive
environment this sudden transfer of charges may be energetic enough to be an ignition
source. To prevent these ignitions, one must understand:
.
how charges accumulate on objects;
.
how charges discharge by means of charge transfer; and
.
how to estimate the resulting energy discharged in relation to the minimum
ignition energy (MIE) of the explosive environment.

Charge accumulation
There are number of mechanisms by which an electrostatic charge can build up. The
main mechanisms are summarized as follows:
(1) Contact and separation: If two different solid materials are rubbed together, so
that there is first contact and then separation of their surfaces, charges build up
on the surfaces of the two materials, one material having a charge of one
polarity and the other a charge of opposite polarity.
(2) Induction. Induction charging occurs only where the body is a conductor. If a
body which is an isolated conductor is placed in an electrical field, charges of
different polarity are induced on opposite sides. If then an earthed electrode
DPM touches, or even approaches close to, this body, the charges close to the
17,2 electrode flows away, leaving the body with a charge of opposite sign.
(3) Double-layer charging. Charges separation occurs on a microscopic scale in a
liquid at any interface (solid-liquid, gas-liquid, or liquid-liquid). As the liquid
flows, it carries a charge and it leaves a charge of opposite sign on the other
surface, for example, a pipe wall.
216
The factors which influence the accumulation
There are some factors which influence the magnitude of charge accumulation in
separation charging and these include:
.
the temperature of the surface;
.
the permittivity;
.
the number and density of contact points;
.
the electrical conductivity;
.
the higher the conductivity of the materials, the greater the extent to which any
charge generated is neutralized;
.
the speed of separation; and
.
changes in the condition of materials.

Minimum ignition energy (MIE)

The minimum ignition energy (MIE) is the minimum energy input required to initiate
combustion. All flammable materials (including dust) have MIEs. The MIE depends on
the specific chemical or mixture, the concentration, pressure, and temperature.
Experimental data indicated that the MIE decreases with an increase in pressure.
The MIE of dusts is, in general at energy levels somewhat higher than combustible
gases, and an increase in the nitrogen concentration increases the MIE. Many
hydrocarbons have MIEs of about 0.25mJ. This is low compared with source of
ignition. For example, a static discharge of 22mJ is initiated by walking across a rug,
and an ordinary spark plug has discharge energy of 25mJ. Electrostatic discharges, as
a result of fluid flow. Also, have energy levels exceeding the MIEs of flammable
materials and can provide an ignition source, contributing to plant explosion (Crowel
and Louvar, 2002). The MIE of the flammable materials are listed by the Department of
Labor (1990).

Flammable atmosphere
An atmosphere becomes flammable when the ratio of oxygen to combustible material
in the air is neither too rich nor too lean for combustion to occur. Combustible gases or
vapors will accumulate when there is inadequate ventilation in areas such as confined
spaces. Flammable atmospheres may also be formed by chemical reactions. These
occur when surfaces are initially exposed to the atmosphere or when chemicals
combine to form flammable gases.
An atmosphere becomes flammable when ratio of oxygen to combustible material in
the air is neither too rich nor too lean for combustion to occur. Combustible gases or
vapors will accumulate when there is inadequate ventilation in areas such as confined
spaces. Flammable atmospheres may be formed by chemical reactions. These occur
when surfaces are initially exposed to the atmosphere or when chemicals combine to An overview on
form flammable gases. static electricity
Combustible dust concentrations are usually found during loading, unloading, or
conveying coal, grain, fertilizers or other combustible materials. The explosion from
these concentrations occurs when high amounts of static electricity accumulates at low
humidity readings and causes a spark which ignites the combustible mixtures present
in the air. Also, desorption of chemicals from the inner linings of surfaces of a tank or 217
vessel may produce a flammable mixture. An example of desorption can occur when
propane is emptied from a tank. After the removal, the walls may desorb some
remaining gas and create a flammable mixture in the tank (The University of
Tennessee, 2006).

The hazards of static electricity

The main hazard of static electricity is the creation of sparks in an explosive or
flammable atmosphere. These sparks can set off an explosion or fire. The danger is
greatest when flammable liquids are being poured or transferred. For static electricity
to be a hazard, four conditions must be met:
(1) there must be a means for a static charge to develop;
(2) enough energy must build up to cause ignition;
(3) there must be a discharge of this energy (a spark); and
(4) the spark must occur in an ignitable vapor or dust mixture.

Hazards identification
The flow diagram in Figure 1 helps to assess the electrostatic fire/explosion hazard for
any industrial plant or process. The hazard arises when there is a simultaneous
presence of flammable fuel/air atmosphere and an energetic ignition source. The
diagram is followed through completely to provide protection.

Static electricity prevention

Static charge buildup, resulting sparks, and the ignition of flammable materials are an
inevitable event if control methods are not appropriately used. The design objective is
to prevent the buildup of charges on a product (liquid or powder) as well as on
surrounding objects (equipment or personnel). The static electricity control and
prevention have been discussed by researchers and agencies.
Wells (1997) pointed out that the industrial plant should be earthed and electrical
continuity maintained at all times. The resistance to earth must be less than 10V. Other
precautions include reducing resistivity by ionic agents, injecting charged ions,
adjusting the humidity to promote leakage of charge, bonding all containers and
eliminating flammable atmospheres. High flow-velocities, e.g. . 1 m/sec, should be
avoided particularly for two-phase flow, and valves of maximum bore may be
installed. Static can cause by letting material splash into a vessel, so a deflector
merged. Areas of high charge generation should be located away from explosive
mixtures to allow for charge decay.
Department of Labor (1990) discussed the guidelines of controlling of static
electricity in industry in detail. The American Petroleum Institute (API, 2006) and the
Petroleum Equipment Institute recommend the motorists with precautions and
DPM
17,2

218

Figure 1.
Flow diagram for the
assessment of electrostatic
hazard

guidelines to avoid potential problems with static electricity at the gas pump by
staying outside the vehicle during refueling, and to follow all safe refueling practices
during the routine gasoline tank fill-up.
Crowel and Louvar (2002) presented the methods which can be adopted to prevent
the static electricity. The methods are summarized as follows:
(1) Prevent charges from accumulating to dangerous levels by reducing the rate of
charge generation and increasing the rate of charge relaxation. This method is
generally used when handling liquids.
 (2) Prevent charges from accumulating to dangerous levels by designing the An overview on
system to include charge reduction by means of low-energy discharges. This static electricity
method is generally used when handling powders.
(3) When dangerous discharges cannot be eliminated, then prevent the possibility
of an ignition by maintaining oxidant levels below the combustible levels
(inerting) or by maintaining fuel levels below the LFL or above the UFL.
Measures to mitigate the consequences of an explosion are also options for 219
consideration (for example, deflagration venting and explosion suppression).

Conclusion
An overview on static electricity has been presented and the following have been
noted:
.
The incidents that occurred due to static electricity have been rearranged and
reviewed.
.
It has been noted that eight explosion incidents occurred in storage tanks and
crude oil storage tankers in the period of 1953 to 1969 resulted in 29 fatalities.
.
A total of 303 fire and explosion incidents occurred during the filling of
containers (storage tanks, road, rail tanks and drums) in the period of 1979 to
1988 resulted in five fatalities and 100 injuries. The majority of incidents have
occurred in earthed containers. Earthing alone does not eliminate the hazard of
static electricity.
.
Overall, 243 fire incidents occurred in petrol stations worldwide in the period
1993 to 2004.
.
The incidents are sufficient to indicate the importance of static electricity as an
ignition source.
.
If materials being handled or processed are likely to generate charge, there are a
number of precautions which need to be taken to avoid risk of ignition of
flammable atmospheres. These are well described in British Standards (1991).
.
If there are any doubts about the charge generating capabilities of particular
materials or processes or about the ability of standard approaches to adequately
and economically handle problems then it is necessary to make appropriate
electrostatic measurements and/or seek professional advice.

References
Abbott, J.A. (1988), “Survey of dust fires and explosions in the United Kingdom 1979–1988”,
European News Letter, Vol. 8.
API (2006), For Immediate Release, available at: www.pei.org/news/static.htm (accessed July
2006).
Australian Government (2006), Static, available at: www.astb.gov.au/publications/2005/pdf/
static_fire.pol (accessed 9 June, 2006).
Ball, R. (1996), “Electrostatic ignition hazards short course on fire and explosion”, paper
presented at University of Leeds, Leeds 23-24 September.
British Standards (1991), Control of Undesirable Static Electricity BS5958 Part I and II, British
Standards.
DPM Crowel, D.A. and Louvar, J.F. (2002), Chemical Process Safety – Fundamentals with Applications,
2nd ed., Prentice Hall, Englewood Cliffs, NJ.
17,2 Department of Labor (1990), Guidelines for the Control of Static Electricity in Industry,
Occupational Safety and Health Service Department of Labor, Wellington, available at:
www.osh.dol.govt.nz/order/catalogue/799.shtml (accessed July 2006).
Industrial Accident Prevention Association (2006), A Health and Safety Guideline for your
220 Workplace – Static Electricity, available at: www.whscc.nf.ca/resource/iapa/static
electricity.pdf (accessed July 2006).
Lees, F. (1996), Loss Prevention in The process Industries, Butterworth-Heinemann, Oxford.
Renkes, R.N. (2006), Stop Static, available at: www.pei.org/static/fire_reports.htm#year
(accessed June 2006).
The University of Tennessee (2006), Environmental Health & Safety – Confined Space, Available
at: http://web.utk.edu/ , ehss/training.htm (accessed July 2006).
Wells, G.L. (1997), Safety in Process Plant Design, George Godwin, London.

Further reading
Chubb, J.N. (2006), The Control of Static Electricity, available at: www.jci.co.uk/ControlStatic.html
(accessed June 2006).

Corresponding author
Ibrahim Mohamed Shaluf can be contacted at: imshaluf@yahoo.co.uk

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