Stainless Steel Stainless steels are high-alloy steels that have superior corrosion resistance than other steels

because they contain large amounts of chromium. Stainless steels can contain anywhere from 4-30 percent chromium, however most contain around 10 percent. Stainless steel must contain at least 10.5% chromium to provide adequate resistance to rusting. And, the more chromium the alloy contains, the better the corrosion resistance. However, it is important to remember there is an upper limit to the amount of chromium the iron can hold. By definition, stainless steel must contain a minimum of 50% iron. Stainless steels can be divided into following basic groups based on their crystalline structure: 1. Ferritic 2. Martensitic 3. Austenitic 4. Duplex 5. Precipitation-hardened steels: a combination of austenitic and martensitic steels. Ferritic grades Ferritic stainless steels are magnetic non heat-treatable steels that contain chromium but not nickel. They have good heat and corrosion resistance, in particular sea water, and good resistance to stress-corrosion cracking. Ferritic stainless steels are resistant to chloride stress corrosion cracking, and have high strength. Grades like SEA-CURE stainless have the highest modulus of elasticity of the common engineering alloys, which makes them highly resistant to vibration. Their mechanical properties are not as strong as the austenitic grades, however they have better decorative appeal. Martensitic grades Martensitic grades are magnetic and can be heat-treated by quenching or tempering. They contain chromium but usually contain no nickel, except for 2 grades. Martensitic stainless steels are used in bearing races for corrosion proof bearings and other areas where erosioncorrosion is a problem. Martensitic steels are not as corrosive resistant as austenitic or ferritic grades, but their hardness levels are among the highest of the all the stainless steels. Austenitic grades Austenitic stainless steels are non-magnetic non heat-treatable steels that are usually annealed and cold worked. Some austenitic steels tend to become slightly magnetic after cold working. Austenitic steels have excellent corrosion and heat resistance with good mechanical properties over a wide range of temperatures. All the austenitic stainless steels are derived from the 18Cr-8Ni stainless steels. The other grades are developed from the 188 base by adding alloying elements to provide special corrosion resistant properties or better weldability. For example, 1. Adding titanium to Type 304 makes Type 321, the workhorse of the intermediate temperature materials. 2. Adding 2% molybdenum to Type 304 makes Type 316, which has better chloride corrosion resistance.

3.

Adding more chromium gives Type 310 the basis for high temperature applications. The chromium nickel ratio can be modified to improve formability.

The major weakness of the austenitic stainless steels is their susceptibility to chloride stress corrosion cracking. Duplex grades These alloys are characterized by having both austenite and ferrite in their microstructure, hence the name Duplex Stainless Steel. Duplex stainless steels exist in a narrow nickel range of about 4-7%. A ferrite matrix with islands of austenite characterizes the lower nickel grades, and an austenite matrix with islands of ferrite characterizes the higher nickel range. When the matrix is ferrite, the alloys are resistant to chloride stress corrosion cracking. When the matrix is austenitic, the alloys are sensitive to chloride stress corrosion cracking. High strength, good corrosion resistance and good ductility characterize them. One alloy, Carpenter 7-Mo PLUS has the best corrosion resistance against nitric acid of any of the stainless steels because of its very high chromium content and duplex structure. The advantage of high strength immediately becomes a disadvantage when considering formability and machinability. The high strength also comes with lower ductility than austenitic grades. Therefore, any application requiring a high degree of formability, for example, a sink, is ruled out for duplex grades. Even when the ductility is adequate, higher forces are required to form the material, for example in tube bending. There is one exception to the normal rule of poorer machinability, grade 1.4162. The metallurgy of duplex stainless steels is much more complex than for austenitic or ferritic steels. This is why 3 day conferences can be devoted just to duplex! This factor means that they are more difficult to produce at the mill and to fabricate. In addition to ferrite and austenite, duplex steels can also form a number of unwanted phases if the steel is not given the correct processing, notably in heat treatment. Two of the most important phases are illustrated in the diagram below: Sigma phase

475 degree embrittlement

Both of these phases lead to embrittlement, i.e. loss of impact toughness. The formation of sigma phase is most likely to occur when the cooling rate during manufacture or welding is not fast enough. The more highly alloyed the steel, the higher the probability of sigma phase formation. Therefore, superduplex steels are most prone to this problem. 475 degree embrittlement is due to the formation of a phase called (alpha prime). Although the worst temperature is 475 deg C, it can still form at temperatures as low as 300 deg C. This leads to a limitation on the maximum service temperature for duplex steels. This restriction reduces the potential range of applications even further. At the other end of the scale, there is a restriction on the low temperature use of duplex stainless steels compared to austenitic grades. Unlike austenitic steels duplex steels exhibit a ductile-brittle transition in the impact test. A typical test temperature is minus 46 deg C for offshore oil and gas applications. Minus 80 deg C is the lowest temperature that is normally encountered for duplex steels. EN No/UNS 1.4162/ S32101 1.4062/ S32202 1.4482/ S32001 1.4362/ S32304 1.4462/ S31803/ S32205 1.4410/ S32750 1.4501/ S32760 1.4507/ S32520/ S32550

Grade 2101 LDX DX2202 RDN 903 2304 2205 2507 Zeron 100 Ferrinox 255/ Uranus 2507Cu

Type Lean Lean Lean Lean Standard Super Super Super Cr 21. 5 23 20 23 22 25 25 25 Ni 1.5 2.5 1.8 4.8 5.7 7 7 6.5

Approx Composition Mo N Mn 0.3 0.3 0.2 0.3 3.1 4 3.2 3.5 0.22 0.2 0.11 0.10 0.17 0.27 0.25 0.25 5 1.5 4.2 -

W 0.7 -

Cu 0.7 1.5

Precipitation Hardening grades These steels are the latest in the development of special stainless steels and represent the area where future development will most likely take place. They are somewhat soft and ductile in the solution-annealed state, but when subjected to a relatively low precipitation hardening temperature, 1000F (540C), their strength more than doubles and they become very hard. The metallurgical structure of the common grades is martensitic, but some of the special high

nickel grades are austenitic. The strengthening mechanism comes from the formation of submicroscopic precipitates, which are compounds of aluminum, copper, titanium, or molybdenum. These precipitates provide resistance to strain exerted on the structure. The precipitates are so small they can be observed only at extremely high magnifications with special electron microscopes. Their action may be understood by the analogy of a deck of cards to a block of steel. When a force is placed upon the cards, the cards in the deck easily move in response to the force. If the block of steel is given the low temperature aging treatment, small precipitates form, similar to placing sea sand on the surface of the cards. Now, it takes much more force to cause the cards to move; so, the material is much stronger. The primary use of precipitation hardening steels is where high strength and corrosion resistance are required. Aerospace and military applications have dominated the applications in the past, but new uses in instrumentation and fluid control are being found. Table VII lists the characteristics and some examples of these alloys. Composition of stainless steels Structure Ferritic Martensitic Austenitic Duplex C Si Grade EN No. 430 1.4016 0.08 1 410 304 2205 1.4006 0.15 1 1.4301 0.07 1 1.4462 0.02 Mn 1 1 2 P 0.04 0.04 S N Cr 16.0/ 18.0 11.5/ 13.5 Ni Mo -

0.015 0.03 -

0.75 8.0/ 10.5 5.6 3.1

0.045 0.015 0.11 17.5/ 19.5 0.001 0.18 22.1

Stainless Steel Alloying Elements and Their Purpose Alloy element Chromium Nickel Molybdenum Copper Manganese Sulfur Purpose Oxidation Resistance Austenite former - Increases resistance to mineral acids Produces tightly adhering high temperature oxides Increases resistance to chlorides Provides resistance to sulfuric acid Precipitation hardener together with titanium and aluminum Austenite former - Combines with sulfur Increases the solubility of nitrogen Austenite former - Improves resistance to chlorides Improves weldability of certain austenitic stainless steels Improves the machinability of certain austenitic stainless steels Stabilizes carbides to prevent formation of chromium carbide Precipitation hardener Carbide stabilizer - Precipitation hardener Deoxidizer - Precipitation hardener Carbide former and strengthener

Titanium Niobium Aluminum Carbon

Alloy

UNS number

Ultimate Strength, psi

Yield strength, psi

Elongation, % minimum 20 20 20 25 15 5 2 35 35 30 35 50 25 20 15 5 8 10

Modulus of elasticity 29,000,000 29,000,000 29,000,000 31,500,000 29,000,000 29,000,000 29,000,000 29,000,000 29,000,000 28,000,000 28,000,000 27,000,000 29,000,000 29,000,000 30,500,000 32,500,000 28,500,000 29,000,000

Hardness typical

Ferritic Stainless Steels Type 430 S43000 60,000 30,000 Type 439 S43035 60,000 30,000 Type 409 S40900 55,000 30,000 SEA-CURE S44660 90,000 75,000 Martensitic Stainless Steels, Maximum Strength Type 410 S41000 190,000 150,000 Type 420 S42000 240,000 200,000 Type 440C S44050 280,000 270,000 Austenitic Stainless Steels Type 304 S30400 75,000 30,000 Type 304L S30403 70,000 25,000 Type 316 S31600 75,000 30,000 Type 316L S31603 70,000 25,000 AL-6XN N08367 112,000 53,000 Duplex Stainless Steels Alloy 2205 S31803 90,000 65,000 7Mo PLUS S32950 90,000 70,000 Alloy 255 S32550 110,000 80,000 Precipitation Stainless Steels 17-7 PH S17700 210,000 190,000 17-4 PH S17400 190,000 170,000 Custom 455 S45500 230,000 220,000 Y of corrosion

85 RB 90 RB 85 RB 95 RB 41 RC 55 RC 60 RC 80 RB 75 RB 80 RB 80RB 90 RB 30 RC 30 RC 32 RC 48 RC 45 RC 48 RC

A useful tool in determining corrosion resistance is the "Y" of corrosion shown in Figure 1. This chart divides the alloys into three classes: those resistant to oxidizing acids on the left, those resistant to reducing acids on the right, and those resistant to a mixture of the two in the center. Oxidizing acids are those acids that oxidize the metals they come in contact with, and are themselves, reduced in the process. Reducing simply dissolves the metal without a change in valence or a release of hydrogen in the process. Corrosion resistance increases as you move up the chart. This chart indicates relative corrosion resistance.

Grade 430 304 441 RDN 903 316 444

EN No/UNS 1.4016/ S43000 1.4301/ S30400 1.4509/ S43932 1.4482/ S32001 1.4401/ S31600 1.4521/ S44400

Type Ferritic

Typical PREN 18

Austenitic 19 Ferritic Duplex 19 22

Austenitic 24 Ferritic 24

316L 2.5 1.4435 Austenitic 26 Mo 2101 1.4162/ Duplex 26

LDX

S32101 1.4362/ 2304 S32304 1.4062/ DX2202 S32202 1.4539/ 904L N08904 1.4462/ 2205 S31803/ S32205 Zeron 1.4501/ 100 S32760 Ferrinox 1.4507/ 255/ S32520/ Uranus S32550 2507Cu 1.4410/ 2507 S32750 1.4547/ 6% Mo S31254

Duplex Duplex

26 27

Austenitic 34 Duplex Duplex 35 41

Duplex

41

Duplex

43

Austenitic 44