Nick Renua

NSE Nouule
Section 4u2B
12611




Final Repoit
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2
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In this lab, we examineu the miciostiuctuies of seveial steel anu biass
samples to get a bettei unueistanuing of how micioscopy woiks, anu to become
bettei at analyzing giain bounuaiies anu othei featuies of engineeiing mateiials. By
sanuing anu polishing the samples, we weie able to photogiaph them anu analyze
them giaphically as well as with piogiams like Image}. Looking on a micioscopic
level at commonplace mateiials like biass anu steel enableu us to unueistanu why
they possess such unique attiibutes, anu how uiffeient micioscopic stiuctuies iesult
in uiffeient oveiall attiibutes.

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Aftei ieceiving my C26uuu Alloy biass sample, I chose the siue with the most
suiface aiea anu giounu it uown slightly with the 24u-giit sanupapei so that it
woulu lie flat on the bottom of the molu. Ny instiuctoi then mixeu the epoxy with
the haiuenei, anu pouieu it into my molu. I positioneu my biass sample insiue the
molu so that the selecteu siue was face uown, anu waiteu an houi foi the epoxy to
haiuen. I iemoveu my sample fiom the molu, anu then moveu on to the giinuing
phase.

In oiuei to keep uebiis fiom builuing up on the sanupapei while I was
giinuing my sample, I tuineu on the watei by iotating the knob on the giinuing
mount, anu staiteu to giinu my sample on the coaisest giit (24u). I maue suie to
maintain steauy piessuie on my sample, keep it flat, anu avoiu iotating it oi
giinuing it back anu foith. Eveiy ten oi so giinus, I checkeu the bottom of the
sampleas soon as I only saw paiallel sciatches (meaning the pievious giit's
sciatches weie no longei visible), I moveu up to the next giit (S2u). I then iotateu
my sample 9u so that I woulu be able to tell when the olu sciatches weie gone anu
the new sciatches weie in my new giinuing uiiection. I iepeateu this pattein
giinu, move up in giit, iotate sampleas I moveu to the 4uu giit, then to the 6uu,
anu finally to the 1Suu.

Aftei I finisheu giinuing, I got a polishing boaiu with a nylon sheet affixeu to
it, anu iinseu it with watei anu to iemove any extia uebiis left ovei fiom the
pievious usei. I put a small amount of 6-micion uiamonu sluiiy on the sheet, auueu
a couple uiops of watei, anu began to polish the sample in a figuie-eight pattein foi
about two minutes. I then washeu the sample off, got a new nylon sheet, affixeu it to
the boaiu, anu washeu it clean with watei. I put a small amount of 1-micion sluiiy
anu a couple uiops of watei on the clean nylon sheet anu polisheu using the same
pattein as I uiu with the 6-micion sheet, except foi only 1S seconus.
S
C.7="3# .=& ?%244 -2@A/&

Aftei checking to make suie I was weaiing gloves anu hau the piopei eye
piotection, I biought my sample to the fume hoou foi etching. I placeu a couple
uiops of the biass etchant (1u mL B20 + 1u mL NB40B + S mL B202) onto my
sample, anu swabbeu it vigoiously to keep the ieaction moving along. I maue suie
not to let my sample tuin black, anu kept auuing moie etchant eveiy fifteen seconus.
Aftei about 1 minute I put a couple extia uiops on, swabbeu foi ten seconus, anu
then iinseu eveiything off in the sink.

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The pioceuuie foi piepaiing the steel sample is exactly the same as that of
the biass sample, except the steel sample was given to me alieauy mounteu in
epoxy. Also, the steel sample has two uiffeient pieces of steel insiue, so it is
impoitant to make suie to keep the sample level anu apply equal piessuie when
giinuing to ensuie that both pieces get giounu evenly.

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The pioceuuie foi etching the steel sample is the same to the biass sample,
except a uiffeient etchant is useu (2% nitiic aciu anu 98% methanol). Also, because
theie aie two pieces of steel, I maue suie that both weie etcheu equally.

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Both samples weie imageu in the same way using optical micioscopes, so
they will be uiscusseu in the same section. To begin with, I mounteu the sample on a
sliue so it coulu be vieweu in the micioscope. I put the sample on the sliue with a
piece of clay in between them, coveieu the sample with a kimwipe to piotect it, anu
put the entiie aiiangement on a piess. I applieu a small amount of piessuie on the
piess so that the sample was pusheu into the clay anu leveleu foi optimal imaging.
Next, I put the sliue onto the micioscope stage, affixeu it in place with the clip, anu
centeieu it ovei the lens with the stage contiols on the iight siue of the micioscope.
I iotateu the lens so it was on the highest magnification (4ux), anu using the coaise
aujustment knob, positioneu the sliue so that it was ioughly one sliue thickness
away fiom the tip of the lens. This puts the sample at a position wheie it can be seen
easily by the micioscope. I then iotateu the lens to the Sx magnification, aujusteu
the illumination with a knob on the light contiols next to the micioscope, anu
focuseu the lens with the fine aujustment knob until the image was as shaip as
possible.

To photogiaph the sample, I useu a Nikon
TN
Coolpix 4Suu Cameia with an
attachment that alloweu it to fit into one of the eyepieces. I veiifieu that it hau a
memoiy caiu with enough space foi my photos, anu tuineu off the flash as it wasn't
being useu. To attach the cameia to the micioscope, I unscieweu one of the
4
eyepieces anu inseiteu the attachment into the hole wheie the eyepiece useu to be. I
aujusteu the zoom on the cameia so it was at the maximum optical zoom (on the
scieen the white zoom bai moveu all the way up to the line between optical anu
uigital zoom). When focusing the images, I maue suie to use the scieen as a
iefeience anu not the othei eyepiece, because the cameia has a uiffeient
magnification than the eyepiece. 0nce focuseu the image using the fine aujustment
knob, I photogiapheu the sample. I took images fiom seveial uiffeient aieas, making
suie to check the focus befoie each pictuie. I tiieu to focus on aieas with as few
sciatches as possible to piouuce the best quality images.

Aftei taking all of my pictuies, I iemoveu the sample fiom the stage anu put
on a giaticule sliue so I woulu have a iefeience fiame to measuie my images when I
analyzeu them latei. To focus the giaticule, I iepeateu the same steps fiom eailiei: I
moveu the lens to the 4ux magnification, anu aujusteu the giaticule so it was 1 sliue
wiuth away fiom the lens. I then switcheu the lens to the Sx magnification anu useu
the stage contiols to locate the 1mm inciement. Aftei focusing it with the fine
aujustment knob, I took seveial pictuies.

Foi the steel sample I followeu the same pioceuuies, except I took photos of
both samples at seveial magnifications (Sx, 1ux, 2ux, 4ux).

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The fiist methou I employeu to count the giains of the biass sample anu
ueteimine theii size was the lineai inteicept methou. This methou involves uiawing
many lines on the image, counting how many giains they inteicept, anu tuining this
iesult into a giain uiametei. To begin with, I uiew enough lines on my image so that
I inteisecteu moie than fifty giains ovei my thiee images (to ensuie statistical
ielevance). Next, I counteu how many times each line inteisecteu a giain bounuaiy. I
useu Photoshop, so I was able to maik each inteisection with a black uot. Befoie
calculating the aveiage giain uiametei, I neeueu to conveit the line lengths to a ieal
life uistance. To uo this, I useu the giaticule. I uevelopeu a conveision factoi by
uiviuing the giaticule's ieal length (1uuu m) by each line's length in inches as
measuieu in Photoshop. I pluggeu the values foi each line into the equation
! ! !
!
!

Wheie u is the aveiage giain uiametei, C is the constant 1.S, L is the length of the
line in m, anu N is the numbei of inteisections on that line. I multiplieu by the
constant C because the lineai inteicept tiauitionally unueiestimates the giain
uiametei. I then took an aveiage of my u values foi each line to finu an aveiage giain
uiametei foi the image.

The next methou I useu to count the giains of my biass sample was the ASTN
E112 methou, which involves uiawing a ciicle ovei the image anu counting how
many giains aie insiue. The ASTN E112 methou pioviues the following foimula to
S
calculate a paiametei calleu the "giain size numbei" !, given a calculateu value of
giains pei squaie inch aiea of miciogiaph ""#$, iecoiueu at 1uux magnification.
!
!
! !
!!!!!

Bowevei, to account foi the fact that my sample was at Sux magnification anu not
1uux, I neeueu to multiple "# by a constant
!"
!""
!
, squaieu because zooming
uoubles both the x anu y axes, anu aiea is calculateu fiom multiplying the two.
Simplifying the constant yielus:
!
!
!
! !
!!!!!

Solving foi my unknown, I got the following equation.
! !
!"
!
!
!
!"!
!!
The "# value is calculateu with the equation:
!
!
!
! !
!
!
!

Wheie w is the numbei of giains completely insiue the ciicle, p is the numbei of
giains paitially insiue, anu A is the aiea of the ciicle in inches
2
. 0sing the
photogiaph of the giaticule, the iauius of the ciicle can be measuieu anu conveiteu
to inches
! !"#!
!"!! !!
. This iauius can then be tuineu into an aiea with the foimula
! ! !!
!
. The finalizeu foimula foi ueteimining the giain size numbei ! is:
! !
!"
! !
!
!
!!!
!
!"!
!!
Wheie w is the numbei of giains completely insiue the ciicle, p is the numbei of
giains paitially insiue, anu i is the iauius of the ciicle in inches.

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To begin with, I uownloaueu the Image} piogiam at
http:isbweb.nih.govij. 0nce the piogiam hau installeu, I openeu it anu openeu
the sample (File>0pen).

The fiist step I employeu in piocessing the file was to enhance the giain
bounuaiies by uiawing ovei them with the biush tool. I iight clickeu the biush tool
to change the uiametei of the biush (I founu that 1Spx was laige enough foi Image}
to uetect but small enough to not get in the way latei).
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6
If the bounuaiies uon't connect completely, Image} counts multiple giains as
a single giain latei on, so I maue suie to completely connect them all. The enhanceu
image lookeu something like Figuie 4.


























Next, I aujusteu the contiast (Image>Aujust>BiightnessContiast) so Image}
coulu moie easily uiffeientiate between giains anu giain bounuaiies. I founu that
the "auto" button woikeu well, but if necessaiy, the sliueis in the menu that pops up
coulu be useu. Any setting that maue the bounuaiies moie uefineu anu the
backgiounu less so was optimal. The image with aujusteu contiast lookeu
something like Figuie S.

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7

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Aftei aujusting the contiast, I conveiteu the image into 8-bit (Image>Type>8-
bit) to speeu up piocessing. This was also ciitical foi latei piocessing stages, as
ceitain steps woulu not woik if the image wasn't 8-bit.

I openeu the thiesholu panel (Image>Aujust>Thiesholu) to view the vaiious
options foi aujusting the thiesholu. Theie weie two sliueis on the panelthe top
set the black thiesholu, anu the bottom set the white. In geneial, setting the top
sliuei all the way to the left anu then slowly moving the bottom sliuei to the left was
the best way to set a goou thiesholu. Iueally, the image only hau giain bounuaiies
shown in black anu eveiything else was in white. I avoiueu setting the white
thiesholu so low that the image began to speckle anu the giain bounuaiies faueu oi
uisappeaieu. The final image lookeu something like Figuie 6.


8

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Something extia that I founu enhances image analysis was the "Finu Euges"
featuie (Piocess>Finu Euges). Image} outlineu the euges of the giain bounuaiies in
the image, anu I useu this to check that theie weie no holes in the bounuaiies. Also,
it maue the images moie aesthetically pleasing anu easiei to manipulate latei. The
image aftei the piocessing was similai to Figuie 7.












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9
Next, I began the analyzing phase by setting which measuiements Image}
shoulu make (Analyze>Set Neasuiements). In auuition to the thiee uefaults, I maue
suie to check "Feiet's uiametei" as it was useu latei to ueteimine the giain
uiametei. The set measuiements lookeu like Figuie 8.






Next, I selecteu Analyze Paiticles (Analyze>Analyze Paiticles) anu a winuow
poppeu up with settings foi the analysis. To ensuie that extia paiticles weie not
iecoiueu, I set the minimum pixel size to 1uu. Also, on the Show menu I selecteu
0utlines, anu maue suie to check "Excluue on euges" anu then clickeu "0K." The
selections matcheu Figuie 9.

Thiee winuows poppeu up next: Summaiy (Figuie 1u), Results (Figuie 11),
anu a Biawing of the giains (Figuie 12). I sciolleu thiough the Results winuow anu
lookeu at the Aiea column to make suie all of the aieas aie ioughly the same size
anu theie weie no iiiegulaiities (e.g. mostly foui-uigit aieas but 1 six-uigit aiea). If
theie hau been any pioblems, the Biawing winuow coulu have been useu in
conjunction with the numbei label in the Results winuow to iuentify which giains
weie iesponsible.

The most impoitant value was locateu in the Summaiy winuow unuei
"Feiet." The Feiet value is the gieatest uistance between two points on the giain
bounuaiy, i.e. the gieatest uiametei. This value was a goou appioximation of the
giain size, but it was in pixels, the uefault unit in Image}. To conveit it to a
meaningful unit, such as m, I neeueu to know the length of an object in both pixels
anu m. I knew the length of the giaticule in m, anu I coulu measuie it in pixels by
loauing it into Image}.
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1u














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11
Aftei I openeu the giaticule file in Image} (File>0pen), I useu the line tool
shown in Figuie 1S to make a line that spanneu the length of the giaticule. Then, I
clickeu Analyze>Set Scale, anu a winuow appeaieu with the length of the measuieu
segment in pixels. Theiefoie, to conveit Feiet's uiametei fiom pixels to m, I
multiplieu by the constant
!""" !!
! !"#$%&

Wheie % was the length in pixels of the giaticule. The iesulting value was the
aveiage giain size.












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12
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Foi this lab, the only steel image I neeueu to analyze was the peailite to finu a
volume fiaction. To piepaie it foi analysis, all of the steps weie exactly the same.
0nce I hau an image that was piopeily thiesholueu, I set which measuiements
Image} shoulu make (Analyze>Set Neasuiements). In auuition to the thiee uefaults,
I maue suie to check "Aiea Fiaction" as it was the value I was looking foi. The set
measuiements lookeu like Figuie 1S.


















Next, I selecteu Analyze Paiticles (Analyze>Analyze Paiticles) anu a winuow
poppeu up with settings foi the analysis. I wanteu all pixels to be iecoiueu, so I set
the minimum pixel size to u. The selections matcheu Figuie 16.

Thiee winuows poppeu up next: Summaiy (Figuie 17), Results (Figuie 18),
anu a Biawing of the giains (Figuie 19). The volume fiaction is simply the numbei
listeu unuei the column "Aiea Fiaction" in the summaiy winuow.











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14
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17

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18

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19
S"47$44"83

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"3.&%7&A. @&.=8<Y


In Figuie 29, the length of the 1uuum stiip on the bottom iight is 2.89
inches (uone by measuiing in Photoshop), so we can finu the conveision factoi to
get fiom inches to m by uiviuing the two units, anu the iesulting value is S46
!!
!"#$
.
Foi auueu claiification, I auueu the line numbeis on the left siue of the lines, black
uots wheie giain bounuaiies occuiieu, anu the numbei of bounuaiies pei line on
the iight siue.

Besciiption of Tables 1, 2, anu S

The fiist iow is has the column numbeis that coiiesponu to each column.
The seconu iow has the symbol that coiiesponus to each column.
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2u
E8/$@34 (090 23< + aie iaw uata obtaineu fiom the image.
E8/$@3 H is obtaineu by multiplying the length of the line, L, by the
conveision factoi S46
!!
!"#$
.
E8/$@3 , is obtaineu with the equation !
!
!
!
!
, wheie & is column 4 anu ' is
column S.
E8/$@3 J is obtaineu with the equation ! !
!
!
!
, wheie ( is the constant 1.S
anu "' is column S.

K2I/& () T2O 23< E2/7$/2.&< S2.2 6%8@ U"3&2%R;3.&%7&A. 1&.=8< :&%68%@&< 83 1"7%8#%2A= G
( 9 H + , J
) ' ' & "' +
Line Numbei Length (in) Length
(m)
Numbei of
uiain
Bounuaiies
Numbei of
Bounuaiies
pei m
(1m)
Aveiage
uiain
Biametei
(m)
1 6.S 22Su 12 .uuSS 281
2 6.S 22Su 9 .uu4u S7S
S 6.S 22Su 1u .uu44 SS7
4 6.S 22Su 1u .uu44 SS7
S 6.S 22Su 1u .uu44 SS7
6 6.S 22Su 11 .uu49 Su7
7 6.S 22Su 1u .uu44 SS7

The same uesciiptions of the pictuies anu giaph apply to the next two images, so
they will be omitteu to save space.

21


K2I/& 9) T2O 23< E2/7$/2.&< S2.2 6%8@ U"3&2%R;3.&%7&A. 1&.=8< :&%68%@&< 83 1"7%8#%2A= ?
( 9 H + , J
) ' ' & "' +
Line Numbei Length
(inches)
Length
(m)
Numbei of
uiain
Bounuaiies
Numbei of
Bounuaiies
pei m
Aveiage
uiain
Biametei
(m)
1 6.S 22Su 1u .uu44 SS7
2 6.S 22Su 1u .uu44 SS7
S 6.S 22Su 8 .uuS6 422
4 6.S 22Su 9 .uu4u S7S
S 6.S 22Su 7 .uuS1 482
6 6.S 22Su 7 .uuS1 482
7 6.S 22Su 6 .uu27 S62
8 6.S 22Su 6 .uu27 S62
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22

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( 9 H + , J
) ' ' & "' +
Line Numbei Length
(inches)
Length
(m)
Numbei of
uiain
Bounuaiies
Numbei of
Bounuaiies
pei m
Aveiage
uiain
Biametei
(m)
1 6.S 22Su 9 .uu4u S7S
2 6.S 22Su 6 .uu27 S62
S 6.S 22Su 1u .uu44 SS8
4 6.S 22Su 9 .uu4u S7S
S 6.S 22Su 11 .uu49 Su7
6 6.S 22Su 1u .uu44 SS7
7 6.S 22Su 9 .uu4u S7S

The aveiage giain uiametei of my biass sample by applying the lineai inteicept
methou to Figuies 1, 2, anu S is S88 m. The stanuaiu ueviation was 86 m, anu
both values weie calculateu by inputting all uata points into Excel.

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O2>4 >8$ &5&7$.&< .=& /"3&2% "3.&%7&A. @&.=8<0 23< 3$@I&% 86 2..&@A.40 .8
4$AA8%. >8$% 7837/$4"83) T&@&@I&% \A%&7"4"83\ @&234 #&.."3# .=& 42@&
%&4$/. &27= ."@&] \277$%27>\ @&234 #&.."3# .=& 78%%&7. %&4$/.) G4 O".= @23>
&3#"3&&%"3# A%8^&7.40 38 83& _38O4 .=& \78%%&7.\ %&4$/. 68% .="4 &5&%7"4&)

Simply put, piecision is how consistent a given methou is when it is iepeateu.
Foi the lineai inteicept methou to be peifectly piecise, it neeus to output the same
aveiage giain uiametei foi eveiy image it is applieu to. Because we aie taking a
cioss section, we expect that the paiticles will not all be the same size. We can veiify
this by looking at the stanuaiu ueviation foi each image in Table 4. Foi miciogiaphs
B anu C, the stanuaiu ueviation was veiy highwithin each image, theie weie a
wiue iange of outputteu giain uiameteis.

Bowevei, assuming each miciogiaph encompasses enough paiticles, the
aveiages foi each image shoulu be somewhat similai to each othei. Fiom the bottom
of Table 4, we can see this is not the casethe oveiall stanuaiu ueviation of 88 m
was quite laige. So what uoes this mean. It means that the aveiages foi each
miciogiaph vaiieu significantly, anu ,-. /.,-0+ 12"3, 40"212,.",5 Each miciogiaph
that the lineai inteicept methou is applieu to shoulu give the same aveiage: the
mateiial is the same thioughout, anu the images aie all taken fiom the same cioss-
section.

The lineai inteicept methou is inheiently somewhat impiecise because it
uepenus so much on human factois: choice of line placement, the length of line
uiawn, anu ueteimination of what qualifies as a giain bounuaiy all significantly
affect the iesults. Iueally lines aie chosen aibitiaiily anu iepiesent an "aveiage"
numbei of giains inteisecteu, but in most cases theie is some system oi
aiiangement of lines, which can altei the uata. In auuition, the length of line uiawn
affects the numbei of inteisections iecoiueu: when lines aie smallei, they inteisect
fewei giains anu aie less iepiesentative of the oveiall pictuie. The lineai inteicept
methou is also subject to whoevei is using itan inexpeiienceu stuuent may not be
able to ueteimine exactly which lines aie giain bounuaiies, sciatches, oi twins.

I employeu seveial tactics to tiy to eliminate these factois. Fiist of all, I useu
a giiu methou (as seen I Figuie 29) when making my lines so I uiun't uiaw them
aibitiaiily. I tiieu to space them evenly thioughout the image to obtain a iesult that
ieflecteu the contents of the image. I also stanuaiuizeu my line length so that I
avoiueu enuing lines in spots that I thought "lookeu goou." I may have maue
mistakes when ueteimining giain bounuaiies, but that can't be avoiueu.

As with any methou that uepenus on aveiages, the iesult becomes moie
piecise with moie uata points. Peihaps one of my images was a fluke anu the lineai
inteicept methou is actually quite piecise. With 2u miciogiaphs I woulu be able to
24
tell if one oi two weie off anu the iest weie similai, but with only thiee I can only
concluue that the methou itself is impiecise.


K2I/& +) -&/&7. <2.2 78@A"/&< 6%8@ K2I/&4 (RH





1"7%8#%2A= G 1"7%8#%2A= ?
Line
Numbei
Numbei of
uiain
Bounuaiies
Aveiage
uiain
Biametei
(m)
Line
Numbei
Numbei of
uiain
Bounuaiies
Aveiage
uiain
Biametei
(m)
1 12 281 1 1u SS7
2 9 S7S 2 1u SS7
S 1u SS7 S 8 422
4 1u SS7 4 9 S7S
S 1u SS7 S 7 482
6 11 Su7 6 7 482
7 1u SS7 7 6 S62
Aveiage (m) SSu Aveiage (m) 44S
Stanuaiu Beviation
(m)
29.S Stanuaiu
Beviation (m)
91.7
1"7%8#%2A= E
Line
Numbei
Numbei of
uiain
Bounuaiies
Aveiage
uiain
Biametei
(m)
1 9 S7S
2 6 S62
S 1u SS7
4 9 S7S
S 11 Su7
6 1u SS7
7 9 S7S
Aveiage (m) S81
Stanuaiu Beviation
(m)
84.u
GX&%2#& 86 .=& H
2X&%2#&4 `a@b
HMM
-.23<2%<
S&X"2."83 `a@b
MM
2S
W$&4."83 HB
N=2. "4 .=& 2X&%2#& G-K1 #%2"3 4"Q& 3$@I&% 86 >8$% 42@A/& 2778%<"3# .8
G-K1 C((9Y [4& .8 <2.2 .8 &4.2I/"4= .=& A%&7"4"83 24487"2.&< O".= .="4
<&.&%@"32."83)

0sing the ASTN E112 methou, I insciibeu a ciicle ovei the sample anu
maikeu the giains that weie completely within the bounus with a black uot anu
those that weie paitially insiue with a blue uot. All of my images weie taken at Sux
magnification, anu foi easy viewing I uisplayeu the numbei of giains paitially insiue
(blue) anu completely insiue (black) in the top left anu iight coineis of the image,
iespectively.

The ASTN E112 methou pioviues the following foimula to calculate a
paiametei calleu the "giain size numbei" !, given a calculateu value of giains pei
squaie inch aiea of miciogiaph iecoiueu at 1uux magnification "#.
!
!
! !
!!!!!

Bowevei, to account foi the fact that oui sample is at Sux magnification anu not
1uux, we neeu to multiple "# by a constant
!"
!""
!
, squaieu because zooming uoubles
both the x anu y axes, anu aiea is calculateu fiom multiplying the two. Simplifying
the constant yielus:
!
!
!
! !
!!!!!

Solving foi oui unknown, we get the following equation.
! !
!"
!
!
!
!"!
!!
Bowevei, in oiuei to ueteimine the value of "#, we fiist neeu to ueteimine the aiea
of the ciicle. 0sing the giaticule in the image, the iauius of the ciicle can be
measuieu to be u.97mm. Conveiting this value to inches
! !"#!
!"!! !!
yielus a iauius of
u.uS8 in, anu an aiea of u.uu46 in
2
.
26

K2I/& ,) T2O 23< E2/7$/2.&< S2.2 6%8@ G-K1 C((9 A&%68%@&< 83 1"7%8#%2A= G
( 9 H + , J
Numbei Weight Resultant
value
Combineu
value
"# value
(giainsinch
2
)
! value
Black S2 1 S2
4S 9S8S 12.196
Blue 21 .S 1u.S

E8/$@3 ( is iaw uata obtaineu fiom the image
E8/$@3 9 is the weight of whole veisus paitial giains ueteimineu by ASTN
E112
E8/$@3 H is obtaineu by multiplying Columns 1 anu 2
E8/$@3 + is obtaineu by auuing the values fiom column S togethei, anu
iounueu up to the neaiest whole numbei
E8/$@3 , is obtaineu by uiviuing column 4 by the aiea of the ciicle,
u.uu4S82 in
2

E8/$@3 J is obtaineu fiom the equation foi u, wheie "# is column S
! !
!"
!
!
!
!"!
!!
!"#$%& H9) 1"7%8#%2A= G O".= G-K1 C((9 @&.=8< 2AA/"&<0 ,*5 12#3"6"72."83
27

The calculations aie iepeateu to obtain the uata in Table 6 anu 7



K2I/& J) T2O 23< E2/7$/2.&< S2.2 6%8@ G-K1 C((9 A&%68%@&< 83 1"7%8#%2A= ?
( 9 H + , J
Numbei Weight Resultant
value
Combineu
value
"# value
(giainsinch
2
)
! value
Black 2S 1 2S
SS 76S9 11.899
Blue 2S .S 11.S









!"#$%& HH) 1"7%8#%2A= ? O".= G-K1 C((9 @&.=8< 2AA/"&<0 ,*5 12#3"6"72."83
28

K2I/& L) T2O 23< E2/7$/2.&< S2.2 6%8@ G-K1 C((9 A&%68%@&< 83 1"7%8#%2A= E

The aveiage giain size numbei was 12.14, with a stanuaiu ueviation of u.22
as ueteimineu in Excel. At fiist glance, one may concluue that this methou is piecise
because the stanuaiu ueviation is so small, which means the u values aie all
ielatively similai. Bowevei, we must consiuei the fact that the u value is the iesult
of taking the natuial log of a ielatively laige "# value. 0n an exponential scale, a
stanuaiu ueviation of u.22 is much moie significant than on a lineai scale. Foi
instance, if we take the stanuaiu ueviation of the "# values fiom Table S-7, we get
1SS4 giainsinch
2
, which is much laigei anu shows that the values vaiy
significantly. The ASTN E112 methou fails to geneiate consistent values when
iepeateu, anu with only thiee images to compaie with, we can only concluue that it
lacks piecision.
( 9 H + , J
Numbei Weight Resultant
value
Combineu
value
"# value
(giainsinch
2
)
! value
Black S8 1 S8
47 1u26u 12.S2S
Blue 18 .S 9
!"#$%& H+) 1"7%8#%2A= E O".= G-K1 C((9 @&.=8< 2AA/"&<0 ,*5 12#3"6"72."83
29
W$&4."83 +B
K=& /"3&2% "3.&%7&A. @&.=8< #"X&4 2 \#%2"3 4"Q&\ "3 $3".4 86 /&3#.= O="/& G-K1
C((9 #"X&4 2 <"@&34"83/&44 \#%2"3 4"Q& 3$@I&%)\ S&4"#3 2 O2> .8 78@A2%&
I8.= @&.=8<4 83 &c$2/ .&%@40 &5A/2"3 ".0 23< $4& >8$% %&4$/.4 .8 &5&7$.& .=&
78@A2%"483) N=2. <8 >8$ 7837/$<&Y

C5A/2"3 >8$% 2AA%827= .8 78@A2%"3# @&.=8<4)

With the lineai inteicept methou, we ueteimineu the aveiage uiametei of a
single giain in oui sample. Iueally, the lineai inteicept methou accounteu foi the fact
that all the giains hau uiffeient sizes anu shapes, anu outputteu a value foi an
aveiage giain. We can assume that this aveiage giain uiametei is the same in eveiy
uiiection, which gives us a ciiculai giain shape. We can then compute the aveiage
aiea of one giain. When we conveit this value into inches, we can manipulate it to be
similai to the "# value in Question S. The "# value is simply a iatio of giains to aiea
the giains take up, so if oui 1 giain takes up % aiea, its "# value is simply
!
!
. Fiom this
point, we can compute ! value using the ASTN methou fiom Question S, anu
compaie the two uimensionless giain size numbeis.

[4& >8$% %&4$/.4 6%8@ .=& %&4. 86 .=& /2I .8 &5&7$.& .=& 78@A2%"483)

The aveiage giain uiametei fiom Question 1 was S88 m, oi u.S88 mm.
Biviuing by 2 we get a iauius of u.194mm, oi u.uu764in !"#$%
! !"#!
!"!! !!
! The aiea of
a ciicle is !i
2
, which gives an aiea of u.uuu18S in
2
. Because we aie only looking at
one giain, the iesultant "# value is 1 uiviueu by this, oi S4SS. The iesultant ! value
applying the same foimulas fiom Question S is 11.41S.

-.2.& >8$% 7837/$4"83 2I8$. >8$% 78@A2%"483)

The u value of 11.41S (fiom manipulating the aveiage giain uiametei in
Question 1) was in the same iange as the aveiage ! value fiom Question S of 12.14.
Calculating the stanuaiu ueviation of the two gives a value of u.S29howevei,
because u is the iesult of a logaiithm, we can see that the values actually vaiy
consiueiably (the same analysis is employeu in gieatei uetail in the conclusion of
Question S). Fiom this uata, we can concluue that the compaiison is not veiy
piecise. Theie aie many possible ieasons foi thisI assumeu that the aveiage giain
was ciiculai, when it may not be. Also, the same human souices of eiioi foi the
lineai inteicept methou apply to this compaiison. If the lineai inteicept methou
wasn't uone accuiately, then those mistakes woulu be ieflecteu in the compaiison.





Su
W$&4."83 ,B
d8$eX& ^$4. I&&3 72//&< "3 24 2 7834$/.23. 83 .=& 62"/$%& 86 2 O2.&% X2/X& 83 .=&
E2/"68%3"2 2c$&<$7.) K=& c$2/"6"72."83 4A&74 "3<"72.& .=& X2/X& 4=8$/< =2X&
I&&3 #"X&3 2 X&%> 4A&7"6"7 =&2. .%&2.@&3. .8 #&3&%2.& 2 X&%> 4A&7"6"7 #%2"3 4"Q&)
K=& X2/X& =24 23 (MR"37= .=%82. 23< O&"#=4 8X&% L** /I4) ;3 /"#=. 86 >8$% 3&O
$3<&%4.23<"3# 86 #%2"3 4"Q& 232/>4"40 O=2. &5A&%"@&3.2/ A%87&<$%&4 O8$/<
>8$ &@A/8> .8 <&.&%@"3& "6 .=& A%8A&% =&2. .%&2.@&3. O24 <83& 8% 38.Y ?&
4A&7"6"7)b

S&47%"I& O=2. &5A&%"@&3.2/ A%87&<$%&4 >8$ O8$/< &@A/8> .8 <&.&%@"3& "6 .=&
A%8A&% =&2. .%&2.@&3. O24 <83&) ?& 4A&7"6"7)

To stait with, uealing with a 7uu lb. sample is extiemely impiactical, so the
fiist thing I woulu uo is iemove specific poitions of the valve to examine. When
choosing wheie to iemove sample fiom, I woulu tiy to get at least thiee fiom neai
the point of failuie to ueteimine if it was an isolateu iiiegulaiity, oi if the entiie
valve is flaweu. In auuition, I woulu want to uiill thiee holes in the valve wheie
watei flows thiough anu iemove samples so I coulu look at a cioss section. Foi
instance, maybe only the insiue of the valve was heat-tieateu, anu a cioss section
woulu ieveal that the giain size was not constant thioughout the valve.

To actually iemove the samples, I woulu use a high-poweieu uiill to cut out
cylinuiical sections of the valve. Bepenuing on which faces I wanteu to examine
(planai veisus cioss sectional), I woulu giinu the samples using the powei giinuei
until I hau a flat suiface to woik with. If the samples weie too small to giip easily
with my hanus, I woulu mount them in epoxy to ensuie they woulu be laige enough
to holu. Fiom this point I woulu begin the giinuing phase like we uiu in class.
Staiting at 24u giit, I woulu woik my way up to the 1-micion polish until my
samples weie (mostly) sciatch fiee. I woulu then etch them to ieveal the giains, anu
examine them unuei a micioscope.

Fiom this point I woulu photogiaph the samples, anu then photogiaph a
giaticule to have something to measuie against. Looking at these photos in
Photoshop, I woulu then apply both the Lineai Inteicept methou anu ASTN E112 as
uemonstiateu in Questions 1 anu S to ueteimine what the aveiage giain uiametei
anu giain size numbei weie, anu compaie them with what the actual specifications
shoulu be. If any of the values weie moie than one stanuaiu ueviation away, I woulu
take moie samples fiom that aiea anu analyze them in the same way to ensuie that
it was not just a fluke. If samples continueu to have similai incoiiect values, I woulu
concluue that the heat tieatment haun't occuiieu. If some samples hau incoiiect
values but otheis uiu not, I woulu concluue that the heat tieatment might have been
uone but only paitially peifoimeu.


S1
W$&4."83 JB
N=2. "4 .=& \#%2"3 4"Q&\ 86 >8$% 42@A/& <&.&%@"3&< I> .=& "@2#& A%87&44"3#
23< 232/>4"4 .88/4 2X2"/2I/& "3 ;@2#&FY Z8O <8 .=& #%2"3 4"Q&4 8I.2"3&< "3 .="4
/2I 78@A2%& .8 .=& #%2"3 4"Q&4 8I.2"3&< "3 .=& 6"%4. /2IY E8@A2%& .=&@ $4"3#
23> @&.%"7 86 >8$% 7=884"3#) T2."832/"Q& 23> <"66&%&37&4)

K2I/& M) T2O S2.2 6%8@ ;@2#&F ?%244 -2@A/& G32/>4"4

Fiom Table 8 above, we get a Feiet column, which iepiesents the maximum
uiametei of a giain. We can use this value to compaie to the values calculateu in
Question 1, but the cuiient the values given aie in pixels, anu neeu to be conveiteu
into m to be meaningful. To obtain oui conveision factoi, we neeu to finu out how
many pixel lengths coiiesponu to a set uistance. We can use an image of a giaticule
to finu this.


0sing the "Set Scale" tool in Image}, we aie able to measuie the length of the
giaticule. We ueteimine that 1uuu m is equal to 862.84 pixels, anu obtain the
following conveision factoi:
!""" !!
!"#!!" !"#$%&
! !!!"
!!
!"#$%&

When finuing the aveiage giain uiametei in question 1, we multiplieu by a constant
1.S because it was founu that the lineai inteicept methou tiauitionally
-/"7& E8$3.
K8.2/
G%&2
GX&%2#&
-"Q&
G%&2
!%27."83 !&%&. !&%&. f !&%&. d
!&%&.
G3#/&
1"3
!&%&.
PS1.jpg SS 1uu977 18SS.94S 2.6 27S.S76 118S.4SS 818.u91 9S.9u6 178.S8S
PS2.jpg 4u 894u2 22SS.uS 2.S S27.uS7 1226.62S 817.17S 9S.u78 212.671
!"#$%& H,) E2/7$/2."3# 472/& "3 ;@2#&F0 ,*5 12#3"6"72."83
S2
unueiestimates giain uiametei. Feiet's uiametei is the 67.8,.2, uistance between
two paiticles, so it won't be an unueiestimate (if anything, it might be a slight
oveiestimate). Nultiplying the uiameteis fiom Table 9 by the conveision factoi, we
obtain values of S19 m anu S79 m iespectively, an aveiage of S49 m, anu a
stanuaiu ueviation of 42.4 m.

K2I/& P) E8@A2%"483 86 U"3&2% ;3.&%7&A. 23< ;@2#&F %&4$/.4




Foi Niciogiaph A, the stanuaiu ueviation between the two uiffeient methous
was extiemely small. The methous both piouuceu similai iesults. Foi Niciogiaph B,
the stanuaiu ueviation was much laigei. Bowevei, when looking at which paitial
giains Image} +1+"3, consiuei, this makes sense. In Figuie 29, the two laige giains on
the left bounuaiy of the pictuie took up a substantial poition of almost eveiy sciibe
line. Because these giains weien't complete, Image} uiu not consiuei them, while the
lineai inteicept methou uiu. The iesultant aveiage Feiet uiametei was much lowei
than the lineai inteicept aveiage, which makes sense given that Image} ignoieu the
two laigest giains in the miciogiaph.
By finuing a iatio of pixels to m, we can compaie feiet's uiametei calculateu
in Image} with the aveiage giain uiametei calculateu in Question 1.

1"7%8#%2A=
U2I&/
U"3&2%
;3.&%7&A.
GX&%2#& `a@b
!&%&.
S"2@&.&%
`a@)
-.23<2%<
S&X"2."83
`a@)
G SSu S19 7.8
? 44S S49 67.9
SS
W$&4."83 LB
Z8O A%&7"4& "4 ;@2#&F 68% #%2"3 4"Q& <&.&%@"32."83Y N=2. A".62//4 <"< >8$
$378X&% "3 >8$% $4& 86 ".4 78@A$.2."832/ .88/4Y

S"47$44 .=& A%&7"4"83 86 <&.&%@"3"3# #%2"3 4"Q& $4"3# ;@2#&F)

Initially, I hau a lot of tiouble getting piecise giain sizes with Image}. The
piocess usually fell apait in the thiesholu step. I coulu nevei aujust the sliueis so I
woulu get a clean outline aiounu each giaingiains woulu always eithei fill in
completely black oi stay white. Bowevei, I ieceiveu a helpful hint: manually uiaw in
the giain bounuaiies so Image} can uetect them bettei. With this in minu, Image}
became incieuibly easy to use. While going thiough with the biush tool anu uiawing
in each bounuaiy is time-consuming, it enables the piogiam to easily pick up on the
bounuaiies that may have been incieuibly faint befoie.

When the usei uiaws in the bounuaiies, Image} becomes extiemely piecise.
Assuming the lines have been uiawn coiiectly, the piogiam will consistently output
veiy similai values eveiy time an image is iun thiough the vaiious contiasts,
thiesholus, anu analyzing stages. As I was leaining how Image} woikeu I ian the
same image thiough at least ten times, anu by the enu I was getting the exact same
giain size eveiy time.

G%& .=& 8$.78@&4 86 >8$% .O8 "@2#&4 .=& 42@&Y W$23."6> =8O
4"@"/2%g<"66&%&3. .=&> 2%&)

The outcomes of my two images aie essentially the same, in teims of
appeaiance. They both have all complete giains shaueu black, with white giain
bounuaiies. The bounuaiies aie smooth, anu have iemaineu exactly as I fiist uiew
!"#$%& HJ) 1"7%8#%2A= G0 A84.RA%87&44"3# !"#$%& HL) 1"7%8#%2A= ?0 A84.RA%87&44"3#

S4
them foi both images. When the lines aie uiawn fiist, the iesults aie ciisp, cleai, anu
consistent.

S"47$44 A".62//4 86 $4"3# ;@2#&F0 %&/2."X& .8 @23$2//> <&.&%@"3"3# #%2"3 4"Q&)

0ne of the biggest pitfalls of using Image} is the time iequiieu to use it
successfully. It simply isn't possible to obtain a goou image in a shoit amount of
time. To ensuie accuiacy, the lines must be uiawn on veiy caiefullyif this step is
iusheu, the iesultant uata is useless. In auuition, Image} analysis fails to account foi
giains that aien't completely in the image. 0ften, this means losing a significant
amount of uata as well as ieuucing the sample size, as many giains aie only paitially
piesent. In the case of Question 6, I hypothesizeu that this loss of uata was the cause
of a uisciepancy between a manually measuieu uiametei anu Image}'s measuieu
uiametei.
SS
W$&4."83 MB
N=2. 7=23#&4 O8$/< >8$ 4$##&4. "3 .=& A%27."7& 86 8A."72/ @&.2//8#%2A=>
`42@A/& 4&/&7."830 A8/"4="3#0 &.7="3#b .8 8A."@"Q& .=& <&.&%@"32."83 86 #%2"3
4"Q& $4"3# ;@2#&FY

S"47$44 7=23#&4 .8 >8$% -G1:UC :TC:GTGK;Vh .8 "37%&24& .=& $."/".> 86
;@2#&F A%87&44"3#)

When giinuing my sample, one of the fiist things I noticeu was that the epoxy
was much softei than the biass. It weais away much fastei, anu as a iesult often the
sample tenus to piotiuue moie than the epoxy, anu insteau of being flat, the bottom
of the sample is iounueu. This cieates pioblems because it becomes uifficult to
giinu the euges of the biassthey often enu up moie sciatcheu than the centei
because they aien't actually being giounu uown. Nost of the sciatches in my sample
weie uue to this, anu a change I woulu piopose is eithei using a haiuei mounting
substance oi having samples laige enough to holu easily. This woulu iesult in moie
usable pictuie space, bettei quality images, anu bettei Image} piocessing.

Anothei pioblem I hau with the sample piepaiation was that it was uifficult to
ueteimine whethei the cameia hau focuseu my images coiiectly. When using the
cameia with the micioscope, the only way to manually focus the images was to look
at the tiny uisplay. The eyepiece has a slightly uiffeient magnification than the
cameia, so the only way to focus was to squint at the uisplay anu hope it was as
shaip as possible. This has a uiiect effect on image piocessingImage} woiks much
bettei when it can see cleai, uistinct bounuaiies, veisus the fuzziei bounuaiies that
iesult fiom bau focus.

;37/$<& 2 42@A/& 78@A2%"483) ;37/$<& 23 "@2#&gA8%."83 86 23 "@2#& .=2. O24
&24"&% .8 232/>Q& .=23 .=& %&4.) ;37/$<& 23 "@2#&gA8%."83 86 23 "@2#& .=2. O24
=2%<&% .8 232/>Q&) S"47$44 4A&7"6"7 %&24834 O=> 83& O24 &24"&% .=23 .=& 8.=&%)

The image on the left was
uifficult to analyze foi seveial ieasons.
Fiist of all, seveial of the giains aie
almost the same coloi, anu the
bounuaiies aie neaily impossible to see
cleaily. In auuition, the image is slightly
fuzzy, anu the lack of shaip euges makes
it uifficult foi Image} to piocess the
giain bounuaiies. The sciatch in the top
left coinei also auus anothei line into
the pictuie that coulu geneiate an extia
bounuaiy.

!"#$%& HM) ?%244 42@A/&0 ,*5 12#3"6"72."83

S6
This image was much easiei to piocess.
Not only aie the giain bounuaiies much
cleaiei, but also the contiast is much shaipei,
anu it is quite obvious wheie the giains touch
each othei. Theie aie no visible sciatches, anu
the twins aie all well uefineu, so Image} won't
misinteipiet them as extia bounuaiies. Also,
the giain bounuaiies in this image seem to be
slightly uaikei anu wiuei, anu as a iesult it is
easiei foi Image} to iegistei that they aie
bounuaiies.

!"#$%& HP) ?%244 42@A/&0 ,*5 12#3"6"72."83

S7
W$&4."83 PB
S&4"#3 2 @&.=8< &@A/8>"3# ;@2#&F 68% <&.&%@"3"3# .=& #%2"3 4"Q& 86 2
@&.2//8#%2A="7 42@A/&0 23< <&47%"I& ". "3 4$66"7"&3. <&.2"/ 68% 2 38X"7& $4&% 86
;@2#&F .8 78@A/&.& 2 4$77&446$/ #%2"3 4"Q& <&.&%@"32."83) ;3 .&7=3"72/ %&A8%.40
.="4 "4 _38O3 24 .=& \&5A&%"@&3.2/ A%87&<$%&4\ 8% \A%8.878/\ 4&7."83)

To begin with, uownloau the Image} piogiam at http:isbweb.nih.govij.
0nce the piogiam has installeu, open it anu open the sample (File>0pen).

The fiist step in piocessing the file is to enhance the giain bounuaiies by
uiawing ovei them with the biush tool. Right click the biush tool to change the
uiametei of the biush, I founu that 1Spx was laige enough foi Image} to uetect but
small enough to not get in the way.
Nake suie that all of the giain bounuaiies connect! If the bounuaiies uon't
connect completely, Image} will count multiple giains as a single giain latei on. The
enhanceu image shoulu look something like Figuie 42.























!"#$%& +() ?%$4= .88/ 4&/&7.&<

!"#$%& +9) C3=237&< #%2"3 I8$3<2%"&4 "3 ;@2#&F0 ,*5 12#3"6"72."83

S8
Next, aujust the contiast (Image>Aujust>BiightnessContiast) so Image} can
moie easily uiffeientiate between giains anu giain bounuaiies. I founu that the
"auto" button woiks well, but if necessaiy, the sliueis in the menu that pops up can
be useu. Any setting that makes the bounuaiies moie uefineu anu the backgiounu
less so is optimal. The image with aujusteu contiast shoulu look something like
Figuie 4S.


!"#$%& +H) E83.%24. 2AA/"&<0 ,*5 12#3"6"72."83
Aftei aujusting the contiast, conveit the image into 8-bit (Image>Type>8-bit)
to speeu up piocessing. This is also ciitical foi latei piocessing stages, as ceitain
steps will not woik if the image isn't 8-bit.

0pen the thiesholu panel (Image>Aujust>Thiesholu) to view the vaiious
options foi aujusting the thiesholu. Theie aie two sliueis on the panelthe top sets
the black thiesholu, the bottom sets the white. In geneial, setting the top sliuei all
the way to the left anu then slowly moving the bottom sliuei to the left is the best
way to set a goou thiesholu. Iueally, the image will only have giain bounuaiies
shown in black anu eveiything else will be white. Avoiu setting the white thiesholu
so low that the image begins to speckle anu the giain bounuaiies faue oi uisappeai.
The final image shoulu look something like Figuie 44.


S9

!"#$%& ++) K=%&4=8/< 2AA/"&<0 ,*5 12#3"6"72."83
Something extia that I founu enhances image analysis is the "Finu Euges"
featuie (Piocess>Finu Euges). Image} outlines the euges of the giain bounuaiies in
the image, anu this can be useu to check that theie aie no holes in the bounuaiies.
Also, it makes the images moie aesthetically pleasing anu easiei to manipulate latei
on. The image aftei the piocessing shoulu be similai to Figuie 4S.












!"#$%& +,) !"3< C<#&4 2AA/"&<0 ,*5 12#3"6"72."83

4u
Next, begin the analyzing phase by setting which measuiements Image}
shoulu make (Analyze>Set Neasuiements). In auuition to the thiee uefaults, make
suie to check "Feiet's uiametei" as it will be useu latei to ueteimine the giain
uiametei. The set measuiements shoulu look like Figuie 46.






Select Analyze Paiticles (Analyze>Analyze Paiticles) anu a winuow will pop
up with settings foi the analysis. To ensuie that extia paiticles aie not iecoiueu, set
the minimum pixel size to 1uu. Also, on the Show menu select outlines, anu be suie
to check "Excluue on euges" anu then click "0K." The selections shoulu match Figuie
47.

Thiee winuows shoulu pop up: Summaiy (Figuie 48), Results (Figuie 49),
anu a Biawing of the giains (Figuie Su). It is woith sciolling thiough the Results
winuow anu looking at the Aiea column to make suie all of the aieas aie ioughly the
same size anu theie aie no iiiegulaiities (e.g. mostly foui-uigit aieas but 1 six-uigit
aiea). If theie aie any pioblems, the Biawing winuow can be useu in conjunction
with the Numeiical label in the Results winuow to iuentify which giains aie
iesponsible.

The most impoitant value is locateu in the Summaiy winuow unuei "Feiet."
The Feiet value is the gieatest uistance between two points on the giain bounuaiy,
i.e. the gieatest uiametei. This value is a goou appioximation of the giain size, but it
cuiiently is in pixels, the uefault unit in Image}. To conveit it to a meaningful unit,
such as m, we neeu to know the length of an object in both pixels anu m. We know
the length of oui giaticule in m, anu we can measuie it in pixels by loauing it into
Image}.
!"#$%& +J) -&. 1&24$%&@&3.4 N"3<8O
!"#$%& +L) G32/>Q& :2%."7/&4 N"3<8O
41














!"#$%& +M) :84.RG32/>4"4 -$@@2%> O"3<8O
!"#$%& +P) :84.RG32/>4"4 S%2O"3# O"3<8O
!"#$%& ,*) :84.RG32/>4"4 T&4$/.4 O"3<8O
42
Aftei opening the giaticule file in Image} (File>0pen), use the line tool shown
in Figuie S1 to make a line that spans the length of the giaticule. Then, click
Analyze>Set Scale, anu a winuow will appeai with the length of the measuieu
segment in pixels. Theiefoie, to conveit Feiet's uiametei fiom pixels to m, multiply
by the constant
!""" !!
! !"#$%&

Wheie % is the length in pixels of the giaticule. The iesulting value is the aveiage
giain size.












!"#$%& ,() U"3& .88/
!"#$%& ,9) 1&24$%"3# /&3#.= 86 #%2."7$/&
4S
W$&4."83 (*B
E23 >8$ 68%&4&& 23> &.="72/ <"/&@@24 2%"4"3# 6%8@ .=& $4& 86 "@2#& A%87&44"3#
"3 &3#"3&&%"3# 232/>4"4Y C5A/2"30 $4"3# >8$% 8O3 <2.2 "6 >8$ 7230 =8O 2
\A%87&44&<\ "@2#& @"#=. <&X"2.& &38$#= 6%8@ 23 \27.$2/\ "@2#& .8 4$AA8%.
<"66&%&3. 7837/$4"8340 23< .=& "@A/"72."834 86 O"//6$//> 7=884"3# A%87&44"3#
@&.=8<8/8#"&4 .8 27="&X& 2 4A&7"6"7 #82/)

Theie is ceitainly a pioblematic ethical uilemma iesulting fiom the use of
image piocessing in engineeiing analysis. When the peison uoing the piocessing has
a stake in the iesults of the analysis, he oi she faces the choice of "alteiing" uata to
achieve a moie favoiable iesult. Alteiing can mean anything fiom being slightly
biaseu towaius a ceitain iesult anu subconsciously influencing the uata to outiight
fabiication of uata oi euiting the images. Bumans aie inheiently selfish, anu if we
can gain fiom slight manipulation of uata, theie's a uecent chance that oui
subconscious will steei us in that uiiection, even if we intenu to be honest.

S"47$44) [4& 2 7837%&.& &52@A/&0 4$7= 24B "@2#"3& "6 >8$ O&%& #$2%23.&&< .8
#&. 23 iGj "3 .="4 7/2440 "6 >8$% 42@A/& =2< .=& 4@2//&4. 2X&%2#& #%2"3
4"Q&) CX&3 "6 >8$ O&%& .%>"3# .8 I& =83&4.0 O8$/< .=& _38O/&<#& 86 .="4 266&7.
>8$% 2<^$4.@&3.4g@&24$%&@&3.Y

Knowing this small fact woulu have a huge impact on my aujustments anu
measuiement, as much I woulu like to think nothing woulu happen. If something as
impoitant as my giaue in the class uepenueu on something so small anu aibitiaiy
like iounuing a numbei, my subconscious (anu peihaps even my conscious minu)
woulun't be able to help itself. 0f couise I woulun't fabiicate uatabut I woulu
piobably manipulate it to my auvantage. Foi instance, I woulu uefinitely tiy both the
Lineai Inteicept anu ASTN E112 methousanu I woulu pick the one that yielueu
the smallei value. Say theie was a bluiiy spot anu it is uncleai whethei a giain
bounuaiy exists oi not. As someone whose giaue uepenueu on getting a low value, I
woulu piobably "assume" that theie was a bounuaiy, splitting a giain in two anu
loweiing my aveiage giain size.

S&@834.%2.& I> 2/.&%"3# >8$% "@2#& 4/"#=./> .8 "37%&24& #%2"3 4"Q& 23< .=&3
2#2"3 .8 <&7%&24& #%2"3 4"Q&) -=8O 4"@"/2% "@2#&4 .=2. =2X& X&%> <"66&%&3.
8$.78@&4)

In oiuei to inciease giain size, I uecieaseu the pixel uiametei of the biush
useu to uiaw the giain bounuaiies. The oiiginal image is Figuie SS, anu the fiist
alteieu veision is Figuie S4. By uecieasing the aiea between the giains, I effectively
expanueu them so that they woulu take up moie space anu output a laigei iesultant
aiea anu giain size. To ueciease giain size, I uiu the oppositeI useu a thickei
biush, shiinking the giains anu outputting a smallei aiea anu giain size, as shown in
Figuie SS.

44
























K2I/& (*) T2O <2.2 6%8@ ;@2#&F 232/>4"4 86 <"66&%&3. I%$4= <"2@&.&%4






The Image} analysis iesults in Table 1u confiim that the laige biush
outputteu the lowest aveiage size anu feiiet uiametei, while the small biush gave
the laigest of both.

The pioblem with having a peisonal stake in one's own image analysis is that
theie is no cleai line between influencing the numbeis with "human eiioi" anu
outiight fabiication. In auuition, it is usually veiy easy to iationalize these tiny
changes in uata oi methouology, as they aie so small that they seem almost
insignificant. But at what point uoes iounuing a value up become falsifying uata anu
not just abiuing by a convenient choice of significant figuies. 0veiall, one shoulu
iefiain fiom choosing piocesses to meet a ceitain goal, anu insteau focus on uoing a
faii, unbiaseu analysis of the image.
-/"7& E8$3.
K8.2/
G%&2
GX&%2#&
-"Q&
G%&2
!%27."83 !&%&.
PS1 NEB.jpg S6 9Su26 1661.179 2.4 2SS.22S
PS1 SNL.jpg S4 1uu2u4 18SS.6S 2.6 278.618
PS1 LRu.jpg S6 8S8uu 1496.429 2.2 2S2.716
!"#$%& ,H) 1&<"$@ I%$4= <"2@&.&%
!"#$%& ,,) U2%#& I%$4= <"2@&.&% !"#$%& ,+) -@2// I%$4= <"2@&.&%
4S
W$&4."83 ((B
-=8O 23< <&47%"I& "3 <&.2"/ .=& .O8 @"7%84.%$7.$%&4 24487"2.&< O".= .=& .O8
.=&%@2/ .%&2.@&3.4 &52@"3&< "3 .="4 /2I &5&%7"4&) h8.& .=2. .=& 72%I83
7837&3.%2."83 "4 .=& 42@& 68% I8.= 4A&7"@&34 `I8.= 2%& (*+, 4.&&/b0 48 23>
<"66&%&37&4 "3 @"7%84.%$7.$%& 2%& <$& &57/$4"X&/> .8 A%87&44"3#)

Both miciostiuctuies stait out in a high tempeiatuie soliu phase calleu
austenite. When the tempeiatuie uiops below 727kC, peailite foims.

Peailite has two majoi constituents: feiiite, which is composeu piimaiily of
iion, anu cementite, which is an iion caibiue. The feiiite anu cementite foim uisk-
like layeis, calleu lamellae, anu have a tenuency to glittei unuei a micioscope, as
they uo in Figuie S6. Bepenuing on how the peailite is heat-tieateu when it is
foimeu, the lamellae can be eithei coaise anu thick oi fine anu thin. In Figuie S7,
the ciicle encloses a well-foimeu lamella, within lines uiawn on to show the
equiaxeu giain stiuctuie. Figuie S8 is also a paiticulaily goou image with
inteispeiseu lamellae of peailite.



!"#$%& ,J) :&2%/".&0 VA."72/ ;@2#&0 +**5 12#3"6"72."83
46


!"#$%& ,L) :&2%/".&0 -C1 ;@2#&0 ,***5 12#3"6"72."83





















!"#$%& ,M) :&2%/".&0 -C1 ;@2#&0 (***5 12#3"6"72."83
47
When the austenite is cooleu off extiemely quickly, a uiffeient
miciostiuctuie calleu maitensite foims. Naitensite is chaiacteiizeu by aciculai
giain stiuctuie, which means its giains aie much smallei anu almost neeulelike, like
those within the ciicle in Figuie 6u. As shown in both Figuies S9 anu 6u below, the
giains aie almost impeiceptible at 2uuux magnification, anu it takes zooming all the
way to 1uuuux to get a close look at them. While maitensite is geneially stiongei
than peailite, sometimes the iapiu cooling piocess causes ciacks to foim. The
piocess that causes the ciacks, calleu quenching, is not iueal foi big samples because
laige amounts steel cannot be cooleu uown quickly. Bowevei, maitensite's smallei
giain size gives it supeiioi stiength when it can be cieateu coiiectly.



































!"#$%& J*) 12%.&34".&0 -C1 ;@2#&0 (****5 12#3"6"72."83

!"#$%& ,P) 12%.&34".&0 -C1 ;@2#&0 9***5 12#3"6"72."83
48
W$&4."83 (9B
:&2%/".& "4 48@&."@&4 <&47%"I&< 24 =2X"3# 2 /2@&//2% @8%A=8/8#>) E23 >8$
"<&3."6> A&2%/".& "3 >8$% "@2#&4Y C5A/2"3) [4& ;@2#&F 8% 8.=&% @&.=8<4 86
232/>4"4 .8 <&.&%@"3& .=& X8/$@& 6%27."83 86 A&2%/".& "3 >8$% @"7%84.%$7.$%&)
-=8O >8$% O8%_)

;<&3."6> A&2%/".& "3 >8$% "@2#&40 23< &5A/2"3 O=> >8$ =2X& <&.&%@"3&< .=84&
%&#"834 2%& A&2%/".&)

Fiom Figuie S7, we can see that peailite is chaiacteiizeu by its lamellai
stiuctuies, which in a cioss section shows multiple layeis on top of each othei.
Figuie S8, at 1uuux shows a zoomeu-out view of the sample, anu uemonstiates how
the peailite iegions aie slightly uaikei than the othei iegions. Theiefoie, we can
apply this to oui sample: the peailite iegions aie the uaikei iegions, anu since theie
aie only white anu black iegions, the peailite must be the black iegions in oui
image.

S&.&%@"3& .=& X8/$@& 6%27."83 86 A&2%/".& 6%8@ .O8 86 >8$% "@2#&4 86 .=& 4.&&/
.=2. 783.2"3 A&2%/".& `38. .=& @2%.&34".& 42@A/&b) C5A/2"3 23< "//$4.%2.& >8$%
A%87&44 68% <&.&%@"3"3# X8/$@& 6%27."83)

To piepaie the peailite foi analysis, all of the steps weie exactly the same as
foi when we piepaieu the biass, except we uon't neeu to pie-uiaw lines aiounu the
giains as we aie ueteimining a volume fiaction. The pie-analysis image shoulu look
something like Figuie 61. 0nce we have an image that is piopeily thiesholueu, we
set which measuiements Image} shoulu make (Analyze>Set Neasuiements). In
auuition to the thiee uefaults, we make suie to check "Aiea Fiaction" as it is the
value we aie looking foi. The set measuiements look like Figuie 62.

















!"#$%& J() :%&R232/>4"4 A&2%/".& "@2#&

49


















Next, we select Analyze Paiticles (Analyze>Analyze Paiticles) anu a winuow
pops up with settings foi the analysis. We want all pixels to be iecoiueu, so we set
the minimum pixel size to u. The selections match Figuie 6S.

Thiee winuows poppeu up next: Results (Figuie 64), a Biawing of the giains
(Figuie 6S), anu Summaiy (Figuie 66).



!"#$%& J+) :84.RG32/>4"4 T&4$/.4 O"3<8O
!"#$%& J9) -&. 1&24$%&@&3.4 O"3<8O
!"#$%& JH) -&. 1&24$%&@&3.4 O"3<8O

Su


























The only value we aie inteiesteu in is the "Aiea Fiaction" column in Figuie
66. This value iepiesents the peicentage of black paiticles in oui image. Because the
black paiticles aie peailite, this value is the aiea fiaction of peailite. We assume that
the aiea fiaction of one planai cioss-section is iepiesentative of the entiie sample,
so we assume the aiea fiaction is the same as the volume fiaction, anu get a iesult of
S7.2% peailite.

!"#$%& JJ) :84.RG32/>4"4 -$@@2%> O"3<8O
!"#$%& J,) :84.RG32/>4"4 S%2O"3# O"3<8O

S1
W$&4."83 (HB
-=8O <"%&7./> 83 2 KKK 7$%X& .=& .O8 788/"3# A2.=4 68% .=& .O8 4A&7"@&34 "3
>8$% @&.2//8#%2A="7 @8$3.0 4$AA8%.&< I> .=& <2.2 72A.$%&< "3 >8$%
@"7%8#%2A=4) h8.& .=2. I8.= .=&%@2/ .%&2.@&3.4 I&#23 2. ."@& * "3 .=&
2$4.&3"."7 %&#"83 2. P**kE0 23< 6"3"4=&< 2. %88@ .&@A&%2.$%& `244$@& 9,kEb)

!"#$%& JL) KKK 7$%X& 86 @2%.&34".& 23< A&2%/".& 42@A/&4
Figuie 67 above shows the two cooling paths, wheie maitensite is the black
line anu peailite is the ieu line. This is suppoiteu both by oui uata anu oui
knowleuge of how the two samples foim. Naitensite foims when the steel is cooleu
veiy iapiuly, anu avoius the "knee" of the TTT cuive at aiounu SSu C. Fiom the
black line, we can see that steel uiops to 2S C in less than a seconu, anu uoes inueeu
avoiu the piotiuuing pait of the TTT cuive. Because this steel passes below the Ns
foimation tempeiatuie of 16S C befoie the TTT cuive, it foims maitensite. The
black line is a geneial linemaitensite can foim fiom any line oi cuive that avoius
the knee of the TTT cuive anu passes thiough the NS tempeiatuie befoie the cuive
uoes.

Fiom the ieu line, we can see that the peailite cooling path fiist inteisecteu
the TTT cuive at aiounu 7uu C. At this point, peailite began to foim anu continueu
foiming until aiounu 61u C. This matches oui knowleuge of how peailite foims: it
is cooleu in a fuinace, so it cools ovei a longei timespan. The ieu line shown above is
also a geneial linepeailite will foim fiom any cooling path that inteisects the TTT
cuive at any point.
S2
W$&4."83 (+B
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4.&&/ 78@A83&3.4 $4&< "3 &3#"3&&%"3# 2AA/"72."834Y ;6 >8$ <"< 8I.2"3 48@&
47233"3# &/&7.%83 @"7%8#%2A=40 2%& .=&> 23> I&..&% 68% .="4 2AA/"72."83Y
C5A/2"3) T&6&% .8 4A&7"6"7 "@2#&4 86 8A."72/ @"7%8#%2A=4 23< -C1 @"7%8#%2A=4
"3 >8$% <"47$44"83)

Baseu on my iesults, I can concluue that light optical metallogiaphy has
limiteu effectiveness foi viewing anu veiifying miciostiuctuies of 1u4S steel.
Figuies 24-27 show that theie is not much uetail to be seen on uiffeient steel
miciostiuctuies at the optical micioscope's highest magnification, 4uux. The smallei
stiuctuies, such as the lamellai foimations in the peailite, cannot even be seen in
these images. In auuition, the maitensite giains aie baiely visible because the
magnification is so lowit is faiily uifficult to uo any soit of in-uepth analysis on
these images.

SEN images aie much bettei foi analyzing miciostiuctuies of oui 1u4S steel
samples. Figuies S7-6u show much moie uetail about the samples, such as giain size
anu shape in both samples, anu the lamellai stiuctuie in the peailite. The scanning
election micioscope we useu hau the ability to magnify to Su,uuux, which is 7Sx
what the optical micioscopes can view. This extia zooming capability ieveals a
wealth of infoimation about the samples that is hiuuen fiom us in the optical
images. We concluue that SEN images aie vastly supeiioi to optical images foi
veiifying the miciostiuctuies of oui steel components.

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0sing optical metallogiaphy, we neeu to ueteimine if the insuiance agent's
claims weie coiiect oi not. When the biake was foigeu, it was austenitizeu at 9uuC
then quencheu into iceu biinefiom this uesciiption, we know a maitensite
stiuctuie foimeu. If the biake iotoi uiu inueeu heat up to 1uuuC, it will have
foimeu peailite stiuctuiesmaitensite only foims when 1u4S steel is quench-
cooleu; if alloweu to cool natuially only peailite will foim.

To piove the insuiance agent coiiect, we woulu neeu to see eviuence of
peailite stiuctuies in the biake iotoi. This woulu mean that the iotoi uiu heat up to
1uuuC anu cool back uown to ioom tempeiatuie. In oiuei to obtain miciostiuctuial
images of the iotoi, we shoulu fiist take samples fiom seveial uiffeient aieas of the
iotoi. Next, we woulu follow the steps listeu in the Nethouology section to piepaie
anu image steel samples. 0nce we obtaineu oui images, we woulu look foi lamella,
which woulu show us that peailite hau foimeu. We coulu use the techniques
employeu in Question 11 to locate anu veiify lamellai stiuctuie. If 8"9 eviuence of
lamellai stiuctuie was founu in any of the samples, the insuiance agent was coiiect
anu the sample uiu heat up to 1uuuC anu cool uown natuially.

To piove the insuiance agent wiong, we woulu neeu to see eviuence of only
maitensite stiuctuie in the biake iotoi. 0sing the same techniques listeu above, we
woulu obtain images of oui samples anu examine them. Thin, aciculai giains anu
lack of lamellai stiuctuie woulu piove the agent wiongif this was the case, the
biake iotoi uiu not heat up to 1uuuC, anu the maitensite stiuctuie woulu iemain
the same as when the iotoi was foigeu.

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By examining the micioscopic stiuctuies of steel anu biass samples, we
leaineu moie about micioscopy anu gaineu a bettei unueistanuing of the foimation
anu composition of engineeiing mateiials like steel anu biass. In auuition, we
leaineu seveial techniques foi piepaiing, imaging, anu analyzing oui images. We
employeu both manual analysessuch as the lineai inteicept methou anu ASTN
E112anu useu piogiams like Image} to ueteimine giain size anu volume fiaction
of oui samples. Thiough this lab, we uevelopeu the skills necessaiy to look on a
micioscopic level at basic engineeiing mateiials, anu unueistanu how uiffeient
micioscopic stiuctuies iesulteu in uiffeient oveiall chaiacteiistics.