Preferred Citation: Harlan, Lindsey. Religion and Rajput Women: The Ethic of Protection in Contemporary Narratives.

Berkeley: University of California Press, c1992 1992. http://ark.cdli .or!/ark:/1"#"#/ft2!$##%k!/

Religion and Rajput Women

The Ethic of Protection in Contemporary Narratives Lindsey Harlan
UNIVERSITY OF !LIFORNI! "RESS

Berkeley Los Angeles Oxford

# $%%$ T&e Regents o' t&e Uni(ersity o' ali'ornia

For Neil and artha !arlan and Ro"ert #ay

Preferred Citation: Harlan, Lindsey. Religion and Rajput Women: The Ethic of Protection in Contemporary Narratives. Berkeley: University of California Press, c1992 1992. http://ark.cdli .or!/ark:/1"#"#/ft2!$##%k!/

For Neil and and Ro"ert #ay

artha !arlan

Note on Transliteration and "ronun)iation

& have chosen a syste' of transliteration that avoids diacritics and provides appro(i'ate pron)nciation for readers )ninitiated into the *anskritic diacritical syste'. & have added diacritics in the !lossary, +hich contains oth )ntranslata le and fre,)ently )sed ter's. -iacritics re'ain in ,)otations, in the titles of .n!lish and /rench +ritin!s, and in the titles of te(ts +ritten in -evana!ari script. /or the sake of easier reco!nition & have )sed co''on .n!lish spellin!s for proper na'es. 0here is considera le variation in the .n!lish and Hindi spellin!s of so'e of these na'es, partic)larly !eo!raphical na'es. & have adopted re!)larly )sed .n!lish spellin!s appearin! on !overn'ent 'aps and si!ns. *o'e of these conventional spellin!s are not direct transliterations of the -evana!ari. 1lso for easier reco!nition & have )sed the standard Hindi spellin!s +here possi le rather than 2a3asthani spellin!s. 1s the te(t reveals, the +o'en & intervie+ed speak different dialects 4so'e

2a3asthani, others non52a3asthani6, +hich 'eans considera le variation in pron)nciation, spellin!, and +ord endin!s. & treat this co'plicated lin!)istic sit)ation y )sin! standard Hindi e,)ivalents 4'any +o'en spoke in standard Hindi d)rin! the intervie+s6 e(cept +here no Hindi e,)ivalent e(ists 4e.!., the 2a3asthani +ord malipanau 6 or +here the Hindi e,)ivalent is reasona ly different fro' the 2a3asthani 4e.!., the 2a3asthani shrap for the Hindi shap 6. 0ransliteration conventions that ear special 'ention incl)de the 7 (ii 7 droppin! of )nprono)nced final a and the renderin! of the Hindi

as ri . 0he 2a3asthani retrofle( is rendered l , as it +o)ld appear in a Hindi e,)ivalent 4e.!., 2a3asthani is sho+n as the Hindi $ul 6. 0he retrofle( is +ritten r 4+ith no distinction 'ade et+een this and the consonant r 6 and the retrofle( is +ritten rh . 8asals are represented as n and m , accordin! to standard convention 4see, for e(a'ple, 2. *. 9c:re!or;s %utline of !indi #rammar 6. 0he Hindi v is represented as v , e(cept +here conventional spellin!s of proper na'es e'ploy a & . 0he Persian ph is rendered f and as ' . /inally, oth and are rendered in .n!lish as sh . 7 (iii 7

!)*no+ledgments
& o+e a de t of !ratit)de to 'any people +ho helped 'e in vario)s +ays as & +orked on this ook. /or their inval)a le s)!!estions & thank 'y readers, 1lf Hilte eitel and 9ar!aret 0ra+ick, and 'y editor, Lynne <ithey. /or co''entin! on early drafts & thank *)san <adley, 0o' Havens, and Pa)l Co)rtri!ht. & a' inde ted to -iana .ck, =ohn Car'an, and *tanley 0a' iah for their enco)ra!e'ent of 'y research in its earliest sta!es and to =ack Ha+ley, -avid <ills, -ennis H)dson, :ary :reen, and

:ene :alla!her for their s)pport +hile & +as +ritin! and revisin!. & a' !ratef)l to >eena -as for advice as & )ndertook field+ork and for s)!!estions +hile +e +ere fello+s at 1'herst. /or 'any practical s)!!estions a o)t +orkin! in 2a3asthan, & thank *)sanne 2)dolph, Lloyd 2)dolph, =oan .rd'an, and 1nn :old. /or first inspirin! 'y interest in $shatriya 'ytholo!y, & thank -aniel &n!alls, +hose instr)ction in *anskrit 'ade 'y days as a !rad)ate st)dent e(ha)stin! and +onderf)l. & shall al+ays e !ratef)l for the hospitality, kindness, and patience of those +ho' & intervie+ed. *pecial thanks are o+ed the royal ho)ses of Udaip)r, =odhp)r, =aip)r, ?ota, and =hala+ar and the no le fa'ilies of 1'et, :hanerao, Bedla, ?anor, -el+ara, *al)' ar, Bhainsror!arh, Bari *adri, Bansi, and Bassi. & also appreciate the help !iven 'e in &ndia y ?o'al ?othari, 9ichael 9ahar, Cynthia Packert, /ateh *in!h and &nd), 2. *. 1shiya, La('i ?)'ari Ch)ndavat, 8. 0. Ca)han, =onathan *tan!roo', and Pa)line ?olenda. /or steadfast friendship, +onderf)l 7 (iv 7 h)'or, and too ')ch tea, & thank Honey, Chot), and 9an3) alon! +ith their fa'ilies. & sho)ld like to e(press 'y !ratit)de for the financial s)pport provided y /)l ri!ht5Hays, ?ennedy, and Copeland fello+ships. & thank the 1'erican &nstit)te of &ndian *t)dies for facilitatin! 'y research in its early sta!es. Last and 'ost i'portant, & thank 'y h)s and, 2o ert :ay, and 'y parents, 8eil and 9artha Harlan, for their love, enco)ra!e'ent, and kindness as & +orked on this pro3ect. 717

Introdu)tion
-o'inated y the !reat 0har -esert, the state of 2a3asthan is a land of sand and rocks, parched far's and d)sty !ra@in! !ro)nds. &ts hori@on o)tlines lon! plains occasionally p)nct)ated y a r)pt, r)!!ed hills. 0hese hills ear testi'ony to the land;s 'artial history, for stre+n alon! their crests are cr)' lin! attle'ents and fortresses fro' +hich +ars +ere +on and lost over cent)ries of conflict. Before 19%A, the date of &ndian independence fro' the British, +hat is no+ 2a3asthan +as a collection of kin!do's. <hile the r)lers of these kin!do's had to defer to British 3)d!'ent in 'atters political, they retained their a)thority in 'atters econo'ic and socialB cate!ori@ed as princely states, the kin!do's +ere not s) 3ect to direct British r)le. 9ost of 2a3asthan;s kin!s elon!ed to the 2a3p)t caste, +hose traditional d)ties are fi!htin! and r)lin!.C1D 0he +ord 2a3p)t 'eans Eson 4putra 6 of a kin! 4raja 6E and indicates the shared 2a3p)t ass)'ption that altho)!h not all caste 'e' ers have een princes, all have descended fro' kin!s and so have inherited royal lood. -)rin! a year and a half of field+ork in 2a3asthan, & st)died the reli!io)s traditions of +o'en elon!in! to this caste.C2D 9y p)rpose +as to C1D 1n e(ception is the r)ler of Bharatp)r, +ho elon!s to the =at caste. Fn the fl)idity of 2a3p)t caste identity and social 'o ility, see -irk H. 1. ?olff, E0he 2a3p)t of 1ncient and 9edieval 8orth &ndia: a +arrior asceticE 4paper presented at the Conference on Preservation of the .nviron'ent and C)lt)re in 2a3asthan, 2a3asthan University, =aip)r, &ndia, -ece' er 19GA6. C2D & perfor'ed this field+ork in 19G%HG$ and ret)rned for a fe+ +eeks in 19GAHGG and a!ain in 19G9H 9#.

727 e(a'ine the +ays in +hich 2a3p)t devotional traditions reflect and infl)ence relations et+een +o'en;s caste d)ties and !ender roles. & +anted to )nderstand ho+ and +hen the fore'ost 2a3p)t d)ty, the d)ty to protect a co'')nity, and the fore'ost fe'ale d)ty, the d)ty to protect a h)s and, take acco)nt of each other. Beca)se thro)!ho)t &ndia and &ndian history, Hind) tradition has artic)lated and sanctioned cate!ories of caste and !ender, & +as interested in discoverin! the specific local so)rces of traditional a)thority !overnin! the e(plicit and i'plicit decisions 2a3p)t +o'en 'ake in interpretin!, har'oni@in!, and reconcilin! caste and !ender d)ties. 9y !oals incl)ded )nderstandin! traditions 2a3p)t +o'en have inherited fro' the past and discoverin! if and ho+ 2a3p)t +o'en have )tili@ed and adapted past traditions to s)it the conte'porary circ)'stances facin! the 2a3p)t co'')nity. 0o cond)ct this pro3ect & settled in at Udaip)r, a s'all city in so)th+estern 2a3asthan. Udaip)r is the for'er capital of 9e+ar, a princely state +hose royal line ranks first a'on! the vario)s royal ho)seholds of 2a3asthan.C"D 9e+ar !ained this distinction as a res)lt of the )nceasin! resistance it la)nched a!ainst 9)sli' invaders in pre5British days. 0oday 9e+ar retains the rep)tation of ein! the area of 2a3asthan 'ost resistant to social chan!e.C%D 0he sta)nch conservatis' of Udaip)r;s 2a3p)t co'')nity sho+s in prono)nced for' a persistent tension et+een the 2a3p)t desire to conserve tradition and the 2a3p)t need to adapt to a chan!in! +orld. 0he to)rist literat)re on the scattered sites i'portant in 9e+ar history is filled +ith ro'antic testi'onials to the co)ra!e and ravery of 9e+ar;s 2a3p)t soldiers. 8ot a fe+ of these testi'onials are cited fro' Colonel 0od;s classic (nnals and (nti'uities of Rajasthan ,C$D one of the 'ore fa'o)s British reports on &ndian c)lt)re fro' the early nineteenth cent)ry. Captivated y 9e+ar;s 'artial history, 0od devotes a o)t as ')ch attention to 9e+ar as he does to all the other 2a3p)t kin!do's co' inedIa fact that irritates 'any non59e+aris to this day. He enth)siastically reco)nts tales e(e'plifyin! chivalry, honor, fondness for C"D /or interestin! o servations on the 9aharana;s s)perior stat)s in the 19%#s, see :ayatri -evi;s a)to io!raphy. :ayatri -evi and *antha 2a' 2a), ( Princess Remem"ers 4-elhi: >ikas, 19G%6, 2#2H". C%D 1'on! the scholars +ho have noted this characteristic are *)sanne Hoe er 2)dolph and Lloyd &. 2)dolph, E2a3p)tana Under British Para'o)ntcy,E in Essays on Rajputana 4-elhi: Concept P) lishin!, 19G%6, 1$. 2a3p)t residents of Udaip)r, =odhp)r, and =aip)r also confir' it. 1s one =aip)r resident s)''ed it )p, EUdaip)r is 'ore ack+ard than other places.E C$D =a'es 0od, (nnals and (nti'uities of Rajasthan , 2 vols. 41G29B reprint, -elhi: 9. 8. P) lishers, 19AG6. 7"7

2a3asthan, +ith inset of 2a3asthan in &ndia. 7%7 opi)', and +eakness for +o'en, traits he associates +ith 9e+ari 2a3p)ts thro)!ho)t their history. 1ltho)!h so'eti'es disa!reein! +ith 0od on the details of vario)s attles or the s) tler points of

2a3p)t rit)al and eti,)ette, the 9e+ari 2a3p)ts & ca'e to kno+ readily refer to hi' as a 'asterf)l raconte)r of their ancestral and c)lt)ral history.CJD /)rther'ore, +hile concedin! that the circ)'stances in +hich 2a3p)ts find the'selves have chan!ed dra'atically, they elieve that eca)se they have inherited 2a3p)t character, 0od;s ro'antic depiction of 2a3p)ts re'ains acc)rate. ?eenly conscio)s and pro)d of their history, they +ant to preserve the val)es it e(e'plifies.

,e+ar
0hro)!ho)t Udaip)r and its environs are sy' ols of the past that 2a3p)ts find so inspirational. 0he 'ost pro'inent )ildin!s in Udaip)r are the enor'o)s City Palace, sit)ated hi!h atop the steep anks of Lake Pichola, and the Lake Palace, a fairy5tale5like 'ar le pleas)re palace at the lake;s center 4fi!. 16. F+in! a portion of its fa'e to the =a'es Bond fil' %ctopussy , +hich +as shot there in the early 19G#s, the Lake Palace is no+ a 'oderately pop)lar to)rist resort. 1ltho)!h the City Palace contains a l)()rio)s hotel and a +ell5appointed ')se)', it contin)es to ho)se so'e 'e' ers of the royal fa'ily, +ho also inha it other stately residences. <hile so'e of these str)ct)res have een converted to attract to)rists to Udaip)r, they re'ain sy' ols of 2a3p)t history and identity. 9e' ers of the 2a3p)t co'')nity speak +ith pride of the invitations they have received to sociali@e +ith 'e' ers of the royal fa'ily in these places. =)st as the Udaip)r palaces represent oth the 'ores of the old order and the advent of 'odern )siness, so the physical layo)t of Udaip)r sy' oli@es the 3)(taposition of tradition and innovation. 1ro)nd the City Palace is the old city, in +hose narro+ alley+ays are located the )r an residences of the no le'en +ho once attended the 9e+ar co)rt. F)tside this area in the ne+er part of the city are the !overn'ent )ildin!s and the )stlin! Bap) Ba@aar, +here cons)'ers can p)rchase !oods ran!in! fro' fashiona le Bo' ay apparel to stainless steel kitchen appliances. 9ediatin! this contrast are the ani'als and the people +ho travel CJD 1 to+n in 'odern 9e+ar is na'ed after 0od. His +ork is availa le in .n!lish and Hindi. 7$7

1. 0he Lake Palace, Udaip)r. fro' one part of the city to the other. &n the old and ne+ cities alike there are lan!)id ca'els p)llin! carts, lines of )rros transportin! constr)ction 'aterials, co+s nappin!, pariah do!s 4all of +hich ear a stron! fa'ily rese' lance6, and of co)rse every+here people, )s)ally on foot, so'eti'es on icycles or in horse carts, less often in a)to ricksha+s or 'otor scooters, and only occasionally in a)to'o iles. *o'e of the 'en are dressed in +estern tro)sersB 'any others +ear t)r ans and dhotis, lon! pieces of cloth +o)nd a o)t the +aist, p)lled et+een the le!s, and t)cked into the +aist in ack. *o'e of the +o'en +ear saris, lon! the fashion else+here in &ndia )t relatively recent arrivals in 2a3asthanB others don varieties of traditional 2a3asthani dress, consistin! chiefly of ri!ht lo)ses, ti!ht vests, and lon! flo+in! skirts. 0he roads +indin! thro)!h Udaip)r trace the peripheries of three lar!e lakes, in +hich cart ponies and +ater )ffalo seek ref)!e fro' the relentless desert s)nshine. 1ro)nd the city rise steep rocky hills +ith 3a!!ed peaks. -eterioratin! alon! their rid!es are ancient city +alls and royal h)ntin! linds, fro' +hich kin!s and no le'en once h)nted all 'anner of !a'e, incl)din! ti!ers and +ild oar.

Beyond these +alls lie the arid plains of 9e+ar, plains ill s)ited to a!ric)lt)re. 0hey are dotted nonetheless +ith tiny +heat and corn plots inevita ly ordered y crooked cact)s fences, eyond +hich !ra@e !oats 7J7 and sheep. Cl)stered near y are little +hite+ashed ho)ses. 9ost years the 'onsoon fails, and so the hot s)''er +inds leave everythin! covered +ith thick yello+ d)st. -)rin! ei!ht 'onths of the year the dayti'e te'perat)re often s+ells a ove a h)ndred de!rees, +hich 'akes the +ater scarcity ac)tely tro) leso'e. *licin! thro)!h this arren landscape are a fe+ sin!le5lane hi!h+ays, perhaps the 'ost pro'inent si!ns of 'odernity. 1lon! the' travel tr)cks and )ses, +hose +indshields are decorated +ith tinsel !arlands draped over dash oard icons of Hind) deities. Fnce in a +hile an a)to'o ile speeds y, )s)ally a ta(i transportin! to)rists to s)ch nota le 9e+ar sites as Chitor and ?)' hal!arh, t+o of 9e+ar;s for'er capitals 4fi!s. 2, "6.CAD .n ro)te to any+here are palaces and fortresses elon!in! to the erst+hile no ility. 0hose too e(pensive to 'aintain have een a andoned, )t 'any are inha ited and re'ain the c)lt)ral focal point for residents of villa!es in +hich they are located and even for people in s)rro)ndin! villa!es. &n s)', the 3)(taposition of hi!h+ay and fortress, tro)sers and dhotis, old and ne+, s)''ari@es the transitional character of 9e+ari society. 0ryin! to adapt to this chan!in! +orld and yet conserve +hat they can of the old, 2a3p)ts are partic)larly conscio)s of their stat)s as 2a3p)ts, as persons +ith royal lood. 0hey clin! to their sense of distinctiveness fro' 'e' ers of other castes and 'aintain traditional stat)s differentiations +ithin their o+n caste co'')nity. 0hey are distinctly a+are of their E2a3p)tness.E

lasses and Traditions

&n Udaip)r as else+here in 2a3asthan, 2a3p)ts )nderstand the'selves as elon!in! to one of three traditional classes. 0here are royal 2a3p)ts, no le 2a3p)ts, and ordinary 2a3p)ts. 0he royal 2a3p)ts r)led independent states, so'e of +hich, like 9e+ar, held vast territories. 0he heads of state +ere called maharajas 4!reat kin!s6, e(cept for the 9e+ari r)ler, +ho +as styled maharana , 'eanin! the sa'e thin!, this stat)s distinction 'arkin! his s)periority over the other independent r)lers. 0hese royal titles are still very ')ch in )se. *ervin! the 'ahara3as +ere no le'en, to this day called tha$urs or so'eti'es rajas , oth ter's 'eanin! Ekin!.E 0heir fa'ilies lived on CAD *pellin! of Chitor varies +idely on si!ns, 'aps, and te(tsB alternatives are Chittore, Chittor, Cita)r, Chita)r. 7A7

2. Crenellated +alls of the fortress at ?)' hal!arh, a for'er capital of 9e+ar.

7G7

". 0he fortress at ?)' hal!arhB r)!!ed 9e+ar terrain. 797 estates, thi$anas , !ranted y the 'ahara3as in ret)rn for 'ilitary and ad'inistrative service. 0he thi$anas consisted of a !iven n)' er of villa!es, +hich the no le'en !overned and ta(ed. <hen residin! at their estates, the no le'en lived in palaces, +hich, if )ilt in pre5British days, +ere )s)ally protected y fortresses +ith tall crenellated +alls. <hile attendin! their 'ahara3a in his capital, ho+ever, they lived in ra' lin! )r an 'ansions 4havelis 6. 9e+ari no le'en spent )p to si( 'onths a year livin! in their Udaip)r ho)seholds. 0oday, they re'ain distinctly a+are of their privile!ed stat)s as for'er advisors to the 9aharana. /inally, there are the ordinary, nonaristocratic 2a3p)ts. <hile all 2a3p)ts clai' royal lood, so'e have een poor and po+erless. 0he e(planation all 2a3p)ts !ive for this is pri'o!enit)re.CGD &n traditional 2a3p)t society the eldest son inherited his father;s estate and title. Ko)n!er sons, potential threats to political sta ility, +ere enco)ra!ed to take their friends and follo+ers, leave their rothers; kin!do's, and seek fort)ne y con,)erin! their o+n lands or y enterin! into the service of a 'ahara3a and +innin! fro' hi' a thi$ana !rant. &n t)rn, their yo)n!er sons set off to !ain fort)ne and titleB the prospects open to these second5!eneration yo)n!er sons +ere 'ore li'ited than those that had een open to their fathers eca)se they had fe+er follo+ers and other reso)rces to take +ith the' in their ,)ests for po+er. 9oreover, they had co'paratively little to offer a 'ahara3a in ret)rn for a thi$ana . Fver a period of !enerations, yo)n!est sons +o)nd )p +ith little or nothin! at all and had to take )p far'in! and livin! in s'all villa!es. 0hese villa!e 2a3p)ts are referred to as Elittle rotherE 4chota "hai 6 2a3p)ts. -espite the class differences represented y these three !ro)ps, 2a3p)ts 'aintain that they are all related to one another, ho+ever distantly, either y descent or 'arria!e. 0hey openly ackno+led!e that the !enealo!ies of all real 2a3p)ts intersect so'e+here or other.C9D 9oreover, they consider all 2a3p)ts 'e' ers of a sin!le, if scattered, 2a3p)t co'')nity. 0his co'')nity is the entire 2a3p)t caste, or jati , +ithin +hich their da)!hters ')st e 'arried. :iven the 'any political and stat)s levels of 2a3p)t society, & +on5 CGD Here as else+here 'y pri'ary interest is not ho+ thin!s happened )t ho+ 2a3p)ts )nderstand the': not history, )t its indi!eno)s constr)ction, !ro)nds ethos. -o) tless pri'o!enit)re is partly responsi le for creatin! chota "hai co'')nities, )t other factors, pro a ly incl)din! )p+ard caste 'o ility, enter the pict)re. C9D 0he force of this ,)alification is that there are 'any +ho' 'e' ers of the 2a3p)t co'')nity re!ard as i'personators, lo+er5caste persons tryin! to infiltrate their ranks thro)!h 'arria!e. 0hey elieve the co'')nity is and ')st re'ain constantB only its !enerations can and sho)ld chan!e. 7 1# 7 dered at first if it +o)ld e possi le to discover any tr)ly co''on 2a3p)t tradition. 1s & learned 'ore a o)t the 2a3p)ts, ho+ever, & fo)nd !reat contin)ity oth of 2a3p)t tradition and interpretation

thro)!ho)t the r)n!s of the 2a3p)t hierarchy. &n talkin! +ith 'en and intervie+in! +o'en fro' royal, no le, and villa!e ho)seholds & fo)nd that 2a3p)ts at each level identify the sa'e traditions as i'portant to 2a3p)ts. 0h)s +o'en fro' the three levels of society clai' that all 2a3p)t +o'en ')st perfor' the sa'e reli!io)s f)nctions, chief a'on! +hich are +orshipin! 2a3p)t $uldevis 4!oddesses of the $ul 6 and veneratin! fa'ily sati s 4+o'en +ho have i''olated the'selves on their h)s ands; f)neral pyres6.C1#D 1s & !re+ fa'iliar +ith these traditions, it str)ck 'e that +o'en narratin! $uldevi and sati stories often conte(t)ali@ed their stories y referrin! to +ell5kno+n stories of 2a3p)t heroines. <ithin a fe+ +eeks of 'y arrival in Udaip)r, & had learned 'any le!ends a o)t the vario)s heroines ad'ired thro)!ho)t 2a3p)t society. 1ll 2a3p)t +o'en kne+ these le!ends, tho)!h villa!e +o'en +ere often less clear on the historical details of these stories than no le and royal +o'en. Beca)se the 2a3p)ts & 'et ,)ite consistently identified traditions of $uldevi s, sati s, and ancestral heroines 4virangana s6 as the ones 'ost i'portant to 2a3p)t +o'en, and eca)se the traditions provide several points of access to the ethos of 2a3p)t +o'en, & have or!ani@ed 'y investi!ation into caste d)ty and !ender roles aro)nd analysis of these traditions.C11D 1ltho)!h the reasons for the i'portance of these traditions +ill e'er!e in the chapters follo+in!, a fe+ preli'inary re'arks a o)t the' are in order. 1s concernin! $uldevi +orship, it is i'portant to note that the literat)re on 2a3p)t tradition, y no 'eas)re vast, has paid scant attention to the 2a3p)t $uldevi . 0ho)!h a n)' er of pro'inent a)thors, so'e +hose +ork & dra+ on, have analy@ed the 2a3p)t $ul as a kinship )nit, no a)thor has devoted serio)s st)dy to the $uldevi , +ho is the pri'ary recipient of 2a3p)t devotion and the pri'ary e' le' of 2a3p)t identity. 0here is scholarship 4so'e of it ,)ite recent6 that treats apparently si'ilar deities, incl)din! non52a3p)t $uldevi s, +ho are +orshiped y !ro)ps in vario)s parts of &ndia. &t can e ro)!hly divided into fo)r cate!ories: one co'prisin! st)dies of deities, +ho are associated +ith C1#D 1 $ul is a kinship se!'entation )nit that & disc)ss in the follo+in! chapters. C11D & shall )se other devotional traditions, especially those i'portant to 'en, as conte(t for these traditions. 9y on!oin! ook5len!th st)dy of hero veneration treats 'any of these 'ore f)lly. 7 11 7 one or 'ore !ro)psBC12D another co'prisin! st)dies of villa!es or re!ions, so'e of +hose deities are said to e connected +ith a !ro)p or !ro)psBC1"D a third co'prisin! st)dies of kin!ship, in +hich the le!iti'atin! aspect of deity +orship is e(ploredBC1%D and a fo)rth co'prisin! st)dies of folklore, in +hich deities and their co'')nities are analy@ed in passin!.C1$D 1)thors often refer to s)ch deities as Et)telary deitiesE )t !ive little e(planation for +hy a deity is in fact a t)telary deity or ho+ a t)telary deity differs fro' other deities. &n 'ost cases, providin! s)ch an e(planation +o)ld re,)ire a)thors to di!ress s) stantially fro' the concerns that they e(plore. 0h)s they )se the phrase as a rather i'precise convenience that refers to no indi!eno)s cate!ory of divine protector. 0hey posit a special relationship et+een a !iven deity and a partic)lar !ro)p or !ro)ps )t neither e(plore the nat)re of that relationship nor analy@e it +ith reference to relationships et+een other t)telary deities and their affiliated !ro)ps. 0he ter' Elinea!e deityE is so'e+hat 'ore precise in that it specifies a kinship relationship )t often does not specify the e(tent or nat)re of a Elinea!e,E +hich 'i!ht e a s'all or an e(tensive se!'entary kinship )nit. *cholars )se the +ord to refer to very different levels of kinship or!ani@ation and identity. C1JD <hen scholars do )se the indi!eno)s ter's $uldevi or $uldevta 4$ul deity6, they still face the 'atter of definition, for the ter';s 'eanin!

C12D .(a'ples are .veline 9eyer, (n$alaparmecuvari 4*t)tt!art: *teiner >erla!, 19GJ6B :illes 0ara o)t, )acrifier et donner * voir en pays ala"ar 4Paris: .cole /ranLaise d;.(tre'e5Frient, 19GJ6B 1lf Hilte eitel, The Cult of +raupadi , vol. 1 4Chica!o: University of Chica!o Press, 19GG6B <illia' Har'an, The )acred arriage of a !indu #oddess 4Bloo'in!ton: &ndiana University Press, 19G96B C. =. /)ller, )ervants of the #oddess 4Ca' rid!e: Ca' rid!e University Press, 19G%6B :ananath F eyesekere, The Cult of the #oddess Pattini 4Chica!o: University of Chica!o Press, 19G%6B Flivier Herrensch'idt, ELe sacrifice d) )ffle en 1ndhra cotier,E Purusartha $ 419G16. C1"D *ee 9arie5Lo)ise 2einich, ,es dieu- et les hommes 4Paris: 9o)ton, 19A96B 8icholas -irks, The !ollo& Cro&n 4Ca' rid!e: Ca' rid!e University Press, 19GA6B Lynn Bennett, +angerous Wives and )acred )isters 48e+ Kork: Col)' ia University Press, 19G"6B :erald Berre'an, !indus of the !imalayas 4Berkeley: University of California Press, 19A26B and .d!ar 0h)rstan, E?o'atiE entry in Castes and Tri"es of )outhern .ndia 49adras: :overn'ent Press, 19#96. C1%D /or e(a'ples, articles fro' Purusartha 1# 419GJ6 y -ennis >idal 4ELe p)its et le sanct)aireE6, =ean5Cla)de :aley 4E0otalitM et hiMrarchieE6, and Henri *tern 4ELe te'ple d;.klin!3i et le roya)'e d) 9e+ar C2a3asthanDE6B /rance Bhattacharya, ELa dMesse et le roya)'e,E Purusartha $ 419G16B and -irks, !ollo& Cro&n . C1$D .(a'ples are >elcher) 8arayana 2ao, E.pics and &deolo!ies,E in (nother !armony , ed. *t)art H. Black )rn and 1. ?. 2a'an)3an 4Berkeley: University of California Press, 19GJ6B Brenda Beck, The Three T&ins 4Bloo'in!ton: &ndiana University Press, 19G26B and :ene H. 2o!hair, The Epic of Palnadu 4F(ford: Clarendon Press, 19G26. C1JD & first noted this variation d)rin! 'y fre,)ent and often ani'ated disc)ssions +ith >eena -as at 1'herst Colle!e in the sprin! of 19GJ. 7 12 7 varies fro' place to place and !ro)p to !ro)p. 0h)s +ith the orro+in! of the +ord $ul , +e see that a divinity is concept)ali@ed +ith reference to this partic)lar kinship !ro)p. Fften, ho+ever, the $ul deity is not act)ally associated +ith a kinship !ro)p desi!nated y the ter' $ul . 1s +e shall see, so'e 2a3p)t $uldevi s are associated +ith $ul s, and others are associated +ith s'aller se!'entary )nits. .lse+here, deities dee'ed $ul deities protect 'any different !ro)ps elon!in! to vario)s $ul s, s) 5$ul s, and castes.C1AD 0his st)dy e(a'ines associations et+een $uldevi sIall 2a3p)ts +orship fe'ale, not 'ale, $ul deities Iand their 2a3p)t kinship !ro)ps. 1s it t)rns o)t, the notion conveyed y the ter' $uldevi is specific to the 2a3asthani conte(t. Understandin! $uldevi tradition sheds a )ndant li!ht on indi!eno)s constr)ctions of caste, kinship, and residency in 2a3asthanB & elieve that the sa'e 'i!ht +ell e tr)e of $ul deity traditions in other co'')nities else+here in &ndia. :iven the relative dearth of infor'ation on $ul deities, it is perhaps not too s)rprisin! to find that no st)dy has vie+ed $uldevi +orship fro' the vanta!e point of +o'en. &n this st)dy & sho+ that 2a3p)t 'en;s and +o'en;s eval)ations of the nat)re of $uldevi personality and of the 'eanin! of $uldevi 'ytholo!y vary dra'atically. 0he sociolo!ical i'plications of this variance are i'portantB foc)sin! on $uldevi tradition reveals a n)' er of cr)cial ass)'ptions a o)t the +ay +o'en )nderstand personal and fa'ilial o li!ations. /or e(a'ple, these ass)'ptions challen!e the traditional typification of 8orth &ndian +ives as sociolo!ically and reli!io)sly isolated fro' their natal reli!io)s traditions.C1GD 1s to sati s, & 'i!ht 'ention that +hen & arrived in 2a3asthan there e(isted no scholarly treat'ent of conte'porary satimata veneration in this state. 0hose +ho had +orked in 2a3asthan had disc)ssed the

i'portance of co''e'orative sati stones and re'arked that these 'on)'ents still play a part in the reli!io)s lives of so'e 2a3asthanis.C19D 8o one, ho+ever, had investi!ated the tradition of veneration and disc)ssed its para'o)nt role in the reli!io)s lives of 2a3p)ts today.C2#D & +as ,)ite C1AD *ee Hilte eitel, Cult of +raupadi B 9eyer, (n$alaparmecuvari B and 2o!hair, Epic of Palnadu . C1GD 1lso challen!in! this ass)'ption are t+o papers presented at the conference, <o'en;s 2ites, <o'en;s -esires, Harvard University, 1pril 19GG: <illia' *a(, E>illa!e -a)!hter, >illa!e :oddess,E 1AB and Lindsey Harlan, E?)ldevi 0radition a'on! 2a3p)t <o'en,E 1$. 1lso see Bennett, +angerous Wives , 1J9B and <illia' *a(;s 'an)script, ountain #oddess 4forthco'in! fro' F(ford University Press6, passi'. C19D *ee, for e(a'ple, 1nn :rod@ins :old, Fruitful /ourneys 4Berkeley: University of California Press, 19GG6. C2#D Pa)l Co)rtri!ht is +orkin! on a lar!ely historical 'an)script that +ill incorporate so'e conte'porary 'aterials 4The #oddess and the +readful Practice Cforthco'in! fro' F(ford University PressD6. 7 1" 7 honestly s)rprised to find that satimata veneration re'ains a thrivin! tradition, tho)!h the practice of self5i''olation has eco'e al'ost e(tinct.C21D 0hese days fe+ people interested in &ndia are )na+are that sati veneration is a livin! tradition. *ince *epte' er 19GA, +hen the yo)n! 2a3p)t +o'an 2)p ?an+ar 3oined her h)s and on his cre'ation pyre in a s'all villa!e in eastern 2a3asthan, the &ndian papers and 'a!a@ines have een f)ll of articles and editorials on sati i''olation.C22D 0he controversy sparked y the case has dra+n international attention, incl)din! covera!e y the Ne& 0or$ Times .C2"D &t reco)nts the flockin! of 2a3asthanis to the cre'ation site, +hich, to the dis'ay and indeed the o)tra!e of 'any, has eco'e a place of pil!ri'a!e. &n the first 'onth after 2)p ?an+ar;s death alone over t+o h)ndred tho)sand people visited her ne+ly )ilt shrine to pay respects and receive her lessin!. 0he case has cataly@ed i'passioned de ates, oth national and local, a o)t the necessity for disco)ra!in! self5i''olation thro)!h prosec)tin! acco'plices and for iddin! instit)tionally sponsored sati !lorification. 0he controversy has een acco'panied y lar!e de'onstrations or!ani@ed y those +ho deno)nce the practice 4+ith so'e &ndian fe'inists at the forefront6 or y those +ho s)pport it 4+ith so'e conservative 2a3p)ts at the forefront6. &n short, as & fo)nd o)t firsthand on a recent trip ack to &ndia, sati veneration has eco'e a politically salient and e'otionally char!ed iss)e. :iven this e(plosive at'osphere, it is partic)larly i'portant to )nderstand the tradition of sati veneration as it has e(isted +ithin the 2a3p)t co'')nity. 1ltho)!h & find the idea of self5i''olation horrifyin!, 'y p)rpose here is not to eval)ate the conte'porary national controversy politically and ethically. 0hat e(tre'ely i'portant task, no+ ein! p)rs)ed so vi!oro)sly in &ndia, is in 'any +ays eyond the li'ited scope and desi!n of this st)dy and +o)ld re,)ire a lar!e and disr)ptive di!ression. C2%D 2ather, 'y task here is to !ive the est description of the 2a3p)t tradition of veneration that & can, havin! revealed the intellect)al C21D /ro' literat)re and fro' disc)ssions +ith ethno!raphers & concl)de that 2a3asthan retains the 'ost +idespread and thrivin! tradition of sati veneration in &ndia. C22D .(a'ples of s) stantial press treat'ent incl)de 2a3ni Bakshi, E*ha'e,E .llustrated Wee$ly of .ndia , % Fct. 19GAB &nder3it Bhadvar, E9ilitant -efiance,E .ndia Today , "1 Fct. 19GAB anushi ,

special do) le iss)e, nos. %2H%", *epte' erH-ece' er 19GAB 1shis 8andy, E0he H)'an /actor,E .llustrated Wee$ly of .ndia , 1A =an. 19GGB )eminar "%2, E*ati: a sy'posi)' on +ido+ i''olation and its social conte(tE 4/e r)ary 19GG6. C2"D *ee *teven 2. <eis'an, E&ndian <ido+;s -eath at Pyre Creates *hrine,E Ne& 0or$ Times , 19 *ept. 19GA. C2%D Beca)se the ?an+ar incident took place after 'y depart)re fro' &ndia & have no syste'atic field research on local reactions to it. /or a historical overvie+ of sati i''olation, see >. 8. -atta, )ati 4-elhi: 9anohar, 19GG6. 7 1% 7 interests and 'otivations that ro)!ht 'e to consider the topic in the first place. By +ay of introd)cin! the heroine stories to e analy@ed in 'y final chapters, & sho)ld say that not nearly eno)!h +ork has een done y +ay of analy@in! ho+ specific !ro)ps of people constr)e pop)lar narratives that are part of their c)lt)re. Fften researchers have !athered narratives +itho)t enefitin! fro' the direct interpretive co''entary that indi!eno)s narrators can !ive the'.C2$D Beca)se & +as interested in the heroic stories as possi le repositories of 'oral paradi!'s, & +as keenly interested in vol)ntary e(e!esis. Fne thin! that s)rprised 'e in the co)rse of intervie+in! +as that +hen +o'en listed their favorite heroines, they al'ost invaria ly insisted on tellin! the stories a o)t these heroines in f)ll, even if they kne+ that & had heard the stories 'any ti'es. Clearly they tho)!ht that & co)ld not possi ly )nderstand +ho a heroine +as )nless & )nderstood cr)cial feat)res of her ehavior. 0hese co)ld only e pointed o)t properly in the conte(t of storytellin!. 0he eval)ative !losses that +o'en vol)nteered and of co)rse the )s)ally very s) tle variations that they narrated !ave 'e a rich so)rce of infor'ation a o)t +o'en;s val)es. 9oreover, eca)se the t+o stories that do'inated +o'en;s responses, the stories of 9ira and Pad'ini, radically conflict at one level in the val)es they espo)se, only the interpretive and eval)ative co''ents +o'en 'ade !rad)ally ena led 'e to )nderstand the roader, 'ore enco'passin! nor'ative ideals that the stories share. /)rther'ore, the 9ira and Pad'ini stories have conveniently served to ill)strate in narrative for' so'e asic resol)tions of nor'ative dile''as disc)ssed in the $uldevi and sati chapters.

T&e Resear)& "ro)ess

& reali@e that the n)ts5and5 olts details of the research process do not hold e,)al fascination for all readers. /or those c)rio)s a o)t the specifics of the intervie+in! sched)le & )ndertook, & have provided a detailed acco)nt in appendi( 1, as +ell as the intervie+ for'at itself, in appendi( B.C2JD <hat follo+s here is a 'ore !eneral description of 'y C2$D 1n interestin! e(ception is the ne+ +ork y Linda Hess on oral Ramayan : E0he Poet, the People, and the <estern *cholar,E Theatre /ournal %#, no. 2 49ay 19GG6: 2"JH$". C2JD & thank 1lf Hilte eitel and 0o' Havens for the s)!!estion and ackno+led!e the a!reea le e(a'ple of this approach provided y Brenda Beck, Peasant )ociety in 1on$u 4>anco)ver: University of British Col)' ia Press, 19A26. 7 1$ 7

field+ork, incl)din! a rief characteri@ation of the intervie+ and its rationale. /or reasons to e div)l!ed shortly, & chose to foc)s 'y +ork on the no ility, the 'iddle r)n! of the 2a3p)t class hierarchy. & did not feel & co)ld !enerali@e in any co'petent +ay, ho+ever, if & li'ited 'y intervie+s to 'e' ers of this class. <itho)t intervie+in! 'e' ers of the royal and chota "hai 4little rother6 classes, & +o)ld e )ncertain +hat infor'ation & received characteri@ed only the no ility and +hat infor'ation pertained to all 2a3p)t +o'en. 0h)s for p)rposes of esta lishin! o)ndaries and providin! conte(t & intervie+ed +o'en fro' all three 2a3p)t classes. <hen & intervie+ed chota "hai 2a3p)ts & did so in a s'all 2a3p)t5do'inated villa!e forty 'in)tes; drive north+est of Udaip)r 4fi!. %6. 1ll )t t+o of the fa'ilies in this rocky little ha'let trace their ancestry to the r)lin! fa'ily of ?el+a, an i'portant estate several ho)rs; drive north of Udaip)r. 0he re'ainin! fa'ilies are connected historically to -el+ara 4fi!. $6, another pro'inent 9e+ar estate. 0here +as a'on! villa!ers a consens)s that the ones +ho really kno+ the 2a3p)t traditions, incl)din! the reli!io)s traditions, are the Ehi!hE 4unce , referrin! to royal or no le6 2a3p)ts. >illa!e 2a3p)ts felt that the aristocracy nat)rally and est perfor's, preserves, and )nderstands the 2a3p)t traditions 4fi!s. J, A6. 0hey appeared convinced that preservin! hi!h 2a3p)t tradition re,)ires the kind of social ed)cation only the no ility has received and that the 2a3p)t tradition preserved in the villa!e is )t a pale reflection of +hat !oes on in the ho'es of hi!her persons. 0here is certainly so'e tr)th to this perception: altho)!h the villa!ers have a li'ited fa'iliarity +ith traditions co''on to all 2a3p)ts, the 2a3p)t traditions they o serve are heavily conte(t)ali@ed and infl)enced y local c)sto's and lore.C2AD 0ho)!h & eca'e intri!)ed +ith these local c)sto's and lore, & decided to direct the foc)s of this partic)lar st)dy to the asic traditions that 2a3p)ts !enerally share.C2GD /ollo+in! the villa!ers; advice & t)rned to the aristocracy and )sed 'y villa!e notes only for conte(t)al co'parison. C2AD :erald Berre'an received si'ilar advice fro' Hi'alayan villa!ers, +ho s)!!ested he cons)lt learned people instead of the' 4Berre'an, !indus of the !imalayas , 1#G6. C2GD & intend to foc)s on the specific villa!e synthesis in co'in! articles. <ith little infor'ation on other 2a3p)t villa!es, & lack the co'parative asis that & !ained in st)dyin! aristocratic +o'en. *o'e reli!io)s traditions are si'ilar to those descri ed in :old 4Fruitful /ourneys 6, )t eca)se the villa!e & ca'e to kno+ is over+hel'in!ly 2a3p)t, its $uldevi and sati traditions fi!)re lar!er in villa!e life than they do in :old;s case and in non52a3p)t villa!es. 7 1J 7

%. 2a3p)t villa!e +o'an in her co)rtyard. 7 1A 7 &n 'y foc)s on the no ility & have so'eti'es incl)ded s) stantiatin! infor'ation !leaned fro' intervie+s +ith +o'en fro' royal ho)seholds, +ho +ere either native to or had een 'arried in 'a3or 2a3asthani kin!do's.C29D & enco)ntered !reat contin)ity of kno+led!e and elief a'on! no le+o'en and royal +o'en. Fne reason for this is that 'any royal +ives are orn in no le ho)seholds. 1nother is that oth no le persons and royal persons have patroni@ed, artic)lated, and interpreted 2a3p)t tradition. 0hey have perfor'ed the sa'e reli!io)s f)nctions on parallel political levels.

& 'ade 'y decision to concentrate on no le+o'en instead of royal +o'en for t+o reasons. /irst, ,)ite si'ply, the no ility is lar!er than the royalty and therefore provides a etter sa'ple of e(perience. *econd, on alance, no le+o'en have preserved their traditions 'ore co'pletely than have the royal +o'en, 'any of +ho' live in fairly 'odern )r ani@ed settin!s and spend ')ch of their ti'e a+ay fro' 2a3asthan in -elhi, Bo' ay, and a road.C"#D 9ost of the no le+o'en & intervie+ed are fro' Udaip)r, yet eca)se & +anted to )nderstand not 3)st the traditions of 9e+ar )t those shared y 2a3p)ts as a +hole, & co' ined 'y +ork in 9e+ar +ith ')ltiple visits to =odhp)r 4north+estern 2a3asthan6 and =aip)r 4northeastern 2a3asthan6. &n this +ay & +as a le to discover traditional patterns ill)strated y Udaip)r ho)seholds that are co''on to all no le ho)seholds thro)!ho)t 2a3asthan. /)rther'ore, s)ch an approach also ena led 'e to discern pattern variations. /inally, +hile & +as in Udaip)r & not only intervie+ed +o'en livin! in )r an residences 4+hether havelis or 'odern ho)ses6 )t also traveled to vario)s estates 4thi$anas 6 +hose fortresses or palaces +ere still occ)pied.C"1D 9y p)rpose in visitin! these places +as to talk +ith +o'en still livin! in estate ho)seholds and to e(a'ine the division of traditional ho)seholds into the 2anana 4fe'ale ,)arters6 and mardana 4'ale ,)arters6.C"2D 9ost )r an ho)seholds, even havelis , are no lon!er divided )p C29D 0hese kin!do's incl)de =odhp)r, =aip)r, ?ota, =hala+ar, and Bikaner, as +ell as Udaip)r. 1'on! the no le+o'en so'e have h)s ands fro' very s'all states that +ere technically independent. 9any s)ch states are act)ally s'aller and less po+erf)l than the 'a3or thin$anas attached to the lar!e statesB like the', these s'all states are ali!ned +ith and in 'any +ays dependent on lar!e nei!h orin! states. 0he leaders of oth often )se the sa'e titles 4rana3 rao sahi" , etc.6 and have si'ilar stat)s. C"#D 0his is a relative distinction. 9any royal +o'en are conversant +ith 2a3p)t traditions. *o'e o serve the' and are ,)ite reli!io)sB others have kno+led!e )t say travel or other priorities often intr)de on o servance. C"1D 0hese incl)ded 1'et, :hanerao, Bari *adri, Bansi, and ?othariya, all pro'inent 9e+ar thi$anas . C"2D &n so'e of these estates elderly +o'en still live in the 2anana , +hereas yo)n!er +o'en !o ack and forth et+een the parts of the ho)sehold. Unlike the cro+ded )r an residences, the spacio)s estate palaces clearly sho+ the delineation of 'ale and fe'ale space. 7 1G 7

$. -el+ara: a *olah 0hikana. 7 19 7 this +ay. By investi!atin! and dia!ra'in! the te'ples and shrines in 'ale and fe'ale space +ithin estates, & learned ')ch a o)t the ori!ins of differences et+een 'ale and fe'ale devotional traditions. C""D 1t the very start of 'y research a'on! the no ility, the i!!est pro le' & faced +as that of access. Fne cannot si'ply call )p a princess and ask to co'e over.C"%D 1t first, those fe+ 2a3p)t no le+o'en & 'et thro)!h ac,)aintances +ere cordial, )t 'ost did not +ant to e intervie+ed. *o'e event)ally

e(plained that 2a3p)t +o'en despise chattiness and conscio)sly c)ltivate social reserve to+ard those people they consider o)tsiders. 2eserve, & +as !rad)ally to learn, is !reatly val)ed y 2a3p)t +o'en, +ho )nderstand it as the sine ,)a non of di!nity. 0h)s 'y initial 'eetin!s +ith 2a3p)t +o'en +ere often characteri@ed y al'ost e(cr)ciatin! for'ality. & sat in havelis or thi$ana forts sippin! tea, conversin! politely, 'eetin! relatives, confrontin! c)rio)s children, )s)ally to find that, alas, no ti'e re'ained for disc)ssin! 'atters related to 'y research. *o'eti'es this +as accidentalB often it +as not. Fnly after & had 'et 'any 'e' ers of the co'')nity and een in Udaip)r for 'onths o servin! daily affairs, participatin! in festivals, visitin! pil!ri'a!e sites, and droppin! y for c)ps of tea did & find that the at'osphere had rela(ed eno)!h for infor'al chattin! and open ,)estionin!. <hen at last & e!an to intervie+, a n)' er of +o'en e(pressed tr)e s)rprise at the nat)re of 'y ,)estions. EKo) 'ean yo) act)ally +ant to kno+ a o)t $uldevis NE one +o'an e(clai'ed. *he ad'itted that she had een s)re that & +as not interested in +o'en;s reli!io)s traditions and that & +as really in Udaip)r to find o)t a o)t 2a3p)t fa'ily pro le's.C"$D *he said that she had initially dod!ed an intervie+ eca)se a 2a3p)t +o'an ')st al+ays save face: even tho)!h she has pro le's, she ')st not co'plain a o)t the'. 0his +o'an added that her s)spicion had een shared y others +ho +ere hesitatin! to e in5 C""D 9en have )s)ally +orshiped $uldevis in te'ples located in the mardana or o)tside the ho)sehold, and +o'en have +orshiped the' in s'all, so'eti'es cr)de, $uldevi shrines in the 2anana . 0his se!re!ation of tradition has en!endered standard variations in interpretations of $uldevi tradition. C"%D 0he fact that 'any of those & intervie+ed lack phones t)rned o)t to e an advanta!e, as it 'ade )nanno)nced ret)rn visits possi le. C"$D 1t first so'e +o'en feared that 'y interest +as 'ale alcohol a )se and its associated fa'ily pro le's. <hile +o'en )phold alcohol cons)'ption as a 2a3p)t prero!ative, 'any +orry a o)t e(cesses in cons)'ption, +hich they often attri )te to depression over declinin! 2a3p)t val)es and fort)ne. 7 2# 7 tervie+ed.C"JD Fnce 'y real p)rpose +as clear, al'ost all the +o'en rela(ed and o vio)sly en3oyed the intervie+. 9any considered the'selves very reli!io)s and fo)nd it pleasant to talk a o)t reli!io)s 'atters.C"AD &ntervie+s +ere !enerally done in Hindi. <o'en +ho speak .n!lish, ho+ever, so'eti'es preferred to do so d)rin! the intervie+ or to !o ack and forth et+een the t+o lan!)a!es, +hich & often fo)nd 'yself doin! as +ell. & cond)cted one h)ndred and seven intervie+s, of +hich seventy5seven +ere +ith aristocratic +o'en, ei!ht +ith 'e' ers of royalty, and t+enty5t+o +ith villa!ers. 0he narratives that +o'en provided d)rin! these intervie+s +ere !enerally concise stories, often est kno+n and recited y older +o'en. 9any of these +o'en +ere +orried that yo)n!er +o'en and their children +ere )ninterested in their narratives and too interested in story ooks and, even +orse, in television, +hich arrived in Udaip)r shortly after & did.C"GD 0ho)!h & a' )ncertain as to the e(tent to +hich storytellin! is on the decline 4it +o)ld e interestin! to reintervie+ +o'en in a n)' er of years to see if they !ro+ 'ore or less conversant +ith narratives as they 'at)re6, & a' i'pressed y the e(tent to +hich +o'en of all a!es over+hel'in!ly stress the i'portance of preservin! parda , the secl)sion of +o'en +ithin the ho)sehold. 2a3p)t +o'en often say that the 'ark of a 2a3p)t +o'an is her )n+illin!ness to E!o o)t.E 9ost +o'en in Udaip)r stay

insideB they do not +orship in local te'ples, shop in 'arkets, or even enter votin! ooths. &nterestin!ly eno)!h, this nor' of secl)sion has not 'ade the' i!norant of reli!io)s c)sto's in other parts of 2a3asthan and eyond. 0he +o'en in an aristocratic 2a3p)t ho)sehold tend to co'e fro' a variety of re!ional and financial ack!ro)nds. 0he intervie+ res)lts and indeed the !eneral history of 2a3p)t 'arria!e alliances de'onstrate that 2anana s have al+ays een 'ore cos'opolitan than mardana s. .ach 2a3p)t fa'ily has da)!hters5in5la+ fa'iliar +ith reli!io)s and 'ythical traditions fro' their natal ho'es. Hence altho)!h each fa'ily has its o+n traditions kno+n to all 'e' ers, the +o'en of the fa'ily also have kno+led!e of traditions fro' C"JD *everal +o'en have confir'ed the initial !eneral s)spicion of 'y 'otives, +hich in retrospect a')ses the'. C"AD 9ost +o'en, ho+ever, as 'e' ers of the no ility and p) lic persons, did not +ant their na'es attached to the infor'ation and opinions they provided. Havin! pro'ised to protect their anony'ity, & have identified only those +o'en +ho !ave 'e per'ission. C"GD Fn recent social chan!e in the 2a3p)t co'')nity see Lindsey Harlan, E*ocial Chan!e and 2a3p)t 0raditionE 4paper presented at the Conference on 9odern *o)th 1sian 2eli!ion, *ocial *cience 2esearch Co)ncil, 1'herst Colle!e, 1)!)st 19GA6. 7 21 7

J. 8o le+o'en approachin! hero shrine at their thi$ana . 7 22 7

A. -rinkin! cere'ony in an aristocratic 2a3p)t +eddin! 4fro' the +eddin! al )' of a 9e+ari tha$ur 6. 7 2" 7 o)tside the fa'ily. Beca)se of this, y talkin! to +o'en of any 'a3or to+n, an intervie+er can learn a o)t traditions fro' all over 2a3asthan.C"9D <hile every individ)al 2a3p)t 'arria!e introd)ces into a fa'ily a +o'an +ith a forei!n ack!ro)nd, on a 'acro level of analysis, inter'arria!e +ithin the relatively s'all 2a3p)t co'')nity tends to reinforce the sa'e !eneral nor's thro)!ho)t 2a3asthan. 9oreover, as 'entioned a ove, +hile +o'en rin! in different traditions, they share the conviction that natal traditions sho)ld not s) vert or s)pplant con3)!al traditions. 1 si!nificant ,)alification to this point is that +hereas 2a3p)ts all over the state are a+are of traditional 2a3p)t nor's and c)sto's, those livin! in eastern 2a3asthan, especially in or near =aip)r, have y and lar!e taken )p a 'ore )r ani@ed style of life than that still follo+ed in the +est. <hile the intervie+ ,)estions revealed attit)des shared y all 2a3p)t +o'en, the +o'en & intervie+ed +ere lar!ely those

'arried into 9e+ari ho)seholds. 0he res)lts are therefore do'inated y the e(periences of +o'en livin! in the conservative +estern part of the state. 1ltho)!h the 'a3ority of infor'ation )pon +hich & rely in this st)dy co'es fro' the intervie+s, & had other si!nificant so)rces. 0hro)!ho)t 'y stay in 2a3asthan, & 'ade rec)rrent and often e(tended visits to )r an and r)ral ho'es to chat infor'ally and o serve fa'ilies in the 'idst of their daily ro)tines. 9any +o'en fro' these ho'es !racio)sly incl)ded 'e in fa'ily activities and social f)nctions. <ithin this !ro)p +ere 'any no le+o'en +ith +ho' & eca'e s)fficiently !ood friends to visit fre,)ently, in fact even daily. 0hey freely voiced their concerns a o)t s)ch 'atters as the cheapness of 'y 3e+elry and the )!liness of 'y freckles and s)n!lasses. /ro' the' & learned the intricacies of 2a3p)t eti,)ette and protocol and also, little y little, the local !ossip. 1t their ho'es & cons)'ed co)ntless ,)antities of tea and asked +hat & a' s)re a'o)nts to tho)sands of ,)estions, 'any of the' s)rely annoyin! ,)estions a o)t details of rit)al and eti,)ette. 0+o of these +o'en invited 'e to stay at their thi$ana residences for e(tended visits. 1ltho)!h & visited 'any thi$anas d)rin! 'y ti'e in 2a3asthan, 'y ti'e in these old estates +as partic)larly rich as it afforded 'any )ninterr)pted ho)rs of disc)ssion on reli!ion and fa'ily history. C"9D &n 2a3asthan, as else+here in &ndia, 'arria!e is typically patrilocalB rides live +ith their h)s ands in e(tended fa'ilies. 2a3p)ts tend to 'arry across lon! distances. 1ltho)!h 'ost 9e+ari rides co'e fro' other re!ions in 2a3asthan, a fe+ co'e fro' 'ore distant places like Hi'achal Pradesh, 9adya Pradesh, and Frissa. 7 2% 7 & also spent a lot of ti'e +ith t+o other +o'en, Honey and Chot), +ho +ere then )n'arried +o'en in their 'iddle t+enties. Havin! taken an interest in 'y research early on, they vol)nteered their help in 'any +ays, incl)din! arran!in! introd)ctions, fillin! 'e in on the latest happenin!s, and occasionally 3oinin! 'e on e(c)rsions. 0hey fre,)ently kept 'e co'pany d)rin! the lonely and hot afternoon ho)rs +hen the rest of Udaip)r +as nappin!.C%#D 0he other types of infor'ation )pon +hich & relied +ere infor'al conversations +ith 2a3p)t 'en 4+ho +ere often interested in their ancestral history and +illin! to narrate parts of it they tho)!ht relevant to 'y interests6, disc)ssions +ith non52a3p)ts fro' different caste ack!ro)nds a o)t their perceptions of 2a3p)t +o'en, 'any visits to shrines and pil!ri'a!e places that 2a3p)t +o'en said +ere i'portant to the', and later, rief infor'al follo+5)p intervie+s +ith fifty +o'en to test tentative concl)sions efore & headed ack to the United *tates.C%1D 0hro)!ho)t 'y stay in 2a3asthan & felt there +as al+ays 'ore to learnB rare +as the day that +as not filled +ith ne+ discoveries. Beca)se the reli!io)s tradition of the area has een )nderst)died and th)s )nderrepresented in the literat)re on &ndia, & fo)nd ')ch in 'y research that contradicted !eneral ass)'ptions & had asse' led d)rin! 'y years of st)dy. & +as contin)o)sly challen!ed y p)@@les de'andin! sol)tions. *o'e of the p)@@les that intri!)ed 'e 'ost & have atte'pted to +ork o)t in this ook. 0his p)@@le5solvin! pro3ect e!ins in the ne(t chapter, +hich characteri@es the 2a3p)t co'')nity as a +hole and then foc)ses 'ore narro+ly on the separate +orld of +o'en. &ts s)rvey of the social and reli!io)s eliefs, nor's, and responsi ilities of 2a3p)t +o'en serves as ack!ro)nd for the investi!ation of caste and !ender d)ties cond)cted in re'ainin! chapters. C%#D 0hese +o'en +ere )n)s)al. 0hey +ere da)!hters in pro'inent and traditional fa'ilies )t +orked to!ether in an e'pori)' 'ana!ed y relatives. 0hey e(plained that their fa'ilies had allo+ed this +ork eca)se they +ere )n'arried and +orkin! +ith relatives. 8o+ oth have 'arried and ,)it

+orkin! o)tside the ho'e. Fne 'arried into a thi$ana near =odhp)r. 0he other 'oved to ?)+ait +ith her ne+ h)s and, +ho is fro' a pro'inent thi$ana in :)3arat, )t then ret)rned to Bo' ay d)rin! the airlift of &ndian nationals after &ra,;s invasion of ?)+ait. C%1D 0he res)lts of these intervie+s concernin! possession and drea' appearances ,)antitatively confir'ed the infor'ation a o)t appearances y s)pernat)ral ein!s contained in chapters 2 thro)!h $. 7 2$ 7

&apter $ Rajast&an and t&e Rajputs

0he past loo's lar!e in the self5)nderstandin! of 2a3p)ts livin! in all parts of 2a3asthan. 9ost e(perience a persistent nostal!ia for their for'er lifestyle and its privile!es. 0h)s in 9e+ar +hen 2a3p)t 'en !ather to!ether to sip scotch and sociali@e, they often speak of those days in +hich they r)led and h)nted or those 'ore re'ote ti'es in +hich their ancestors r)led and +a!ed +ar a!ainst one another.C1D Contin)ally stirrin! 'e'ories of y!one days are the ti!er skins and other h)ntin! trophies on their +alls, the coats of ar's a ove their entry+ays, the hand5colored photo!raphs of royalty in their parlors, and their vario)s heirloo'sIivory5inlaid s+ords, ela orate ridles, the occasional silver throne. -o) tless intensifyin! this nostal!ia are the partic)lar circ)'stances of 2a3asthan;s recent history. &n 19%A, +hen the princely states of 2a3asthan +ere co' ined into a sin!le political )nit, the state of 2a3asthan, 2a3p)ts +ere si'ply not prepared for de'ocracy.C2D &n 1G1G, +hen the 2a3p)t r)lers si!ned treaties +ith the British, they had een a le to contin)e as heads of their respective states. 0heir po+er to !overn +as often a' i!)o)s, )t it +as y no 'eans no'inal. <hen 19%A arrived, C1D =ohn Hitchcock )ses the phrase E'artial 2a3p)tE to convey this political and 'ilitary ethos in his st)dy, E0he &dea of the 9artial 2a3p)t,E in Traditional .ndia , ed. 9ilton *in!er 41)stin: University of 0e(as Press, 19$96, 11. 1lso see *)sanne Hoe er 2)dolph and Lloyd &. 2)dolph, E2a3p)t 1d)lthood,E in Essays on Rajputana 4-elhi: Concept P) lishin!, 19G%6, 1A9HG#B and :old, Fruitful /ourneys , 2%H 2$. C2D 2)dolph and 2)dolph, E2a3p)tana Under British Para'o)ntcy,E "H%. 7 2J 7 the instit)tional chan!es that had taken over a cent)ry to evolve else+here in &ndia +here there +as direct British r)le, no+ +ere i'ple'ented y the central &ndian !overn'ent i''ediately. 0o an over+hel'in! e(tent, the 2a3p)ts had no part in the process of political transfor'ation.C"D Hence &ndependence +as for the' a s)dden and e+ilderin! shock. 0hey sa+ their +ay of life radically transfor'ed in a very short ti'e. 8o+, over forty years later, 'any still speak of the'selves as hereditary r)lers and so i'plicitly 4or even e(plicitly6 clai' that they are the ri!htf)l r)lers. &n short, they are still ad3)stin!. 8evertheless, 2a3p)t nostal!ia has not al+ays res)lted in 'erely reactionary attit)des to+ard chan!e. 9any 2a3p)ts say that their aristocratic and 'artial herita!e has inspired the' to adapt to the privations ro)!ht a o)t y their loss of le!al title and po+er. 0hey feel that facin! the f)t)re re,)ires holdin! on to the val)es that helped their fore ears face defeat in for'er days.C%D 0o take acco)nt of c)rrent 2a3p)t

constr)ctions of caste and !ender d)ties, it +ill e )sef)l to eco'e ac,)ainted +ith the 2a3p)t past and the ethos it has e,)eathed.

-enealogy and Identity

2a3p)ts are keenly conscio)s of their !enealo!y, certain divisions +ithin +hich are hi!hly i'portant feat)res in the constr)ction of personal identity. 0hese se!'entary kinship )nits locate the 2a3p)t in conte(ts of fa'ily history and locality. 0he lar!est kinship )nit +ithin the 2a3p)t jati 4casteB literally, type or !en)s6 is the vamsh 4very ro)!hly translata le as fa'ily in its roadest sense6. &n 2a3asthan there are three !reat vamsh : s)n, 'oon, and fire.C$D 2a3p)ts )nderstand the'selves to e descended fro' these sacred pheno'ena 4fi!s. G, 9, 1#6. 0he vamsh to +hich the r)lin! fa'ily of 9e+ar elon!s is the solar fa'ily, this identification ein! s)ccinctly 'ade in the Udaip)r coat of ar's, in +hich appears a !reat s)n +ith a stern ')stached visa!e. &t is pro'inently displayed a ove the !reat central entrance to the City Palace. C"D & id. C%D 1 'e' er of the royal fa'ily of 9ansa 4a s'all 2a3p)t state6 recalls that a'on! the val)es stressed +ere the ideas of E!enerosity in victory, keepin! yo)r standard flyin! even in defeat,E and so forth 4Charles 1llen and *harada -+ivedi, ,ives of the .ndian Princes CLondon: Cent)ry P) lishin!, 19G%D, $"6. C$D 2espectively, *)ryava'sh, Candrava'sh, and 1!niva'sh. .lse+here in &ndia there are other lines, nota ly the sa!e 42ishiva'sh6 and snake 48a!va'sh6, fro' +hich 2a3asthanis so'eti'es take +ives. 7 2A 7

G. 2a3p)t !enealo!ical chart. .nco'passed y each individ)al vamsh are $ul s, s'aller kinship )nits.CJD 1!ain, the closest .n!lish e,)ivalent to $ul is fa'ily, )t in a 'ore restrictive sense than the vamsh . 0he ter' is not, ho+ever, partic)larly narro+: $ul s co'prise 'any !enerations and link present to past over h)ndreds of years. CAD .(a'ples of $ul s elon!in! to the solar vamsh are the 2atha)r $ul of 9ar+ar, +hose capital +as =odhp)r, and the ?achvaha $ul of =aip)rI oth pro'inent $ul s in 2a3asthani history.CGD .ach 2a3p)t $ul traces its ori!in to a heroic ancestor, +ho typically left a ho'eland r)led y an older 'ale relative or con,)ered y a forei!n invader. Udaip)r;s royalty elon!s to the :)hil $ul , +hich +as esta lished y a colorf)l character na'ed :)ha after his father;s kin!do' CJD .(a'ples of other $ul s incl)deIthe solar vamsh : B)'dela $ul B the l)nar vamsh : =adav, 0)'var, and :a)r $ul sB the fire vamsh : Ca)han, *ola'ki, Pa'var, and Pratihara $ul s 48or'an Oie!ler, E1ction, Po+er, and *ervice in 2a3asthani C)lt)reE CPh.-. diss., University of Chica!o, 19A"D, "9 and passi'6. CAD 0he 2a3p)t $ul in 2a3asthan ears little rese' lance to the shallo+ 8epali $ul descri ed y Bennett 4+angerous Wives , 1GH216. &n theory the 2a3p)t $ul s n)' er thirty5si(, all considered ancient 4there is controversy a o)t the constit)ents of this listB see Oie!ler, E1ction Po+er,E "6. <hereas so'e of the 'yriad $ul s in 8epal consist of only the 'e' ers of one ho)sehold, in 2a3asthan fra!'entation is ass)'ed to occ)r at the level of kinship s) !ro)ps 4sha$h3 $hamp , etc.6. Le!iti'acy as a 2a3p)t is

often considered ,)estiona le if identification +ith one of the thirty5si( $ul s cannot e esta lished. CGD Like the *isodiyas elon!in! to the solar $ul , they clai' to e descended fro' the !reat 2a', hero of the Ramayan , hi'self a scion of the s)n. 7 2G 7

9. Chart of 9e+ar thi$ana s. in +hat is no+ :)3arat +as destroyed y ene'ies in the si(th cent)ry.C9D 1ccordin! to le!end, :)ha +as orn after his father;s death. His 'other, +ho had een on a reli!io)s pil!ri'a!e, +as infor'ed of the con,)est as she +as ret)rnin! ho'e. *hortly after+ard, she took ref)!e in a cave to deliver her son and, after entr)stin! hi' to a Brah'an, eca'e a sati . Beca)se of his )n)s)al place of irth, the oy eca'e kno+n as :)ha 4cave6, fro' +hich the patrony'ic :)hil +as derived. :)ha !re+ )p in a forested area pop)lated y 'e' ers of the Bhil tri e. .nor'o)sly pop)lar, he +as event)ally elected kin! of the Bhils at &dar 4also in :)3arat6. He +as officially invested +ith royal a)thority +hen a Bhil c)t his o+n fin!er and +ith his lood applied to :)ha;s ro+ the red 'ark 4ti$a 6 of soverei!nty. :)ha eco'es the first soverei!n of the line that is esta lished in the fortress of Chitor after ten !enerations, accordin! to tradition. 0hat feat is perfor'ed y the le!endary Bappa 2a+al, +ho' conte'porary 2a3p)ts often na'e as the Efo)ndin! fatherE of the kin!do' of 9e+ar.C1#D C9D 0od;s datin! 4(nnals and (nti'uities 1:A16 co'ports +ith the !enealo!ical record at the Udaip)r City Palace. Fn the evidence for s)ch a date, see 2a' >alla h *o'ani, !istory of e&ar 4=aip)r: C. L. 2anka, 19AJ6, ""H"%. C1#D Bappa 4child6 is a nickna'e and 2a+al 4kin!6 is his title. 0od and Oie!ler date Bappa;s ascension to the 'id5ei!hth cent)ry 40od, (nnals and (nti'uities 1:A1, 1GGB Oie!ler, E1ction, Po+er,E 11$6B the Udaip)r City Palace record and *o'ani 4 e&ar , %"H%%6 conc)r. 1t the top of the stairs Bappa 2a+al;s pict)re !reets visitors as they enter the Udaip)r City Palace 9)se)'. 7 29 7

1#. *tate crests +ith $uldevi and vamsh insi!nias. a , 1d 9ata 4the =hala $uldevi 6B " , c , kite for's of 8a!anecha =i 4the 2atha)r $uldevi 6B d , e , s)ns indicatin! *)ryava'sh descent. Like :)ha, Bappa 2a+al +as orn after his father +as slain and raised in the hills y a Brah'an.C11D He !re+ )p to eco'e a precocio)s yo)n! prince 4trickin! h)ndreds of naive 'aidens into 'arryin! hi'6 and event)ally 'ana!ed to in!ratiate hi'self +ith the 9ori r)ler of Chitor, +ho' he later deposed in a co)p. Hence +hereas :)ha is considered C11D 0his repetition of 'ythical detail tends to 'eld or conflate the personalities and histories of the t+o heroes in the 'inds of 'any 2a3p)ts today.

7 "# 7 the ori!inal patriarch, Bappa is credited +ith havin! !iven the $ul its kin!do'. Pro!ressin! do+n to+ard s'aller kinship )nits, the ne(t )nit after the $ul is the sha$h 4 ranch6 4see fi!. G6. 2a3p)t !enealo!ies are !iven as fa'ily trees. 0h)s altho)!h $ul does not literally 'ean Etree tr)nk,E it stands as the tr)nk in relation to the lar!est )nit it enco'passes, the sha$h . 0he sha$h is often a very i'portant )nitB it is fo)nded +hen a !ro)p reaks a+ay fro' the $ul , relocates, and then !ains 'ilitary or political po+er. 0he sha$h to +hich the Udaip)r royal fa'ily elon!s is the *isodiya, +hich takes its na'e fro' the s'all 'edieval state of *isoda, r)led y :)hils.C12D &ts scions inherited soverei!nty of the Chitor ranch of the :)hils in the early part of the fo)rteenth cent)ry, that is to say in the chaotic after'ath of the sack of Chitor y the 9)sli' con,)eror 1la5)d5din.C1"D 1fter the sha$h co'e the $hamp 4t+i!6 and the na$ 4t+i! tip6.C1%D 0hese s'aller kinship )nits, typically defined y and na'ed after the places in +hich their earliest 'e' ers lived, play a 'ini'al role in the for'ation of 2a3p)t identity today.C1$D 9any of the people & spoke +ith d)rin! intervie+s or other conversations co)ld not even na'e their $hamp or na$ . 0here are e(ceptions. >irt)ally everyone kno+s that the C12D 0od !ives alternate ety'olo!ies for the ter' *isodiya. &n one, the kin! accidentally s+allo+ed a piece of 'eat in +hich there +as a !adfly. 0o c)re hi' a physician ordered that a co+;s ear e c)t offB dis!)isin! it in cloth, he attached a strin! to it and dan!led it do+n the kin!;s throat. &t l)red the !adfly fro' the kin!;s sto'ach ack o)t the kin!;s 'o)th. <hen the kin! learned that co+ flesh had passed his lips, he decided Eto s+allo+ oilin! lead 4seesa6E to p)rify hi'self 4(nnals and (nti'uities 2:$J%6. & heard this story fro' t+o 2a3p)t 'en. &n 0od;s other version 41:1AJ n. "6, +hich & have not heard fro' infor'ants, the kin! 4+ho' 0od cites only as the e(pelled kin! of Chitor6 fo)nded a to+n Eto co''e'orate the spot, +here after an e(traordinarily hard chase he killed a hare 4s)ssoo6.E 0he historical ori!ins of the fo)ndin! of this kin!do' re'ain o sc)re. C1"D Fn !enealo!y at *isoda and *isodiya ascendance see i id. 1:21JB and -asaharatha *har'a, Rajasthan through the (ges 4Bikaner: 2a3asthan *tate 1rchives, 19JJ6, JA2HA". 2a3p)ts often anachronistically na'e Bappa 2a+al as the fo)nder of the *isodya dynasty eca)se they see ac,)isition of Chitor as the start of the r)le that the *isodiyas have enforced for cent)ries. Oie!ler also does this 4E1ction, Po+er,E 11$6. C1%D Fn 2a3p)t kinship se!'entation see Oie!ler, E1ction, Po+er,E "JH$GB and Bri3 2a3 Cha)han, ( Rajasthan 4illage 4-elhi: >ir P) lishin! Ho)se, 19JA6, $#H$J. Fther descriptions are those of 2ichard /o(, 1in3 Clan3 Raja3 and Rule 4Berkeley: University of California Press, 19A16B and 1drian 9ayer, Caste and 1inship in Central .ndia 4Berkeley: University of California Press, 19A#6. B)t these do not acc)rately descri e the syste' of kinship se!'entation e'ployed y 2a3asthani 2a3p)ts. C1$D 0hese lesser )nits +ere i'portant in 'edieval ti'es +hen they +ere s'aller and had internal political solidarity 4Oie!ler defines the E'iddle periodE as ei!hth thro)!h seventeenth cent)ries CE1ction, Po+er,E %AD6. 0he lesser )nit na'es often derive fro' their ori!inal locales: th)s the 9ertiya 2atha)rs elon! to the $hamp 4the t+i! fro' 9erta6, tho)!h 'any 9ertiyas, incl)din! those of :hanerao, a pro'inent 9e+ar thi$ana , have for cent)ries lived a+ay fro' 9erta. 7 "1 7 $hamp for the Udaip)r royal fa'ily is the 2anavat, +hich is appropriately na'ed for it is the $hamp fro' +hich the f)t)re kin! 4rana 6 is chosen +hen the royal fa'ily fails to prod)ce an heir and so ')st adopt. 0his fact is si!nificant eca)se of the seven 'ost recent 9aharanas, only the c)rrent one +as not

adopted. Ff all the )nits 'entioned, those that play the lar!est role in definin! 2a3p)t identity today are the $ul and the sha$h . Lesser )nits are too narro+ly fi(ed, and the vamsh is too incl)sive and re'ote a cate!ory to hold ')ch 'eanin! for individ)al 'e' ers.C1JD 0he $ul ;s i'portance is linked to the fact that 2a3p)ts !enerally re!ard it as the )nit of e(o!a'y. 0his is interestin! eca)se revie+in! the 'edieval archives, scholars have fo)nd that intra5$ul 'arria!es +ere act)ally allo+ed if $ul 'e' ers elon!ed to different gotras 4the gotra is a rather ha@ily defined !ro)p of people +ho clai' spirit)al descent fro' a co''on >edic sa!e6. 8or'an Oie!ler finds that in practice this pro le'atic )nit is !enerally identical to the $hamp .C1AD 2a3p)ts today, ho+ever, oth say that one sho)ld not 'arry +ithin one;s $ul and in fact practice $ul e(o!a'y. Ff the 'arria!es & recorded 4the 'arria!es of respondents and those of their parents6, there +as not a sin!le instance of intra5$ul alliance. 1part fro' the practical 'atter of e(o!a'y, the $ul has i'portance eca)se theoretically at least it is the )nit protected y the fa'ilial !oddess, the $uldevi . & say theoretically eca)se in certain instances a $uldevi protects not a $ul )t a sha$h , a sha$h that has eco'e so independent and po+erf)l that its 'e' ers have co'e to think of it as a $ul e(cept +hen specifically placin! it in the conte(t of other kinship )nits. 0his conf)sion is vividly apparent in the case of the *isodiyas.C1GD <hen asked +hat kind of 2a3p)ts they are, *isodiyas invaria ly ans+er E*isodiya,E 3)st as 2atha)rs ans+er E2atha)r.E *isodiyas never respond E:)hil,E that is, +ith their $ul na'e. *isodiyas and non5*isodiyas alike concept)ali@e *isodiyas and 2atha)rs as e,)ivalent )nits. 0hey speak of this 2atha)r !irl 'arryin! that *isodiya oy and so forth. <hen one points o)t to *isodiyas that technically they are :)hils first, they typically respond, EKes, :)hil is o)r jati E 4a +ord e'ployed to refer to the lar!est 2a3p)t se!'entation )nit and also, as here, to refer C1JD &t see's likely that the *)ryava'shi $uls practiced ela orate s)n +orship in ancient ti'es 40od, (nnals and (nti'uities 1:1A96, +hich +o)ld have sponsored !reater vamsh a+areness and solidarity. C1AD Oie!ler thoro)!hly disc)sses the gotra iss)e 4E1ction, Po+er,E "G6, and Bennett sho+s the gotra to e va!)e and indefinite in 8epal 4+angerous Wives , 1JH1A6. C1GD 0od also noted this concept)al conf)sion 4(nnals and (nti'uities 1:A16. 1 si'ilar conf)sion occ)rs in the case of the Bhattis, +ho elon! to the Kadav $ul . 7 "2 7 !enerically to any se!'entation )nit6, )t they do not indicate a+areness that the t+o !ro)ps, *isodiya and 2atha)r, are different se!'entation )nits. 0h)s the *isodiyas think of the'selves as *isodiyas in the first instance and refer to their divine !)ardian, Ban 9ata, as !oddess of the *isodiya Ek)l.E /inally, the $ul 4or Ek)l,E as in the case of the *isodiya sha$h 6 is cr)cial to identity eca)se it is the cate!ory that 2a3p)ts )nderstand as pri'arily deter'inin! inherited traits. Character traits inherited thro)!h the lood are tho)!ht to e ill)strated, developed, and even stren!thened y the honora le action of $ul 'e' ers.C19D 0herefore the *isodiyas, +ho ref)sed to cooperate +ith 9)sli' con,)erors and British refor'ers, have en3oyed thro)!ho)t 2a3asthan an )nparalleled rep)tation for reckless co)ra!e and a)tono'y.C2#D *isodiyas elieve that their loodline, like their !lory, has een proven and no)rished y their 'artial history. By contrast, the r)lin! $ul of =aip)r, the ?achvaha $ul , ears another sort of rep)tation. =aip)r, located close to -elhi and therefore v)lnera le to 9)sli' attacks and British infl)ence, has een kno+n for its fle(i ility and pra!'atis'.C21D Fne of its !reat heroes, 9an *inh, +as act)ally a !eneral in the 9o!hal ar'y. &n s)', altho)!h oth *isodiyas and ?achvahas are pro)d

of their histories, the *isodiyas have en3oyed a s)perior presti!e thro)!ho)t 2a3asthan eca)se they +ere a le to 'aintain their independence lon!er.C22D 1s these senti'ents indicate, 2a3p)ts have een keenly a+are of their fa'ily herita!e and concerned +ith ho+ it co'pares to other fa'ilies; herita!es. 0he history of their fa'ily ehavior, they say, reveals their character, the innate Est)ffE of +hich fa'ily 'e' ers are 'ade. Honora le action enhances character, +hich in t)rn 'akes 'ore honora le action possi le. &n this +ay stat)s and presti!e acc)')late. -espite the place that 2a3p)ts !ive to the $ul as the fore'ost so)rce C19D Fn the trans')ta ility of code and s) stance, see Oie!ler, E1ction, Po+er,E 2$B and 9c?i' 9arriott and 2onald B. &nden, E0o+ards an .thnosociolo!y of *o)th 1sian Caste *yste's,E in The Ne& Wind , ed. ?enneth -avid 40he Ha!)e: 9o)ton, 19AA6, 22AH"G. C2#D 2)dolph and 2)dolph descri e the 'artial ethic that Udaip)r has co'e to represent as co'prisin! herois', valor, and i'pr)dence 4E0he Political 9oderni@ation of an &ndian /e)dal Frder,E in Essays on Rajputana C-elhi: Concept P) lishin!, 19G%D, %"H%$6. Fn the +arrior;s d)ty never to shrink fro' a fi!ht, see Pierre /illio@at, E0he 1fter5-eath -estiny of the Hero 1ccordin! to 9aha harata,E in emorial )tones , ed. *. *ettar and :)nther -. *onthei'er 4-har+ad: &nstit)te of &ndian 1rt History, ?arnatak University, and Heidel er!: *o)th 1sia &nstit)te, University of Heidel er!, 19G26, %HA. C21D 2)dolph and 2)dolph, EPolitical 9oderni@ation,E %"H%$. C22D 1s one =aip)r no le'an noted, 0od;s (nnals and (nti'uities olstered 9e+ar;s presti!e y concentratin! on its achieve'ents and !lories. 1lso see 2)dolph and 2)dolph, EPolitical 9oderni@ation,E %". 7 "" 7 of presti!e and honor, e(cept at its inception the $ul has not f)nctioned as a political instit)tion. Tha$urs 4kin!s6 fro' vario)s $uls have o+ed pri'ary political alle!iance not to their $ul )t to the 'ahara3a +ho' they have served. 0h)s altho)!h 2a3p)ts )nderstand $ul or sha$h lood as the so)rce of their presti!e, they also )nderstand that the !lory !ained y their ancestors, the !lory that oth proved and stren!thened their $ul lood, has derived fro' service that is not necessarily direct service of the $ul .C2"D Beca)se the interrelated d)ties to preserve and stren!then the $ul and to serve a kin! are asic to the 2a3p)t syste' of val)es, it is essential to e(plore the asic political str)ct)re of 2a3p)t hierarchy and o li!ation. & )se the ill)stration of 9e+ar eca)se ')ch of the infor'ation in s)cceedin! chapters co'es fro' 9e+ar thi$anas and eca)se it clearly de'onstrates the +ay in +hich traditional stat)s and d)ty have spa+ned attit)des that contin)e to find e(pression +ithin the 'odern 2a3p)t co'')nity.

,e+ar.s "oliti)al Stru)ture

1t the top of 9e+ar;s stat)s pyra'id is the 9aharana, +hose 'assive City Palace do'inates the Udaip)r hori@on. -irectly elo+ hi' are the tha$urs of the *olah 0hikanas, the !reat E*i(teen .statesE constit)tin! the inner'ost circle of a)thority and po+er. 1fter the *olah 0hikanas are the Bara Battis 4Bi! 0hirty5t+o6 0hikanas, +hich are follo+ed in t)rn y the Chota Battis 4Lesser 0hirty5t+o6 0hikanas 4see fi!. 96.C2%D 0he fa'ilies at each political level elon! to different $uls and sha$hs . 0he ape( is al+ays *isodiya: as +e have seen, the 9aharana elon!s to the 2anavat $hamp of the *isodiya sha$h . -irectly )nder hi'

are the si(teen kin!s fro' the *olah 0hikanas. 0heir fa'ilies are so'eti'es listed as follo+s: 0hree =hala, three Ca)han, and fo)r C)'davat has 9e+ar 0+o *aktavat, t+o 2atha)r, a *aran!devot, and a Pa'varC2$D 8a'ed in this poe' 4doha 6 are several *isodiya $hamp sIthe C)'davat, the *aktavat, and the *aran!devot. 0here are also fa'ilies fro' the C2"D 0he 9ertiya 2atha)rs of :hanerao, for e(a'ple, served the Udaip)r 9aharana and the =odhp)r 9ahara3a and received the s)pport of oth at different ti'es. C2%D .ach level incl)des 'ore estates than the na'e i'plies as the 9aharanas 'ade additional thi$ana !rants at vario)s levels of stat)s. 0hey occasionally de'oted estates fro' one !ro)p to another. C2$D 8. 0. Ca)han of 0a'la Ho)se first recited this poe' 4doha 6 to 'e. 7 "% 7 =hala, Ca)han, 2atha)r, and Pa'var $uls .C2JD 0he no le'en fro' these estates served the 9aharana as 'e' ers of his advisory co)ncil. 0hey !ave advice +hen he solicited it and provided troops +hen needed. 0oday they contin)e to advise the 9aharana +hen he s)''ons the'. 0he 'e' ers of the lesser estates, +hose fa'ilies represent a road ran!e of 2a3p)t ack!ro)nds, interact +ith these si(teen fa'ilies socially )t de'onstrate a special reserve and respect +hen speakin! of 'e' ers of the *olah 0hikana fa'ilies. Like the *olah 0hikana fa'ilies, the t+o !ro)ps of Battis fa'ilies attended the kin! and fo)!ht his +ars. Fne 'i!ht s)ppose that these estate cate!ories +o)ld e 'ere relics of the past, yet they contin)e to have sy' olic and social i'portance. 0his +as especially evident d)rin! 'y stay +hen a itter s)ccession disp)te er)pted +ithin the royal ho)sehold. 0he 9aharana, +ho had een estran!ed fro' his elder son and had for 'any years relied on his yo)n!er son to assist hi' in 'ana!in! his properties, died )ne(pectedly.C2AD 0he yo)n!er son ass)'ed, as 'any in Udaip)r did, that he +o)ld inherit his father;s position and title.C2GD 0he *olah 0hikana lords, ho+ever, ref)sed to accept a reach of tradition. Havin! ca)c)sed, they voted their s)pport to the elder son and enco)ra!ed hi' to 'ove ack to Udaip)r fro' Bo' ay, +here he had een in )siness. <hen the ti'e ca'e for the elder rother;s installation, ho+ever, the lords had to perfor' the investit)re rit)als o)tside the palace eca)se the yo)n!er rother had locked the palace !ates. 0he predo'inantly Brah'anical investit)re cere'ony, +hich +as perfor'ed in front of a lar!e cro+d, had as its cli'a( a traditional 2a3p)t rite: the Lord of *al)' ar, one of the fore'ost estates of 9e+ar, )nsheathed his s+ord, sliced open his hand, and placed a drop of his lood on the elder rother;s forehead. 0his rit)al act clearly conveyed the idea that the 9aharana can and ')st rely on the s)pport of the lords +hose estates +ere !ranted y his ancestors.C29D 9ore !enerally, the participation of the lords in the investit)re as a +hole reaffir'ed the traditional hierarchy of estate ho)seholds. *eated after the Lord of *al)' ar C2JD 0he *olah 0hikanas na'ed in the poe' are =hala: Bari *adri, :o!)nda, -el+araB Ca)han: Bedla, ?othariya, ParsoliB C)'davat: *al)' ar, -ev!arh, 1'et, Be!)'B *aktavat: Bhindar, BansiB 2atha)r: Badnor, :haneraoB *aran!devot: ?anorB and Pa'var: Bi3olia'. Fther thi$anas so'eti'es listed in this !ro)p incl)de Bhainsror!arh, ?)ra ar, 9e3a, and *ardar!arh. Fn the history of these estates, see :a)rishankar Hirachand F3ha, Rajputane $a .tihas 413'er: >edic Kantralaya, 19"26, 2:11G1H1"#1B and 0od, (nnals and (nti'uities 1:%#1. C2AD 1'on! these are the Lake Palace and *hiv 8i+as hotels.

C2GD 1ltho)!h titles are no lon!er le!ally reco!ni@ed, local c)sto' preserves their )sa!e. C29D 0he act of solidarity recalls the election of :)ha y the Bhils at &dar. 7 "$ 7 +ere the other *olah 0hikana lords, each in his appointed place. Behind the' sat the 'e' ers of the lesser estates, also ranked. 1ll the lords +ore their traditional finery, replete +ith dress t)r an and polished s+ord, +hich e'phasi@ed the conviction that altho)!h 2a3p)t le!al a)thority has passed, the cere'onial and social str)ct)re of 2a3p)t co'')nity has een and ')st contin)e to e preserved.C"#D 0his conviction is e(pressed in cere'onial displays s)ch as the investit)re and also in the +ay 2a3p)ts rin! )p their children. 9any 'en and +o'en told 'e that they try to endo+ their children +ith pride in their 2a3p)t le!acy. 9oreover, they hope to c)ltivate in their sons and da)!hters +hat they )nderstand as the inherent 2a3p)t character and de'eanor. 0hey e'phasi@e that 2a3p)t constit)tion, +hen properly c)ltivated, ena les its possessors to s)ffer +hatever hardships 'ay co'e. -evelopin! the 2a3p)t traits of ravery, stren!th, and honor, they elieve, +ill help their sons to reali@e 'odern a' itions. Beca)se the fa'ily fort)nes of 'ost 2a3p)ts have di'inished, if not disappeared, so'e 2a3p)ts have of necessity taken )p occ)pations. *o'e have 3oined the ar'y, a respected profession that 'any 2a3p)ts practiced d)rin! the days of the British. &n 3oinin! either the ar'y or the police, 2a3p)ts have een a le to perfor' tasks at least partially consistent +ith their traditional occ)pation. Fther 2a3p)ts have kept their palaces and, +ith varyin! de!rees of s)ccess, t)rned the' into hotels. *till others have tried their hands at far'in! or other )sinesses.C"1D 1l'ost all have recently reali@ed the i'portance of !ivin! their sons !ood ed)cations, that they 'i!ht take )p professions ena lin! the' to s)pport their fa'ilies after they 'arry.C"2D 1ltho)!h these 2a3p)ts have lost po+er over their thi$anas Ithey lost political a)thority to !overn and the a ility to collect ta(es after &ndependenceIthey still receive p) lic deference fro' villa!ers livin! in the to+ns in +hich their estate residences are located. Fne kin! +hose estate & visited can arely drive his car aro)nd his capital eca)se villa!5 C"#D 0his rit)al occasion fits )nder the r) ric Ec)lt)ral perfor'anceE as )sed y 9ilton *in!er, E0he :reat 0radition in a 9etropolitan Center: 9adras,E in Traditional .ndia , ed. 9ilton *in!er 41)stin: University of 0e(as Press, 19$96, 1%$H%J. 1 n)' er of inheritance iss)es are ein! liti!ated. 1t present, the yo)n!er rother contin)es to 'ana!e the hotel properties and the 9aharana 9e+ar 0r)stB the older rother has een active in politics. C"1D Pop)lar options incl)de 'ana!in! tea plantations else+here in &ndia and investin! in 'inin! operations in the 'ar le5rich hills aro)nd Udaip)r. C"2D 0he ne+ e'phasis on ed)cation contrasts +ith +isdo', +hich is e(pressed in the follo+in! prover , E1 2a3p)t +ho reads +ill never ride a horse.E &t e(presses the vanishin! 2a3p)t conviction that 'odern ed)cation only erodes 2a3p)t val)es and a ilities 42)dolph and 2)dolph, EPolitical 9oderni@ation,E %16. 7 "J 7 ers are constantly o+in! to hi' +ith folded handsB they o li!e hi' to ret)rn the !est)re y noddin! and foldin! his hands a ove his steerin! +heel. 0he lords are cele rities, +hose actions villa!ers caref)lly scr)tini@e and disc)ss as ite's of local ne+s. 0h)s those +ho )sed to e r)led still indirectly

reinforce a'on! their erst+hile r)lers a disposition to+ard conservin! 2a3p)t style and attit)de. 0he asis of the deference !iven y 'any villa!ers and e(pected y 'any 2a3p)ts is the notion that in the past 2a3p)ts have een the protectors of kin!do's and thi$anas , incl)din! the villa!es those real's co'prise. 1s hereditary +arriors, they +ere the so)rce of internal sec)rity. 1ltho)!h these days all 2a3p)ts, like 'e' ers of other 'artial !ro)ps, add the +ord *inh 4lion6 to their !iven na'es, fa'ily !enealo!ies reveal that in ti'es past 2a3p)ts in so'e linea!es attached pal 4protector6 to their na'es instead of or in addition to *inh. 0his notion of the 2a3p)t as protector is road, partic)larly +hen attached to 'e' ers of the no ility or royalty. 1 !ood r)ler is one +hose virt)e and stren!th inf)se his real' +ith 3)stice and vitality. By definition a !ood kin!, a protector, 'akes for a !ood 4prospero)s and ri!hteo)s6 kin!do' +hereas a ad kin!, not a protector, 'akes for a ad 4indi!ent and i''oral6 kin!do'. 0his notion, s)''ed )p in the prover 0atha Raja3 tatha praja 4as the kin! is, so are his s) 3ects6, is an ancient pan5&ndian idea ela orately e(po)nded in classical *anskrit and 0a'il literat)res.C""D 0h)s the 2a3p)t r)lers and their ranks +ere tho)!ht to safe!)ard the +elfare of all. 9any 2a3p)t tha$urs today contin)e to re!ard their ancestors and so'eti'es even the'selves in this rather ideal +ay.C"%D 1 'a3or co'ponent in the traditional 2a3p)t role of protection is responsi ility for !)ardin! the safety and the virt)e of +o'en. 1ll 2a3p)ts can narrate episodes of 2a3p)t chivalry. /avorites are those detailin! the resc)es of fair da'sels fro' l)stf)l 'ara)ders. <arriors ridin! off to attle are often said to have een inspired to !reat ravery y the kno+led!e that they +ere protectin! their +o'en ack ho'e. B)t protectin! +o'en incl)des 'ore than !)aranteein! the' safety fro' assa)ltB it also incl)des ens)rin! that +o'en do not deviate fro' their proper roles ack ho'e. 1 +ife +ho is allo+ed to eco'e )nchaste is C""D <ell5kno+n e(a'ples are the *anskrit epics and dharmashastras 4le!al codes6 and the 0a'il classics, the Tirumulai and the )ilappadi$aram . C"%D & have 'et a n)' er of 1'ericans +ho respond ne!atively to this Epatroni@in!E attit)de. & think 'ore yo)n! &ndians in to+ns and even in villa!es 'ay share this response than their elders, +ho !re+ )p )nder 2a3p)t r)le. 7 "A 7 )nderstood to sap her h)s and;s stren!th and so his a ility to perfor' his protective roleBC"$D a reach in protection sets off so'ethin! like a chain reaction. &n rief, a +o'an;s disloyalty is tho)!ht to ca)se severe in3)ry to the stren!th and character of her h)s and and y e(tension to those of his fa'ily. 8o+ as in the past, 2a3p)t 'en are keen to preserve those aspects of their +ay of life that +ill protect +o'en fro' the te'ptation to en!a!e in ehavior destr)ctive of honor and fa'ily. Partic)larly in conservative 9e+ar, oth 'en and +o'en stress the i'portance of preservin! as ')ch as possi le traditional, that is to say, do'estic fe'ale roles and val)es.

Women.s Traditions and Li'e Stages

0he 'ost strikin! feat)re of a 2a3p)t +o'an;s ho'e life is an o servance of so'e for' of parda. Parda , +hich literally 'eans Ec)rtain,E refers to the secl)sion of 'arried +o'en.C"JD 2a3p)t +o'en refer to parda as the 'ost characteristic aspect of a 2a3p)t +o'an;s identity. 0heir interpretation of the ter', ho+ever, has proven fl)id. 0raditionally parda referred to the division of a ho)sehold into +o'en;s ,)arters 4the 2anana 6 and 'en;s ,)arters 4the mardana 6.C"AD 0he 'en of the fa'ily 4h)s ands and rothers, fathers and sons6

entered the +o'en;s ,)arters for rief visits. *o'eti'es they ate there or slept there +ith their +ives. <hen they ca'e, they anno)nced their presence in advance y co)!hin!, sh)fflin!, or so'e si'ilar c)es. 8onfa'ily 'en +ere e(cl)ded fro' enterin! the +o'en;s ,)arters and 'arried +o'en +ere arred fro' enterin! the 'en;s ,)arters. Fne 'iddle5a!ed 'e' er of a royal ho)sehold told 'e that even as a child she +as not allo+ed into the mardana of her father;s ho)sehold, so strict +as her fa'ily. Beca)se of this strict parda , +o'en !enerally did not +orship in local C"$D *ee -avid -ean *h)l'an, The 1ing and the Clo&n in )outh .ndian yth and Poetry 4Princeton: Princeton University Press, 19G$6, 1#2B and <endy -oni!er F;/laherty, )iva 4F(ford: F(ford University Press, 19A"6, 1AG. C"JD /or an introd)ction to co'parative concept)ali@ations and di'ensions of parda , see Hanna Papanek and :ail 9ina)lt, eds., )eparate Worlds 4-elhi: Chanakya P) lications, 19G26B -avid :. 9andle a)', Women5s )eclusion and en5s !onor 40)cson: University of 1ri@ona Press, 19GG6B Patricia =effery, Frogs in a Well 4London: Oed Press, 19A96B Lila 1 )5L)!hod, 4eiled )entiments 4Berkeley: University of California Press, 19GJ6. C"AD F served y vario)s hi!h castes thro)!ho)t &ndia, parda has 'eant different thin!s in different areas and co'')nities. 1s e(a'ples, see t+o essays in )eparate Worlds , ed. Papanek and 9ina)lt 49ary Hi!don Beech, E0he -o'estic 2eal' in the Lives of Hind) <o'en in Calc)ttaEB and 2a'a 9ehta, EP)rdah 1'on! the Fs+als of 9evarE6. 7 "G 7 te'ples 4tho)!h they 'i!ht occasionally travel veiled and chaperoned to fara+ay pil!ri'a!e places or !o riefly to a near y shrine and +orship there +ith their faces hidden fro' p) lic vie+6. 8or did they participate in reli!io)s cere'onies s)ch as festivals, )nless these +ere cele rated in the 2ananas of royalty or the no ility. 9oreover, they lacked easy access to te'ples located in the mardana . /or their visits special arran!e'ents +ere al+ays 'ade. 0oday so'e ho)seholds still 'aintain a ri!id interpretation of parda . Fthers have only recently e!)n to rela( it. 9ost +o'en today practice so'e 'odified for' of secl)sion. <hatever for' parda takes, it is often s)''ed )p y the state'ent, E<e 2a3p)t +o'en do not 'i(.E By this is 'eant that altho)!h 'ost 2a3p)t +o'en 'ove a o)t freely +ithin their ho)seholdsIthere ein! no lon!er a for'al division of mardana and 2anana Ithey do not 'i( or 'i( only 'ini'ally +ith 'ale !)ests and then only +ith those 'ale !)ests +ho are old fa'ily friends. 0herefore, every 2a3p)t social event & attended +as really t+o events: the 'en !athered in one part of a ho)sehold to en3oy one another;s co'pany and the +o'en !athered in another part to disc)ss thin!s of interest to +o'en. &n accordance +ith parda , 'ost no le+o'en avoid !oin! o)t in p) lic. 0hey have the'selves driven across the street rather than +alk, for the street is the ,)intessentially p) lic place.C"GD 1 fe+ +o'en occasionally r)n errands in to+n, )t +hen they do they take alon! a driver and perhaps a friend as chaperone. *ervants and children do 'ost of the !rocery shoppin!. <hen necessary, 2a3p)t +o'en send servants to s)''on 'erchants and tailors to their ho'es.C"9D 9ost +o'en +ill still not !o into local te'ples, tho)!h so'e +ill visit o)tdoor sati and $uldevi shrines +hen their privacy can e ens)red. &t re'ains the case that +o'en prefer to +orship these and other divinities at ho'e. <hile 'aintainin! parda to this e(tent at ho'e, 'any +o'en have adapted it to s)it the e(i!encies of travel. 0hey 'ore or less confor' to the policy of E+hen in 2o'e. . . .E 0h)s one royal +o'an told 'e that altho)!h she +o)ld never think of appearin! in p) lic in her ho'e to+n, she +o)ld freely shop in the city of P)ne 4in 9aharashtra6 eca)se no one there +o)ld reco!ni@e her. *i'ilarly, 'any

no le+o'en +ho do not !o o)t in Udaip)r +ill !o o)t in lar!e cities, especially cities C"GD -)rin! 'y research stint, & kne+ only one +o'an in Udaip)r +ho droveB she took )p drivin! a 3eep to help her h)s and in his political ca'pai!n. 0+o or three other +o'en have taken )p drivin! since 19G$, and a fe+ have appeared openly to ca'pai!n for 2a3p)t candidates to national and state le!islat)res. C"9D 9any of these 'erchants and tailors elon! to fa'ilies +ho have served 2a3p)t ho)seholds for !enerations. 7 "9 7 o)tside of 2a3asthan. *till others fro' the Udaip)r area +ill never sho+ their faces in their thi$anas )t +ill r)n essential errands in Udaip)r.C%#D 1ltho)!h parda is loosenin!, it re'ains an e(tre'ely co!ent sy' ol. &t s)''ari@es +hat is dee'ed ad'ira le in the character of 2a3p)t +o'en and serves as a standard for eval)atin! ehavior.C%1D 0herefore 2a3p)t +o'en say that altho)!h their +ay of life is chan!in!, they +ant to ed)cate their da)!hters to sho+ respect for the ideal of parda y actin! +ith 'odesty 4sharam3 laj 6 and the honor and di!nity that 'odesty confers on the'selves, their h)s ands, and their fa'ilies.C%2D 1s 2a3p)t 'en do they e'phasi@e that the old c)sto's and val)es 4riti6rivaj 6 +ill help their children acco''odate to chan!e. /or +o'en, the idea of preparin! for chan!e is nothin! ne+. 2a3p)t !irls have al+ays een told that they ')st learn 'odesty eca)se +hen they 'arry they +ill have to live in a ne+ fa'ily, accept its c)sto's, and o ey its elders. By teachin! da)!hters 'odesty and the self5effacin! sacrifice it pres)pposes, 'others prepare their da)!hters for the inevita le resociali@ation that they +ill )nder!o as rides. 2a3p)t 'others say they are strict +ith their da)!hters so they +ill e a le to ad3)st to 'arria!e,C%"D yet these +o'en allo+ their da)!hters far 'ore freedo' than they !ive their yo)n! da)!hters5in5la+. .(cept for cere'onial occasions an )n'arried da)!hter does not +ear traditional 2a3p)t dress 4$ancli6 $urti 6, +hich consists of a lon! f)ll skirt, a rief )nder lo)se, a lon! vest, and a half5sari t)cked in at the +aist and p)lled over the head and sho)lders. <hile the da)!hter5in5la+ +ears this traditional dress, or occasionally a 'odern sari, the )n'arried da)!hter +ears a +estern skirt and lo)se to school and typically !oes a o)t her ho)sehold in a three5piece Pan3a i s)it, +hich consists of cotton le!!in!s, a $urta 4a lon! shirt5like !ar'ent +ith slits )p the sides6, and a dupatta 4a scarf draped over her reasts6. *he 'ay even +ear 3eans or a dress. <hen the da)!hter 'arries, she 'ay contin)e to +ear s)ch clothes on trips ho'e )t +ill chan!e ack to 'ore traditional attire efore ret)rnin! to her h)s and;s ho)sehold 4fi!. 116. C%#D Parda here contrasts +ith that of 2a3p)t villa!e +o'en, +ho say they also keep parda )t not as strictly as no le+o'en do. Beca)se the 'en leave the villa!e for the fields or other 3o s each day, +o'en 'ove a o)t freely o)tdoors )ntil evenin!. 0hey re'ain strict a o)t veilin! and speak only in +hispers in the presence of elder 'ale relatives. C%1D *)ch a sy' ol *herry Frtner classifies as a key sy' ol 4EFn ?ey *y' ols,E (merican (nthropologist A$ C19A"D6. C%2D 0he honor that parda rin!s to +o'en, their h)s ands, and fa'ilies is disc)ssed y the +orks cited in note "J and in chapters follo+in!. C%"D *)dhir ?akar;s +ork indicates that all !irls learn this lesson 4The .nner World C8e+ Kork: F(ford

University Press, 19G1D, J26. 2a3p)ts feel that they are e(ceptionally strict +ith their da)!hters. 7 %# 7

11. 2a3p)t no le+o'en and children. 7 %1 7 *o'e of the older +o'en think that these days da)!hters are over5ind)l!ed. 0hese +o'en recall their childhoods, +hen spontaneity +as disco)ra!ed and co)rtly decor)' +as everythin!. &n their ti'e they +ere not to la)!h or speak lo)dly on pain of receivin! a sharp slap or so'e stron!er p)nish'ent. Back then, they add, 'ost fa'ilies did not +ant their da)!hters ed)cated eca)se ed)cation +o)ld 'ake the' dissatisfied +ith their lives. Fne +o'an said that she +as ta)!ht to read )t that her parents prohi ited her fro' readin! ne+spapers eca)se they felt that +o'en sho)ld not concern the'selves +ith events in the o)tside +orld. <o'en sho)ld foc)s their attention e(cl)sively on the ho'e. 8o+ 'ost aristocratic 2a3p)t fa'ilies send their !irls to school. 0he !irls attend private schools, often Catholic !irls; schools.C%%D 2ecently 'any fa'ilies have sent their da)!hters to colle!e. 0hey !ive t+o reasons for this. 1 colle!e ed)cation prepares a !irl for an occ)pation in case she eco'es +ido+ed and, y an even 'ore )nfort)nate t)rn of l)ck, is left +ith no 'oney to s)pport herself and her children. .ven 'ore i'portant, it helps a da)!hter;s 'arria!e chances. /a'ilies +ith ed)cated sons +ant the' to 'arry ed)cated !irls +ho +ill prove intelli!ent co'panions. 9oreover, parents speak of the need for intellect)ally talented da)!hters5in5la+ +ho can ear and raise clever children. .ven so, so'eti'es fa'ilies +ho +ant an ed)cated !irl also fear that her ed)cation +ill 'ake her too independent. & learned of several instances in +hich +eddin!s +ere held 3)st efore a ride +as to receive her diplo'a. *o'e of the ti'in!s 'ay have een coincidentalB a)spicio)s 'arria!e dates do often fall ri!ht efore !rad)ation. B)t others +ere certainly not coincidental. Fne yo)n! +o'an told 'e that her pre!rad)ation 'arria!e +as a co'pro'ise de'anded y her in5la+s d)rin! en!a!e'ent ne!otiations. *he s)r'ised this +as fairly co''on. Fther +o'en & asked a o)t this said they tho)!ht it happened only occasionally. -espite the ne+ 4if ,)alified6 e'phasis on ed)cation for !irls, the chief a' ition that !irls 'aintain is to e a !ood +ife. Ff co)rse, this is easier if they ac,)ire !ood h)s ands, and so 'any of the' keep a +eekly vrat , a reli!io)s fast, to please the !od *hiv, +ho' they consider a 'odel h)s and.C%$D 1s to the choice of h)s and, !irls leave that )p to C%%D 2a3p)ts approve of the re!i'ented ed)cation that s)ch schools provide and appear )nconcerned +ith the threat of conversion. & kno+ of only one aristocratic Christian 2a3p)t fa'ily in the Udaip)r area. C%$D /or 'ore infor'ation on vrats , see the follo+in! section on protection. 7 %2 7 their parents. 1rran!ed 'arria!es are an iron r)le, a r)le al'ost )niversally accepted as ein! in the interest of ride and !roo'. Ko)n! +o'en and 'en are considered too ine(perienced in the +ays of

life to e a le to choose s)ita le 'arria!e partners. &n 2a3asthan, as in 'any other re!ions of &ndia, fa'ilies try to 'arry their da)!hters into fa'ilies hi!her on the social scale than they are.C%JD1ul 'e' ership and position +ithin the no le hierarchy are cr)cial deter'inants of social position. 0o so'e e(tent +ealth is also reco!ni@ed as a deter'inant for it typically acco'panies social position, )t +ealth +itho)t stat)s is considered ins)fficient.C%AD Fne yo)n! no le+o'an e(plained the rationale ehind this notion of hyper!a'y: E<e al+ays try to 'arry o)r da)!hters )p. &t;s est for the fa'ilies. <e don;t +ant to take a da)!hter5in5la+ fro' hi!her )p eca)se she;ll e )sed to ein! treated hi!hly and )sed to havin! lots of thin!sB she 3)st +on;t fit in.E &n other +ords, s)ch a da)!hter5in5la+ +ill not e a le to serve her in5la+s +ell eca)se she +ill feel s)perior to the'. 1ltho)!h E'arryin! )pE is the nor', the contractin! fa'ilies; stat)s difference is often s'all or even fictional. /a'ilies like to contract +ith fa'ilies +ith si'ilar ack!ro)nds, standards, and ideas. <hen ro)!hly e,)al fa'ilies enter into 'arria!e, it is the 'arria!e cere'ony itself that creates and states an ine,)ality. 0his ine,)ality is often te'porary, for s)ch fa'ilies !enerally 'arry their o+n da)!hters into fa'ilies +ith stat)s si'ilar to the stat)s of those fa'ilies fro' +hich its da)!hters5in5la+ co'e. &t 'ay even 'arry its da)!hters into the e(tended fa'ilies of its da)!hters5in5la+. &n ti'es past, +hen 'arria!es +ere poly!a'o)s, the sa'e !eneral notions applied to the first 'arria!e a son 'ade.C%GD Fften et+een near e,)als, a son;s first 'arria!e +as intended to ens)re that heirs +o)ld co'e fro' the est possi le stock. *econd, third, and other +ives, ho+ever, co)ld co'e fro' less ill)strio)s ack!ro)nds. *o'e co)ld even co'e fro' lo+er castes.C%9D <hen poly!a'y +as practiced, hyper5 C%JD Fn hyper!a'y see Oie!ler, E1ction, Po+er,E $1B -avid /. Pocock, 1an"i and Patidar 4London: F(ford University Press, 19A26, esp. 1$GB 2onald &nden, arriage and Ran$ in 7engali Culture 4Berkeley: University of California Press, 19AJ6B Lina /r)@etti, The #ift of a 4irgin 48e+ Br)ns+ick, 8.=.: 2)t!ers University Press, 19G26B 8)r Kal'an, 8nder the 7o Tree 4Berkeley: University of California Press, 19JA6B and 9ildred *. L)schinsky, E0he Life of <o'en in a >illa!e in 8orth &ndiaE 4Ph.-. diss., Cornell University, 19J26. C%AD 2a3p)ts display a special disdain for +hat they refer to as Ene+ 'oneyE people. C%GD 0he Hind) 9arria!e and -ivorce 1ct of 19$$ disallo+ed Hind) poly!a'y. C%9D *ee Oie!ler, E1ction, Po+er,E $2H$$B and 'ore !enerally *. =. 0a' iah, E/ro' >arna to Caste thro)!h 9i(ed Unions,E in The Character of 1inship , ed. =ack :oody 4Ca' rid!e: Ca' rid!e University Press, 19A"6. 7 %" 7 !a'y +as a 'ore dyna'ic and infl)ential principle of social or!ani@ation. 0he conte'porary 2a3p)t notion of hyper!a'y has one especially intri!)in! pec)liarity: the principle of 'arryin! +est. 2a3asthani 2a3p)ts reco!ni@e that 2a3p)ts livin! to the east of 2a3asthan prefer to 'arry their da)!hters +est to+ard 2a3asthan, eca)se that is +here the 'ost presti!io)s 2a3p)t fa'ilies live. 2ichard /o( notes that 2a3p)ts in his area, eastern Uttar Pradesh, 'arry their da)!hters +est.C$#D 9ichael 9ahar finds this to e tr)e of E?halap)r,E a 2a3p)t5do'inated villa!e in northern Uttar Pradesh.C$1D <hen at his invitation & visited this villa!e, & +as told y +o'en in one 2a3p)t fa'ily there that all 2a3p)t fa'ilies try to 'arry their da)!hters +est to+ard 2a3asthan. <hen & told her & +as +orkin! in Udaip)r, she also 'entioned that Udaip)r is the est place to e, for that is +here the finest, ravest 2a3p)ts are.

*harin! this elief, 2a3asthani 2a3p)ts try to 'arry their da)!hters +ithin the state. 1s the yo)n! no le+o'an & ,)oted a ove e(plained, E<e don;t +ant to !ive da)!hters o)tside 2a3asthan eca)se they +on;t fit in +ell and +on;t e happy. &n 2a3asthan +e have hi!h c)lt)re. Fther places are )s)ally less c)lt)red.E & fo)nd no convincin! evidence, ho+ever, that no le 'arria!es +est are considered prefera le +ithin 2a3asthan. Fne has to i'a!ine that s)ch a r)le taken very serio)sly +o)ld drastically restrict 'arria!e options in the +estern part of the state.C$2D Fnce a +o'an is 'arried, she participates f)lly in all the traditions of her con3)!al fa'ily and is e(pected to a andon traditions she has ro)!ht fro' her natal fa'ily that 'i!ht conflict +ith those of her con3)!al fa'ily. 0his is tr)e even do+n to her style of dressin!. Be!innin! +ith her 'arria!e cost)'e, she ')st accept dress styles and patterns typical of her h)s and;s re!ion. 9ost fa'ilies, ho+ever, allo+ a +ife so'e latit)de. /or cere'onial occasions s)ch as +eddin!s she ')st +ear traditional local fashion, )t at ho'e she 'ay +ear dresses that please her, incl)din! clothes fro' ho'e and even f)ll saris, +hich are not traditionally +orn y 2a3p)ts. &n ter's of ehavior, a +ife;s all5enco'passin! responsi ility is to C$#D /o(, 1in3 Clan , "G. C$1D 9ichael 9ahar, co'')nication to a)thor, =)ly 19G%. 0his villa!e +as st)died y Lei!h 9int)rn and =ohn Hitchcock, The Rajputs of 1halapur3 .ndia 48e+ Kork: =ohn <iley and *ons, 19J#6B and Hitchcock, E9artial 2a3p)t.E C$2D 2a3p)t villa!es in the e(tre'e +estern part of 2a3asthan have a hi!h incidence of fe'ale infanticide. 1 st)dy of this practice +o)ld pres)'a ly prod)ce a 'ore co'ple( e(planation than this preferential 'arria!e pattern. 7 %% 7 protect the happiness and health of her h)s and.C$"D *he carries o)t this responsi ility y attendin! to his needs, servin! his fa'ily, and +orshipin! his !ods. &t is felt that if she perfor's these activities s)ccessf)lly and so f)lfills the nor' of protection, he +ill prosperB if not, he +ill s)ffer and perhaps even die. Bein! +ido+ed is the +orst fate a 2a3p)t +o'an can i'a!ine. *he is 'eant for one 'an only, her h)s and. 2e'arria!e is for idden.C$%D 0h)s eco'in! a +ido+ is so'ethin! that si'ply o)!ht not to happen: a +o'an ')st do everythin! in her po+er to safe!)ard her h)s and;s lon!evity. &n ti'es past so'e +o'en +hose h)s ands died ref)sed to eco'e +ido+s. &nstead they )rned the'selves on their h)s ands; pyres. 0his practice +as seen as a corrective for the fa)lt of failin! to protect a h)s and fro' pre'at)re death, of allo+in! his death to occ)r efore hers. 0hose +o'en +ho lacked the dedication necessary to die as satis +ere e(pected to lead a life of penance and privation. 0he !eneral feelin! +as that a +ido+ sho)ld +ant to live a hard life to 'ake )p for her fail)re as a h)s and5protector. 0oday 'ost +o'en contin)e to feel that a +ido+ sho)ld not !reatly en3oy life. *he sho)ld take pleas)re in her children and fa'ily )t sho)ld deprive her senses of physical en3oy'ent and lead a relatively stark e(istence. <ido+s sho)ld +ear d)ll, si'ple clothin! 4tho)!h not necessarily the +hite clothin! that is e(pected of +ido+s in 'any parts of &ndia6 and no orna'entation. 9oreover, they sho)ld no lon!er cons)'e 'eat or +ine, for they have no le!iti'ate need for the passion s)ch s) stances en!ender. &n s)', the +ido+ sho)ld sh)n 'erri'ent, devote herself to reli!io)s searchin!, and live o)t her life in anticipation of happier circ)'stances in her ne(t life. 1ltho)!h, as 'any 2a3p)t +o'en noted, there are cases in +hich +ido+s are ill5treated, the !eneral consens)s is that in 'ost no le fa'ilies the +ido+ contin)es to e loved. *he is the 'other of children,

+hose affection for her is )ndi'inished. *ociety e(pects her to honor her h)s and;s 'e'ory y livin! si'ply, )t +hatever harsh privations she end)res sho)ld e self5i'posed. 0he +ido+;s life is not s)pposed to C$"D 0he idea of +o'en as h)s and5protectors occ)rs thro)!ho)t &ndia. /or selected recent e(plorations of this the'e see *)san *no+ <adley, ed., The Po&ers of Tamil Women 4*yrac)se: *yrac)se University, 19G#6B /rMdMri,)e 1pffel 9ar!lin, Wives of the #od61ing 4-elhi: F(ford University Press, 19G$6B 2. *. ?hare, E/ro' ?anya to 9ata: 1spects of the C)lt)ral Lan!)a!e of ?inship in 8orthern &ndia,E in Concepts of Person , ed. 1kos FstPr, Lina /r)@etti, and *teve Barnett 4Ca' rid!e, 9ass.: Harvard University Press, 19G26. C$%D &n 'ost hi!h castes thro)!ho)t &ndia only 'en c)sto'arily re'arry. 7 %$ 7 e 3oyo)s, )t 'ost +o)ld conde'n those +ho add to the +ido+;s 'isery y scornin! and a )sin! her.

Religion and "rote)tion

Beca)se a 2a3p)t +ife;s a' ition is to avoid eco'in! a +ido+, the reli!io)s practices a 2a3p)t +o'an perfor's have everythin! to do +ith ein! a !ood +ife, +hich is to say, a !ood h)s and5 protector. 0he +ord +o'en )se to descri e this ideal is pativrata , 'eanin! Eone +ho has taken a vo+ 4vrat 6 to CprotectD her h)s and 4pati 6.E *o'eti'es they e'ploy this +ord loosely to refer to any +ife. B)t even in this !eneric sense it has an ideolo!ical n)ance, for it i'plies a conception of ho+ a +ife sho)ld ehave and of the conse,)ences her ehavior +ill rin!. 1 +ife eco'es a !ood +ife, a tr)e pativrata , y selflessly servin! her h)s and and his fa'ily. 0his service incl)des attendin! to rit)al and other reli!io)s responsi ilities. .ach ho)sehold has its specific constellation of reli!io)s deities to +ho' ho)sehold 'e' ers, incl)din! +o'en, o+e devotion. 0hey e(press this devotion in a n)' er of +ays. 1'on! these is the perfor'ance of vrats , the vo+s that entail fastin!. 9any )n'arried !irls keep a fast on 9onday in order to please *hivB 'any 'arried +o'en also keep this vrat in order to !ain *hiv;s protective lessin! in their atte'pts to live as !ood +ives. &n addition to the *hiv vrat there are si( other +eekly vo+s, +hich 'akes one for every day of the +eek. -ecidin! +hich vo+ or vo+s to perfor' is !enerally a 'atter of personal preference. .(cept for the 9onday vrat , 2a3p)t +o'en sho+ little contin)ity in the +eekly vo+s they keep. 0he sa'e is tr)e of fortni!htly vrats , the vo+s coincidin! +ith the f)ll and ne+ 'oons. Besides +eekly and fortni!htly vrats there are ann)al vo+s, +hich acco'pany 'any 'a3or festivals. 0he t+o that have the lar!est follo+in! a'on! +o'en & intervie+ed are the 8avratri vo+ and the -asha'ata vo+. 8early all 2a3p)t +o'en perfor' 8avratri >rat. 0he reason they 'ost often !ive is that 8avratri is really the 2a3p)t holidayIit co''e'orates a !reat 'ilitary victory. 8avratri cele rates the con,)est y the +arrior !oddess -)r!a over an ar'y of de'ons.C$$D 0h)s a C$$D 0he 8avratri 48ine 8i!hts6 o servance c)l'inates in a cele ration of -ashara 4the 0enth6, +hich co''e'orates 2a';s victory over 2avana, the villain of the +ell5kno+n epic, the Ramayan . Fn this day 2a3p)ts +orship their +eapons and horses. /or'erly 4and in so'e places today6 this veneration 4puja 6 co' ined +ith a !oat sacrifice. 7 %J 7

2a3p)t +o'an perfor's the 8avratri vo+ not si'ply eca)se she is a +o'an )t also eca)se she is a 2a3p)t. 0he second vo+, +hich a !reat 'any of the +o'en in 'y s)rvey 'entioned, is predo'inantly practiced y +o'en livin! in 9e+ar. 0his is -asha'ata >rat. -asha'ata, +hose na'e 'eans E9other of /ate,E is +orshiped y keepin! a fast, y tyin! on a strin! necklace, and y recitin! ten stories.C$JD 2a3p)t +o'en do not conceive of -asha'ata >rat as an e(cl)sively 2a3p)t vo+. 2ather, they see it as a vo+ that 2a3p)t +o'en sho)ld perfor' eca)se the 2a3p)ts are a hi!h caste and all hi!h5caste +o'en sho)ld perfor' it. Ket there is an i'plicit connection et+een -asha'ata and the 2a3p)t co'')nity: to the strin! necklaces that the vo+ re,)ires +o'en to +ear, 2a3p)t +ives in this area affi( their $ul !oddess pendants 4palas 6. 0he avo+ed p)rpose of this vrat is to preserve a h)s and;s health, +hich +ill e stron! as lon! as his +ife;s necklace is )n roken. .ach year after 'arria!e, the +ife replaces the strin! +ith a ne+ one, th)s rene+in! the stren!th of her co''it'ent to the 'arria!e. &f the strin! reaks in 'idyear, she ')st replace it i''ediately in a special rit)al. 0hese t+o vrats are characteristic of the vo+s +o'en perfor'. 0hey all stress the +elfare of the h)s and, +hich ')st al+ays rank first a'on! a +o'an;s concerns. 1 distin!)ished no le+o'an 'ost s)ccinctly s)''ed )p this attit)de: EFne has 'any children )t only one h)s and. 9y first alle!iance ')st therefore e to hi'.E & heard 'any variations on this the'e. 0he point is not that children are not precio)s )t rather that no other co''it'ent rivals a +o'an;s devotion to her h)s and. 1part fro' vrats , 2a3p)t +o'en perfor' fo)r 'a3or for's of re!)lar reli!io)s devotion. 0he first is a re!)lar honorin! of the ho)sehold deities, +hich is done oth y +o'en and y 'en. 0his is called dho$ dena , the E!ivin! 4dena 6 of respect or prostration 4dho$ 6.E Fne sho+s respect y enterin! a te'ple or stoppin! at a shrine and then o+in! to an i'a!e +ith pal's 3oined. /or the 'ost part it is a vol)ntary and spontaneo)s 'atter. *o'e occasions, ho+ever, re,)ire a for'al !ivin! of respect. Fne ')st sho+ respect to $uldevis and satis +hen one leaves for or ret)rns fro' a 'a3or trip.C$AD &n this +ay one asks for protection d)rin! a 3o)rney and sho+s !ratit)de for a safe ret)rn. *econd, one ')st sho+ respect +hen one reaches the life thresholds represented y C$JD *o'e connect -asha'ata;s na'e +ith the fact that ten 4das 6 stories are recited. C$AD Fften +o'en +ho are strict a o)t parda +ill perfor' dho$ fro' inside their a)to'o ile +hen there are nonfa'ily 'e' ers at the shrine site. 7 %A 7 rites of passa!e.C$GD /a'ilies vary, ho+ever, in their deter'ination of +ho ')st !ive dho$ and +hen. 1ll ho)seholds re,)ire a !roo' to !ive this respect to his fa'ily;s sati3 $uldevis , and perhaps other divine ein!s +hen he 'arries. 0he ho)seholds also re,)ire a ride to do the sa'e +hen she arrives at her ne+ ho'e. *o'e ho)seholds re,)ire the ride to sho+ respect efore she leaves her natal ho'e and its vario)s protective deities. 1ll ho)seholds re,)ire an act of respect to their deities at the irth of a oyB so'e also re,)ire it at the irth of a !irl. /inally, so'e fa'ilies !ive dho$ in con3)nction +ith their children;s first hair5c)ttin! cere'onies.C$9D 0he ne(t 'a3or for' of reli!io)s rit)al is the ratijaga 4ni!ht +ake6. Ratijagas are )s)ally or!ani@ed and perfor'ed y +o'en, +ho are s)pposed to spend an entire ni!ht sin!in! son!s to honor the vario)s deities and spirits dear to the ho)sehold. *o'eti'es 2a3p)t +o'en act)ally do stay )p all ni!ht sin!in!, )t often they dele!ate this task to servants and villa!e +o'en, +ho' they pay. 0+o fi!)res +ho al+ays appear in the lists of son!s s)n! y fa'ilies are the $uldevi and the sati . Fthers so honored 'ay incl)de vario)s Bher)s 4local 'anifestations of the *anskritic deity BhairavaB attendants of $uldevis and other !oddessesB see fi!. 196, pitr s and pitrani s 4'ale and fe'ale ancestors6, and

jhumjhar s 4+arriors +ho died violent deaths )t contin)ed fi!htin! after death to e(act reven!e6.CJ#D 0he ratijaga is perfor'ed in con3)nction +ith the sa'e cere'onies d)rin! +hich dho$ is !iven, e(cept the hair5c)ttin! cere'ony.CJ1D 1nother shared for' of reli!io)s o servance is puja , a 'ore ela orate and less spontaneo)s for' of +orship than dho$ .CJ2D Perfor'in! C$GD +ho$ is not !iven in con3)nction +ith f)neral cere'onies, +hich are ina)spicio)s occasions. C$9D 1 child;s first hair5c)ttin! c)sto'arily occ)rs at a partic)lar te'ple, often at a !oddess te'ple. 0he University of <isconsin fil', (n .ndian Pilgrimage: Ramdevra 419AA6, has an e(cellent depiction of tons)re. CJ#D 1 ,)een 4tha$urani 6 fro' a *olah 0hikana !ave 'e a list of the son!s that her fa'ily perfor's in the ratijagas and na'es of those to +ho' they are dedicated: 416 9ata =iB 426 .klin! =iB 4"6 ?)ldeviB 4%6 Bher)B 4$6 the purvajs 4ancestors6B 4J6 *ati'ataB 4A6 the jhumjhar s 4 eheaded heroes6B 4G6 'e'hdi 4red clay +ith +hich +o'en dye their hands and feet6B 496 3ha3ha' 4the carpet ridden y !ods and !oddesses6B 41#6 the purvaj s 4a!ain6B 4116 *ati'ata 4a!ain6B 4126 ?)ldevi 4a!ain6B 41"6 Bher) 4a!ain6B 41%6 the jhumjhar s 4a!ain6B 41$6 k)karo 4the cock, +ho anno)nces day reak6B 41J6 pra hat 4da+n6. CJ1D ?o'al ?othari identifies the ratijaga +ith the jagran , +hich, he says, is perfor'ed +ith irth and 'arria!e cele rations as +ell as +ith cere'onies for death, ho)se )ildin!, land p)rchasin!, and +ell di!!in! 4E.pics of 2a3asthanE Cpaper presented at the Conference on Fral .pics, the University of <isconsin at 9adison, =)ly 19G2D, $6. CJ2D Fn puja , see -iana .ck, +ars9n 4Cha' ers )r!, Pa.: 1ni'a Books, 19G16B and 8or'an C)tler and =oanne P)n@o <a!horne, eds., #ods of Flesh3 #ods of )tone 4Cha' ers )r!, Pa.: 1ni'a Books, 19G$6. 7 %G 7 puja , a devotee offers a divinity flo+ers, la'ps, incense, or other pleasin! s) stances, incl)din! food, and in ret)rn receives the divinity;s lessin!, +hich is represented y the prasad 4leftovers6 that the divinity !ives ack. Fn this asic level this puja rese' les puja done in 'any other places in &ndia, +ith perhaps one e(ception. 1s 'entioned efore, 2a3p)t +o'en tend to do al'ost all their puja at ho'e. Beca)se 2a3p)t +o'en 'aintain so'e for' of parda , they do not like to enter local p) lic te'ples. *o'eti'es they send servants to !ive offerin!s in s)ch te'ples, )t they tend to think it i''odest and )ndi!nified to !o the'selves. :enerally 2a3p)t 'en also +orship in their o+n ho'es. 0heir ancestors )ilt te'ples +ithin their estate palaces, so if 'en +ant to perfor' puja , they can do so there. 0hese te'ples +ere 'ostly in the mardana , +hich 'eant that in for'er ti'es +o'en co)ld not )s)ally +orship there. 0oday, ho+ever, eca)se of the reakdo+n of intraho)sehold parda , 'any +o'en do +orship in the mardana . 9e' ers of the fa'ily perfor' puja for all the s)pernat)ral ein!s they +orship. 1'on! these are $uldevi s and satimata s as +ell as vario)s ishtadevta s. .shtadevta , a catchall ter' for divinities that do not easily fit into other cate!ories, literally 'eans Echosen 4ishta 6 deity 4devta 6.E 0he no'enclat)re can e 'isleadin!. *o'e ishtadevta s are selected y individ)als +ho feel a rapport +ith the', and others are passed do+n thro)!h !enerations as deities re,)irin! +orship. 0hey are th)s EchosenE y the fa'ily, not y the individ)al.CJ"D &n addition to +orshipin! s)ch a fa'ily ishtadevta , ho+ever, the individ)al 'ay +orship other deities of his or her o+n pleasin!.CJ%D 1 +o'an;s options have an inherent li'it: the deities she chooses ')st not dra+ her attention a+ay fro' the deities +orshiped y her con3)!al fa'ily. 1ny natal deities she +ishes to i'port 'ay e tho)!ht co'petitive. &f co'petition

is perceived, a d)tif)l +ife ')st a andon her personal ishtadevtas . /inally there is the "olma , a vo+ that is )s)ally connected +ith pil!ri'a!e. Unlike the hi!hly rit)ali@ed calendrical vrats3 "olmas are infor5 CJ"D 1 !ood e(a'ple is .klin! =i 4a for' of *hiv6, chosen y 9e+ar;s le!endary fo)nder, Bappa 2a+al. 1s the ishtadevta for the r)lin! fa'ily, *hiv 'ay e referred to as a $uldevta . Here, $uldevta is synony'o)s +ith ishtadevta B 2a3p)ts have no 'ale deity to correspond to the fe'ale deity, $uldevi , +hich all 2a3p)ts ')st have. <hen & first asked 2a3p)ts a o)t $uldevtas , the typical response +as a look of inco'prehension or condescension follo+ed y a re'ark s)ch as EKo) ')st 'ean o)r $uldevi E or EKo) ')st 'ean o)r ishtadevta .E &n other &ndian co'')nities the ter' $uldevta 4or so'e lin!)istic variant of it6 is )sed in ,)ite different +aysIand often, very looselyIto desi!nate vario)s relationships et+een deities and kinship !ro)ps. /or e(a'ples, see Hilte eitel, Cult of +raupadi B 0ara o)t, )acrifier B 9eyer, (n$alaparmecuvari B 2o!hair, Epic of Palnadu B Bennett, +angerous Wives B and Beck, Three T&ins . CJ%D .shtadevtas are often local for's of *hiv, ?rishna, and -)r!a. 7 %9 7 'al and personal pro'ises 'ade y individ)als to deities. Besie!ed y pro le's, people resolve to do so'ethin! that a deity desires, s)ch as !oin! on a pil!ri'a!e to the deity;s shrine and 'akin! certain offerin!s there.CJ$D 0hey hope that in ret)rn the deity +ill assist the'.CJJD 0ypically the "olma is 'ade y a +o'an, +ho speaks on her o+n ehalf or on ehalf of her fa'ily, )t a 'an can 'ake a "olma if he +ishes. 0he recipient of the "olma 'ay e a deity +hose i'a!e resides +ithin the ho)sehold or so'e other less fa'iliar deity. &n either case the "olma 'ay re,)ire a pil!ri'a!e to a special shrine dedicated to the deity. 1'on! the +o'en & intervie+ed in 9e+ar, & fo)nd so'e +ho had recently 'ade "olmas to 1vri 9ata 4+hose te'ple is near Chitor, a for'er capital of 9e+ar6, to 2a' -ev 4+hose shrine is near =aisal'er6, and to ?arni 9ata 4sit)ated near Bikaner6. 0hey say that +hen the crises precipitatin! the "olma disappear, they +ill have to 3o)rney to these deities; pri'ary te'ples. <hereas in so'e cases the pil!ri'a!e itself +ill f)lfill the "olma , in others the individ)als have pro'ised to perfor' special rit)als. Pil!ri'a!e, as 'i!ht e e(pected, is not so'ethin! that no le+o'en )ndertake freely. &t 'eans te'porarily rela(in!, if not a andonin!, parda . <hen no le+o'en do )ndertake pil!ri'a!es to f)lfill their "olmas , they adopt the kind of E+hen in 2o'eE post)re already 'entioned. 0hey can e co'forta le in p) lic eca)se they are far fro' ho'e and their identities are )nkno+n. <ith this c)rsory sketch of reli!io)s tradition as ack!ro)nd, it is possi le to co'pare the separate 'odes of a)thority that infor' 'en;s and +o'en;s interpretations of their reli!io)sly artic)lated and sanctioned d)ties.

Religion and !ut&ority

0he predo'inant a)thorities availa le to 2a3p)t 'en for artic)latin! their d)ty are t+o. /irst, there is Brah'anical a)thority. 2a3p)t fa'ilies for'erly i'ported Brah'ans fro' vario)s parts of 2a3asthan, partic)larly :)3arat. *o'e of these Brah'ans +ere pujaris , te'ple officiants. Fthers +ere purohit s, advisors. 0he purohit s helped 2a3p)ts to 'ake CJ$D Fn 2a3asthani pil!ri'a!e 4jatra 6 in !eneral, cons)lt :old, Fruitful /ourneys , 1GJHG9. CJJD *trikin! vis)al depictions of this type of vo+, +hich is fo)nd thro)!ho)t &ndia )nder 'any

different na'es, occ)r in the University of <isconsin fil' Ramdevra and in )itala in )pring 4Calc)tta: *hape /il's, 19GA6. 7 $# 7 proper decisions in ad'inisterin! their kin!do's or estates. 0hey also ta)!ht 2a3p)t oys lessons fro' *anskrit te(ts, s)ch as the le!al codes 4the dharmashastra s6 and the epics 4the aha"harat and Ramayan 6. 9ore i'portant than this instr)ction +as the ed)cation 2a3p)t oys received y listenin! to the son!s of the Carans, the second so)rce of a)thority. 0he Carans; caste5associated d)ty +as to keep 2a3p)t !enealo!ies. 0hese !enealo!ies +ere 'ore than 'ere lists of na'esB they +ere repositories of !lory and records of 2a3p)t co)ra!e, con,)est, and herois'. &n recitin! to 2a3p)t 'en and oys the stories of their ancestors, the Carans related inspirational paradi!'s. By confor'in! to these paradi!'s, 2a3p)ts kne+ that they +ere doin! their d)tyIpreservin! and protectin! society.CJAD 0oday 2a3p)t no le'en no lon!er e'ploy purohit s. 1nd if they e'ploy pujari s, they do so on a part5 ti'e or ad hoc asis. 9oreover, they can no lon!er s)pport Carans. *o'e Carans still keep the fa'ily records of 2a3p)ts, )t they also have f)ll5ti'e 3o s perfor'in! other services in order to s)pport their fa'ilies. .ven so, they contin)e to infl)ence the 2a3p)t conception of d)ty, for the stories that the ards once recited are no+ passed do+n y their for'er patrons. <o'en have had neither so)rce of a)thority. Carans )sed to record the !enealo!ies of +o'en in 2a3p)t fa'ilies, )t those !enealo!ies +ere little 'ore than irth and 'arria!e records.CJGD 0hey did not record the lives of +o'enB they re!istered +o'en;s na'es. /)rther'ore, tho)!h 2a3p)t +o'en often had Brah'an +o'en perfor' puja for the', they did not have fe'ale Brah'an advisors.CJ9D 0he Brah'an +o'en +ere not ed)cated in *anskrit. 0hey si'ply kne+ certain rit)als, the details of +hich they had pro a ly learned fro' their h)s ands. Lackin! the t+o traditional a)thorities )sed y 'en, 2a3p)t +o'en have leaned heavily on the reli!io)s 'yths they have learned fro' one another for so)rces of reli!io)s and 'oral a)thority. 0he 'yths e(plain, e(e'plari@e, and le!iti'ate the e(plicit r)les of ehavior they have CJAD Oie!ler characteri@es the Caran;s f)nction: E0he Caran +as the ard and poet of the 2a3p)t. He possessed the git and the doha 4son!s and poe's of praise6, the vartta and the "at 4inspirational historical stories6, and the "humd 4a for' of ridic)le6, the so)nds +hich e(e'plari@ed the 2a3p)t and his actions and in t)rn s)pported the order of societyE 4E1ction, Po+er,E 2GH296. CJGD 0hese !enealo!ists +ere called 2ani'an!as. CJ9D 2a3p)t +o'en so'eti'es refer to any fe'ale Brah'an +ho' their fa'ilies e'ployed as Epurohitani E and descri e the purohitani ;s f)nctions as those of a pujarani . 0hey )se oth +ords to refer to a +o'an hired to perfor' puja . 1 n)' er of the Brah'an +o'en +ho perfor'ed rit)als +ere i'poverished +ido+s +ho s)pported the'selves y servin! the rit)al needs of 2a3p)t +o'en. 7 $1 7 learned fro' their elders. &n the vario)s 'yths associated +ith the 'a3or 2a3p)t devotional traditions +o'en o serve, especially $uldevi and sati traditions, and in the 'yths detailin! the lives of eloved 2a3p)t heroines, +o'en find paradi!'s that help the' constr)ct personal interpretations of pativrata d)ty.

&n short, in one +ay or another the 'yths fro' these traditions infor' and e(plicate the pativrata ideal. 1s an ideal, as an i'a!e, as a sy' ol, the pativrata rin!s to!ether t+o separate sets of nor's: those related to 2a3p)t caste and those related to fe'ale !ender. 1t the sa'e ti'e, eca)se oth 2a3p)t caste d)ty and fe'ale d)ty are in their o+n +ays d)ties of protection, the ideal po+erf)lly artic)lates for +o'en a t+ofold protective ethic. 7 $2 7

&apter / !ldevi Tradition ,yt&0 Story0 and onte1t

0he $uldevi has a cr)cial role in the reli!io)s lives of 2a3p)t 'en and +o'en: she is the fore'ost divine !)ardian of their fort)ne and honor. 9any of the 'yths that reco)nt the 'irac)lo)s deeds she perfor's as !)ardian not only 'ake +onderf)l readin!Ithey a o)nd in ro'ance, intri!)e, dan!er, and con,)estIthey also !ive access to the +orldvie+ of 2a3p)t +o'en. 1 !oddess e!ins her career as a $uldevi +hen she eco'es incarnate at a critical point in ti'e in order to resc)e an endan!ered !ro)p of 2a3p)ts +ho' she 3)d!es +orthy of her protection. &n 'ost cases she reveals herself to their leader and inspires hi' to s)r'o)nt +hatever pro le's he and his follo+ers face.C1D 1fter+ard she helps hi' esta lish a kin!do', at +hich point he and his relatives eco'e the fo)nders of a kinship ranch 4$ul or sha$h 6 +ith a discrete political identity. Later the $uldevi inter'ittently 'anifests her presence y helpin! the !ro)p overco'e other 'ilitary and political crises. 0hese 'anifestations are cele rated in 'yths chroniclin! the ori!ins and early achieve'ents of the 2a3p)t !ro)ps that $uldevi s protect.C2D 2a3p)t +o'en perceive the'selves to e less fa'iliar +ith s)ch $ul6 C1D &n this respect the $uldevi ;s first appearance rese' les the appearance in the aha"harata of ?rishna, +ho )lti'ately reveals hi'self as :od to the tro) led prince 1r3)na and !)ides his perfor'ance of 'artial d)ty. C2D 2ecently so'e no le'en have +ritten fa'ily histories ased on s)ch 'yths and other !enealo!ical 'aterialsB they have incorporated ele'ents fro' the narratives of Carans and local histories y 0od 4(nnals and (nti'uities 6, F3ha 4Rajputane 6, and ?avira3 *hya'aldas 44ir 4inod , % vols. CUdaip)r: privately p) lished y the 9e+ar dar ar, ca. 1GG% and reiss)ed, -elhi: 9otilal Banarsidass, 19GJD6. 7 $" 7 devi 'yths than 2a3p)t 'en are. 0hey say that these 'yths elon! to the real' of history 4itihas 6, +hich they )nderstand as a 'ale do'ain. <hen asked a o)t the EhistoricalE 'ythsI'yths & call fo)ndation 'yths to avoid the appearance of contin)ally certifyin! their historicityI+o'en typically clai' that their h)s ands kno+ history, )t they do not: E<hat do & kno+ of historyQ Ko) ask 'y h)s andNE Beca)se 2a3p)ts no lon!er s)pport Carans as ards, the traditional 'eans of recitin! 2a3p)t !enealo!ies and their related 'yths has een lost. &t is perhaps for this reason that 'any 2a3p)t h)s ands no+ elieve that they kno+ less than their +ives a o)t Es)ch reli!io)s 'atters.E &n fact, +o'en often do kno+ 'ore than their h)s ands a o)t fo)ndation 'yths, the details of +hich rarely find their +ay into 'odern +ritten histories precisely eca)se they are 'ythical, not strictly fact)al.

&n addition to these fo)ndation 'yths, 2a3p)t +o'en kno+ stories relatin! to the services that the $uldevi has rendered to the partic)lar ho)sehold, often fairly recently. :enerally referred to as EstoriesE 4$ahaniyam 6 rather than history and )nderstood as the proper s) 3ects of fe'ale e(pertise, they constit)te the pri'ary so)rce for +o'en;s appropriations of $uldevi tradition. 0hey 'ay e 'yths handed do+n thro)!h !enerations of +o'en livin! in a 2anana , or they 'ay e acco)nts of events +itnessed y a livin! narrator. &n either case, the stories have never een the responsi ility of Carans. &n reco)ntin! a $uldevi ;s aid to individ)al fa'ily 'e' ers, the narrators co''only )se a ho)sehold settin! and al+ays e'phasi@e the sacredness of do'estic pativrata d)ties. Beca)se the narrators are al'ost e(cl)sively +o'en, +hose sphere of responsi ility is the ho'e, the acco)nts are 'ore i''ediately relevant to +o'en than fo)ndation 'yths, +hich descri e the esta lish'ent of kin!do's and/or dynasties in very re'ote ti'es. Unlike the fo)ndation 'yths, +hich can e located +ithin a sched)led se,)ence correspondin! to a !enealo!ical sacred history, these storiesI+hich & call Eho)sehold storiesEIdetail incidents that are ti'eless: they take place in an indefinite past or they are conte'porary. &n oth cases they relate standard variations of rec)rrent scenarios. &t is precisely their ti'eless red)ndancy that keeps the' 'eanin!f)l to all ti'es. 9oreover, their rec)rrence does ')ch to e(plain the shared conception of +o'en as 'ore personally involved in Es)ch reli!io)s 'attersE than their h)s ands, eca)se the stories +o'en tell al+ays see' relevant to their pressin! concerns.C"D C"D 0his distinction et+een EitihasicE and do'estic 'yths ro)!hly corresponds to the *o)th &ndian distinction et+een puram 4p) lic6 and a$am 4do'estic6 'yths. 1. ?. 2a'an)3an caref)lly contrasts these story !enres in E0+o 2eal's of ?annada /olklore,E in (nother !armony , ed. *t)art H. Black )rn and 1. ?. 2a'an)3an 4Berkeley: University of California Press, 19GJ6. He notes that puram stories, +hich ards traditionally recited in p) lic, are lon!er and 'ore detailed than the a$am stories, or E!ranny;s tales,E +hich +o'en traditionally recited in their ho)seholds. 7 $% 7 0his chapter e(plores fo)ndation 'yths and ho)sehold stories to )ncover the +ays in +hich the $uldevi serves +o'en oth as a protector and as a paradi!' of protection. &t sets forth connections et+een fo)ndation 'yths and ho)sehold stories and s)!!ests that these connections reveal i'portant relations et+een linea!e and ho)sehold on the one hand and caste and !ender on the other.

T&e Foundation ,yt&s

/or the 'ost part the narratives to e reco)nted are !leaned fro' 'y intervie+s +ith 2a3p)t +o'en.C%D 1 co)ple of narratives 4=a'vai 9ata variant t+o, and 8a!anecha =i variant one6, ho+ever, +ere recited y no le+o'en;s 'ale relatives. & have chosen to incl)de the' not eca)se +o'en +ere )nfa'iliar +ith these variantsIin fact, the +ives kne+ these storiesI )t eca)se the acco)nts !iven y the 'en in these t+o instances contain i'portant ela orative detail scattered a'on! n)' ero)s +o'en;s acco)nts.C$D 0he +o'en +ho narrated the other acco)nts !ave the 'ost l)cid and co'prehensive versions of the 'yths that & discovered in the co)rse of research. 1ll acco)nts here are ver ati'.CJD & e!in +ith the story of 1d 9ata, the $uldevi of the =hala $ul 4see fi!. 1#a 6.CAD 0he =halas presided over t+o of 9e+ar;s fore'ost no le es5 C%D Unlike the stories of 'any pop)lar deities, these 2a3p)t !oddess stories are not sold as pa'phlets o)tside the !ates of p) lic te'ples or in )r an ookstalls. C$D 1ltho)!h EitihasicE in s) stance, these acco)nts are so terse as to i'ply a stylistic Einterte(t)ality,E

for s)ch revity is typically characteristic of 2anana , or in *o)th &ndia, of a$am tales. *ee 2a'an)3an, E0+o 2eal's,E %", $1. 0he ardic versions of these tales +o)ld e filled +ith details and na'es. CJD Beca)se each narrator did provide his or her o+n variation, & present here no Eri!htE 'yth. 9any narrators, partic)larly 'en, ca)tioned 'e not to heed other;s acco)nts eca)se they +o)ld do) tless e E+ron!E in certain respects. 8arrators elieve co)nts eca)se they +o)ld do) tless e E+ron!E in certain respects. 8arrators elieve they are relatin! essential tr)ths. 0he idea that there are variations of a fo)ndation narrative and that these are interestin! in the'selvesIthey reveal concerns of conte'porary narratorsIis one that occ)rs to 2a3p)t narrators no 'ore readily than it +o)ld to 'ost nonacade'ic reli!io)s persons in other c)lt)res. &ncidentally, the idea of variations of $uldevi narrative see'ed to ca)se ')ch 'ore an(iety than variations of satimata acco)nts. Beca)se each fa'ily has several ancestors +ho eca'e satis, a discordant variant +o)ld e a o)t a different ancestorIs)ch concl)sions +ere often dra+n +hen others co''ented on intervie+s ein! cond)cted. & have )sed s)ch conte(t)ali@in! acco)nts fro' these other so)rces +here indicated. CAD &n :)3arat she is referred to as *hakti 9ata 4personal co'')nication fro' =ayasinh =hala, " Fct. 19GA6. 7 $$ 7 tates, Bari *adri and -el+ara 4see fi!. $6, as +ell as over =hala+ar, an independent kin!do' that split off fro' the Ca)han5r)led kin!do' of ?ota.

!d ,ata
0hree little oys, princes of the royal fa'ily, +ere playin! o)tside the palace +hen a 'ad elephant s)ddenly char!ed. 1d 9ata, their spinster a)ntie, had een +atchin! the' fro' a second5story +indo+. =)st in ti'e, she reached o)t for the' +ith her ar's, +hich !re+ and !re+ )ntil they e(tended all the +ay do+n to the children. *he snatched )p the children and lifted the' into her e' race. &n this +ay 1d 9ata saved the princes and so the royal linea!e. 1nother variant adds that eca)se 1d 9ata resc)ed the oys, the line descendin! fro' one of the princes ca'e to e kno+n as /hala , 'eanin! EsnatchedE or E!ra ed.ECGD 0his ety'olo!y is +ell kno+n y =halas, +ho date the ori!in of their $ul to this $uldevi 'iracle 4camat$ar 6. 8e(t is =a'vai 9ata, the $uldevi of the ?achvaha 2a3p)ts of =aip)r state 4see fi!. 2#6.

2am(ai ,ata
0he ?achvahas )sed to live in 8avar!arh in central &ndia, the place +here 8ala and -a'ayanti )sed to live. 0hey left that place in search of a kin!do' and +andered to+ard 2a3asthan. <hen they arrived, they 'et resistance fro' so'e tri als.C9D 0here +as a i! attle et+een the ?achvahas and the tri als +here 2a3!arh -a' is no+ Ca o)t forty 'in)tes; drive fro' =aip)rD.C1#D 0he ?achvahas fared adly. 0hey lay +o)nded and dyin! on the attlefield and there +as no +ater for the' to drink. 0hey e!an to think of Parvati and she eca'e a co+. *he stood over the dyin! soldiers and po)red o)t her 'ilk, +hich revived the'. 0hey rene+ed their attack and achieved victory.

! Variant o' t&is ,yt& "ro(ides ,ore 3etail

0he ?achvahas ca'e fro' 8avar near :+alior in 9adhya Pradesh. 0hey fo)!ht their +ay to -osa, +hich they +on fro' the :)3ar 2a3p)ts. 0hey took so'e lands fro' the 9ina tri e y treachery. /inally, at . . . 2a3!arh, they +ere defeated. -)larai, their leader, +as adly in3)red. He lay )nconscio)s and dyin! on the attlefield. =a'vai 9ata appeared to hi' in a vision. CGD =haliyoda): ca)!ht, sei@ed 4Hindi: par$ada hua 6B in *itara' Lalas, Rajasthani )a"d 1os , vol. %, pt. " 4=odhp)r: Ca)pasni *iksa *a'iti, 19AG6, s.v. C9D *peakin! .n!lish, the narrator )sed the ter' Etri alE no'inally, as it often occ)rs in local &ndian .n!lish. C1#D Henceforth, all racketed re'arks are 'y o+n. 7 $J 7 *he said, E& a' the $uldevi of the 9inas, )t & a' an!ry +ith the'. & a' a ve!etarian )t they offer 'e 'eat and +ine in 'y te'ple.E =a'vai 9ata then t)rned herself into a co+ and sprayed 'ilk on -)larai;s face. *he revived the rest of the ?achvahas in the sa'e +ay. 9ean+hile the 9inas +ere re3oicin! over their victory. 0hey +ere dr)nk. 0he ?achvahas s)ccessf)lly attacked the'. *ince then =a'vai 9ata has een o)r $uldevi . 1 third $uldevi is 8a!anecha =i, protector of the 2atha)r $ul 4see fi!. 1#"3 c 6. *he oversees the state of 9ar+ar as +ell as :hanerao, a *olah 0hikana.

Nagane)&a 2i
8a!anecha =i ca'e +ith o)r ancestors +hen they 'oved here C=odhp)rD fro' the so)th. <hen *inha =i Ca 2atha)r kin!D +as carryin! her aro)nd his neck, she de'anded that he p)t her do+n at 8a!ana. *he +anted to stay there. He slept and she eca'e anchored in the !ro)nd, never to 'ove. /ro' that spot a snake slithered a+ay. 0his acco)nt, like the one that follo+s, yields a ')rky pict)re of the for' in +hich 8a!anecha =i arrives. 0he infor'ant i'plies that the !oddess +as +orn as a pendant, a pala 4a for' in +hich !oddesses often travelB see fi!. 1G6B other acco)nts have it that the kin! ore her te'ple icon on his sho)lders or )pper ack. 0he nat)re of her ori!inal for' does not appear to e critical. <hat sho)ld e noted is that this fo)ndation 'yth ass)'es 8a!anecha =i;s association +ith the 2atha)rs in their for'er ho'e. &n travelin! fro' that ho'e the !oddess 'anifests t+o for's, +hich serve different p)rposes. Her first for', anchored at 8a!ana, esta lishes that as the ne+ territory for her protM!Ms. Her second, +hich is a 'o ile for', sho+s that she is not confined to one place. 1s a serpent she acco'panies her protM!Ms +hen they en!a!e in con,)est. 1n alternate version of the 'yth 'akes this clear: 8a!anecha =i ca'e +ith o)r ancestors +hen they 3o)rneyed fro' &dar Cin :)3aratD. <hile they +ere fi!htin! for 8a!or, 8a!anecha =i eca'e their $uldevi . 1t 8a!ana they )ilt a te'ple for her. *he +as called 8a!anecha =iI8a!ana pl)s ish , Edeity.E *he appeared to C)'da =i 2atha)r, +ho had prayed to her eca)se he +as losin! a attle. *he 'anifested herself as a snake and fro' then on +as al+ays +ith hi'. Beca)se of this the 2atha)rs +ere a le to con,)er 9ar+ar.

/o)rth, there is 1shap)ra, protectress of the Ca)han $ul , +hich r)led the states of ?ota and B)ndi as +ell as s)ch Udaip)r5linked thi$anas as Bedla and ?othariya. 7 $A 7

!s&apura
9y forefathers )sed to +a!e 'any +ars. Fne ti'e 'y ancestor and his ar'y had r)n o)t of rations on the attlefield. 1nnap)rna Ca *anskritic !oddess, +hose na'e 'eans E*he <ho Has 4:ives6 /oodED appeared to 'y ancestor in a drea' and said, E& +ill eco'e a !reen fly and sit on yo)r ar' +hile yo) fi!ht. Ko) +ill +in 'any villa!es.E CHavin! received food and the protection of 1nnap)rna;s avatarD he +as a le to con,)er 1,%%% villa!es in a sin!le ni!ht. *ince then +e +orship oth 1nnap)rna and 1shap)ra C1nnap)rna;s avatar, E*he <ho Has 4:rants6 <ishesED. 0he final $uldevi to e disc)ssed is Ban 9ata, !)ardian !oddess of 9e+ar 4fi!. 126 and, inter alia, the 9e+ari thi$anas of Bansi, 1'et, ?)ra ar, ?anor, Be!)', and *al)' ar.C11D

4an ,ata
0he $uldevi for the *isodiyas )sed to e 1' a 9ata. 0hen, +hen the *isodiyas +ere at Chitor, the $uldevi eca'e ?alika 9ata.C12D 0here is still a te'ple for her there no+. Later, +hen the kin! con,)ered :)3arat, he de'anded a :)3arati princess in 'arria!e.C1"D 0hat princess had al+ays +anted to 'arry the *isodiya kin!. *he had even sent hi' a letter tellin! hi' that. Her $uldevi , Ban 9ata, had deter'ined to help her acco'plish this ai'. 1fter the con,)est, the 'arria!e occ)rred. <hen the princess left for her ne+ ho'e, Ban 9ata ca'e +ith her in the for' of a pendant. 0hat is ho+ Ban 9ata left :irnar 4tho)!h there is still a te'ple for her there6 and ca'e here. 1 second acco)nt is not so ')ch a variation as another ety'olo!y, one that states a ho'olo!y et+een the *anskritic !oddess -)r!a and the $uldevi . 0he *isodiyas )sed to +orship -)r!a, 9ata =i. Banas)r +as a de'on +ho fo)!ht +ith 9ata =i. *he con,)ered hi'. /ro' then on she +as called Ban 9ata. C11D 0he na'e Ban +as prono)nced and +ritten in 'any different +ays: Ban, Baen, Bayan, Byan, and >yana. <ritten so)rces tend to prefer Bayan, )t infor'ants )s)ally spelled o)t Ban +hen & asked the' to spell their $uldevi ;s na'e. C12D 0he antecedents of Ban 9ata are va!)e. 1' a and ?alika are *anskritic epithets and so do not characteri@e these !oddesses as discrete local incarnations. 1s +e shall see, these stories refer to a $uldevi precedin! the appearance of Ban 9ata )t !ive her no specific local na'e or identity. 0here is a ?alika 9andir at Chitor. C1"D 0od identifies the kin! as Bappa 2a+al and the ride as the da)!hter of .s)p!ole, prince of the island of B)nderdhiva 4(nnals and (nti'uities 1:19A6. 1nother narrated variant identified Ban 9ata as the da)!hter of a Caran in the villa!e of ?hodB Ha'ir, the !reat *isodiya leader, heard of her po+ers, +orshiped her, and asked her lessin! in his atte'pt to reclai' Chitor fro' the 9o!hals. *he aided hi' and he installed her as *isodiya deity. 0his variant places the adoption of Ban 9ata 3)st after the *isodiya line of :)hils ca'e to the throne rather than after the :)hils first +on Chitor, as 0od;s variant has it.

7 $G 7

12. Ban 9ata i'a!e, Chitor. 7 $9 7 0hese 'yths con3ointly ill)strate a n)' er of f)nda'ental points. /irst, every $ul e(plicitly associates the appearance of its $uldevi +ith a critical act of divine !)ardianship. 0he !oddess )tili@es her po+er 4sha$ti 6 to resc)e royal heirs, revive dyin! soldiers, and esta lish 2a3p)t kin!do's. *econd, the $uldevi ;s po+er of protection is directed to+ard the kin! and his fa'ily. 0he !oddess appears to the kin! 4or prince6 and either +ith hi' or thro)!h hi' protects the $ul and hence the real'. 0h)s, =a'vai 9ata protects -)larai, 8a!anecha =i !)ards C)'da =i, 1d 9ata saves the little princes, and so forth.C1%D 1fter+ard the $uldevi ;s pri'ary relationship re'ains +ith the kin!, +ho tends to her needs 3)st as his o+n servants tend to his. 0his close 'ythical association et+een kin! and !oddess 'eans that the $uldevi is identified +ith the royal fa'ily and concept)ali@ed +ith reference to the protective f)nctions it perfor's. Her te'ple is patroni@ed y the royal fa'ily and is located in or near its palace. Beca)se of this close relationship et+een kin! and $uldevi , +orship of the $uldevi and service of the kin! are intert+ined. 0he kin! attends the $uldevi thro)!h personal acts of devotion and thro)!h p) lic cere'onies, s)ch as )ffalo sacrifices, +hich are held in con3)nction +ith the iann)al festival of 8avratri.C1$D 0he $uldevi protects hi' and thro)!h hi' the kin!do'. Historically, 'e' ers of the $ul have served the kin!, +hose a)thority has een le!iti'ated y $uldevi +orship on the part of oth kin! and $ul 'e' ers. 1nother thin! clear fro' the 'yths is that the $uldevi ;s fore'ost arena of protection is the attlefield. ?in!s and other $ul 'e' ers are +arriors. 0hey !)ard and increase not only the territory of the real' )t also its !lory. /ro' the e!innin!, a kin!do' atte'pts to e(pand thro)!h attle, +hich is the caste d)ty of all 2a3p)t 'en and the principal 'eas)re of their personal +orth. Beca)se attle is the ro)te to !lory and prosperity, the !reat kin! is a con,)eror.C1JD 1s the 2a3p)t kin! and his ar'y fi!ht to s) 3)!ate ne+ land, the $uldevi acco'panies the C1%D 0his shared scenario varies 'arkedly fro' others else+here in &ndia. /or e(a'ple, one *o)th &ndian linea!e deity 4$ulateyvam 6 is venerated after ein! sacrificially eheaded 4Hilte eitel, Cult of +raupadi , ""J, citin! 2einich6. &t is evidently not )n)s)al in *o)th &ndia for s)ch a deity, especially a !oddess, to e venerated as a $ul deity after she p)nishes the kin! or threatens to kill hi' for inappropriate ehavior 49eyer, (n$alaparmecuvari , 1GA, 2$"B and 0ara o)t, )acrifier , 1"26. C1$D -etails of this festival are !iven elo+. C1JD *ee, for e(a'ple, (gni Puranam , trans. 9an'atha 8ath -)tt *hastri, 2 vols. 4>aranasi: Cho+kha' a *anskrit *t)dies Fffice, 19JA6, AAG. Fn the e(pansion of *o)th &ndia kin!do's, see *h)l'an, 1ing and Clo&n , "$H"J. 7 J# 7

kin! as a snake, sits on his sho)lder as a !reen fly, or, in still another tale, flies a ove hi' as a kite 4an ea!le5like ird of prey6.C1AD 0h)s in her 'o ile ani'al for' the $uldevi is identified +ith the !ro+in! 'i!ht, reso)rces, and reno+n of the $ul or sha$h she protects. 0he last cr)cial point a o)t these tales is that a $uldevi is ho'olo!o)s +ith the !reat *anskritic :oddess, partic)larly in her +arrior aspect, -)r!a.C1GD &n the 'yth of =a'vai 9ata, the first narrator states that the +arriors E e!an to think of Parvati and she eca'e a co+.E 0h)s the $uldevi is conceived of as an incarnation 4avatar6 of Parvati, herself one of the est kno+n for's of the :oddess. 1shap)ra is )nderstood as an e'anation of the :oddess, 1nnap)rna, +hose po+er to provide food is the asis for the $ul ;s tri)'ph. Ban 9ata is )nderstood to replace ?alika 9ata, +hose na'e is another epithet of the :oddess. *he, in t)rn, is )nderstood to have taken over fro' 1' a 9ata, +ho ears yet another *anskrit epithet. 0hese se,)ential s) stit)tions sy' olically connect the local !oddess +ith the !reat *anskritic :oddess. 0he ety'olo!y of Ban 9ata provided y one +o'an confir's the !eneral identification of the local !oddess +ith the !reat :oddess. *he says that the local $uldevi is so na'ed eca)se, as the :oddess, she defeated the de'on Banas)r. 0he +o'an does not kno+ any details of this story. & do not kno+ +hether she enco)ntered the *anskritic story of Banas)rC19D or si'ply ass)'es that the $uldevi received her na'e eca)se she defeated a de'on +ho ')st have had that na'e.C2#D Both pos5 C1AD :oddesses are associated +ith ird and snake i'a!ery else+here in &ndiaB see e(a'ples in Beck, Three T&ins , 1$$H$JB and 9eyer, (n$alaparmecuvari , 19%. *everal 'en told 'e that in pre5British days kin!s often e!an ca'pai!ns 3)st after 8avratri5-ashara cele rations. C1GD *anskrit literat)re often treats vario)s !oddesses as pheno'enal 'anifestations of a sin!le fe'ale !oddess, the -evi, +ho e' odies 'otivational po+er or sha$ti 4also a na'e for the -evi6, +hich is conceived as fe'ale. 0hro)!h the process of *anskriti@ation, y +hich local deities are identified +ith *anskritic or E:reat 0raditionE deities, $uldevis are so'eti'es !enerally associated +ith the -evi and so'eti'es specifically associated +ith individ)al *anskritic !oddesses 4especially Parvati, the +ife of *hiva CHindi: *hivD6. *ee f)rther disc)ssion in <endy -oni!er F;/laherty, Women3 (ndrogynes3 and %ther ythical 7easts 4Chica!o: University of Chica!o Press, 19G#6, A1, G2 ff. C19D 0his is 1s)ra BanaB in E1nir)ddha;s Hy'nE fro' the !arivamsha , he i'prisoned 1nir)ddha eca)se 1nir)ddha +as infat)ated +ith Bana;s da)!hter, Usha 40ho'as B. Co )rn, +evi ahatmya CCol)' ia, 9o.: *o)th 1sia Books, 19G$D, 2G%HG$6. &n a story of Banas)r fro' the 1anya$setramahatmya , Bana de'ands a share of 9arkandeya;s sacrifice and is c)rsed y the sa!e to e killed y a vir!in, +ho t)rns o)t to e Parvati 4-avid -ean *h)l'an, Tamil Temple yths CPrinceton: Princeton University Press, 19G#D, 1%$6. 0he na'e Ban 9ata 'ay also s)!!est an association et+een the $uldevi and *hiv, kno+n y the epithet Banesh+ara in so'e shrines in the Udaip)r area. 8o infor'ants 'ade this association in their co''ents or )sed the epithet for the 9e+ari ishtadevta .klin! =i. C2#D 1 'an fro' the Hara sha$h of the Ca)han $ul linked another $uldevi and a de'on in a distinctive 1shap)ra narrative. He told 'e that 1shap)ra, +ho )sed to live in an ashapala treeIfro' +hich she !ot her na'eIrevived his ancestor, killed y a ra$shasa 4de'on6 +ho had eaten all )t his onesB the ancestor +as called 1sthipal 4asthi C onesD and pal CprotectorD6. 7 J1 7 si ilities point to a *anskritic ho'olo!y. 9oreover, even if the story of Banas)r is only a local or )ni,)e version, it e'ploys the pop)lar *anskritic convention of referrin! to deities y the na'es of

de'ons they have killed. 0he 'ost fa'o)s epithet, of co)rse, is that of the :oddess as 9ahishas)ra'ardini, E*layer of the B)ffalo -e'on.EC21D 0his spec)lative ho'olo!y 3oins an o'nipresent ho'olo!y et+een all $uldevis and the :oddess e(pressed d)rin! 8avratri, the festival cele ratin! her con,)est over her )ffalo de'on foe 4see fi!. 1J6. Fn this day the $uldevi is +orshiped as -)r!a. 0he +evimahatmya or +urga Path , a Hindi translation, is recited in !reat :oddess te'ples and $uldevi te'ples alike. 9oreover, $uldevis are as often referred to as -)r!a, -evi, ?ali, Ca')nda, and *hakti, all *anskritic5tradition epithets, as they are y their individ)al local na'es. 0he i'port of this e,)ation of the local $uldevi +ith the *anskritic :oddess is an i'plicit identification of $ul , or in this case sha$h , history +ith cos'ic history. 0he sha$h ;s victories coincide +ith the :oddess;s divine victory over the de'on ar'y led y 9ahish. 0he ho'olo!y et+een -)r!a and $uldevi in the conte(ts of the 8avratri rit)al and the 9ahishas)r 4*anskrit: 9ahishas)ra6 'yth rin!s to li!ht so'e i'portant ass)'ptions a o)t kin!ship. &n 8avratri )ffalo sacrifice, +hich rit)ally reenacts -)r!a;s con,)est over 9ahish, the kin! stands in the role of pri'ary sacrificer.C22D Like the !oddess 9ahishas)ra'ardini, the kin! is the slayer of the )ffalo, +ho is the 4de'onic6 ene'y. Like the !oddess, the kin! severs the )ffalo;s head, lood fro' +hich he then offers to the !oddess. 1t the sa'e ti'e the kin! is identified +ith the victi', 9ahish, +ho is kin! of the de'ons.C2"D C21D 1 si'ilar epithet is >ritra!hni, Ekiller of >ritra,E +ho is *arasvati 41lf Hilte eitel, The Ritual of 7attle C&thaca: Cornell University Press, 19AJD, 1$"6. 0here is also the e(a'ple of 9adh)s)dhana, E*layer of 9adh),E a title for ?rishna )sed thro)!ho)t the 7hagavad #ita . *ee, for e(a'ple, =. 1. B. van B)itenen;s translation, The 7hagavadgita in the aha"harata 4Chica!o: University of Chica!o Press, 19G16, A1, A". C22D <here )ffalo sacrifices are perfor'ed y 2a3p)ts 4Esons of kin!sE6 +ho are not in fact kin!s, the sacrificers stand in the position of the kin! relative to the sacrificial victi', the )ffalo. 1s else+here in &ndia, the 2a3p)t does +hat the Brah'an priests cannot, i.e., he spills lood. Priests direct the sacrifice and read fro' the +evimahatmya , )t only the +arrior can decapitate the victi'. C2"D *ee 9adeleine Biardea) and Charles 9ala'o)d, ,e sacrifice dans l5.nde ancienne 4Paris: Presses )niversitaires de /rance, 19AJ6, 1%J. 1lso see the disc)ssion of 9ahish as Pot) 2a3a in i id., 1$#B in Hilte eitel, Cult of +raupadi , "A n. G and passi'B and in :)nther -. *onthei'er, Pastoral +eities in Western .ndia 4F(ford: F(ford University Press, 19G96, $JH$A. 7 J2 7 0h)s the lood he offers is also his o+n.C2%D 0he de'on 9ahish, li erated y death fro' his de'onic )ffalo for', eco'es the :oddess;s fore'ost devotee. 0he kin!, also represented as the $uldevi ;s fore'ost devotee, offers her his death to ass)re her victory over the ene'ies of his kin!do'.C2$D 0h)s Ban 9ata ears the epithet B)kh 9ata, EH)n!ry 9other,E for she needs lood fro' her royal protM!Ms to protect the'.C2JD *)ch an identification of kin! as sacrificer and sacrificed is +idely doc)'ented y scholars treatin! >edic and pop)lar sacrifice.C2AD 0his sa'e do) le identification is seen in the traditional constr)ction of +arfare. 0he kin!, +ho is protected y the :oddess 4as $uldevi 6 and +ho acts as she does +hen he kills his ene'ies, also !ives his life in attle. 0h)s a!ain, the kin! is not only con,)eror of 9ahish )t also 9ahish, the kin!5victi'. 0o sacrifice one;s life in attle, also called "alidan , is the +arrior;s desired destiny.C2GD 1s fore'ost and ,)intessential +arrior, the kin! !ives his lood on the attlefield, +hich no)rishes the $uldevi +ho protects the $ul and kin!do'.C29D 1t ti'es B)kh 9ata has needed the lood of 'any kin!s and soldiers to 'ake attle s)ccessf)l. Hence the $uldevi helps the kin! protect and stren!then his kin!do' )t, like

-)r!a Eli eratin!E 9ahish, she also leads hi' and his soldiers to+ard !lorio)s death in attle. Fne 'yth, +hich +as told to 'e y the rother of an infor'ant, 'akes the identification of the kin! as sacrificer and sacrificed partic)larly vivid. He said that the 9)sli's had killed all his ancestors in their erst+hile ho'e at 8arola. Fnly the pre!nant ,)een escaped and 'ana!ed to deliver the heir. <hen the oy, >i3ay 2a3, +as old eno)!h, he +as 'arried to a da)!hter of the =aisal'er kin!. 0he 9)sli's +ere keen C2%D &n a 9adhya Pradesh estate +here one no le+o'an !re+ )p, 'ale fa'ily 'e' ers c)t their ar's to offer their $uldevi their o+n lood on 8avratri. Fn )ffalo sacrifice as sy' olic enact'ent of h)'an sacrifice, see Biardea) and 9ala'o)d, ,e sacrifice , 1%GB Herrensch'idt, ELe sacrifice,E 1$#B and Hilte eitel, Cult of +raupadi , J". & shall disc)ss ani'al and h)'an sacrifice in !reater detail in 'y st)dy of hero +orship in 2a3asthan. C2$D /or a 'ore detailed sketch of this 'yth see -avid ?insley, !indu #oddesses 4Berkeley: University of California Press, 19GJ6, 9JH99. C2JD *ee chapter " for details of the story y +hich B)kh 9ata !ained her epithet. C2AD Fn the kin!;s roles as sacrificer and sacrificed see =an Heester'an, The .nner Conflict of Tradition 4Chica!o: University of Chica!o Press, 19G$6, 11#B Hilte eitel, Cult of +raupadi , J", AAB /illio@at, E1fter5-eath -estiny,E %B *h)l'an, 1ing and Clo&n , "J, 2GJHGAB and Beck, Three T&ins , $". C2GD /or e(ploration of this +idely reco!ni@ed the'e, see Hilte eitel, Ritual of 7attle B Heester'an, .nner Conflict 4partic)larly his chapter, E0he Case of the *evered HeadE6B and Beck, Three T&ins , $1H $2. C29D Fn the notion that eatin! flesh E'akesE a !oddess protect her +ards, see 9eyer, (n$alaparmecuvari , 1JG. 7 J" 7 to kill hi'B they p)rs)ed hi' +herever he +ent. =)st after the 'arria!e his $uldevi , 1shap)ra, appeared to hi' and said: & a' yo)r fa'ily !oddess and & +ant to see yo) settled do+n. 0o'orro+ yo) !o to a partic)lar lake and yo);ll see a herd of )ffalo athin!. &n the herd +ill e a i! 'ale ')ch i!!er than nor'al. He;ll have a !old rin! in his nose. Ko) kill hi'. &nside his sto'ach yo);ll find a i! s+ord, +hich +ill stay +ith the r)lin! head of state in ti'es to co'e. Ko) +ill e a r)ler no+. 0hat s+ord sho)ld e handed do+n fro' !eneration to !eneration. 1fter that >i3ay 2a3 +as s)ccessf)l a!ainst the 9)sli's. 0he narrator then noted that Ethe s+ord has re'ained +ith the fa'ily )t the !olden racelet, +hich is s)pposed to e +orn y the r)lerIyo) re'e' er, the racelet that +as +orn y the )ffalo in his nose Iis not +ith )s any 'ore. 9ay e it !ot +orn o)t or lost.E 0his acco)nt s)ccinctly links )ffalo sacrifice +ith s)ccess in +ar. &t also identifies the kin! +ho kills the )ffalo oth as sacrificerIfro' the sacrifice he perfor's he !ets a s+ord for attle and for 'ore sacrificesIand as victi'I eca)se he is to +ear as a racelet the !old rin! that the )ffalo 4the leader of the herd6 once +ore in its nose. 0he $uldevi !ives the kin! the i'ple'ents he needs for his s)ccess and her satisfaction. 0he fo)ndation 'yths presented a ove artic)late an )nderstandin! of royal and $ul or sha$h po+er as divinely le!iti'ated. 0he kin! and his +arriors are !)ided y a $uldevi , +hose d)ty as a +ar !oddess

is to facilitate their perfor'ance of 'ilitary d)ties. <hat, then, can e the relevance of the $uldevi to the lives of +o'enQ 0o ans+er this ,)estion +e ')st f)rther ponder the connection et+een the concepts of caste and !ender. 0he +ay that 'en and +o'en )nderstand the po+ers of the $uldevi reflects their s)ppositions a o)t the nor's 2a3p)ts espo)se and the roles +o'en have. /or +o'en, these s)ppositions so'eti'es prove tro) leso'e. 0he 'ost i'portant s)pposition shared y 'en and +o'en is that caste r)les or nor's relate closely to the caste d)ties perfor'ed y 'en. 2a3p)ts, +e have seen, have een r)lers and +arriors. 0hat these d)ties are constr)ed as 'ale d)ties is seen 'ost clearly in the ideal of the 2a3p)t as a protector of +o'en. 2a3p)t 'en are to ad'inister and defend their real's in s)ch a +ay that +o'en need never fi!ht in defense of personal honor and fa'ily rep)tation.C"#D C"#D 0od attri )tes the 2a3p)t protectiveness of +o'en to the 2a3p)t s)scepti ility to +o'en: E&f devotion to the fair se( e ad'itted as a criterion of civili@ation, the 2a3poot ')st rank hi!h. His s)scepti ility is e(tre'e, and fires at the sli!htest offense to fe'ale delicacy, +hich he never for!ivesE 4(nnals and (nti'uities 1:22"6. 7 J% 7 &deally then, +o'en do not perfor' these caste d)tiesB they perfor' fe'ale d)ties, s)ch as ho)sekeepin! and child rearin!. Caste5related nor's, ho+ever, apply to +o'en as they do to 'en. Honor, co)ra!e, di!nity, !enerosity, and $ul loyalty are the virt)es e(pected of a 2a3p)t, 'ale or fe'ale. Here tro) le s)rfaces. /or 'en, nor's and d)ties are closely associated. /or +o'en, ho+ever, nor's that derive fro' 'en;s caste d)ties ')st e applied to d)ties )nderstood as !ender5affiliated. /)rther'ore, eca)se !ender5affiliated d)ties have their o+n nor'ative ideals, there is al+ays potential for friction et+een d)ty5alienated caste nor's and d)ty5related !ender nor's. 0he traditional nor's of +o'anhood are s) s)'ed +ithin the central ideal of the pativrata , +hose d)ties are those essential to ein! a !ood +ife to her h)s and, a !ood 'other to her children, and a !ood da)!hter5in5la+ to her h)s and;s parents. 1ll fe'ale d)ties derive fro' the pativrata ideal. &f a +o'an is devoted to her h)s and, e(e'plary perfor'ance of all secondary d)ties +ill nat)rally follo+. 2a3p)t +o'en;s conception of their $uldevi s clearly reflects this pativrata ideal. Like the 'en in their fa'ilies, 2a3p)t +o'en )nderstand $uldevi s as protectors )t relate to the' pri'arily as protectors of the ho)sehold rather than as protectors of an e(tended kinship !ro)p. 0he $ul 4or sha$h 6 is not a !ro)p +ith +hich +o'en identify or interact in any concrete +ay. &t is relevant to the' only insofar as it i'pin!es )pon the ho'e. 0h)s +o'en tend to tell stories in +hich their $uldevi s render aid to ho)sehold 'e' ers.

T&e House&old Stories

0he follo+in! story, related y a pro'inent Udaip)r no le+o'an a o)t her con3)!al fa'ily;s $uldevi , ill)strates the type of aid $uldevi s !ive +ithin the conte(t of the fa'ily. ?)ldevi CBan 9ataD appeared to 'e once. *he had a lota 4vessel6 of +ater, +hich she !ave to 'e. &t +as d)rin! the +ar 419J$6C"1D and 'y h)s and +as in the ar'y. He had een shot. 0he doctors operated on hi'. & +as there. ?)ldevi ca'e to 'e in order to !ive 'e the lota of +ater for 'y h)s and to drink. *he also !ave 'e a rose and told 'e to p)t one of its petals in 'y h)s and;s 'o)th. 1t first & tho)!ht that ?)ldevi +as 3)st 'y sister, )t then & reali@ed +ho she +as. & kne+ that the doctor had said that 'y h)s and sho)ld not drink +ater, so & +as afraid to

!ive hi' any. 0hen the n)rseIshe +as a Catholic sisterI C"1D 0he 19J$ +ar involved &ndia and Pakistan. 7 J$ 7 sa+ ?)ldevi 43)st as & sa+ her6. ?)ldevi +as +earin! a ea)tif)l red 2a3p)t dress +ith find !old ead+ork. 1fter a ti'e ?)ldevi +alked a+ay. & asked the n)rse +here she had !one. 0he n)rse said, E9ay e she;s in the +aitin! roo'.E & +ent to look for ?)ldevi )t she had disappeared. & +ent do+nstairs and asked the sentry if he had seen a +o'an leave. He said, E&t;s 1:## 1.9. and visitin! ho)rs ended at 11:## P.9. Ff co)rse no ody ca'e o)t the door.E *he had vanished. 1s & said, & +as afraid to !ive 'y h)s and the +ater. & tho)!ht the doctor +o)ld e an!ry eca)se he had said that 'y h)s and sho)ld not drink or eat anythin!. *o & didn;t !ive 'y h)s and the +ater and the rose. &nstead, & fell asleep. ?)ldevi ca'e to 'e in a drea'Ithis ti'e she ca'e in a drea' and not efore 'y eyesIand she said, EKo) ')st !ive hi' the +ater and rose petals.E *o & a+oke and !ave the' to hi'. 0he ne(t 'ornin! the doctor ca'e to 'e and said, ECon!rat)lations, yo)r h)s and +ill recover.E He rec)perated ri!ht a+ay. <o'en say that $uldevi s appear in drea's and visions in order to help +o'en avert fa'ily 'isfort)ne. 9any e(a'ples of this co)ld e cited. 0he 'ost co''on cases of catastrophe aversion involve ailin! h)s ands or, less fre,)ently, children. <o'en also say that often a $uldevi appears not to avert 'isfort)ne )t to help a protM!Me prepare for 'isfort)ne y +arnin! her of its approach. Fne +o'en states: <henever tro) le is !oin! to happen she co'es to help )s y +arnin! )s. *he has 'ore than one for' 4rup 6 )t she is al+ays very ea)tif)l. *he looks like a suhagin Can a)spicio)s 'arried +o'anD. F)r 1uldevi ca'e to 'y 'other to tell her 'y !randfather +as !oin! to die. 0+o days later he passed a+ay. 0his acco)nt specifically na'es the for' in +hich $uldevi s inevita ly appear in the ho)sehold stories. <hereas the fo)ndation 'yths !enerally depict her in an ani'al for' 4a snake, a kite, etc.6, the ho)sehold stories descri e a partic)larly lovely suhagin :pativrata; . &n another s)ch acco)nt a +o'an reports that her fa'ily;s $uldevi , +ho appeared to her in a drea', looked like a suhagin . 0he suhagin then eca'e a fla'e that !re+ into a lar!e fire. 8ot lon! after this drea', its recipient s)ffered the loss of a relative. 0he +o'an said that the drea' fire foreshado+ed the li!htin! of her relative;s f)neral pyre. *he )nderstood the drea' not as a ad o'en, even tho)!h it predicted the death of a fa'ily 'e' er, )t as a helpf)l s)''ons that ena led her to ready herself and her ho)sehold for an approachin! crisis. 0h)s the t+o asic services $uldevi s perfor' are renderin! aid in ti'es of desperation and !ivin! +arnin!s +hen tro) le is i''inent. 0he !oddesses )se the 'edia of drea's and visions. &nterestin!ly eno)!h, 7 JJ 7 not a sin!le +o'an & intervie+ed, or for that 'atter any 2a3p)t +o'an or 'an & 'et d)rin! 'y stay in 2a3asthan, 'entioned possession in disc)ssin! $uldevi s and their deeds. Beca)se this see's )n)s)alI villa!e and linea!e deities in 'any co'')nities thro)!ho)t &ndia do possess their devoteesI& asked a

fe+ +o'en a o)t $uldevi possession. 0hey responded that $uldevi s, and satimata s for that 'atter, do not possess 2a3p)t +o'en. 0o find o)t +hether their ans+ers +ere representative, & )ndertook a separate s)rvey of fifty +o'en 4no les and villa!ers6 +ith e(plicit ,)estions a o)t possession. Fver and over & heard the sa'e response: s)ch possession does not occ)r.C"2D 9oreover, +o'en tended to treat this +hole line of ,)estionin! a o)t possession as silly and irrelevant.C""D *o'e fo)nd it ins)ltin!, either to 2a3p)t +o'en or to $uldevi s. 1s everyone 'ade perfectly clear, possession is not a di!nified sort of thin!. 2a3p)t +o'en, ein! very protective of their co'pos)re 4+hat +e 'i!ht call Eself5possessionE6, do not like the idea of rollin! a o)t on the floor, lettin! their hair fly loose, ne!lectin! their head coverin!s, and so forth. 8ot only is s)ch ehavior i''odest, it has se()al overtones. 1s one +o'an e(plained a o)t possession, E<e don;t like the idea of so'ethin! co'in! into o)r odies . . . that;s +hy +e keep parda .E 1ltho)!h it 'i!ht at first see' s)rprisin! that a !oddess;s possession of a +o'an +o)ld have s)ch overtones, it is less so +hen one learns that the pri'ary deity of +hich +o'en think +hen they think of EpossessionE 4"hav ana 6 is Bher) =i 4*anskrit: Bhairava6.C"%D Bher) =i is an attendant of vario)s !oddesses 4incl)din! $uldevi s6 as +ell as a deity in his o+n ri!ht. 1n insatia ly l)sty achelor, Bher) =i deli!hts in sed)cin! +o'en, especially yo)n! vir!ins. &n 2a3asthan as else+here, Bher) =i;s C"2D 1ltho)!h thoro)!h spec)lation on +hy possession does not occ)r +o)ld e a di!ression, & address possession eca)se one 'i!ht e(pect to find it associated +ith !oddess tradition. &t is hard to discover +hy people lack a certain elief. 0o ask the' +hy they lack the eliefIi.e., to ask the' +hy they do not think as o)tsiders e(pectIis, of co)rse, to invite artificial responses. 1ns+ers to s)ch ,)estions can e !leaned only thro)!h inference, e(cept perhaps in instances +here a elief +as previo)sly held and then conscio)sly a andoned. C""D 0he ,)estions treated oth $uldevi and sati possession. 0he responses +ere identical: it does not happen. Ff fifty +o'en intervie+ed, forty5nine said they kne+ of no $uldevi possession 4one +as )ns)re6B all said they kne+ of no sati possession. 0he one infor'ant +ho 'entioned an incidence of $uldevi possessionIinvolvin! a fe'ale relative +ho +as possi ly possessed +hile 'y infor'ant +as a little !irlI+as not s)re +hether the possessin! deity +as a $uldevi or another !oddess or +hether the relative +as so er or tipsy as she +as at least occasionally kno+n to e. 1 n)' er of +itnesses dre+ the latter concl)sion. C"%D 1s one +o'an e(plained to 'e, E& have never heard of a $uldevi +ho possesses people. 0hey 3)st don;t do that. 1uldevi s are not like Bher)sNE 7 JA 7 possession is associated +ith se()al penetration.C"$D 0h)s +hile ackno+led!in! that Bher) =i can possess 42a3p)t +o'en and +o'en of other castes venerate Bher) 3)st efore 'arria!e so that he +ill not violate their vir!inity as they prepare to eco'e se()ally active6, 2a3p)t +o'en deny that he possesses them .C"JD 2ather he possesses lo+5caste people, oth 'en and +o'en. &n partic)lar, he possesses "hopa s, 'edi)'s, +ho eco'e possessed +hile perfor'in! Bher) =i veneration. &n trance, the "hopa s are clairvoyant and +ill ans+er ,)estions p)t to the'. 1ltho)!h "hopa s are !ood at helpin! people identify and interpret drea's sent y $uldevi s and satimata s, they are not pri'arily associated +ith these fa'ily !)ardians.C"AD &n the villa!e in +hich & +orked, Bher) possession occ)rs not at the $uldevi te'ples or any other !oddess te'ples )t in the Bher) =i te'ple, +hich is sit)ated on the villa!e o)ndary and far fro' other te'ples and shrines.C"GD 0h)s the lo+5caste associations of Bher) possession see' to co' ine +ith the se()al associations to 'ake possession )nappealin! to 2a3p)t +o'en. Perhaps the lo+5caste associations also help e(plain

the a sence of possession a'on! 2a3p)t 'ales.C"9D 8either 2a3p)t +o'en & intervie+ed for'ally nor 2a3p)t 'en & intervie+ed infor'ally kne+ of any $uldevi or satimata possession of 2a3p)t 'en. Bein! less concerned +ith chastity than +o'en are, 2a3p)t 'en 'i!ht e less da)nted y the se()al aspects of possession 4or at least possi ly, possession y +o'en6 )t e,)ally )neasy a o)t its associations +ith stat)s.C%#D 0here is a nota le e(ception to this disco'fort +ith possession. 2a3p)t 'en and +o'en say that so'eti'es ancestors 4purvaj s6 do possess fa'ily 'e' ers. Purvaj possession 'ay 'ana!e to escape the lo+5caste and se()al connotations of Bher) possession eca)se ancestors share the sa'e caste and lood as their possessed descendants and eca)se fa'ilial closeness tends not to e constr)ed as se()al. .ven cross5!ender possession see's to raise no concern a o)t incest, for there are instances C"$D :old, Fruitful /ourneys , 2$AH$G. C"JD *ee i id., 9$, 19A n. G. C"AD 0hey also !rant vario)s lessin!s, s)ch as fertility. C"GD 0he pri'ary "hopa at this te'ple is a 2aika, a 'e' er of a caste of !oat and sheep herders. C"9D &n the 19$#s :. 9orris Carstairs noted a tendency a'on! hi!h castes to perceive possession as !enerally associated +ith lo+ castes in his villa!e 4less than a half5ho)r;s drive fro' the villa!e +here & +orked6 4The T&ice67orn CBloo'in!ton: &ndiana University Press, 19JAD, 2J, 92H9"6. C%#D 2a3p)ts and others tend to )nderstand 2a3p)t 'en in !eneral as rather virile, l)sty sorts. 0h)s there are 'any stories a o)t the si@e of ancestors; e(tensive hare's and the lascivio)sness of their dancin! !irls. 7 JG 7 of +o'en ein! possessed y deceased rothers and sons. Fne co''only 'entioned instance of ancestral possession a'on! +o'en, ho+ever, +as the possession of a ride y the deceased +ife of her h)s and.C%1D .ither envio)s of the livin! or feelin! ne!lected y the livin!, ancestral spirits ')st e venerated to keep the' fro' 'akin! 'ischief in the ho)sehold.C%2D &n rief, $uldevi s and satimata s like to keep their distance even fro' those +ho' they protect. 2ather than possess, they prefer to send instr)ctive visions and !ive +arnin!s. 0he $uldevi stories often co' ine these t+o services. 0hey tell of ti'es in +hich a $uldevi appears in order to +arn )t also to help avert an i'pendin! crisis. 0hese stories invaria ly involve a sit)ation +here a $uldevi eco'es 'anifest eca)se her +orship has een ne!lected in so'e essential +ay. *he +arns that )nless her +orship is perfor'ed properly, vario)s )ndesira le conse,)ences +ill ens)e. 1 +arnin! appearance is typically acco'panied y ad o'ens: co+s; )dders +ither, children co'e do+n +ith fever, 'oney pro le's arise or intensify. -espite the )npleasant or even fri!htenin! character of these appearances and o'ens, the +arnin!s $uldevi s provide are considered lessin!s. 0he $uldevi is not )nderstood as 'alevolent to+ard her protM!Ms. *o'e say she only +arns of ad conse,)encesB she does not ca)se the'. 0hose +ho elieve that she does ca)se har' say that she is ri!ht to do so eca)se she has een ins)lted y rit)al ne!lect. Fne +o'an e(plained that a $uldevi ')st e respected eca)se she is like one;s 'other. &f she ca)ses har' in the short r)n, it is for the est in the lon! r)n. 1s another +o'an p)t it: EHo+ +ill o)r $uldevi ca)se )s har'Q C%1D 1 detailed acco)nt of a =aip)r no le+o'an;s possession y a fe'ale ancestor 4pitrani 6 several !enerations a!o occ)rs in the E1'ar *inh -iaryE 4its a rid!ed version +ill e p) lished y 9ohan

*inh of ?anota and *)sanne 2)dolph and Lloyd &. 2)dolph6. 1nn :old descri es the possession of villa!e rides y their h)s ands; deceased +ives in Fruitful /ourneys , JAHJG. & have +ondered +hether 2a3p)ts +ho have een e(posed to +estern ed)cation 'i!ht not have !rad)ally co'e to perceive $uldevi and satimata possession as s)perstitio)s 4see Bri3 2a3 Cha)han, ( Rajasthani 4illage C-elhi: >ir P) lishin! Ho)se, 19JAD, 2#JHA6 )t then also +ondered +hy in that case, they contin)e to elieve in ancestor possession and Bher) =i possession no+. &nterestin!ly, altho)!h all villa!e +o'en did not elieve in $uldevi and satimata possession, a fe+ did elieve that on rare occasions local 2a3p)t +o'en and 'en have een possessed y a villa!e !oddess. Perhaps villa!ers have a sor ed the no ility;s opinions a o)t 2a3p)t traditions )t kept other local ones. & hope to investi!ate s)ch 'atters in 'y +ork on hero +orship. C%2D 2a3p)ts; ancestor +orship is si'ilar to that of other castes in 2a3asthan. 1ncestors are installed in s'all shrines, often in pleasant places a+ay fro' the ho)sehold s)ch as shady patches )nder trees and alon! the ed!es of +ells. *o'eti'es the ancestors prefer a 'ore inti'ate location in pendants 4putli s6, +hich people have 'ade y local 'etals'iths 4*onis6 and +hich they hand aro)nd their necks. /or 'ore on ancestor veneration, see :old, Fruitful /ourneys . 7 J9 7 *he sits on o)r sho)lders.E Here referrin! to the kite 4cil 6 for' 4rup 6 of her $uldevi , this +o'an e(presses the senti'ent that +hatever the $uldevi does, she intends to protect the line that elon!s to her. &f ne!lected, she instr)cts devotees so that they +ill 'end their +ays and once a!ain deserve her protection. <hen the $uldevi decides to teach her devotees a lesson, that is, to p)nish the' for their o+n !ood, she often does so y +ithdra+in! a odily fl)id, as the o'ens listed a ove indicate. *he evaporates the 'ilk of co+s, +hich is associated +ith the n)rt)re of children in t+o senses: it is !iven y 'others to children for their no)rish'ent and it is ho'olo!o)s +ith 'other;s 'ilk, the co+ ein! the ,)intessential sy' ol of 'otherhood. /)rther'ore, she ca)ses fever: she dries )p the +ater in the ody. 0he victi's here are !enerally children, )t so'eti'es h)s ands. 1nother +ay she tends to p)nish, destroyin! financial sec)rity, is not literally a 'ode of dehydration. 8evertheless, in descri in! sit)ations in +hich $uldevi s have h)rt fa'ily reso)rces, t+o +o'en resorted to the sa'e hyper olic e(pression, E0here +asn;t even eno)!h 'oney to )y 'ilk for the childrenNE 0he ease +ith +hich these +o'en associated i'poverish'ent +ith fl)id deprivation strikes 'e as s)!!estin! that +o'en do perceive a connection et+een the t+o. 0he dehydration type of +arnin!, so appropriate to the 2a3p)ts; desert environ'ent, correlates +ith the +ay a $uldevi renders direct aid. <hen the soldier is dyin! in the hospital, his $uldevi delivers to his +ife life5savin! +ater. <hen the 2atha)rs are critically +o)nded on the attlefield, she appears as a co+ to splash life5rene+in! 'ilk on their faces and into their 'o)ths. Hence +hen resc)in! and revivin! her 'ale protM!Ms and their children, the $uldevi f)nctions in her do'estic aspect. .ven tho)!h in the ho)sehold she 'akes her +ill kno+n y afflictin! children and h)s ands +ith vario)s kinds of dehydration, she is not to e la'ed or resented for these afflictions.C%"D *he +ithdra+s y i'plicationB she !ives o)tri!ht. 0h)s +hen +o'en restore their proper rit)al practices, the $uldevi res)'es her active role as the !iver of fl)ids. Here it is clear that +hile the $uldevi appears +holly in her pativrata aspect in the conte(t of her role as fa'ily protector, she also de'onstrates pativrata ehavior in servin! her role as $ul protector. 0h)s there C%"D &n allo+in! or even in ca)sin! dehydration, the $uldevi see's to deny her children her 'aternal

reast rather than protect the'. B)t this act does not transfor' her concept)ally into a hostile !oddess as descri ed, for e(a'ple, y F;/laherty, Women3 (ndrogynes , 9#H91. 7 A# 7 is an )ndenia le crossover of i'a!ery et+een the do'ains of +o'en;s and 'en;s +orship. Before & can disc)ss this crossover +ith !reater specificity, & ')st say so'ethin! 'ore a o)t the ho)sehold5 linked contrasts et+een the $uldevi ;s relationships +ith +o'en on the one hand and +ith 'en and children on the other. <hereas the $uldevi serves as the dispenser of fl)ids to 'en and children, she does not serve in this capacity relative to +o'en. 2ather, she coerces +o'en 4so'eti'es !ently, so'eti'es not so !ently6 to etter serve an analo!o)s role. *he n)rt)res and protects 'en and children as every pativrata sho)ld. 9oreover, her p)rpose of afflictin! the fa'ily in the first place is to ens)re that the +o'an +hose task as a pativrata is to protect her h)s and and his fa'ily +ill perfor' the rit)al d)ties that !)arantee fa'ily +elfare and prosperity. 0he !ivin! of fl)ids is to e )nderstood as the ,)intessential 'ode of protection rendered y $uldevi s and pativrata s alike. 0he fl)ids revive and stren!then lood, the loss of +hich 'eans death. =)st as the $uldevi conserves and invi!orates the lood of the $ul , a +o'an, thro)!h her rit)als, y her daily ho)sehold d)ties, and +ith her chastity, protects the lood of her fa'ily. 0he pativrata ;s rit)als pro'ote the lon!evity of fa'ily 'e' ers. Her d)tif)l perfor'ance of ho)sehold responsi ilities increases her reservoir of virt)e 4sat 6, +hich rit)als fortify and conserve. /inally, her chastity preserves her se()ality for the p)rposes of procreation +ithin the fa'ily. &t protects the p)rity and stren!th of the fa'ily;s loodline. By these 'eans, the pativrata serves her ho)sehold as the a!ent of the $uldevi she venerates. &n short, altho)!h as $ul protector the $uldevi has intervened in events on the attlefield, it is as a ho)sehold protector that she has 'ost actively re!)lated her protM!Ms; lives. <ars are occasional occ)rrencesB fa'ily 'ishaps are endless rec)rrences. Hence, altho)!h the $uldevi is a +arrior !oddess, she has al+ays een )siest as the day5to5day !)arantor and dele!ator of protective pativrata responsi ility. &f +e consider this often overlooked do'estic di'ension of $uldevi tradition, +e can see that the li'ited conception of the $uldevi as a +arrior !oddess is ins)fficient. 0r)e, 'en and +o'en share this mardana 5derived conception. 1s the core of $uldevi +orship, it provides the fo)ndation 'yth that serves as a asis for the $ul ;s s) se,)ent sacred !enealo!y. 1s +e have seen, ho+ever, +o'en )tili@e far 'ore than this co''on core. 1cco)nts s)ch as the hospital story and the drea' stories sho+ that +o'en accept the co''on tradition )t enrich it y i'pos5 7 A1 7 in! on it their do'estic 42anana 5linked6 !oddess. 0he icono!raphy of the !oddess 'eta'orphoses in the process. 0he snake or kite eco'es a richly adorned pativrata . 0his e(pansion en!enders a for'al parado(: the $uldevi is a vir!in and a pativrata . 1s a +arrior !oddess, she is not the 'ere consort of a 'ale deityB she appears )nattached and )nconstrained. &n te'ples her icon stands alone or s)rro)nded y attendant !oddesses. 9any 'yths refer specifically to her vir!inity. 0he story of 1d 9ata, for e(a'ple, presents the $uldevi as a spinster. ?arni 9ata, a Caran $uldevi +ho is clai'ed y so'e 2a3p)ts as +ell,C%%D also re'ains a 'aiden. *he chan!es herself into a lion to fri!hten a+ay her !roo' for his o+n !ood and then, havin! th)s revealed her divine nat)re,

arran!es for the etrothal of the a'a@ed yo)n! 'an to her yo)n!er sister, +ho is a 'ore s)ita le ride. Fther $uldevi 'yths si'ply i'ply a $uldevi5s )n'arried stat)s y 'akin! no 'ention of a consort. /inally, as noted, the $uldevi is directly identified +ith -)r!a, +hose very po+er derives fro' her stat)s as a vir!in )nrestrained y 'ale control. Ket as the ho)sehold stories ill)strate, thro)!h the fe'ale appropriation of the $uldevi the !oddess is transfor'ed into a lovely ride +hose !)ardianship and i'plicit instr)ction help her protM!Mes to e virt)o)s and d)tif)l +ives. 0h)s altho)!h ased on the i'a!e of the +arrior !oddess, the )n'arried and fierce vir!in +ho protects the $ul , the fe'ale conception of the $uldevi entails a predo'inant notion of the !oddess as +ife and 'other. &t is this suhagin i'a!e that shapes the fore'ost e(perience and e(pectations of the +o'en +ho perfor' do'estic $uldevi rit)als. 0he i'a!es, then, are fl)id: altho)!h an ordinary +o'an cannot e vir!inal and 'arried accordin! to conte(t, a !oddess can e. C%$D 1ltho)!h the do'estic or 2anana 5linked conception of the $uldevi has 'ore i'pact on the lives of 2a3p)t +o'en, the +arrior conception that )nderlies it is never +holly a sent. /or one thin!, 2a3p)t +o'en are a+are of their fe'ale ancestors +ho +ere forced y disaster to fi!ht in attle. 0hose ancestors are heroines of +ho' 2a3p)t +o'en speak readily and e() erantly. Hi!hly revered, s)ch +o'en are fe+ eca)se parda prohi ited p) lic appearances )nder all )t the 'ost desperate C%%D *o'e 2atha)r +o'en clai' ?arni 9ata as their $uldevi . 1s +e shall see, 2a3p)t +o'en have so'eti'es adopted alien $uldevis , +ho attend or event)ally s)pplant their $ul or sha$h $uldevis . Like 8a!anecha =i, ?arni is often depicted as a kite on the attlefield, +hich 'akes the association et+een the' especially easy. C%$D Fn parado( and divinity, see F;/laherty, )iva , % ff. 7 A2 7 circ)'stances: a proper +o'an +o)ld not leave the do'ain of the ho)sehold )nless faced +ith the death or the i''inent death of her h)s and. 0h)s fe'ale perfor'ance of caste 'ilitary d)ty has een per'issi le only +hen the fe'ale d)ties of pativratas are ter'inated or severely threatened. .ven today 2a3p)t +o'en 'aintain that instillin! the discipline re,)ired to 'eet a 'ilitary e'er!ency re'ains essential to the proper raisin! of da)!hters, tho)!h their e(pectation that +o'en +ill ever have to participate in attle is 'ini'al. 1 n)' er of +o'en 'ade this point a o)t the sociali@ation of their da)!hters. Fne yo)n! tha$urani 4no le5+o'an6, +ho is fro' one of the fore'ost 9e+ari ho)seholds, +ent into this 'atter in !reat detail. *he e(plained that even tho)!h these days a 2a3p)t +o'an 'i!ht never face the prospect of attle, the sociali@ation that prepares a 2a3p)t +o'an for attle is essential as it reinforces the vo+ of self5sacrifice that all +o'en ')st 'ake as pativratas .C%JD 9oreover, the lore of the 'ilitant 2a3p)tni 4fe'ale 2a3p)t6 co'es do+n to children as part of their 2a3p)t herita!e.C%AD 0he i'a!e of the 2a3p)t +o'an +ith s+ord in one hand and shield in the other re'ains an i'portant ele'ent of the 'ythic conscio)sness of 2a3p)tsIespecially of 2a3p)t +o'enI today 4fi!s. 1", 1%6. &t is painted on palace entry+ays and printed on the covers of children;s story ooks.C%GD &cono!raphically, it is an i'a!e of 2a3p)t +o'an in the role of $uldevi : it is the lone protectress +ho fi!hts a'on! 'en on the attlefield 4fi!. 1$6. 0hat the +arrior aspect of the !oddess )nderlies the do'estic aspect and is conte(t)ali@ed as a contin!ency does not 'ean, once a!ain, that these aspects are perceived as opposed. Fften secondary literat)re on the *anskritic :oddess dra+s a rather ri!id dichoto'y et+een the C%JD &n the sa'e vein, another +o'an said, E& +ant to rin! )p 'y children to kno+ traditionI

discipline is necessary for the', other+ise there can e no stren!th 4"ala 6 in one;s life.E 0he ethos of sacrifice and the stern tone that +o'en often adopted +hen e(plainin! the necessity for its preservation often ro)!ht to 'y 'ind television recr)it'ent co''ercials for the 9arine Corps. 0he +o'en;s serio)s tone no do) t reflected oth conviction and fear of i'pendin! lapse !iven the chan!in! social cli'ate. C%AD 0here are vario)s stories of 2a3p)t heroines. 0he 'ost pop)lar of these a'on! 2a3p)t +o'en are reco)nted in chapters $ and J. C%GD 1 'ilitant 2a3p)t +o'an is strikin!ly depicted on a second5story alcony +all in the Udaip)r City Palace 9)se)'. 0his fi!)re is typical of the paintin! style fo)nd, partic)larly on entry+ay +alls, thro)!ho)t 2a3asthan. Cr)de life5si@ed paintin!s of 2a3p)t +o'en also appear as EdoorkeepersE at the entry+ay to the ?ota City Palace 9)se)'. Fther !ood e(a'ples ill)strate the covers of children;s pa'phlets like Rajput Nariyam y 1carya Cat)rsen 4-elhi: Pra hat Prakashan, 19G%6 and Rajasthan $e +urg y 2a3k)'ar 1nil 4-elhi: *ahitya Prakashan, 19G%6 4see fi!s. 1%, 1$6. 7 A" 7

1". 2elief i'a!e of a 2a3p)t +o'an earin! a shield 4 y per'ission of the Udaip)r City Palace 9)se)'6. 7 A% 7

1%. 2a3p)t +o'an !ives her son a s+ord to enco)ra!e hi' to e a rave soldier 4fro' a local pa'phlet entitled Rajput Women 6. 7 A$ 7

1$. 2a3p)t +o'an leadin! a char!e 4fro' a local pa'phlet entitled Forts of Rajasthan 6. 7 AJ 7 'ilitant aspect of the :oddessIthe dark, f)rio)s, a+f)l, and )ncontrolled side of her nat)reIand the +ifely aspect. &t conceives the :oddess in her dark aspect as threatenin! and )nderstands the :oddess in her li!ht aspect as n)rt)rin!.C%9D Left )nconte(t)ali@ed, ho+ever, this stark characteri@ation 'ay e inade,)ate, not least of all eca)se it i!nores the ,)estion of foc)s. &t fails to ask, threatenin! to +ho'Q

Protective of +ho'QC$#D 0o e s)re, in *anskrit literat)re a 'ilitant !oddess is potentially dan!ero)s to all: +rath once en!endered is hard to repress, even +hen it has achieved ven!eance. 0his is the 'essa!e conveyed y the P)ranic 'yth of ?ali in +hich she defeats a de'on ar'y to preserve cos'ic order and then herself poses a threat to the cos'os. *till, the 'essa!e of ?ali;s overflo+ of ener!y is ar!)a ly not of 'alevolence to+ard her allies )t of po+erB she does not have to stop destroyin! +hen she has finished destroyin! ene'ies 4she can e 'aleficent6 if she is into(icated y de'on lood. Fn the 'ore i''ediate, ')ndane levelIand in ter's of this st)dy a 'ore i'portant levelIthe :oddess;s an!er, ho+ever destr)ctive, is tri!!ered y and directed to+ard her ene'ies, +hich 'eans the ene'ies of those she protects 4!ods6, ene'ies +hose defeat finally reesta lishes order in the +orld.C$1D &n a si'ilar +ay the 2a3p)t $uldevi is )nderstood as ori!inally and )lti'ately protective. .ven in her +arrior 'ode, +hen she de'ands the lood of $ul 'e' ers, she is tho)!ht vicio)s not to the $ul )t to the forces opposin! it. 9oreover in 2a3p)t 'ytholo!y, the ,)estion of nonspecific or spillover a!!ression does not even arise. 0he lood of protM!Ms is necessary to defeat ene'ies 4all +ars have cas)alties6, )t the !oddess is satisfied +ith tri)'ph. *he does not r)n a'ok and violate her role as !)ardian. C%9D /or s)per disc)ssions of these aspects in vario)s conte(ts, see F;/laherty, Women3 (ndrogynes , 91H92B and ?akar, .nner World , A9H112. C$#D Beca)se a vir!in !oddess is )nrestrained, she is so'eti'es characteri@ed as se()ally a!!ressive and therefore dan!ero)s, desirin! to cons)'e her victi' literally or se()ally, the t+o ein! identified +ith each other and +ith death. Classed as 'alevolent, she is contrasted +ith the se()ally controlled !oddess, the 'arried one, +ho is dee'ed creative. *o'e st)dies on !oddesses artifically separate and polari@e these aspects. 1s the stories in this chapter sho+, a!!ression is not necessarily or lo!ically antithetical to the f)nction of protection. 0he stories do not al+ays consider an a!!ressive !oddess as 'alevolent even to ene'ies: she 'ay kill ene'ies 4de'ons6 for enevolent p)rposes 4to preserve +orld order or li erate "ha$ts fro' de'onic e(istences. 8or do they necessarily perceive the se()ality of the !oddess 4tied either to vir!inal or con3)!al l)st6 as dan!ero)sIit is essential to procreation. &n no 'ytholo!y does a $uldevi 3eopardi@e her vir!inity on the attlefield or else+here. /or an e(e'plary disc)ssion of the fl)idity of aspects !enerally polari@ed, see 1nn :rod@ins :old, ECo+ <orship, :oat 0alkE 4paper presented at the 1'erican 1nthropolo!ical 1ssociation 9eetin!, -enver, 8ove' er 19G%6. C$1D Havin! praised her $uldevi , one +o'an re'arked, E*he !ives tro) le to others, )t she only does !ood for )s C*isodiyasD.E 7 AA 7 Hence the difference et+een $ul !oddess and fa'ily !oddess cannot e easily for')lated in ter's of hostility and control.C$2D 8o !eneral contradiction is perceived et+een the role of +arrior !)ardian and pativrata !)ardian. 2ather, the relation et+een the !oddess;s t+o aspects re'ains fl)id. 0he for' of the !oddess chan!es: on the attlefield she is the fierce vir!in, and in the ho)sehold she is the prototypical pativrata . 8evertheless, the nat)re of her protective p)rpose does not chan!e. *he is a $ul !)ardian +ho also protects the fa'ily. Her 'odes of protection 'ay clash in act)al sit)ations, for the interests of the $ul and fa'ily are not al+ays synony'o)s. 0his fact does not, ho+ever, alter the ideal concept)ali@ation of her protective roles as co'ple'entary. 0o recapit)late, the $uldevi as $ul !)ardian is for +o'en the asis of the $uldevi 'ytholo!y they kno+ and the potential so)rce of inspiration in the )nlikely event that they sho)ld ever have to participate in +arfare. 0his 'eans that the $uldevi as +arrior !oddess constit)tes a relatively di'inished presence in

the reli!io)s lives of 'ost +o'en. Fn a re!)lar asis 2a3p)t +o'en +orship the $uldevi as a pativrata and hope thro)!h their +orship to perfect their roles as pativratas . 0he conscio)sness of the $uldevi as a do'estic ein! is not, ho+ever, a correspondin!ly di'inished presence in the 'inds of 2a3p)t 'en. 1t ti'es it see's to over+hel' the conception of the $uldevi as a +arrior !oddess. 0his is the case +ith =a'vai 9ata, +ho appears on the attlefield not as a +ild elli!erent ani'al )t as a co+, a do'estic ani'al and &ndia;s )lti'ate sy' ol of 'otherhood. *hortly +e +ill see that this reversal tends to )nder'ine her stat)s. Here it provides the sharpest i'a!e of the transfer of the 'aternal conception of the !oddess to the 'ale do'ain. Fther e(a'ples are not +antin!. Fne involves a !oddess not al+ays e(plicitly identified as Ban 9ata )t +ho appears to Bappa 2a+al, the ill)strio)s forefather of the *isodiyas, in order to instr)ct hi' in the )se of +eapons. &n so doin! she perfor's +hat is ass)redly a $uldevi f)nction. 9o)nted on a lion at a site consecrated to *hiv, she is clearly ho'olo!o)s +ith the *anskritic +arrior :oddess 4see fi!. 1J6. *he appears to Bappa 2a+al d)rin! the final sta!e of a tripartite scenario in +hich he learns of his destiny. 0he first sta!e is defined y an episode in +hich Bappa discovers that one of C$2D 9y persistent ,)estions on the 'alevolence of $uldevis see'ed to provoke only disa!ree'ent or ridic)le. 0he !oddess;s violence does, of co)rse, provide ca)se for a'ple psychoanalytic interpretation, )t here & a' attendin! to the narrative level and conscio)s 'otivation, +hich analyses of !oddess te(ts often treat li!htly 4pres)'a ly eca)se a )ndant e(e!etical co''entary is )navaila le6. *)ch analyses often ass)'e a radical concept)al polari@ation of the !oddess;s characteristics. 7 AG 7 the co+s he is tendin! is not prod)cin! 'ilk and deter'ines to resolve this 'ystery. He follo+s her as she +anders off across so'e fields, then discovers her dischar!in! all her 'ilk on a stone ling 4literally the E'arkE or Esi!nE of *hivIan erect phall)s6 hidden y so'e !rass in the 'idst of a !rove.C$"D Here the co+ s)!!ests Bappa;s destiny, for Bappa +ill eco'e the first a'on! devotees to .klin! =i 4Fne ,ing 6, a for' of *hiv, as +ell as the r)ler of 9e+ar 4fi!. 1A6.C$%D -)rin! the second sta!e Bappa receives instr)ction fro' the sa!e Harit, +ho has een perfor'in! tapasya 4ascetic penances6 at this spot to venerate *hiv. Harit initiates Bappa into the 'ysteries of devotion to *hiv and, efore departin! for heaven in his chariot, infor's Bappa that *hiv intends hi' to e the fo)nder of a r)lin! dynasty. /inally, d)rin! the third sta!e 9ata =i appears in order to !ive Bappa practical advice alon! +ith so'e of the +eapons he +ill need to esta lish his kin!do'. 0his story relatin! the three sta!es of Bappa 2a+al;s s)pernat)ral instr)ction directly corresponds to the three sta!es of learnin! that any 'ale child )nder!oes. &n the e!innin! Bappa;s !)ide is a co+, a 'aternal fi!)re. *he directs hi' to the point +here he is ready to )nder!o reli!io)s ed)cation. 1t this ti'e, he leaves his E'otherE to receive instr)ction fro' a !)r). 0his period effectively constit)tes his upanayan , his initiatory re irth, +hich the 'ale +ho is his spirit)al teacher ')st s)pervise and d)rin! +hich Bappa 2a+al pro!resses fro' oy to 'an and fro' co+herd to kin!. &n the third sta!e the 2a3p)t, no+ a+are of his caste d)ty and destiny, accepts his relationship +ith his protectress. 0his scenario also clearly de'onstrates a transfor'ation of the strictly 'aternal into a predo'inantly 'ilitary type of fe'ale !)ardianship. 0he co+ represents Bappa;s 'other, +ho is not incl)ded directly in this 'ythical 3o)rney to Bappa;s destiny.C$$D 0he !)r) is a spirit)al father fi!)re.C$JD &t is d)rin! the initiatory period spent +ith Harit that the transfor'ation of !)ardianship fro' 'aternal to 'artial occ)rs. 1fter a spirit)al introd)ction to 'anhood and c)lt)s, Bappa takes on this ne+ C$"D 0he ling for' of *hiv represents the coincidence of *hiv;s antithetical traits, asceticis' and

eroticis'. His phall)s is erect eca)se he is an ascetic 4he stores his se'en rather than spillin! it6 and eca)se, associated +ith fertility, he is also a +o'an5chaser. Fn *hiv as celi ate and sed)cer, see F;/laherty, )iva . C$%D Beca)se Bappa is the first a'on! devotees, each of his r)lin! descendants has orne the title of divan 4chief 'inister6 of the .klin! =i te'ple. 0hese descendants have had an i'portant rit)al role in the life of the te'ple. C$$D Fn the co+ as a conventional 'other s) stit)te in &ndian stories, see *h)l'an, Tamil Temple yths B F;/laherty, Women3 (ndrogynes . C$JD *ee 2o ert :old'an, E/athers, *ons, and :)r)s,E /ournal of .ndian Philosophy J 419AG6: "2$H92B and Carstairs, T&ice67orn , A1HA2. 7 A9 7 relationship +ith the fe'inine, +hich is essential to the perfor'ance of caste d)ty. His prior relationship +ith the 'aternal, e it 'other or co+, does not disappear. &t eco'es i'posed on the relationship +ith the !oddess +ho +ill fro' then on e his pri'ary !)ide, his $ul !)ardian. 1nother e(a'ple is that of 1d 9ata, +ho, +e recall, resc)es three little princes fro' a char!in! elephant. *he e(tends her ar's, +hich are at once sy' ols of 'ilitary 'i!ht and 'aternal affection. 0he oys 4it is si!nificant that they are oys, not 'en6 are delivered fro' dan!er into the lovin! e' race of their a)nt. 0hat she is an a)nt is also i'portant as it )nderscores the a' i!)ity of her nat)re. *he is a 'aternal fi!)reIshe is a ea)tif)l +o'an and she perfor's a 'aternal act of protection y cl)tchin! the t+o oys to her reast. &n addition, she is a +arrior $uldevi Ishe is )n'arried and she resc)es the royal heir fro' certain death. Her 'aternal e' race represents her acceptance of the royal heirs as protM!Ms in the $ul . 2ather than cite f)rther instances of the insin)ation of 'aternal into +arrior i'a!ery, it see's 'ore prod)ctive to investi!ate the i'portant characteristics of insin)ation shared y all $uldevis . /irst, all $uldevis , like all !oddesses, are called 9ata =i 4'other6. 0he i'portance of this epithet can e overstressedB the 9ata =i epithet is do) tless conventional. B)t no epithet of the :oddess can si'ply e dis'issed.C$AD 0he na'e 4)sed perhaps 'ore than any other to refer to the :oddess or to a $uldevi 6 )nderscores the point that all +arrior !oddesses, )n'arried tho)!h they e, are potential +ives and 'others and rin!s to li!ht the ass)'ption that all !oddesses, 'arried or not, are 'others to their protM!Ms.C$GD 0he $uldevi is perceived as a lovin! 'other to all $ul 'e' ers, +hose personal health she no)rishes in the ho)sehold and +hose social +elfare she s)pports on the attlefield. *econd, $ul 'e' ers inevita ly )nderstand their $uldevis as elon!in! to a !ro)p of seven !oddesses. 0hey conceive each $uldevi as the central fi!)re in the heptad.C$9D 0he identity of the other !oddesses chan!es fro' $ul to $ul , )t the convention of a !ro)p of seven re'ains constant. 0he idea of a !oddess heptad is y no 'eans a 2a3asthani convention. 0he notion of seven related !oddesses is fo)nd in 'yriad C$AD Co )rn, +evi ahatmya , A$HAG. C$GD 0h)s, in the Tevipara$$iramam 9 4,)oted in *h)l'an, Tamil Temple yths , "1#6, *hakti 4the :oddess6 is Bhavani 4the !reat !enetri(6 and also -)r!a 4the fe'ale +arrior6. C$9D 0his centrality is also de'onstrated in one fa'ily;s $uldevi i'a!e, +hich, fa'ily 'e' ers say, is 'ade of seven 'etals.

7 G# 7

1J. 0he +arrior !oddess -)r!a slays 9ahish, the )ffalo de'on 4i'a!e fro' an icon shop near the .klin! =i te'ple6. 7 G1 7

1A. .klin! =i, 9e+ari incarnation of *hiv 4devotional i'a!e fro' an icon shop y the !ates of the .klin! =i te'ple6. 7 G2 7 &ndian traditions, oth *anskritic and re!ional.CJ#D &n fact in 2a3asthan as else+here the seven local !oddesses are often e,)ated +ith the *apta'atrikas, the E*even 9othersE +ho are fo)nd in *anskritic tradition fro' >edic thro)!h P)ranic ti'es.CJ1D *c)lpted i'a!es of the *apta'atrikas are fo)nd thro)!ho)t 2a3asthan.CJ2D 1s in *anskritic literat)re, 'any of these !oddesses are portrayed as sha$ti s 4consorts, e' odi'ents of fe'ale force6 of vario)s pan5&ndian deities. 0hey are 3oined y a 'ale fi!)re, one of vario)s *haiva deities.CJ"D &n 9e+ar, 'any 'arried 2a3p)t +o'en +ear !old pendants en!raved +ith the seven $uldevi6matri$a s, +ho are rendered as s'all stick fi!)res acco'panied y their even s'aller co'panion Bher) =i, the *haiva !)ardian fi!)re associated +ith the :oddess in local 'ytholo!y 4fi!s. 1G, 196.CJ%D <hereas the sc)lpt)res in 'ost cases 'ake clear icono!raphic associations et+een the !oddesses and the !ods for +ho' they are sha$ti s, the stick fi!)res are devoid of icono!raphic detail and appear to e a)tono'o)s.CJ$D 0hese associations facilitate the assi!nin! of vario)s identities to the !oddesses. 0h)s +hen listin! the seven 'others, a +o'an typically incl)des the na'e of her $uldevi and other $uldevi s +ith +ho' she is fa'iliar )t then fills o)t her list +ith epithets of the *anskritic :oddess. 0hese are not the na'es fo)nd in traditional *anskritic lists of the *apta'atrikas. 0he *anskritic lists na'e s)ch !oddesses as 1indri, Brah'ani, and >aishnavi 4+hose na'es reveal their h)s ands; identities6B 2a3p)t +o'en invoke s)ch rando' epithets as ?ali, ?alika, Ca')nda, and Candi, +ho are all )lti'ately and often va!)ely associated +ith *hiv )t +ho are also independent of hi' in CJ#D 1 !ood e(a'ple of a re!ional hepated is 'entioned y 9eyer, +ho says 1nkala''an and 9ariya''an are often tho)!ht to e t+o of seven !oddesses, the other five of +hich are identified vario)sly y different infor'ants 4(n$alaparmecuvari , $2B also *h)l'an, Tamil Temple yths , 1$"6. CJ1D Co )rn, +evi ahatmya , "1"H"#B ?insley, !indu #oddesses , 1$1HJ#B and 9ichael 9eister, E2e!ional >ariations in 9atrka Conventions,E (rti"us (sia %A, nos. "H% 419GJ6: 2""H%J. CJ2D .(a'ples are the *apta'atrika sc)lpt)res in 9andor 4near the rail+ay station6 and in the =hala+ar 9)se)'B the >arahi fro' ?e3da in the Udaip)r 9)se)'B and the 9aheshvari fro' 9andarra in the 9t. 1 ) 9)se)' 4personal co'')nication to a)thor fro' Cynthia PackartB see Cynthia Packart *tan!roo', E0he -evelop'ent of the 9edieval *tyle in 2a3asthanE CPh.-. diss., Harvard University, 19GGD6. /or detailed analysis of *apta'atrika sc)lpt)re see 9eister, E2e!ional >ariations.E

CJ"D /or sc)lpt)ral variations on the identity of this 'ale fi!)re. see 9eister, E2e!ional >ariations.E CJ%D <o'en +ear these alon! +ith a tiny pendant of Chink 9ata 4*nee@e 9other6, +ho n)llifies the ina)spicio)s effects of snee@es. CJ$D 0he sc)lpted 1indri has an elephant, >arahi has a oar;s face, etc. 7 G" 7

1G. Pala :putli; : e' ossed pendant +ith i'a!es of the seven $uldevi s and Bher) =i. action and have f)ll5fled!ed 'ythical personalities and c)lt follo+in!s of their o+n.CJJD 0h)s the 2a3p)t $uldevi s incl)ded in s)ch a list clearly have *haiva associations 4thro)!h the na'es that fill o)t the list and the presence of Bher)6 )t in local 'ytholo!y are not really represented as 'arried to *hiv. CJAD 2a3p)t +o'en think of their $uldevi6matri$a s as lar!ely independent of 'ale association on the attlefield. Ket +ithin the ho)sehold conte(t the $uldevi s are clearly )nderstood as do'estic. <orshiped y +o'en as pativrata s, they n)rt)re the fa'ily in vario)s +ays, not least y pro5 CJJD Ca')nda appears +ith the other !oddesses 'ore closely tied to their consorts in post5:)pta sc)lpt)re, +hich 9eister takes to e an inde( of *haiva do'inance. .vent)ally *apta'atrika tradition reaks fro' *haiva do'inance 49eister, E2e!ional >ariations,E 2%#H%"6. CJAD Lo!ically and for'ally, the $uldevi is 'arried to *hiv +hen she is ho'olo!i@ed to his *anskritic co'panion, )t 2a3p)t +o'en do not e(pressly dra+ this concl)sion. 7 G% 7

19. Local +all paintin! of -evi attended y li!ht and dark Bher) =is. 'otin! fe'ale fertility.CJGD 1uldevi s facilitate the prod)ction of sons +ho +ill contin)e the linea!e. CJ9D 1ltho)!h the $uldevi ;s f)nction as a pro'oter of fe'ale fertility is a cr)cial one, & have delayed its treat'ent )ntil no+ for t+o reasons. &n the first place, & consider it partic)larly appropriate to a s)''ary disc)ssion of the co'ple'entarity et+een $uldevi aspects. &n pro'otin! fertility, the $uldevi protects oth the fa'ily and the $ul to +hich it elon!s. By their irth, sons e(tend the $ul B as soldiers they protect it. &n the second, & think the association of $uldevi +ith fertility sho)ld not receive )nd)e e'phasis. Certainly, the $uldevi helps +o'en to conceive sons, +ho +ill e(pand the fa'ily and hence stren!then the $ul . B)t she sho)ld not e red)ced and s,)ee@ed )nder the r) ric of Efertility !od5 CJGD 0he d)al nat)re of these $uldevi s co'pares to the d)al nat)re of *hiv as an erotic ascetic 4F;/laherty, )iva 6. *h)l'an disc)sses the vir!in and 'arried characteristics of !oddesses in a 0a'il heptad 4Tamil Temple yths , 1$"6.

CJ9D *anskritic *apta'atrika tradition also identifies the $uldevi s as independent +arriors and as 'others. .ven +here the 9atrikas ear their consorts; na'es, they fi!ht independently on the attlefieldB in the +evimahatmya , 'ale +rath prod)ces the !oddesses, +ho are th)s aspects of their partners )t fi!ht alone a!ainst 'ara)din! de'ons 4Co )rn, +evi ahatmya , "1%H1J6. *o'e 'ythic traditions associate these !oddesses +ith the ?rittikas, the 'others of *kanda 4i id., "1A ff.B 9eister, E2e!ional >ariations,E 2%2 ff.6. 9y infor'ants never referred to the ?rittikas 4Pleiades6, )t note that the 'artial5'aternal role f)sion revealed in $uldevi veneration is e(hi ited also in 9atrika5?rittika 'ythic tradition. 7 G$ 7 dess.E &n the $uldevi stories, the !oddess;s pro'otion of fertility appears less as a pri'ary, and 'ore as a s)pport, f)nction. &t !oes al'ost +itho)t sayin! that in protectin! the fa'ily and $ul a $uldevi ')st ens)re offsprin!, )pon +ho' the s)rvival of oth depends. 0h)s in 'any ho)seholds +o'en +ishin! to have children +orship their fe'ale ancestors; $uldevi pendants, +hich are kept in a special asket in the 2anana shrine. 1 !ood ill)stration of the $uldevi ;s role in fosterin! fertility is provided y the follo+in! story: 9y !rand'other +as a !reat devotee of Ca')nda. <hen she had 3)st !iven irth and +as in a state of i'p)rity, -evi C?)ldeviD appeared to her. -evi +as +earin! oran!e and +as acco'panied y a 'an in a +hite dhoti. People say this 'an +as Bher) =i, tho)!h others say 'ay e it +as *hiv. &f it +as Bher), then it +as :ora Bher) =i CBher) in his li!ht, eni!n aspectD. &n this vision -evi !ave 'y !rand'other seven !old madaliyaus C)pper5ar' racelets consistin! of linked rin!sD and pro'ised her that the fa'ily +o)ld prosper for seven !enerations. Before leavin!, -evi told her not to reveal this to anyone. 0he ne(t 'ornin! 'y !rand'other tho)!ht that this had all een a drea', )t later she fo)nd the madaliyaus )nder her pillo+. 0hen 'y !rand'other;s elder sister5in5la+ arrived at the doorstep. <hile she stood at the threshold Cnot co'in! inside eca)se of the rit)al i'p)rity associated +ith irthD, 'y !rand'other told her +hat had happened despite 9ata =i;s +arnin!. Her "ha"hi sa 4elder sister5in5la+6 then said, EKo) are 'istaken. & !ave these to yo) last ni!ht. 8o+ yo) ')st !ive the' ack.E Ko) see, she +anted the madaliyaus for herself. 0he ne(t ni!ht 'y !rand'other had the sa'e vision, )t this ti'e 9ata =i said, E&;ll !ive yo) one 'ore chance. &;ll !ive yo) only three madaliyaus and this ti'e 3)st silver ones, not !old ones. Beca)se of this the fa'ily +ill not e as prospero)s as it +o)ld have een and the d)ration of the oon +ill e only three !enerations.E 0his ti'e 'y !rand'other kept the secret of the madaliyaus and after that did re!)lar puja to 9ata =i. &n this story told y a distin!)ished 9e+ari tha$urani , the $uldevi ;s do'estic associations are )n'istaka le. 0he !oddess arrives on the occasion of child irth. 9oreover, the token of !ood fort)ne she delivers is the racelets +orn y 'arried +o'en in that fa'ily. /inally, the oon that she !ives is prosperity for the fa'ily line: for seven, then three, !enerations the fa'ily +ill s)cceed. :enerations 'ean pro!eny, the sine ,)a non of prosperity. Hence the $uldevi protects and increases the lood of +arriors on the attlefield, as sy' oli@ed for e(a'ple y =a'vai 9ata;s 'ass revival of fallen soldiers. *he also protects and increases the lood of the fa'ilies

7 GJ 7 constit)tin! the $ul oth y resc)in! individ)al 'en, as in the case of the no le'an +o)nded in the +ar, and, 'ore co''only )t less dra'atically, y pro'otin! fertility )pon +hich fa'ily and $ul depend. 9en and +o'en alike +orship her as the $ul 'ilitary !oddess, )t +o'en !ive pri'ary i'portance to her pativrata aspect. 1nd so the do'inatin! aspect of the $uldevi ;s character correlates +ith caste d)ty in the case of 'en and +ith !ender nor's in the case of +o'en. 8evertheless, the 'ale and fe'ale orientations to+ard the $uldevi are in the first instance co'ple'entary. &deally, $ul protection and fa'ily protection are co'pati le, 3)st as in principle $ul and fa'ily are ')t)ally reinforcin! social )nits.

5ulde(i Veneration6 ,ardana and 7anana

Beca)se the $uldevi ;s aspects ordinarily relate as co'ple'ents it is possi le to delineate their separate devotional conte(ts: mardana and 2anana . 1ltho)!h the specifics of $uldevi +orship vary fro' ho)sehold to ho)sehold, it is strikin! ho+ $uldevi veneration +ithin each ho)sehold differs in its t+o conte(ts. -espite the recent deterioration of physical mardana62anana se!re!ation, the principle of se!re!ation contin)es to have a si!nificant i'pact on the interpretation and perfor'ance of $uldevi tradition. /or e(a'ple, in 'any of the thi$ana s & visited the $uldevi te'ple is located either inside the mardana or co'pletely o)tside the ho)sehold. Both the mardana and the o)tdoors +ere, and in so'e cases still are, o)t5of5 o)nds to +o'en. Past practice varied as to +hether +o'en +ere allo+ed to visit these te'ples )nder circ)'stances ass)rin! their 'odesty. &n one thi$ana +here parda still re'ains in effect the $uldevi te'ple, +hich is located in the mardana , has a ack entrance. <o'en )se this entrance at ti'es appointed for their +orship. Clearly, ho+ever, this te'ple and other te'ples si'ilarly sit)ated have een chiefly identified +ith and attended to y 'ale fa'ily 'e' ers and Brah'an officiants. 0oday 'any +o'en still do not kno+ ')ch a o)t +hat !oes on in e(terior te'ples. Fne +o'an told 'e that she had never even visited the 'ain $uldevi te'ple of the thi$ana into +hich she +as 'arried. &t is located 3)st o)tside the 'ain entrance to the ho)sehold. 1nother said that she had een inside her in5la+s; 'ain te'ple once, +hen she !ave dho$ efore enterin! her ne+ ho'e as a rideB she did not kno+ ')ch a o)t the te'ple eca)se +hile visitin! it she o served ghunghat 4she covered her face6 and co)ld see al'ost nothin! at all. *ince then parda has prevented her fro' ret)rnin!. 7 GA 7 1t least partly eca)se of the location of $uldevi te'ples +ithin 'ale ,)arters or o)tside the ho'e, +o'en;s +orship of the $uldevi has evolved alon! its o+n lines. Physical se!re!ation has e'phasi@ed the distinctions et+een the roles that $uldevi s have in the lives of 'en and +o'en. .ven +here $uldevi te'ples +ere fo)nd in the 2anana 4'y preli'inary evidence s)!!ests that this +as fairly rare6 or +here te'ples +ere fo)nd in oth 2anana and mardana 4also atypical as a $uldevi is !enerally )nderstood to have one central presence +ithin a thi$ana or a state6, distinct lit)r!ical traditions +o)ld have tended to evolve. &n the for'er instance, the ti'es for 'en;s and +o'en;s +orship +o)ld e different. 0his te'poral separation +o)ld reinforce the the'atic or role5related se!re!ation in the sa'e +ay as the location5related se!re!ation +o)ld. /)rther'ore, 'en;s +orship of the $uldevi +o)ld inevita ly e )nderstood in ter's of state: rit)al +o)ld e'phasi@e the )ni,)e relationship et+een the kin! or tha$ur and the $uldevi . <o'en;s +orship, ho+ever, +o)ld stress not the relationship of +o'en as ,)eens +ith $uldevi s )t that of +o'en as +ives +ith $uldevi s. 0he do'estic 'otifs that interested pativratas +o)ld predo'inate.

<here t+o te'ples have e(isted, one te'pleI'ost pro a ly the 2anana te'pleI+o)ld have een derivative of and s) ordinate to the other. 0he ela orate Brah'anical rit)al 4puja 6 +o)ld have een perfor'ed in the do'inant te'ple, +hich held the ho)sehold;s finest icons and received the ho)sehold;s richest offerin!s. 0h)s +orship in the t+o te'ples +o)ld have differed ,)alitatively as +ell as the'atically. 8o+ as in the past, in 'ost 2anana s +hat is to e fo)nd in +o'en;s ,)arters is not properly speakin! a te'ple 4mandir 6 at all )t a cr)dely desi!nated Eplace,E thapana 4Hindi: sthapana 6, +here the !oddess has een located. 0his place 'ay si'ply e an area of a co)rtyard +all. Fr it 'ay e a spot in a roo' specially set aside for this p)rpose. 1 !oddess;s place is desi!nated y dra+in! a trident 4trishul 6 in ver'ilion 4sindur 6 and perhaps decoratin! it +ith strips of shiny colored foil called malipanau . <orship is si'ple, ran!in! fro' the occasional !ivin! of respect 4dho$ 6 to daily or special puja s. 1 Brah'an priest or priestess 'ay perfor' the rit)als, help perfor' the rit)als, or have nothin! at all to do +ith a partic)lar thapana . 0he difference et+een the relatively for'al +orship of the $uldevi in the mardana and infor'al +orship of the $uldevi in the 2anana is seen 'ost vividly d)rin! the cele ration of 8avratri. 1ltho)!h cele rations of 8avratri in $uldevi te'ples are no lon!er the !rand affairs they +ere )ntil ,)ite recently, +here the traditional rit)als are perfor'ed 7 GG 7 even in atten)ated fashion, they are perfor'ed in $uldevi te'ples y 'en. 0he )ffalo sacrifice is directed y a Brah'an officiant and perfor'ed y a 'ale 2a3p)t fa'ily 'e' er. &n days past, the killin! of a )ffalo or !oat 4a )ffalo s) stit)te6 +ith one slash of the s+ord +as incorporated into the cere'ony as a rit)al test of yo)n! +arriors; 'ettle. &t +as considered an initiation into 'anhood. <o'en have had no direct role in the lood sacrifice.CA#D 2ather, they have participated in the 8avratri o servance y fastin!. /or the nine days of the festival so'e +o'en a stain fro' cons)'in! +ine and 'eat eca)se these are sacred to the $uldevi . Fthers eat one 'eal a day )t 'ake a point of cons)'in! +ine and 'eat for the e(act sa'e reason. 0he 'ost @ealo)s 'aintain a co'plete fast thro)!ho)t. Beca)se the p)rpose of the 8avratri vrat 4vo+ to fast6 perfor'ed y +o'en is to preserve their h)s ands; +elfare, its foc)s is predo'inantly do'estic. 8evertheless, a fe+ 'en fast alon! +ith their +ivesB pres)'a ly their 'otives are linked to the aspirations of 2a3p)t 'en. 1ltho)!h no+adays these 'otives 'ay relate to earnin! a livin! )nrelated to +arfare, their e(pression thro)!h this traditional 'artial 'eans 'ay +ell reflect a 'an;s concern to cond)ct his affairs in a +ay co''ens)rate +ith 2a3p)t di!nity, privile!e, and, a ove all, d)ty. &f so, his vrat , perfor'ed on the ,)intessentially 2a3p)t festival, is tied the'atically to the for'al rit)al and lood sacrifice perfor'ed at the te'ple, activities in +hich he, )nlike his +ife, participates directly.CA1D Fne no le'an +hose fa'ily & ca'e to kno+ +ell d)rin! 'y stay spoke of 8avratri and the fast he o served d)rin! it as a revification of the past. He credited his rit)al o servances +ith linkin! hi' to his r)lin! forefathers +ho had )pheld 8avratri and other 2a3p)t traditions. Clearly, his participation +as per'eated +ith nostal!ia a o)t the vanished past in +hich 2a3p)ts +ere kin!s and +arriors and +as !eared to+ard preservin! that 'artial le!acy. 0he protection so)!ht y 'en and +o'en appears to re'ain oriented to+ard, tho)!h not enco'passed y, concerns of caste d)ty on the one hand and !ender nor's on the other. &n !eneral, d)rin! 8avratri and at other ti'es, the concept)ali@ation of +o'en as fa'ily5protectors has res)lted in a reliance on +o'en to or!ani@e and s)pervise ho)sehold rit)als, even those in +hich they do

CA#D 0raditional ho)seholds perfor'ed the "alidan in the $uldevi te'ple co'po)ndItypically o)tside the +o'en;s ,)arters and often o)t of vie+ fro' 2anana +indo+s. CA1D 0his analysis co'es fro' a 2a3p)t no le'an fro' a lar!e 9e+ar thi$ana B he keeps a 8avratri vrat . 7 G9 7 not participate directly. <hile +o'en en!a!e in types of veneration in vario)s +ays distinct fro' those of 'en, responsi ility for the proper perfor'ance of rit)al c)ts across this distinction. 0his fact is no+here so evident as in the appearances y $uldevi s in the drea's of +o'en to 'otivate the' to rectify all sorts of rit)al 'istakes.CA2D 1s one +o'an co''ented, E&t;s a !ood thin! +hen ?)ldevi co'es in o)r drea's. *he co'es +hen she is happy +ith )s )t she also co'es +hen there is a 'istake in the puja . 0hen she !ives )s tro) le 4ta'lif 6 )ntil the 'istake is cleared )p.E .ven +here the $uldevi !ives tro) le in con3)nction +ith a drea' +arnin! and the one +ho s)ffers directly is a h)s andI indeed, he 'ay +ell e the rit)al offenderIthe pro le' is considered to elon! to the +o'an in +hose drea' the $uldevi appears. &t is her responsi ility to ri!ht the sit)ation that offends the $uldevi . &n s)', the separation of +o'en;s ,)arters fro' 'en;s ,)arters has allo+ed distinctively do'estic reli!io)s traditions to develop. 0he i'pact of these traditions has not, ho+ever, re'ained in secl)sion alon! +ith the +o'en +ho have pro')l!ated and practiced the'. <ives have een responsi le for the fort)nes of the mardana , as $uldevi drea's and visitations clearly ill)strate. 0his responsi ility has accorded +o'en an a)thority in reli!io)s 'atters that e(tends past parda . 1s +ill soon eco'e 'ore vividly apparent, the responsi ility of pativrata s to protect 'en has 'ade +o'en;s +orship of $uldevi s a so)rce of infl)ence over the reli!io)s life of 'en. & have delineated a theoretical co'ple'entarity et+een the mardana 5linked conception of the $uldevi as $ul protector and the 2anana 5linked conception of the $uldevi as fa'ily protector. *y' olically, the $uldevi rin!s to!ether these f)nctions, +hich 'ay e opposed lo!ically.CA"D &n certain conte(ts, ho+ever, a $uldevi represents not )nity )t conflict.CA%D -)rin! ti'es of ad3)st'ent and chan!e, the $uldevi 'ay sy' oli@e not the coalescence )t the dishar'ony of the d)ties she perfor's. 0his is indeed the case +hen +o'en devotees e(perience disso5 CA2D & did not for'ally intervie+ 'en a o)t $uldevi drea's )t did 'eet 'any h)s ands, rothers, and sons of no le and royal +o'enB a !ood n)' er listened in on part of the intervie+s. Fnly once did & hear of a $uldevi appearin! in a 'an;s drea's, )t even in that case the 'an +as )ns)re +hether he sa+ his $uldevi or another s)perh)'an ein!. 8o drea' or vision stories told y +o'en involve 'en;s drea's. &t see's that like fasts and other do'estic rit)als, drea's and visions are pheno'ena pri'arily associated +ith +o'en, perhaps increasin!ly so eca)se 'en have een involved in fe+er p) lic reli!io)s perfor'ances since 19%A. CA"D *ee F;/laherty;s disc)ssion of *hiv as the Eerotic asceticE in )iva . CA%D Fn sy' ol and conflict see *)@anne Hanchett, E2it)al *y' olsIUnifyin! or -ivisive,E in Religion in odern .ndia , ed. :iri 2a3 :)pta 4-elhi: >ikas, 19G"6, 1"%. 7 9# 7 nance +ith re!ard to their o+n co'petin! nor's of caste and fa'ily protection. 0he ne(t chapter foc)ses on dissonance in order to address the intentional or 'otivational di'ension of $uldevi veneration and discern pres)ppositions a o)t the caste5linked and !ender5derived aspects of

reli!io)s sociali@ation. 9oreover, it ar!)es that e(a'inin! the role of personal choice in reli!io)s sociali@ation reveals the s) stantial i'pact the 2anana has had in shapin! and revisin! the $uldevi traditions of oth fa'ilies and $uls . 7 91 7

&apter 8 !ldevi Tradition Interpretation and Intention

1 2a3p)t +eddin! is a !rand affair. F)t on a la+n and )nder a colorf)l tent 'en en3oy one another;s co'pany +hile sa'plin! li,)ors and traditional spicy edi les. 9ost sport ele!ant t)r ans and lon! dark hi!h5collared coats +ith li!ht5colored reeches. .lse+here, in the ho)sehold apart'ents or perhaps in a co)rtyard, +o'en also en3oy the'selves. <earin! their finest 2a3asthani dress, satin or chiffon heavily e' roidered +ith !old threads, and their heirloo' 3e+elry st)dded +ith !e's and seed pearls, they e(chan!e stories and repeatedly co'pli'ent their hostess. &n ti'e +ord passes fro' the 'en;s cele ration to the +o'en;s that the !roo';s procession has arrived. 0he +o'en r)sh to a alcony or roof to see the !roo'B ridin! hi!h atop a ')ch decorated elephant he approaches +ith his ento)ra!e of 'ale relatives.C1D &f the s)n has set, the procession is !)ided y kerosene la'ps, +hich enhance the dra'a of the spectacle. .veryone see's happy and even thrilledIeveryone )t the ride. -)rin! the first 2a3p)t +eddin! & attended & +as invited ack into a edroo' to 'eet the ride, +ho +as not participatin! in the festivities takin! place in the o)ter parlor. <hen & entered the edroo' & fo)nd her ,)ietly +eepin! a'id several yo)n! friends and relatives, +ho alternated et+een sharin! her !rief and tryin! to cheer her )p. & +as s)rprised and said so. &n 'y co)ntry, & e(plained, rides and their rides5 C1D 1s +ith 'any hi!h5caste co'')nities, 2a3p)ts incl)de no +o'en in the !roo';s processionB his fe'ale relatives are e(pected to stay ho'e. 7 92 7 'aids spend the 'in)tes efore the +eddin! cere'onies !i!!lin!, preenin!, and teasin!. 9y a)dience +as incred)lo)s. Fne asked, EKo) 'ean in the *tates !irls aren;t sad to leave their fa'iliesQE /or 2a3p)t !irls, !ettin! 'arried not only 'eans leavin! the fa'ilyB it also 'eans leavin! the fa'iliar. &n 'ost cases oth the people and the +ays of the con3)!al fa'ily are )nkno+n. 0h)s a ride faces learnin! to love and respect a !roo' +ho' she has never 'et 4her parents havin! chosen hi' for her6 and, in so doin!, learnin! to accept his fa'ilial c)sto's, traditions, and !ods. 0o a ride on her +eddin! day, this 'ay e over+hel'in!. *ad to leave her fa'ily, the ride is of co)rse e(cited a o)t the step she is takin!. 0his is the i!!est day of her life, the day she accepts the role of pativrata . 0h)s, +hile rides 'ay e teary5eyed or +ithdra+n, in 'ost cases they are not +holly ne!ative a o)t the idea of 'arria!eB )s)ally one can catch on their faces the occasional hint of a s'ile.C2D 0he ni!ht efore they danced +ith their !irlfriends to 2a3asthani folk ')sic and cheerf)lly, if an(io)sly, disc)ssed the ne(t day;s events. Fn the +hole, rides are not si'ply 'isera leB they are a' ivalent.C"D 0he dissonance a ride feels d)rin! her 'arria!e cere'ony is 3)st the e!innin!. 1s the ride ad3)sts,

she finds herself facin! ne+ conflicts, conflicts inherent in her role as 2a3p)t pativrata . Fne place this is partic)larly apparent is in the ride;s ass)'ption of devotional responsi ility for her con3)!al fa'ily;s $uldevi .

5ulde(is and 3issonan)e

Beca)se +hen a +o'an 'arries she loses 'e' ership in her father;s $ul and eco'es a 'e' er of her h)s and;s $ul , she is e(pected to +orship the $uldevi +ho protects its 'e' ers. 0h)s, the very first thin! a ride ')st do +hen she enters her h)s and;s ho)sehold is to !ive respect 4dho$ 6 to her ne+ $uldevi .C%D 0his is a caste nor'B every 2a3p)t ')st loyally propitiate the $uldevi +ho has acco'panied the fa'ily;s $ul into attle. C2D 8o do) t +o'en +ho are 'at)re at the ti'e of their 'arria!e are less sad and fri!htened y the prospect of 'arria!e than yo)n!er !irls. Beca)se 'e' ers of the no ility no+ consider a colle!e ed)cation desira le for da)!hters, !irls; 'arria!e a!e is no+ fairly hi!h 4late teens, early t+enties6. &t is not so for villa!e !irls, +ho 'arry at an earlier a!e. 0hro)!ho)t &ndia !irls; a!e at 'arria!e has !rad)ally een risin! 4-oranne =aco son and *)san *no+ <adley, Women in .ndia: T&o Perspectives C-elhi: 9anohar, 19AAD, %"6. C"D /or an acco)nt of this a' ivalence a'on! Ben!ali rides, see 9anisha 2oy, 7engali Women 4Chica!o: University of Chica!o Press, 19A$6, G"HGJ. C%D Cf. Bennett;s disc)ssion of 8epali +o'en;s veneration of linea!e deities in +angerous Wives , 1"". 7 9" 7 0ension arises +hen a ride feels she cannot i''ediately, or so'eti'es even event)ally, a andon her loyalty to the $uldevi associated +ith her parents; $ul .C$D Havin! +orshiped the $uldevi of her natal fa'ily thro)!ho)t childhood, she 'ay +ell find it hard to trade devotion to a eloved deity +ith proven po+ers for devotion to an )nkno+n deity +ith )nproven po+ers.CJD *he 'ay contin)e to venerate her natal fa'ily;s !oddess and perhaps feel entirely 3)stified in doin! so. *he )nderstands that the natal $uldevi +ill protect her in her ne+ ho'e y helpin! her to do her d)ty as a +ife, +hich 'eans protectin! the +elfare of her h)s and. Here arises a dis3)nction et+een the +ife;s 2a3p)t caste5derived nor' of +orshipin! the con3)!al $uldevi and her !ender5associated d)ty of protectin! her h)s and to the est of her a ilities. 0he retention of pri'ary loyalty to the old $uldevi is a potential so)rce of friction et+een the ride and her h)s and;s fa'ily. 0he reason is easily s)r'ised. Like 'e' ers of other Hind) castes, 2a3p)ts !enerally live in e(tended fa'ilies. 9ore than 'e' ers of other castes, 2a3p)ts take rides fro' distant locations.CAD 0he e(planation they )s)ally offer is that this practice is a holdover fro' the ti'es +hen 2a3p)ts so)!ht to 'ake political alliances +ith 'any different states thro)!h the 'arria!es of their da)!hters.CGD 0h)s in a 2a3p)t ho'e +ith five sons there co)ld +ell e five da)!hters5in5la+ hailin! fro' diverse and distant locations. .ach ride 'i!ht e te'pted to retain loyalty to her natal fa'ily;s $uldevi . Under these circ)'stances it is diffic)lt to see ho+ the con3)!al fa'ily;s $uldevi co)ld lon! contin)e to reflect $ul )nity and inspire solidarity. &f da)!hters5in5la+, the pri'ary sociali@ers of children, retain their old alle!iances, the fa'ily;s $uldevi tradition +ill disinte!rate. &t is therefore far fro' s)rprisin! that 'others5in5la+ have pressed their da)!hters5in5la+ to e(press fore'ost loyalty to the con3)!al

C$D Fn the si'ilar attach'ent et+een Hi'alayan villa!e da)!hters5in5la+ 4of vario)s caste ack!ro)nds6 and their natal !oddesses, see *a(, ountain #oddess 4F(ford University Press, forthco'in!6, 9$H1#". CJD 1 fe+ +o'en said that in their natal fa'ilies da)!hters did not +itness $uldevi for'al rit)al +orship )t co)ld vie+ the $uldevi i'a!e +hen rit)al +as not ein! perfor'ed. &n !eneral fa'ilies allo+ da)!hters to participate in ho)sehold rit)al, incl)din! $uldevi +orship. &n 'any fa'ilies efore her 'arria!e the da)!hter ')st first visit her natal $uldevi to pay respect 4dho$ 6 and seek her lessin! for the 'arria!e. CAD 0his practice is as tr)e of villa!ers as of the no ilityB see =anice *. Hyde, E<o'en;s >illa!e 8et+orksE 4paper presented at the Conference on Preservation of the .nviron'ent and C)lt)re in 2a3asthan, 2a3asthan University, =aip)r, &ndia, -ece' er 19GA6. CGD 0he other standard reasons 2a3p)ts !ive is that distance 416 ens)res an a sence of previo)s contact and avoids s)spicions of a so5called love 'arria!e, non5arran!ed and therefore scandalo)sB 426 'akes it diffic)lt for rides to r)n ho'e to 'other if they are )psetB and 4"6 rin!s in o)tside lood to invi!orate a fa'ily;s loodline. 7 9% 7 fa'ily;s $uldevi . 1s 'any +o'en re'arked, E1 ride has no choice in the 'atter. *he ')st +orship her h)s and;s $uldevi .E Fne 'i!ht spec)late that respondin! to s)ch press)re a da)!hter5in5la+ +o)ld seek to find so'e +ay of +orshipin! the $uldevi of her con3)!al fa'ily, th)s de'onstratin! loyalty to h)s and and caste, +hile contin)in! to +orship the $uldevi of her natal fa'ily, th)s de'onstratin! faith in the old $uldevi ;s capacity to protect her and in so doin! help her protect her h)s and and fa'ily. 1s it t)rns o)t, +o'en have indeed approached and reconciled their con3)!al and natal $ul !oddesses, and they have done so in vario)s +ays. >ie+in! these options +ill thro+ li!ht on the s) tler 'otivational indications of the $uldevi 'yths and stories +ith +hich +e have already eco'e fa'iliar. 0he first sol)tion +as revealed to 'e y an older no le+o'an kno+n thro)!ho)t Udaip)r;s 2a3p)t co'')nity for her piety. -)rin! her intervie+ and in several s) se,)ent conversations, she e(plained that it is possi le and le!iti'ate to reconceive one;s natal $uldevi as an ishtadevta , a deity of choice. &n her ho)sehold te'ple she not only +orships her h)s and;s $uldevi 4Ban 9ata6, she +orships her father;s $uldevi 48a!anecha =i6, +hose i'a!e is also present. *he said that her father;s $uldevi had eco'e her ishtadevta and that as an ishtadevta the !oddess protects not the $ul )t the fa'ily.C9D 0h)s y reclassification the +o'an has taken her natal $uldevi o)t of direct co'petition +ith her con3)!al $uldevi .C1#D & find it partic)larly si!nificant that this +o'an, considered a very traditional and venera le older lady y the co'')nity, offers a division5of5la or co'pro'ise )napolo!etically. 1t the very least it ill)strates the sa'e fle(i ility of interpretation apparent in the sol)tions )tili@ed y other +o'en.C11D Here as else+here the f)nctions that t+o $uldevis perfor' are no 'ore theoretically anta!onistic than +hen one $uldevi perfor's the'. <hat is i'portant is that +hereas the con3)!al devi has C9D 0he idea that +o'en i'port deities, especially !oddesses, to their in5la+s; ho)seholds e(ists in 'any parts of &ndiaB see Herrensch'idt, ELe sacrifice,E 1%1B >idal, ELe p)its,E "GB and Berre'an, !indus of the !imalayas , 9A. &n Hilte eitel;s Cult of +raupadi 42J%HJ$6, the in5'arryin! ride is herself a !oddess. C1#D 1sked to na'e their ishtadevtas in for'al intervie+s, +o'en did not list their natal $uldevis . Ket +hen & asked those +o'en +hose ho)sehold te'ples contained natal $uldevis that stat)s the $uldevis

had, they either clai'ed the' as ishtadevtas 4'ost people elieve that one can have as 'any ishtadevtas as one +ishes6 or invoked one of the sol)tions listed elo+. C11D Beca)se this +o'an;s da)!hters 'arried into her father;s $ul , her ishtadevta eca'e their $uldevi , +hich 'ade their transition partic)larly easy. 7 9$ 7 t+o potentially conflictin! loyalties, $ul and fa'ily, the natal devi , ro)!ht in as a ho)sehold !oddess, has only one loyalty: the fa'ily, +hose preservation is the fore'ost concern of her pativrata devotee. 0he $ul , as & have said, is to a +ife lar!ely an a straction, its operation ein! for the 'ost part peripheral to her ho)sehold5deli'ited life. *he rele!ates the )nkno+n con3)!al $uldevi to the )nfa'iliar do'ain of $ul , +hile the kno+n $uldevi settles into the ho'e that has replaced the natal ho)sehold. 1 second +ay +o'en rationali@e their retention of alle!iance to the natal $uldevi is to identify oth $uldevis +ith the *anskritic :oddess 4-evi, *hakti, -)r!a6, of +ho' all other !oddesses, they say, are for's or e'anations. =)st as all official $uldevis are ho'olo!i@ed to the !reat :oddess on 8avratri, the co'petin! $uldevis are no+ oth ho'olo!i@ed to the :oddess, so that the tension et+een the' is red)ced. &n intervie+s +o'en fre,)ently spoke of oth !oddesses as *hakti or -evi 4*anskritic na'es6 and, if pressed a o)t this, pointed o)t that )lti'ately the ne+ $uldevi is the old $uldevi . 1ptly s)''ari@in! this shared )nderstandin!, one no le+o'an said that Eall 2a3p)ts +orship -eviE and another that $uldevi for's differ, )t their essence is one 4$ai rup hoti haim< sacmuc e$ hi haim 6.C12D 0h)s a +o'an 'ay call the ne+ devi Ek)ldeviE )t identify her +ith the old $uldevi , +hose f)nction in the ne+ $ul is fa'ily protection. 0his acco''odation is facilitated y the fact that +o'en typically +orship the $uldevi in the for' of her sy' ol, the trishul 4trident6. Beca)se of this, they need little or no vis)al acco''odation. >ery fe+ +o'en have pict)res of anthropo'orphic $uldevi icons to orna'ent the !oddess;s 2anana shrine. *)ch litho!raphs of devis as are co''only availa le for pop)lar !oddesses 4s)ch as that in fi!. 1J or even those of local !oddesses6 in the a@aar are not, or perhaps not yet, co''only availa le for 'ost $uldevis . .ven in cases +here they are availa le, the foc)s of veneration re'ains the trishul , the pro'inent representation of the !oddess in 'ost thapanas or ho)sehold te'ples.C1"D Hence, the *anskritic transference re'ains partic)larly easy. &n short, the identification of oth !oddesses +ith the *anskritic :oddess allo+s the identities of the t+o !oddesses to 'er!e one into the otherB oth 'ay e s) s)'ed +ithin the identity of the :oddess, or one 'ay s) s)'e the identity of the other. Beca)se the i'a!ery of the fa5 C12D Hind) tradition often identifies local deities +ith one !reat deityB see e(a'ples in Beck 4Three T&ins , 2A6 and Bennett 4+angerous Wives , %G6. C1"D & have seen only t+o litho!raphs in )se, one in each of t+o ho)seholds. 7 9J 7 'iliar tends to do'inate the i'a!ery of the )nfa'iliar, it is likely that in the short r)n the !oddess ho'olo!i@ed to -evi +ill e the old $uldevi f)nctionin! pri'arily as a ho)sehold deity, even +here the !oddess;s na'e re'ains that of the ne+ $uldevi . &n the lon! r)n, ho+ever, the ride;s participation in the rit)als for the ne+ $uldevi and her a sorption of the 'ytholo!y elon!in! to the ne+ $uldevi +ill allo+ for a !rad)al transfor'ation. 1 third sit)ation is that in +hich the old $uldevi is retained as a $uldevi )t !iven less o serva le stat)s

than the ne+ $uldevi in ter's of i'a!e 4!enerally trishul 6 location and rit)al perfor'ance. <hen & visited the fa'ily shrines and te'ples of +o'en +ho' & intervie+ed, ,)ite often & fo)nd a $uldevi i'a!e flanked y i'a!es of other sa$hi 4co'panion6 i'a!es. *o'eti'es these +ere $uldevis B so'eti'es they +ere other local !oddesses. &n oth cases the cohorts +ere +orshiped )t !iven less attention than the 'ain $uldevi .C1%D &n so'e of the $uldevi te'ples one can find a asket containin! !old $uldevi pendants +orn y no+ deceased 'e' ers of the 2anana 4see fi!. 1G6. 1s noted earlier, each pendant depicts a $uldevi in the co'pany of si( other, identical, $uldevis . .ach $ul !ives its o+n $uldevi precedence )t reco!ni@es the i'portance of s) ordinate sister !oddesses. 0he si( sisters of the con3)!al fa'ily;s $uldevi take on aspects attri )ted the' y the +o'en +earin! their i'a!es as pendants. Beca)se the i'a!es are icono!raphically indistin!)isha leIall the devis are identical stick fi!)res +hile Bher), their 'ale escort, is a di'in)tive stick fi!)re at the end of the lineI+o'en can and )s)ally do identify one of the co'panion fi!)res +ith her natal fa'ily;s $uldevi , then identify as 'any of the others as they can as $uldevis +ith +ho' they are fa'iliar, their father;s $uldevi often ein! first a'on! these. 0he $uldevi for's, like their f)nctions, are, ,)ite si'ply, s) stit)ta le. &n s)', +o'en have ')ch opport)nity to acco''odate their old $uldevi tradition to the de'ands of the con3)!al fa'ily.C1$D Parado(ically, the fle(i ility that can soften the 'andate that the ne+ $uldevi replace the old also contri )tes to !rad)al reli!io)s acco''odation. .vent)ally, 'odes of re ellion or even s) conscio)s reconcept)ali@ation trans')te at least partially into aven)es of acceptance. &t 'akes C1%D 9any $uldevi te'ples contain only the $uldevi and attendant !oddessesB others, relatively ')ltip)rpose, also contain vario)s ishtadevtas . C1$D 9ar!aret 0ra+ick notes that the infl)ence da)!hters5in5la+ tacitly +ield instantiates the creativity of vario)s often )nreco!ni@ed s) alterns. 1nother e(a'ple is the covert po+er slave +o'en e(ercise in raisin! their 'asters; children 4personal co'')nication to a)thor6. 7 9A 7 sense that over ti'e, as the ne+ da)!hter5in5la+ eco'es etter inte!rated into the ho)sehold and learns a o)t the do'estic history of its $uldevi 4s)ch as the ti'e the $uldevi c)red an ailin! h)s and or saved the fa'ily fro' financial r)in6 she +ill eco'e increasin!ly a le to attri )te to the ne+ $uldevi a co'plete character. 0he con3)!al $uldevi co'es to protect not only the $ul )t also fa'ily, the ride;s cons)'in! concern. 0he fa'ily rit)als in +hich the ride participates !rad)ally take on 'ore 'eanin!, and hence inspire her faith, at the sa'e ti'e that her faith in the old $uldevi , +ho is no+ re'oved fro' the conte(t of her fa'ily rit)al, is +eakenin!. Up to this point & have not 'entioned the +o'an +ho conscio)sly tries to s)ppress any desire to +orship her paternal $uldevi and other natal fa'ily !ods. 0his o'ission 'ay see' stran!e in vie+ of the fact that 'ost +o'en vehe'ently e(press their desire to f)lfill the e(pectations of their h)s ands; ho)seholds 4sasural s6, )t even those +o'en +ho +holeheartedly co''it the'selves to acco''odation ')st !o thro)!h a ti'e of ad3)st'ent. &t is inconceiva le that their resociali@ation can e instantaneo)s. *o'e +o'en speak openly of the diffic)lty they had adaptin! to their ne+ fa'ily traditions. 1t the very least, every +o'an rin!s into her 'arria!e preconceptions that affect the +ay she )nderstands and +orships her con3)!al fa'ily;s !ods. <itho)t conscio)sly atte'ptin! to alter interpretation of the traditions she +ill do soB she i'ports +ays of seein!, )nderstandin!, and conte(t)ali@in! fro' her e(perience in her natal fa'ily. Fnly ti'e and e(perience can rin! her interpretation 'ore or less in line +ith the traditions shared y the fa'ily as a part of the $ul . 0he ,)estion re'ains +hether all i'portation )lti'ately fades into acco''odation. Clearly not. 0here

are 'any conditions )nder +hich yo)n! +ives; resistance fr)strates their acco''odation to an apprecia le e(tent. /or e(a'ple, if there are several da)!hters5in5la+ in a fa'ily, the )lk of the responsi ility for carryin! o)t reli!io)s o servances tends to fall disproportionately on the sho)lders of the senior da)!hters5in5la+. 0he yo)n!er ones, )sy +ith carin! for the yo)n!est children in the e(tended fa'ily and perhaps en!a!ed in perfor'in! chores less desira le 4heavier and 'ore ti'e5 cons)'in!6 than those perfor'ed y senior da)!hters5in5la+, are farther fro' the conte(t of reli!io)s tradition and at !reater li erty to i'provise. 9others5in5la+ often co'plained to 'e that altho)!h their older da)!hters5in5la+ have follo+ed the traditions, the yo)n!er ones are 3)st not interested in learnin!. 0hey so'eti'es attri )te this to the chan!in! ti'es, in +hich the yo)n! are 7 9G 7 less interested in learnin! the proper +ays of doin! thin!s than they )sed to e. 0he sa'e la'ent, ho+ever, is heard a o)t +o'en of very different a!es, yo)n! rides and +o'en +ith !ro+n children. 0he yo)n!er da)!hters5in5la+, it appears, have al+ays had !reater freedo' of interpretation than have their elders, on +ho' the preservation of fa'ily tradition 'ost depends. 1nother co''on condition in +hich resistance persists is +hen a 'other5in5la+ dies efore or not lon! after the 'arria!e of her eldest son. &n this case the senior da)!hter4s65in5la+ has no ti'e to learn the traditions of +orship y +o'en of the fa'ily. 0his possi ility +as pointed o)t to 'e y a 9e+ari no le+o'an +ho said that her 'other5in5la+ died at a relatively yo)n! a!e. <hen her 'other5in5la+;s health first e!an to fail, she fo)nd to her s)rprise that she s)ddenly felt a stron! sense of responsi ility for learnin! all the tradition she co)ld +hile her teacher +as still alive. *he noted +ith re!ret that people she kne+ of in si'ilar sit)ations did not necessarily feel this responsi ility or did not feel it efore it +as too late. 1s 'y infor'ant;s co''ent s)!!ests, even if a relatively yo)n! ride has the opport)nity to learn the proper traditions fro' servants or da)!hters of the ho)sehold, she does not al+ays do so. Lackin! incentives, a ride 'ay retain 'any of the ideas she ro)!ht fro' her natal fa'ily. 0he se!re!ation of reli!io)s rit)al 'eans that she +ill have latit)de in perfor'in! fe'ale rit)als. <hether she intends to deviate fro' the traditional patterns of her in5la+s or not, she has 'ore opport)nity to incorporate her o+n interpretations than +o)ld other+ise e the case. 1 third conte(t in +hich variation is likely to occ)r is that of the s'all fa'ily )nit. &f an e(tended fa'ily happens to e s'all or has splintered into separate ho)seholds, the possi ilities for conscio)s resistance or )nconscio)s deviation are !reat eca)se there are fe+ elderly +o'en aro)nd to instr)ct and !)ide in the +ays of devotion.C1JD 0he presence in a fa'ily of da)!her5in5la+ +ith )n)s)al +ill po+er, charis'a, or storytellin! a ility creates one 'ore sit)ation for variation. &f she holds fast to the traditions of her natal fa'ily, she +ill disproportionately infl)ence the reli!io)s ideas of other +o'en in the fa'ily. 0he stories she tells 'ay ,)ickly 'er!e +ith the reli!io)s lore of the fa'ily.C1AD C1JD 0his has een the case +ith s'all 'odern )r an ho)seholds. C1AD <hen & +as intervie+in! one +o'an, a 'ore assertive +o'an in the sa'e ho)sehold often stepped in to !ive her version of a story. 1t ti'es a +o'an ein! intervie+ed deferred even +hen she had officially s)perior stat)s to the relative interr)ptin! her si'ply eca)se that relative +as etter at storytellin!, reli!io)s 'atters, etc.

7 99 7 0h)s the e(tent to +hich a yo)n! ride acco''odates over ti'e depends on her character, disposition, and circ)'stances. & treated these conditions separately and se,)entially. 1 typical fa'ily, ho+ever, contains several or even 'any da)!hters5in5la+, perhaps representin! t+o or 'ore !enerationsB each da)!hter5in5la+ infl)ences the tradition even as she acco''odates to it. 0his reciprocity dil)tes the infl)ence any individ)al +ields on a ho)sehold;s tradition yet also sho+s that tradition does s) tly evolve, even in a lar!e fa'ily +hose c)rrent da)!hters5in5la+ conscio)sly lean to+ard acco''odation. 1t the sa'e ti'e, +e need not ass)'e that in5'arryin! +o'en rin! an infinite store of traditions. /a'ilies prefer to inter'arry +ith certain $ul s they feel have s)fficient stat)s and presti!e. 0herefore, the $ul 5related le!ends and the fa'ily5related rit)al variations that arrive +ith da)!hters5in5la+ 'ay e repeatedly reintrod)ced. >ario)s da)!hters5in5la+ in a fa'ily 'ay share a sin!le $ul< $ul s 'ay trade da)!hters ack and forth over !enerations.C1GD *)ch reinforce'ent s)rely increases the chances for the !rad)al and s) tle incorporation of e(otic traditions. 9oreover, the evol)tion of all $uldevi 'ytholo!y, partic)larly fa'ily $uldevi 'ytholo!y, is facilitated y the +ay +o'en trans'it 'yth. Fne +o'an hears a 'yth fro' a second +o'an and then later recalls the story line )t not necessarily its identification +ith a partic)lar $uldevi . *till later, +hen she reco)nts the 'yth to her children, !randchildren, sisters5in5la+, or da)!hters5in5la+, she 'ay end )p tellin! it in association +ith the con3)!al $uldevi . &n this +ay 'yths are contin)o)sly introd)ced fro' the o)tside. 0here is no other likely 'eans to acco)nt for the strikin! si'ilarity of fa'ily5related $uldevi narratives. /)rther'ore, this process affects $ul 5related 'ytholo!y. &t )ndo) tedly acco)nts for so'e chan!es +ithin the 'ythic traditions of $ul and state. 0o test this hypothesis, let )s e(a'ine the evidence +ithin the fo)ndation 'yths. C1GD /or e(a'ple, a standard 'arria!e co' ination is 2atha)r5*isodiya. & charted 1J# royal and no le 'arria!esIei!hty5ei!ht 'arried respondents and one )n'arried respondent reported on their 'arria!es 4e(cept in the case noted6 and on their 'others; 'arria!es 4+hen they co)ld re'e' er their 'others; $ul s6. 2o)!hly a ,)arter of the +o'en intervie+ed clai'ed *isodiya as their con3)!al $ul or their natal $ul or their 'others; natal $ul . 2o)!hly a ,)arter clai'ed 2atha)r as con3)!al, natal, or 'aternal $ul . 1 ,)arter of the *isodiya +o'en fro' these alliances had 'arried 2atha)rs and a ,)arter of the 2atha)r +o'en had 'arried *isodiyas. Fne5fo)rth 4"6 of the *isodiya respondents 'arried to 2atha)rs said 2atha)r +as their 'aternal $ul B one5fo)rth 4"6 of the 2atha)r respondents 'arried to *isodiyas said *isodiya +as their 'aternal $ul . 0he re'ainder 496 of these Erepetition 'arria!esE 41$6 incl)ded s)ch patterns as 2atha)r5Ca)han52atha)r. 7 1## 7 Fne of the 'ost strikin! aspects of $ul 5related tales is their tendency to incorporate alternative the'es Ieither in t+in variants or +ithin the sa'e variant. <e have already considered the first the'e: the fo)ndin! of a dynasty in association +ith the !rantin! of victory y a $uldevi to a kin! and his $ul . B)t the 'yths also speak of a $uldevi as co'in! to her ne+ kin!do' eca)se she +ishes to escort a ride 'arryin! into the royal fa'ily. Both the'es occ)r in the story of the *isodiya con,)est of :irnar. 2ecall that the victorio)s 9aharana +eds a :)3arati princess +ho has fallen in love +ith hi'. 0he princess;s $uldevi is Ban 9ata. 1fter the +eddin!, Ban 9ata acco'panies the princess to the *isodiya capital. 0he 'yth !ives Ban 9ata;s relationship +ith the princess as the reason for her decision to eco'e the protector of 9e+ar. 0he ridal the'e conveys the conflictin! loyalties that a !irl feels +hen leavin! her ho'e after 'arria!e.

0he notion that the princess cannot ear to leave her protectress ehind is conveyed y the $uldevi ;s ref)sal to leave her. Havin! arran!ed for the victory of the 9aharana in order to precipitate his 'arria!e to the princess, the $uldevi has no intention of a andonin! her. Hence 9e+ar receives a +indfall profit: the !)ardianship of Ban 9ata 4see fi!. 126. 0his acco)nt co'forta ly accepts the idea that a $uldevi can co'e to a kin!do' thro)!h 'arria!e and even !oes so far as to say that Ban 9ata )s)rps the position of the for'er $uldevi , ?alika 9ata, +ho is still actively +orshiped as a *isodiya !)ardian y visitors to Chitor.C19D &n fact, located +here it is, in the center of the !ro)p of 'on)'ents to +hich Chitor visitors flock, ?alika 9ata;s te'ple is ')ch etter attended than the s'all te'ple to Ban 9ata, sit)ated in the 'idst of the still inha ited part of Chitor +here visitors rarely co'e.C2#D 0his ridal 'otif rec)rs thro)!ho)t $uldevi 'ytholo!y. 8ot every rec)rrence, ho+ever, incl)des the co'plete )s)rpation of a con3)!al $uldevi ;s position. 1s +e sa+ in the disc)ssion of rides; acco''odation to the traditions of their sasural s, a $uldevi can fit into the sasural ;s tradition +itho)t divestin! the con3)!al $uldevi of her title. 0here is the +ell5kno+n story of a 9ar+ari princess +ho 'arries the 9aharana of C19D Beca)se ?alika 9ata is a *anskritic !oddess, 'any of the visitors +ho co'e to Chitor kno+ and +orship her. Her relationship +ith the *isodiyas is affir'ed y the fra'ed litho!raphs of the hero 2ana Pratap that !race her te'ple. C2#D 0he ?alika te'ple has a f)ll5ti'e pujari 4priest6, )t the Ban 9ata te'ple, at least +henever & have visited it, is )nattended e(cept at 'ornin! and evenin! services. -)rin! 'y 'ost recent visits, services +ere perfor'ed y a teena!e oy, acco'panied y 'any little nei!h orhood children playin! dr)'s and sy' ols. 7 1#1 7 9e+ar. 1fter the cere'onies have een co'pleted and the princess is preparin! to leave her parents; ho'e, the 2atha)r $uldevi , 8a!anecha =i, hops into one of the askets containin! ite's for the do+ry and re'ains hidden there )ntil the lon! 3o)rney to 9e+ar is over. <hen the asket is )npacked, the sto+a+ay $uldevi is discovered and dispatched ack to 9ar+ar. Later, ho+ever, 8a!anecha =i a!ain 'akes her +ay to 9e+ar and her eloved princess. 1!ain she is sent ho'e. .very ti'e she travels ack to 9e+ar she is discovered and ret)rned. .vent)ally the sasural eco'es resi!ned to her presence and e!ins to venerate her )t contin)es to reserve its chief place of honor for Ban 9ata. 0his 'yth asks, 'ay the $uldevi co'e alon! or ')st she stay ho'eQ Convention re,)ires ren)nciation, )t the princess and 8a!anecha =i are insepara le. &n the end, re ellion is def)sed and instit)tionali@ed. 0he $uldevi is rele!ated to an honora le )t s) ordinate position. 0oday in the Ban 9ata 0e'ple of the Udaip)r City Palace one can still see so'ethin! of the 'ythic acco''odation 'ade.C21D Ban 9ata retains her s)periority. *he is s)rro)nded y an ela orate pantheon of attendant deities. 0he i'a!e of 8a!anecha =i, ho+ever, is no+here to e seen. <hen & in,)ired a o)t 8a!anecha =i in Ban 9ata;s te'ple, an elderly priest 4pujari 6 e(plained to 'e that she is no+ kept in a closed chest 4tijori 6. *he is taken o)t for p) lic vie+in! 4darshan 6 only on desi!nated holidays.C22D 0he priest said that she is to e venerated alon! +ith the !reat saints 4pirs 6 +ho are connected +ith snakes and snake ite.C2"D Beca)se 8a!anecha =i;s ani'al for' 4rup 6 is a snake, she is venerated y so'e devotees as a !oddess +ho can prevent and c)re snake ite. Hence her services as a $uldevi have een specified and deli'itedB to the *isodiyas she is not a f)ll5fled!ed $uldevi , as she is to the 2atha)rs. 0he +orship of 8a!anecha =i in 9e+ar has eco'e calendrically conte(t)ali@ed and 'ini'ally i'portant in the daily ro)tine of te'ple rit)al. &t is possi le that 8a!anecha =i;s stat)re has !rad)ally di'inished. &n any case, the 'yth

of 8a!anecha =i s)!!ests that her intr)sion has een )nderstood as si!nificant and at least partially s)ccessf)l.C2%D C21D 0his $uldevi te'ple is located +ithin the 2anana , +hich is )n)s)al. 0he place'ent perhaps enhanced the ho)sehold;s readiness to accept the invadin! !oddess since +o'en often i'port their traditions. C22D Bhadva *)di *ata' and 9a!h *)di *ata'. Fn these days 'any +o'en in 8orth &ndia keep vrat s to protect fa'ily health and +elfare 49ary 9c:ee, personal co'')nication to a)thor6. 2a3p)t +o'en 'entioned neither date as a si!nificant vrat in 'y s)rvey, ho+ever. 0he no ility does not participate in these 'inor te'ple o servances. C2"D 0he pujari incl)ded in his list of pir s 0e3a =i, :o!a =i, and 0akha =i. C2%D <hen & read this acco)nt at a conference in =aip)r in 19GA, a *isodiya a)dience 'e' er denied that 8a!anecha =i +as sent ack or that she is kept in a tijori . 1fter the conference & ,)estioned the chief pujari at the Ban 9ata te'ple in Udaip)r a o)t the details of the story and vie+ed 8a!anecha =i;s i'a!e +ith hi'. He said that 8a!anecha =i had al+ays een +elco'e in the ho)seholdIthe *isodiyas +o)ld not e inhospita leI )t confir'ed that she is kept in a tijori . His e(planation +as that the i'a!e is 'ade of solid silver and kept hidden to precl)de theft. & sa+ the i'a!e, a s'all one in a sli!htly lar!er o(, )t noted the presence of other e(pensive i'a!es displayed in the te'ple. 0he e(planation & presented +as reiterated y several pro'inent *isodiya no le'en d)rin! that sa'e ret)rn trip to Udaip)r. 7 1#2 7 0o +hatever e(tent the veneration of 8a!anecha =i has infiltrated palace rit)al, her 'yth de'onstrates oth the dissonance an in5'arryin! ride e(periences and the challen!e this dissonance 'ay present to the rit)al and 'ythic traditions of the h)s and;s sasural . 9ore i'portant, it affir's the proposition that a ride;s $uldevi 'ay s) tly or even drastically alter the devotional life of the sasural . 0he 'yth a o)t 8a!anecha =i and Ban 9ata presents this alteration as partialB the 'yth a o)t Ban 9ata and ?alika 9ata presents it as co'plete. 0hese 'yths s)!!est specific historical chan!es in $uldevi tradition. B)t even if the 'yths do not sho+ specific historical chan!es, they reflect a !eneral consens)s that altho)!h a $uldevi co'es to a $ul y presentin! herself to the kin! at a ti'e of crisis and then receives reverence fro' the fa'ilies in the kin!;s $ul , a $uldevi 'ay also co'e to the $ul via the 2anana , +here she 'ay partly or +holly s)pplant a pree(istin! $uldevi . *tandin! in et+een the position of Ban 9ata +hen she s)pplants ?alika 9ata and that of 8a!anecha =i +hen she 3oins Ban 9ata as a clandestine attendant is *hila 9ata, +ho co)ld loosely e called the )nofficial $uldevi of the ?achvahas of =aip)r. 1s +e have seen, the official ?achvaha $uldevi is =a'vai 9ata +ho first appears to the ?achvahas as a life5!rantin! co+. 9any of the ?achvaha +o'en & intervie+ed, ho+ever, listed *hila 9ata as their $uldevi . 0he 'yth of *hila 9ata, +hich is +ell kno+n in =aip)r 4')ch etter kno+n, even to the ?achvahas, than the 'yth of =a'vai 9ata6 is inscri ed on a pla,)e o)tside her te'ple in the pre5=aip)r ?achvaha capital, 1' er. 0he pla,)e !ives t+o acco)nts of *hila 9ata;s appearance to the ?achvahas. 0he first is detailedB the second see's so'ethin! of an aftertho)!ht. 0he detailed acco)nt states that d)rin! the last ,)arter of the si(teenth cent)ry the !reat 9an *inh, 9ahara3a of the ?achvahas, )ns)ccessf)lly fo)!ht ?in! ?edar in .ast Ben!al. /r)strated, 9an *inh prayed to ?ali, +ho !ranted hi' a vision, pro'ised hi' victory, and e(acted fro' hi' a pro'ise that he +o)ld retrieve a stone i'a!e of her fro' the otto' of the sea. 1fter his victory, 9an *inh fetched

this i'a!e and 7 1#" 7 ro)!ht it ack +ith hi' to 1' er, +here it eca'e kno+n as *hila 9ata, the E*tone :oddess.E 0his acco)nt accords +ith the pattern descri ed early in this chapter: a kin! is in tro) le, a !oddess appears to hi' in a vision, the kin! is victorio)s, and he adopts the !oddess. 0he second acco)nt, ho+ever, confor's to the alternate pattern that has evolved: the $uldevi acco'panies a yo)n! ride to her ne+ ho'e at the ti'e of 'arria!e and then +ins acceptance there. 0his e(planation of the arrival of *hila 9ata holds that +hen ?in! ?edar conceded defeat, he esto+ed his da)!hter )pon 9an *inh. 1t the 'arria!e cere'onies he presented to 9an *inh the i'a!e of the !oddess =essoresvari, +ho ca'e to e kno+n as *hila -evi. 0h)s, like Ban 9ata and 8a!anecha =i, *hila 9ata does not a andon her protection of the princess )t rather esta lishes herself in the princess;s sasural . *hila -evi has een a for'ida le rival to =a'vai 9ata. *he has occ)pied an i'portant place in the real's of state rit)al and fa'ily +orship. &t +o)ld no+ e )nlikely for her to )s)rp the stat)s of =a'vai 9ata. 9odern records and co'')nications ein! +hat they are, it is diffic)lt to i'a!ine a co'plete displace'ent of one $uldevi y another. /)rther'ore, eca)se the instit)tion of kin!ship has ended, it is do) tf)l that there co)ld e an official 4cere'onial or infor'al and !rad)al6 $uldevi adoption that +o)ld e indin! on a $ul or $ul s) division. 8evertheless, in the 'inds of so'e individ)al ?achvaha +o'en 4+ho' other ?achvahas 'ay think of as E'isinfor'edE6, *hila 9ata has either taken over or encroached on the position of =a'vai 9ata as $uldevi of the ?achvahas. &n addition, the pro'inence of *hila 9ata in the conscio)sness of oth 'ale ?achvahas and non52a3p)t residents of =aip)r alike s)!!ests that the !eneral p) lic elieves she has appropriated a $uldevi 5like stat)s for herself, even tho)!h it technically or )lti'ately reserves for =a'vai 9ata the appellation Ek)ldevi.E Fne reason that *hila 9ata possesses s)ch pop)larity is that she fits far etter than =a'vai 9ata the 'old of $ul !oddess. =a'vai 9ata, the 'yth !oes, is a ve!etarian teetotaler. Fne variant concl)des that she is a Brah'anIand this despite the fact that she +as previo)sly the $uldevi of a carnivoro)s tri e. *hila 9ata, ho+ever, is a 'eat5eatin!, +ine5drinkin! !oddess like other 2a3p)t $uldevis . Cons)'ption of 'eat and alcohol y 2a3p)ts is traditionally 3)stified 4even tho)!h they have hi!h5caste stat)s6 y the notion that oth foods sti')late stren!th and passion, +hich are essential for attle. 1 !oddess +ho a stains fro', and even disapproves of, 'eat and +ine is an odd +ar !oddess indeed. 9oreover, eca)se =a'vai 9ata a stains, ?achvahas !ive to *hila 9ata 7 1#% 7 the sacrificial 4 lood6 offerin!s of 8avratri. <hile they also cele rate the festival at 3a'vai 9ata;s te'ple, they do so +itho)t the traditional offerin!s. 0h)s altho)!h oth !oddesses are ho'olo!i@ed to the ellicose -)r!a, +hose 'ain te(t, the +evima"atmya , is read in al'ost all !oddess te'ples on 8avratri, it is *hila 9ata +ho accepts the act)al lood offerin!s that -)r!a re,)ires in her te'ples and that 2a3p)t $uldevis receive else+here in theirs.C2$D 0he *hila5-)r!a ho'olo!y is si'ply 'ore direct and e(plicit than the =a'vai5-)r!a oneI*hila replaces the official $uldevi d)rin! the 'ost i'portant 2a3p)t holiday. <hat 'ay !ive *hila 9ata additional appeal to ?achvahas, and especially to ?achvaha +o'en, is that the 'ytholo!y of *hila 9ata a'ply e(presses the co'ple(ity and fl)idity of $uldevi character. *he is a f)ll5fled!ed $ul 5protectin! +arrior !oddess as +ell as a protector of rides as they ass)'e their roles as pativratas . 1ltho)!h the 'yth of =a'vai 9ata incorporates oth 'artial 'otifs and 'aternal

icono!raphy, it does so +itho)t e(plicit reference to her entry into the 2anana 4fi!. 2#6. &t 'ay e that there +as s)ch a 'yth in the past )t it is also likely that no s)ch version e(isted, not least eca)se the tri al ori!ins of the !oddess +o)ld 'ake a 'arria!e scenario si!nificantly less pla)si le.C2JD &n short, the =a'vai 9ata 'yth see's inco'plete. 1 final ele'ent of the *hila 9ata 'yth ears conte'platin!. 0he first version of the 'yth e(plicitly identifies *hila 9ata +ith ?ali. 0his *anskritic ho'olo!y facilitates the introd)ction of the alien !oddess into the palace. 0hat *hila 9ata is )nderstood as ?ali as +ell as ?edar;s $uldevi is clear +hen +e vie+ the t+o *hila 'yths to!ether. Beca)se =a'vai 9ata is si'ilarly, tho)!h less f)lly, ho'olo!i@ed to the :oddess, the possi ility of co'petition et+een the !oddesses can e dis'issed C2$D 0he distinction et+een 'eat5eatin! and ve!etarian !oddesses 4or !ods6 is not a sol)te in &ndia. =)st as the vir!inal and 'arried !oddesses are ideal types that easily l)r in 'yth and rit)al, so the carnivoro)s and her ivoro)s for's often 'er!e. >e!etarian offerin!s are often seen as sy' olic s) stit)tes for ani'al sacrifice. &n !oddess +orship the cocon)t replaces the head offered in an ani'al 4or h)'an6 "alidan . &n so'e places in &ndia, ve!eta le or !rain offerin!s are shaped into ani'als. Fn the identification of carnivoro)s and her ivoro)s for's of deities, see Biardea) and 9ala'o)d, ,e sacrifice , 1"9 ff.B 9eyer, (n$alaparmecuvari , "$5"9B 2o!hair, Epic of Palnadu , 19$H9AB 0ara o)t, )acrifier , 1%$B :aley, E0otalitM,E G#B >idal, ELe p)its,E $#H$1B and C. =. /)ller, E0he Hind) Pantheon and the Le!iti'ation of Hierarchy,E in an , n.s., 2", no. 1 49arch 19GG6: 21H2". C2JD 1n attendant at the =a'vai 9ata te'ple at 2a3!arh related to 'e the tradition that -)larai;s +ife had convinced hi' to )ild the $uldevi te'ple after his s)ccess in attle. 8one of 'y infor'ants nor 'y ?achvaha ta(i driver, +ho re!)larly escorts his 'other to the te'ple, kne+ this tradition. 0he story intri!)es 'e eca)se it s)!!ests the 2anana ;s perceived infl)ence in the adoption of a $uldevi and hints at a special tie et+een ride and $uldevi . 7 1#$ 7

2#. =a'vai 9ata, the ?achvaha $uldevi 4oil paintin! fro' the ho'e of 9ohan *inh of ?anota6. 7 1#J 7 as ill)sory on the ideolo!ical level +hile ein! act)ali@ed on the sociolo!ical level. 0h)s +e can at the very 'ini')' s)r'ise that $uldevi +orship is closely tied to oth the $ul e(perience of con,)erin! a ne+ land and the fe'ale e(perience of enterin! a ne+ fa'ily. &t is pointless to de ate the Etr)eE ori!ins of partic)lar $uldevis . <hether the !oddesses act)ally appear in con3)nction +ith the con,)est of ne+ peoples, 'arria!es, or co' inations of oth, the 'yths reveal an )nderstandin! of the 2anana as a loc)s of reli!io)s chan!e. Hence, in sociolo!ical and 'ythic ter's 2a3p)t 'arria!e entails vario)s ar itrations et+een co'petin! fe'ale roles, e they those of +o'en or of $uldevis . <hatever the nat)re of the ad3)st'ent +o'en 'ake, +e sho)ld not 'istake it for so'ethin! per'anent. 0he tension in evidence at the ti'e of 'arria!e res)rfaces d)rin! other specific instances +hen +o'en enco)nter i'portant social chan!es. <e can est )nderstand this y placin! the t+ofold conception of $uldevi d)ty a!ainst the ackdrop of

'ale ideals, for +hen 'en actively p)rs)e )lti'ate 2a3p)t ai's, the co'ple'entarity of fe'ale roles 4 oth +o'en;s and $uldevis ;6 'ay ,)ickly dissolve. &nvesti!atin! the connection et+een traditional 'ale and fe'ale 'otivations +ill help )s )nderstand the +ay in +hich +o'en interpret their contin)ally evolvin! pativrata d)ty. 9oreover, it +ill allo+ )s to trace the concept)al 'eans y +hich the traditional )nderstandin! of $uldevi protection has adapted to the conte'porary conte(t of 2a3p)t society.

Traditional ,ale and Female ,oti(ations

0he traditional !oals of a 2a3p)t 'an are t+o: con,)est and death on the attlefield. 0he relation et+een these t+o ro)!hly reflects that et+een the social and the individ)al. 1s a 2a3p)t, a 'an +orks for the !lorification of the kin! and the vitality of the kin!do' he serves. He also strives for personal salvation, a place in +arrior heaven 4virgati 6 !)aranteed y death in attle. 0hese !oals, for')lated d)rin! a y!one era )t still espo)sed and ackno+led!ed y 2a3p)t no ility, ')t)ally reinforce each other. >ictory is the social !oal of the hero 4vir 6 seekin! personal salvation in death.C2AD 1 2a3p)t +o'an, as +e have seen, aspires to preserve her h)s and;s life. 1t the sa'e ti'e, she )nderstands that her pativrata d)ty re,)ires C2AD Fn the anti,)ity of the hero;s aspiration, see /illio@at, E1fter5-eath -estiny,E %. 4ir , incidentally, is co!nate +ith the .n!lish Evirility.E 7 1#A 7 her not only to preserve her h)s and )t also to serve hi' and e o edient to hi'. *he ')st sacrifice her personal desires to f)lfill the desires of her h)s and. 0h)s, if her h)s and +ishes to die a !lorio)s death on the attlefield, she a!ain e(periences dissonance. 1s her h)s and;s protector, she cannot lo!ically s)pport her h)s and;s desire to attain deathIshe hopes for victory and life. <hereas in the a stract she can s)pport the notion that 2a3p)t soldiers sho)ld sacrifice their lives on the attlefield so that fa'ilies 'i!ht e protected and can )nderstand that s)ch sacrifice is his d)ty, she cannot +holeheartedly +ill that her h)s and sacrifice his life, for it is her d)ty to preserve hi' and his fa'ily. 0h)s the prospect of a diffic)lt attle has al+ays carried +ith it the dile''a of conflictin! loyalties. 0he +arrior5pativrata character of $uldevis reflects this dile''a. &n the fo)ndation 'yths presented a ove, ho+ever, the ellicose aspect of the $uldevi , +hich is s)!!ested y her +ild ani'al for', is softened y do'estic 'aternal 'otifs. <e ')st not 'istake the presence of these 'otifs for any co'pro'ise in the $uldevi ;s elli!erence. 0he 'artial and the 'arital aspects coe(ist in the !oddess +ho serves as !)ardian. 0o protect, she re,)ires oth lovin! devotion and loody sacrifice.C2GD 0his t+ofold de'and e'er!es in the B)kh 9ata 4H)n!ry 9other6 narrative recorded y Colonel 0od. C29D 0he acco)nt is a vi!nette fro' his story of the *isodiyas; second attle a!ainst the 9)sli' con,)eror 1la)d5din, +ho +as deter'ined to con,)er Chitor, the capital city. 1s the tale !oes, one ni!ht the *isodiya kin! +as restin! fro' a disco)ra!in! day on the attlefield +hen he heard a voice that ca'e fro' thin air. &t !roaned, E&;' h)n!ry.E =)st then his $uldevi appeared. 0he kin! asked her +hy she +as not satisfied +ith the ei!ht tho)sand 2a3p)ts +ho had already sacrificed their lives to her in attle. *he replied that she +anted kin!s: E& ')st have re!al victi'sB and if t+elve +ho +ear the diade' leed not for Cheetore, the land +ill pass fro' the line.E 0he ne(t ni!ht she a!ain appeared to the kin!, +ho +as then in the co'pany of his co)ncil. *he said she +o)ld re'ain as their protector only on the condition that the kin! cro+n each of his sons and then send the' o)t alone to die in attle. 0he kin! carried o)t her orders )ntil only one of his t+elve sons re'ained alive. 1t that point he hi'self rode o)t into attle to die, so that his son +o)ld live to preserve the royal line.

C2GD Cf. 9eyer, (n$alaparmecuvari , 1JG C29D (nnals and (nti'uities 1:21%H1$B 0od dates this event as *. 1"%J 41.-. 129#6 or perhaps thirteen years later. 0he *isodiya kin! +as act)ally the r)ler not of Chitor, )t of *isoda. His *isodiya sha$h later ass)'ed the throne of Chitor fro' the 4other6 :)hils r)lin! there. 7 1#G 7 0his B)kh 9ata story portrays the $uldevi as a devo)rer of her devotees.C"#D 0hat her cons)'ption of the' is )nderstood as acceptance of h)'an sacrifice is even clearer in the story of a h)'an sacrifice at the later *isodiya capital of ?)' hal!arh 4see fi!s. 2, "6. <hile visitin! the r)ins of ?)' hal!arh, & ca'e across a s'all stone shrine honorin! a soldier +ho had vol)nteered to e killed as a sacrifice 4"alidan 6 to -)r!a.C"1D 0he sacrifice +as necessary to ens)re that the attle +alls ein! constr)cted y 9aharana ?)' ha +o)ld e stron! eno)!h to +ithstand sie!es. 0he soldier +as rit)ally decapitated, and his head rolled do+n fro' the hi!h !ro)nd )pon +hich the sacrifice took place to a lo+ spot, +here the shrine +as constr)cted. His 2a3p)t lood !ave the fortress its stren!th.C"2D By takin! 2a3p)t lives, the +arrior $uldevi fr)strates the pativrata p)rpose of h)s and5protection and so contradicts the do'estic $uldevi f)nction. 0h)s, the prospect of a h)s and;s death in attle e'phasi@es the for'al dis3)nction et+een the $uldevi ;s protective p)rposes. Parallelin! this dis3)nction is the dissonance of the +ife +ho, in +ishin! to o ey her h)s and and to help hi' perfor' his d)ty, ')st s)pport hi' in his decision to fi!ht yet do her est to save his life. 1s chapter J +ill de'onstrate, 2a3p)t lore is f)ll of ever5pop)lar e(a'ples of +o'en +ho even 'ade their h)s ands fi!ht +hen the h)s ands +ere less than enth)siastic. &t has al+ays een the d)ty of 2a3p)t +o'en to help their h)s ands e not only as they are )t as they sho)ld e, +hich is to say, as 'en ent on perfor'in! 2a3p)t d)ty. 8evertheless, sho)ld the d)tif)l h)s and die, his death +o)ld stand as an indict'ent of his +ife;s character. 0he +ife +o)ld have failed to protect his life as a pativrata sho)ld. 0raditionally, the only +ay she co)ld prove her character +as to sacrifice her life. By dyin! as a sati , she shared the fate that her h)s and earned. 0his sy' olic action is a sol)tion, not a 'otivation, and it is a sol)tion that attaches only after the fact. 1s & learned fro' +o'en d)rin! 'y stay, a !ood +ife can never C"#D 0here is also a story a o)t the $uldevi 1d 9ata, +ho devo)rs in order to protect. 1ccordin! to the version kno+n to the -hran!adra ranch of the =hala line, she ate the le! of Harpal, the =hala fo)nder. He had offered it to her in a feast he had prepared for her at a *ola'ki 2a3p)t cre'ation !ro)nd. 1fter cons)'in! his flesh, she restored hi' to health and ena led hi' to fo)nd a dynasty 49. 8. 9. Ca)thorD, The !ind Rajasthan Cprivately p) lished as a tri )te to H. H. 9aha 2aol *hri Pratapsin!h :)la sin!h3i, Bansda, 1G9JD, $11H1"6. =ayasinh =hala also narrated this 'yth to 'e. C"1D 0his shrine is still activeB at the ti'e of 'y visit incense +as )rnin! there. 0+o !)ards told 'e its history, +hich a tha$ur ac,)aintance corro orated. C"2D Fn si'ilar constr)ction sacrifices y +o'en in Banaras, see -iane 9ar3orie Coccari, E0he Bir Ba as of BanarasE 4Ph.-. diss., University of <isconsin, 9adison, 19GJ6, 12#. 7 1#9 7 vo+ or even intend to die a sati efore her h)s and;s death, for this +o)ld e to +ill his death and +o)ld contravene her fore'ost p)rpose as a pativrata . <o'en +ant to die efore their h)s ands. 0h)s )lti'ate 'otivations cannot e lo!ically har'oni@ed +hile oth h)s and and +ife live. 0o this eni!'a

+e +ill ret)rn a!ain and a!ain in the chapters follo+in!. &n s)', attle has disr)pted the traditional sy' olic har'ony et+een $uldevi f)nctions. Beca)se a $uldevi 'ay allo+ a soldier to die, she cannot e said to protect his fa'ily al+ays. .ven tho)!h the hero;s death !lorifies his fa'ily, it ca)ses 'isery and 'ay also leave the fa'ily heirless. &deally, the ethos of attle har'oni@es +ith the +elfare of the fa'ily, )t in the act)al circ)'stance of +ar, death eco'es a threat to the ho)sehold and the fa'ily line. :iven this traditional conflict et+een $uldevi f)nctions in the conte(t of act)al or i'pendin! attle, +e 'i!ht +onder ho+ the $uldevi f)nctions in conte'porary 2a3p)t society. 8o+adays 2a3p)ts no lon!er have kin!s and ar'ies. 0h)s attle is not the re!)lar occ)pation of 'ost 2a3p)ts. .ven +hen it is, +hich is to say for 'en +ho have 3oined the &ndian ar'y, the protection a $uldevi provides is to an individ)al +ho is a 'e' er of a $ul )t not to the $ul and its sociopolitical s) divisions. 9e' ers of $uls and s) 5$uls no lon!er fi!ht to!ether in attle. 9oreover, death in attle is not +hat it +as, a sacrifice for the $uldevi protectin! the $ul or a $ul 5)nit as an entity. 1s a res)lt, the erst+hile 'ilitary relationship et+een $uldevi and $ul 'e' er has chan!ed. &t has eco'e lar!ely 'etaphorical: it applies the i'a!ery of attle to econo'ic and social endeavors ai'ed at enefitin! the ho)sehold.C""D &n so doin!, it has co'e to 'irror the relationship et+een individ)als and do'estic $uldevis . Hence, as +e o served, 'en no+ concede that their +ives kno+ 'ore than they a o)t Es)ch reli!io)s 'atters.E 0he end of the 2a3p)t states has 'eant the ascendancy of do'estic $uldevi 'otifs, altho)!h, as the fo)ndation 'yths de'onstrate, the do'estic and 'aternal aspects of the $uldevi have )ndo) tedly een an inte!ral part of $uldevi tradition since its inception. 9ay +e ass)'e that this ascendance of ho)sehold 'otifs 'eans that the $uldevi has e!)n to lose her d)ality of characterQ Kes and no. 0he assertion y 2a3p)t +o'en that the $uldevi is enevolentIshe does C""D *ee Harlan, E*ocial Chan!e.E 0his application of attle 'otifs to econo'ic and political endeavors see's intensified after 'any recent s)ccessf)l 2a3p)t electoral ca'pai!ns. 0he 9aharana of Udaip)r +as elected to Parlia'ent, and 'any 2a3p)ts have taken seats in national and state le!islat)res. 7 11# 7 +hat she does for the !ood of the !ro)p she !)ardsIco' ined +ith the ho)sehold icono!raphy of the $uldevi as a pativrata , lend s)pport to the idea that as the $uldevi eco'es less tied to the conte(t of $ul and $ul history and 'ore f)lly located +ithin the ho'e, the do'estic associations of the !oddess +ill eco'e increasin!ly do'inant. :er'ane here is the apparent escalation a'on! +o'en of the practice of reli!io)s vo+s. 0his is )ndo) tedly associated +ith the increasin! circ)lation of vernac)lar vrat pa'phlets, +hich contain stories connected to the vo+s 4vrat $athas 6 as +ell as instr)ctions for their perfor'ance.C"%D 9any of the vrat $athas present characters +ho are paradi!'atic pativratas B others provide no s)ch s)ccinct instr)ction. 9ost, ho+ever, relate to rit)als intended to stren!then a +o'an;s po+er to preserve her h)s and;s life thro)!h d)tif)l +ifely ehavior and rit)al devotion. 0h)s in one +ay or another +o'en;s rit)als reflect an increasin! reinforce'ent of the pativrata 'otif. &n its li!ht +e ')st interpret the evol)tion of +o'en;s $uldevi +orship. 1nd yet +e ')st ackno+led!e that the 'ilitary i'a!ery of the $ul !oddess is )nlikely to vanish alto!ether. -i'in)tion of the $ul conte(t of $uldevi activity has red)ced the potential anta!onis' et+een $ul !oals and fe'ale aspirations and individ)ali@ed the $uldevi ;s care. 0he $uldevi does not protect the $ul as ')ch as she does $ul 'e' ers. 8evertheless, the fl)id d)ality of the $uldevi ;s character, +e recall, transcends its p)rely parochial e(pression. 0he $ul !oddess retains a stron! *anskritic valence. *he has oth her elli!erent 4dark, ?ali5type6 and the !entle 4li!ht, :a)ri5type6

associations. 0h)s a'idst the host of vrat cele rations pop)latin! Hind) calendars, 8avratri re'ains y far the 'ost i'portant cele ration for 2a3p)ts, 'ale and fe'ale. Here the identification of the $uldevi +ith the :oddess preserves the co'ple( character presented in the puranas . 0he perfor'ance of 8avratri rit)als !ives f)ll e(pression to concept)ali@ation of the :oddess as +arrior and rene+s the protection that the $uldevi e(tends to individ)als as they fi!ht the attles of everyday life. =)st as do'estic $uldevi i'a!ery colored $ul fo)ndation 'yths, so no+ 'ilitary $uldevi i'a!ery colors the ho)sehold5affiliated f)nctions that the !oddess perfor's for $ul 'e' ers. &n s)', the $uldevi retains her stat)s as the chief divine protector of 2a3p)ts in present5day 2a3asthan. 9oreover, she re'ains a sy' ol of C"%D Fn vrat $athas , see *)san *no+ <adley, )ha$ti 4Chica!o: University of Chica!o Press, 19A$6B *)san *no+ <adley, EPo+er in Hind) &deolo!y and Practice,E in The Ne& Wind , ed. ?enneth -avid 40he Ha!)e: 9o)ton, 19AA6B and 'ore recently 9ary 9c:ee, E/eastin! and /astin!E 4Ph.-. diss., Harvard -ivinity *chool, 19GA6. 7 111 7 the traditional 2a3p)t +ay of life. 1s $ul 5protector, she elon!s to the do'ain of history, the record of 'ilitary achieve'ents y 2a3p)t 'ales. 1s fa'ily protector, she is associated +ith the contin)in! +elfare of individ)al fa'ily 'e' ers. *he reflects the dislocation e(perienced y +o'en +ho 'arry fro' one $ul into another and the dissonance shared y +o'en +ho +ish to s)pport their h)s ands; careers +hile preservin! their h)s ands; +ell5 ein!. *he is a co'ple( deity, +hose +isdo' is ass)'ed to transcend that of her devotees. 1t the sa'e ti'e, the $uldevi contin)es to f)nction as a paradi!'. *he is a ho'e protector, as +o'en sho)ld e ho'e protectors, and she is a h)s and defender, as +o'en sho)ld e h)s and defenders. .ven +hen she har's fa'ily 'e' ers to p)nish the' for oversi!hts, she serves as an e(e'plar, for +o'en ')st also 'ake decisions that dist)r yet enefit the ho)sehold. Parado(ically, the first s)ch dist)r ance a +o'an ca)ses 'ay +ell e her i'portation of her natal $uldevi . &n +orshipin! the $uldevi , then, 2a3p)t +o'en seek to 'a(i'i@e their perfor'ance of the pativrata role that she e' odies as a pativrata !oddess and yet transcends oth as ho)sehold and as 'artial protectress alike. 8evertheless, the +orship +o'en render is not a passive response to the $uldevi )t a contin)ally transfor'ative interpretation of $uldevi +ill and $uldevi tradition. Beca)se for +o'en the $uldevi is predo'inantly a ho)sehold deity, she is interpreted and eval)ated, reinterpreted and reeval)ated, accordin! to the chan!in! perceptions +o'en hold of do'estic space, ho)sehold d)ties, and pativrata devotion. 0he ne(t chapter addresses the ,)estion of ho+ +o'en interpret and e')late another sort of protectressIthe sati . Unlike the d)al5nat)red $uldevi , the sati has only one for', the for' of the pativrata , and only one p)rpose, the protection of the ho)sehold. 0oday as in the past, the sati )ne,)ivocally )nifies the aspects of identity that, as +e have seen, are not al+ays co'pati le: ein! a !ood 2a3p)t and ein! a !ood +o'an. 7 112 7

&apter 9 Satimata Tradition t&e Trans'ormati(e "ro)ess

Fn the o)tskirts of Udaip)r is 1har, the d)sty one5lane to+n that is the site of Udaip)r;s royal cre'ation co'po)nd. .nterin! the co'po)nd, a +alled area of perhaps ten acres or so, the visitor passes constellations of lar!e stone 'on)'ents 4chatris 6 in 'e'ory of 9e+ar;s deceased 'onarchs. /)rther on are older cenotaphs, 'ost of +hich have started to cr)' le. /ield !rass has spr)n! )p et+een the stones in their lon! staircasesB +eeds and vines attack their ases. 1t the top of each staircase is a lar!e covered platfor' in the 'iddle of +hich is set a carved stone depictin! a 'onarch and the +o'en +ho shared his f)neral pyre. Belo+ the 'on)'ents are s'all platfor's 4ca"utras 6 s)pportin! 'ore s)ch 'e'orial stonesIso'e of the' co'paratively cr)deIdedicated to less ill)strio)s ancestors 4fi!s. 21, 226. 1ltho)!h co''e'oratin! the deaths of 'ale ancestors and of their ,)eens, they are often referred to si'ply as sati stones.C1D 0hey cele rate the loyalty +o'en have sho+n in a andonin! life to 3oin their h)s ands in the after+orld.C2D 0h)s each is 'arked at its ape( +ith a relief carvin! C1D 0his is partic)larly tr)e +hen they are referred to in .n!lish, +hether y forei!ners or y &ndian historians and 3o)rnalists. Fn these stones and their si!nificance in 9aharashtra, see :)nther -. *onthei'er, EHero and *ati5stones in 9aharashtra,E in emorial )tones , ed. *. *ettar and :)nther -. *onthei'er 4-har+ad: &nstit)te of 1rt History, ?arnatak University and Heidel er!: *o)th 1sia &nstit)te, University of Heidel er!, 19G26B on ?arnataka and 9aharashtra, see 2o'ila 0hapar, E-eath and the Hero,E in ortality and .mmortality , ed. *. C. H)'phries and Helen ?in! 4London: 1cade'ic Press, 19G26. C2D <hat percenta!e of 2a3p)t +o'en have died as satis is )nkno+n. &nfor'ed esti'ates, ased on e(tant sati 'on)'ents, ran!e et+een 1 and 2 percent, )t no one really kno+s a o)t 'edieval ti'es. 7 11" 7 of a +o'an;s hand, the !eneral representation of a)spicio)sness and in this narro+ conte(t the sy' ol for a sati . 0o one side of the hand is the s)n, to the other the 'oon, +hich to!ether are taken to 'ean, E*o lon! as there shall e a s)n and a 'oon, let this event e re'e' ered.E 0he satis ; styli@ed faces and post)res are serene. 0hey look peacef)l. &n fact, +ith their pal's 3oined in an anjali 4a prayer !est)re +ith pal's open and fin!ertips to)chin!6, the satis see' lost in 'editation. 0he inner peacef)lness of their e(pression 'irrors the tran,)ility of the s)rro)ndin!s. <henever & have visited 1har, and & have done so often, & have shared only the co'pany of f)rtive chip')nks in the )nder r)sh and ya+nin! )ffalo off in the ')ddy strea' orderin! the cre'ation platfor'. 0r)e, & have seen at 1har evidence of active veneration of the sati stones, 'any of +hich are adorned +ith ver'ilion and silver foil, )t eca)se 'ost +orship of satis is done y +o'en, +ho venerate satis at si'pler shrines in their ho)seholds, s)ch stones are left )nattended 'ost of the ti'e. 0hey 'ay only e +orshiped, in fact, +hen there is a 'arria!e or a irth in the fa'ily, in +hich case they are !iven special tri )te 4dho$ 6. 0he co'pos)re of the sati i'a!es and the cal' of their s)rro)ndin!s al+ays strike 'e as oddly dis,)ietin!.C"D 0he serenity stands in ironic contrast to the violent +ay in +hich these +o'en died. *o'eti'es as & have conte'plated these stones & have i'a!ined the scene that each co''e'orates. & have tho)!ht of a +o'an steppin! o)t fro' the sec)rity of parda into a once so' er, no+ e(pectant

cro+d of spectators, 3ostlin! one another to catch a !li'pse of her 'o)ntin! the pyre and eco'in! a sati . & have +ondered: ho+ co)ld she stand the painQ -eath y fire is )nthinka le. Be that as it 'ay, 'y p)rpose in this chapter is to constr)ct ho+ it is that a sati ;s death is Ethinka le.E & do not propose to assess the pheno'enon historically:C%D & leave to others the task of addressin! the political, econo'ic, and social i'plications of sati i''olations and assessin! the e(tent to +hich s)ch i''olations +ere vol)ntary.C$D 2ather, & intend to C"D &n the villa!e +here & +orked, the sati stones 4one for each of the 2a3p)t $uls , =hala and 2atha)r6 +ere also sit)ated in sedate s)rro)ndin!s. 0hey sat on a ca"utra )nder a tall shade tree on the villa!e o)tskirts near the co'')nal +ell. C%D /or historical infor'ation, see -atta, )ati B 9eena :a)r, )ati and )ocial Reforms 4=aip)r: P) lication *che'e, 19G96B 2o'ila 0hapar, E&n History,E )eminar "%2 4/e r)ary 19GG6B 1rvind *har'a, )ati 4-elhi: 9otilal Banarsidass, 19GG6B >eena -as, E:ender *t)dies,E 7er$shire Revie& 419GJ6B and Co)rtri!ht, +readful Practice . C$D *ee >eena -as, E*tran!e 2esponse,E .llustrated Wee$ly of .ndia , 2G /e . 19GGB 0hapar, E&n HistoryEB and other articles in )eminar "%2 and anushi , nos. %2H%". 0hese are only a fe+ of the 'any articles analy@in! the controversy er)ptin! fro' the 2)p ?an+ar case 'entioned in the introd)ction. /or f)rther theoretical perspectives, see Lata 9ani, E9)ltiple 9ediations,E .nscriptions 4*anta Cr)@: University of California, 19G96B and 2a3esh+ari *)ndar 2aian, E0he *) 3ect of *ati,E 0ale /ournal of Criticism , vol. ", no. 2, *prin! 199#. 7 11% 7

21. )ati 'on)'ents at 1har. 7 11$ 7

22. -etail fro' a sati stone, 1har. e(plain the +ays in +hich 2a3p)ts have )nderstood sati i''olation and analy@e specifically +hat the sati has represented, +hat she has meant , to the +o'en & ca'e to kno+ in 2a3asthan d)rin! 'y ti'e there 4fi!s. 2", 2%6.CJD &n the 'inds of 2a3p)ts the transfor'ation of a +o'an into a sati does not, as is often ass)'ed, res)lt fro' the act of self5i''olation. 0he +ord sati 'eans Ea !ood +o'anE and not, as .n!lish speakers tend to think, an act.CAD <e 'ay speak of sati as so'ethin! one co''its, )t Hindi speakers define sati as that +hich one eco'es 4sati ho jana 6. 0his )sa!e reflects the )nderstandin! all 2a3p)t +o'en have of the sati : eco'in! a sati is a process, a process insti!ated at the 'o'ent of 'arria!e or occasionally even at the 'o'ent of etrothal. 1s +e shall see, eca)se there is parallel fire sy' olis' in the 'arria!e rit)al and sati cre'ation, circ)'a' )latin! a f)neral pyre transfor's a fiancMe into a CJD 8o st)dy of sati tradition takes into acco)nt the testi'ony of livin! devotees and the co'')nity

conte(tB see re'arks in the introd)ction. CAD .n!lish !enerally spells the +ord it )ses to descri e i''olation Es)ttee.E 7 11J 7

2". )ati i'a!e fro' 1har. 7 11A 7

2%. Pop)lar depiction of a sati 4fro' an icon shop at the !ates of the !ates of the .klin! =i te'ple6. 7 11G 7 +ife, +ho can then eco'e a sati . 0h)s the transcendent po+ers that a sati +ields are tho)!ht not 'erely the conse,)ence of the act of dyin!B they are the res)lt of her s)ccessf)l develop'ent of pativrata character as a 'arried +o'an or even as a fiancMe. &n short, the sati serves +o'en as an accessi le ideal, for she has eco'e a sati y f)lfillin! the role that they aspire to f)lfill, that of the pativrata . Before investi!atin! the standard scenario that is tho)!ht to transfor' a +o'an into a sati , let 'e reiterate that today the practice of dyin! as a sati is lar!ely e(tinct.CGD &t is also ille!al. Fn those rare occasions +hen it does occ)r, oth the !overn'ent and the press vi!oro)sly conde'n it.C9D 0he near eli'ination of the c)sto', ho+ever, has not ca)sed the +orship of satis to di'inish. Fn the contrary. 2a3p)t +o'en contin)e to revere past satis and ad'ire their spirit as pativratas , )t 'ost +o'en no+ re3ect self5i''olation as an option for the'selvesInot least of all, they readily say, eca)se their relatives co)ld e tried as acco'plices. Beco'in! a sati +o)ld har' rather than help the fa'ily. 0he +o'en in one thi$ana told 'e that not lon! a!o a sati si')ltaneo)sly appeared in all the drea's of the +o'en in their ho)sehold and ordered the fa'ily to allo+ no 'ore satis . 8evertheless, 2a3p)t +o'en re'ain visi ly pro)d of the co)ra!e and conviction that satis have sho+n in dyin! and re'ain steadfast in their sati veneration. Beca)se of this contin)in! reverence 4and eca)se self5i''olation of this type still occasionally occ)rs6, & )se the present tense in descri in! sati tradition. <hen speakin! of self5i''olation, ho+ever, & intend the present lar!ely in its historical sense.

Stages o' Sati Trans'ormation

0he transfor'ation of a +o'an into a sati co'prises three sta!es. 0he first of these is the pativrata sta!e. 1 +o'an eco'es a pativrata +hen she 'arries. 0h)s the +ord pativrata so'eti'es si'ply refers to a +ife. B)t as +e have seen, even +hen )sed in this asic +ay it ears an ideolo!ical n)ance,

for it literally 'eans so'eone +ho has 'ade a vo+, a vrat , to a h)s and, a pati . 0he s) stance of this vo+ is devotion, +hich is )nderstood pri'arily as protection. &f a +ife is devoted to her h)s5 CGD Co'parative +ork on conte'porary instances of sati i''olation incl)des Co)rtri!ht, +readful Practice B and ?. *an!ari and *. >aid, E*ati in 9odern &ndia,E Economic and Political Wee$ly , 1 1)!. 19G1, 12G$HGG. C9D .(a'ples of conde'nation incl)de E*ati: 1 Pa!an *acrifice,E .ndia Today 1$ Fct. 19GAB and Bakshi, E*ha'e,E The .llustrated Wee$ly of .ndia % 1)!. 19GA, 2#H2". 7 119 7 and and so protects hi', he +ill prosper. &f not, he +ill s)ffer and perhaps even die, +hich +ill rin! 'isfort)ne to his fa'ily as +ell. 1s a pativrata , a +o'an protects her h)s and in t+o asic +ays. *he serves hi': she sees to it that her h)s and;s 'eals are hot and his clothes are cleaned, o eys the co''ands of her senior in5la+s, and tends to her children. *econd, she perfor's reli!io)s rit)als, s)ch as fasts. By doin! so she pleases vario)s deities, +ho co'pensate her y protectin! her h)s and and helpin! her to e a etter pativrata , th)s increasin! her personal capacity to protect her h)s and. &f despite her devotion her h)s and dies efore she does, she can escape c)lpa ility y follo+in! his ody onto his cre'ation pyre. *he 'akes a vrat , a vo+, to )rn her ody alon! +ith his.C1#D By this vo+ she is transfor'ed fro' a pativrata into a sativrata , one +ho, as a !ood +o'an 4sati 6, has 'ade a vrat to die +ith her h)s and.C11D &n for')latin! an intention to die she enters into the second sta!e of the satimata transfor'ation process.C12D <hen the sativrata perishes in her h)s and;s cre'ation fire, she eco'es a satimata . &n this last sta!e, she 3oins other fa'ily satimatas in protectin! the +elfare of the fa'ily she has left ehind. Her protective services are asically those perfor'ed y the $uldevi in her 'aternal aspect. Ket the $uldevi is a ilocal, if)nctional ein!B the satimata stays in one place and perfor's +hat is f)nda'entally one f)nction. 0he $uldevi serves on the attlefield as a $ul protector and +ithin the ho)sehold as a fa'ily protectorB the satimata devotes her )ndivided attention to fa'ily protection. <hereas the $uldevi is a !oddess, the stat)s of the satimata is far less clear. <o'en & intervie+ed !enerally e(plained her stat)s as lo+er than that of a !oddess 4devi 6 )t hi!her than that of an ancestor 4pitrani 6.C1"D &n so'e co'')nities in 2a3asthan people of vario)s ack!ro)nds 'ay C1#D &n conversation +o'en occasionally s) stit)ted the ter' san$alp for vrat . C11D 1s chapter " notes, a pativrata cannot intend, ')ch less vo+, to e a satimata +hile her h)s and is alive: to do so +o)ld e to +ill his death efore hers and to etray her prior vo+ to protect hi'. C12D 0he ter's pativrata and satimata are co''on )t sativrata is not, tho)!h its 'eanin! is clear to all. &t see's analo!o)s to s)ch Ehi!h HindiE ter's as sa$ahari 4ve!etarian6 and visesh$ar 4especially6B everyone kno+s these )t fe+ e'ploy the' in everyday speech. People )s)ally speak of the pativrata or satimata , not the sativrata , as decidin! to die. &t is not especially si!nificant that EsativrataE is seldo' )sed collo,)iallyB +hat is i'portant is that the sativrata period, the ti'e et+een the sati ;s vo+ and her death, is a discrete period of transition. 1s this chapter sho+s, d)rin! this ti'e a +o'an displays s)pernat)ral po+ers and lays do+n r)les for her f)t)re veneration. /or convenience, & e'ploy sativrata +hen disc)ssin! this interi' sta!e. C1"D 1s & learned y l)nderin!, it is rather ins)ltin! to refer to a satimata as a pitrani .

7 12# 7 )nderstand satis to e !oddesses or at least associate the' +ith divine 4!oddess5like6 po+er.C1%D &n either case a satimata see's not to have the ran!e of character that !oddesses !enerally have. Lackin! the fierce ani'alian icono!raphy of the attlefield $uldevi , she is ever the lovely and devoted +ife, the e' odi'ent of the pativrata ideal. &n this for' she protects pativratas and enco)ra!es the', and so'eti'es coerces the', to perfor' their d)ties of protectin! and increasin! the fa'ily. 9oreover, she f)nctions as paradi!'B she represents )tter perfection of the pativrata role.

T&e Satimata as Ideal

&n the satimata is fo)nd the pativrata so perfected in pativrata virt)e that she has transcended pativrata stat)s. *he stands for all that is appropriate in a 'arried +o'an;s ehavior, all that is ad'ira le in a 'arried +o'an;s character. 2a3p)t +o'en e(plain that she is the ideal +o'an and as s)ch, the ideal 2a3p)t +o'an. <hat this oils do+n to is that 2a3p)t +o'en identify the perfection of the pativrata role as a 2a3p)t capacity or talent. 0hey feel that as 2a3p)ts, they are endo+ed +ith the ra+ fi er that inclines the' to eco'e satimatas and that valid sati transfor'ations are over+hel'in!ly 2a3p)t.C1$D Beca)se 2a3p)ts associate satimata stat)s +ith 2a3p)t caste, they have often een leery of non52a3p)t satis . 0heir s)spicio)sness ste's fro' the elief that inas')ch as non52a3p)t +o'en lack the innate C1%D 0his concl)sion & dra+ fro' conversations +ith Pa)l Co)rtri!ht a o)t shrines 4'ostly ne+ ones6 in eastern 2a3asthan. &n 9e+ar as else+here, so'e sati 'e'orials depict satis and their spo)ses as *haiva devotees: they face *haiva ling s. 0his conte(t co)ld e interpreted as identifyin! h)s and and +ife +ith *hiv and his +ife rather than as portrayin! devotion, )t there is little evidence that +o'en see it this +ay, especially as they identify the sati not as a devi )t si'ply as a sati , a distinctive sort of ein!. <hereas +o'en often ho'olo!i@ed $uldevis to the :oddess, they never did so for satimatas in intervie+s or infor'al conversations. =)st as they corrected 'y ins)lt of referrin! to satis as pitranis , they corrected 'y red)ctionis' to+ard hi!her divinity. 0he spectr)' of Hind) divinity is si'ply richer than that of 'any other, especially +estern, traditions. &ncidentally, not once d)rin! 'y stay +as a sati story placed in the conte(t of the *anskritic story of *hiv and *ati, +ho killed herself +hen her father, -aksha, ins)lted *hiv. C1$D Fne +o'an s)''ed )p the sit)ation: E2a3p)t +o'en have the 'ost of the ,)alities that an &ndian +o'an sho)ld have.E *till, 2a3asthanis )nderstand sati i''olations as ori!inally and predo'inantly a 2a3p)t practice and disa!ree only on +hether non52a3p)t +o'en can eco'e le!iti'ate satis . 0he sati 'on)'ents in cre'ation !ro)nds +o)ld indicate that sati i''olations +ere 'ost co''on a'on! 2a3p)ts, )t there is no +ay of verifyin! this fact fro' physical evidence as not all satis are represented y sati 'on)'ents. Fn the spread of sati tradition, see 0hapar, E&n History.E 7 121 7 character +ith +hich 2a3p)t +o'en are endo+ed, they ')st find it diffic)lt to for')late the heartfelt conviction essential to eco'in! a sativrata . 9any 2a3p)ts said to 'e that 'any non52a3p)ts +ant to die as satis only eca)se they hope to i'prove their personal or caste stat)s. By e')latin! this and other 2a3p)t c)sto's s)ch as +earin! 2a3p)t dress, eatin! 'eat, and drinkin! +ine, lo+5caste !ro)ps try to prove their clai's that they are act)ally 2a3p)t or at least 2a3p)t5like.C1JD 2a3p)t +o'en ea!erly conde'n this i'p)ted 'otive not only eca)se they disapprove of caste 'o ility )t also eca)se they feel it 'akes a travesty of the sati transfor'ation, the only le!iti'ate

'otivation for +hich is )nad)lterated devotion to a h)s and. *ince sati transfor'ation represents self5 sacrifice, to e valid it ')st res)lt fro' p)re selflessness, a condition reali@ed only thro)!h sincere and skillf)l pativrata devotion. 0he often voiced 2a3p)t conviction that 2a3p)t +o'en are predisposed to+ard selflessness is predicated at least in part on the ass)'ption that 2a3p)ts are nat)rally inclined and o)nd y d)ty to sacrifice and !ive. 1s soldiers, 2a3p)ts have had to sacrifice their lives, and as kin!s, they have had to provide for their s) 3ects. 2a3p)t +o'en e(plain that 3)st as sacrificin! and !ivin! have characteri@ed the history of 2a3p)t 'en, so they have characteri@ed the history of 2a3p)t pativratas . *tip)latin! the 'eanin! of these activities vis5R5vis caste d)ty +ill reveal 'ore specifically the rationale of identifyin! tr)e satis as 2a3p)t. Beca)se, as +e have seen, 2a3p)ts think of caste d)ty, +hich is oth 'artial and ad'inistrative, as pri'arily 'ale, +e sho)ld e!in this endeavor y lookin! at the +ay in +hich the code of sacrificin! and !ivin! is tho)!ht to have directed the ehavior of 2a3p)t 'en. Fnce a!ain, to the 2a3p)t, attle 'eans sacrifice. &t also 'eans !ivin!, for the )lti'ate !ift a 2a3p)t co)ld !ive +as his life. 1s Oie!ler points o)t, death in attle has al+ays constit)ted the f)lfill'ent of d)ty and !)aranteed personal salvation: 1nother ter' +hich +as )sed to descri e the !reat +arrior, the vado 2a3p)t, +as datar 4literally Ethe !iverE6, for the 2a3p)t +as seen as ein! the !iver of !ifts 4damn3 dat 6 to the Brah'an, Caran, and Bhat, the !iver of !rain and s)stenance 4annandata 6 to those +ho served hi', and the !iver of protection C1JD 0hro)!ho)t the 2a3p)t co'')nity there is a partic)larly stron! fear that da)!hters +ill )nkno+in!ly 'arry -aro!as, persons descended fro' liaisons et+een 2a3p)t 'en and non52a3p)t consorts. 9any -aro!as have ass)'ed 2a3p)t 'anners, styles, and c)sto's. 7 122 7 to all. He +as also the !iver of his life in the preservation of the 'oral order of society. 0his partic)lar act of sacrifice +as e(e'plified 'ost clearly in the sa$a , the !reat attle, to the death, in preparation for +hich the 2a3p)t adopted the saffron t)r an and the saffron ro es of the sannyasi in order to sho+ his )nreserved co''it'ent to attle and death in attle. -eath in attle +as itself seen as salvation, the f)lfill'ent of the appointed task, and is e(pressed in the follo+in! ter'sIvado Rajput to $amn ayo : Ethe !reat +arrior fo)!ht and died in attle,E that is, f)lfilled his appointed d)ty and task 4$amn ayo 6.C1AD 1ltho)!h this characteri@ation is ased on a st)dy of 2a3p)t history only thro)!h the 'idseventeenth cent)ry, the ideals descri ed re'ain 'eanin!f)l today. 2a3p)ts no lon!er fi!ht in 2a3p)t ar'ies )t )nderstand the a ility and +illin!ness to !ive their lives as a livin! herita!e. Fne tha$ur , pointin! to the respect he receives +hen he visits the villa!es once part of his father;s estate, co''ents that respect is an end)rin! tri )te to the sacrifices of royal lood that his fa'ily and ancestors 'ade on villa!ers; ehalf. *)ch sacrifices, he elieves, have een an inte!ral part of the 2a3p)t +ay of life. 0heir sy' olic s)''ation is the sa$a , the attle )nto death. Preparin! for the sa$a 4the c)ttin! do+n6, 2a3p)ts donned the !ar of ascetics, +hich sho+ed that they intended to sacrifice their lives in accord +ith d)ty and +ith the re+ard of a place in +arrior heaven. 0oday the sa$a re'ains a po+erf)l sy' ol of caste identity and personal inte!rity and represents to all 2a3p)ts the idea that sacrifice is oth a nat)ral proclivity and a 'oral i'perative. 0he ideal of sacrificin! or !ivin! one;s life +as linked +ith the d)ty to !ive thro)!ho)t one;s life.C1GD 1s 'e' ers of the royal caste, 2a3p)ts +ere acco)nta le for the s)stenance and prosperity of those +ho' they r)led. 0h)s 2a3p)ts have traditionally een addressed y the honorific annadata , E!iver of

!rain.E 0he s)rvival of the conception of the 2a3p)t as enefactor is e(e'plified y the pop)lar ada!e that +hereas a Brah'an approaches a 2a3p)t +ith his pal's )p 4seekin! al's6, a 2a3p)t approaches a Brah'an +ith his pal's do+n 4!ivin! al's6. 2a3p)ts en3oy e(plainin! that their dispositional tendency to+ard !enerosity 'ade the' fit to r)le even over Brah'ans, their s)periors in ter's of caste p)rity. 0hey also fre,)ently contrast this !enerosity +ith +hat they see as the inherent !reediness of "aniyas , 'e' ers of 'erchant castes. 1s one no le'an e(plained to 'e, the 2a3p)t 'akes a etter politician than the "aniya eca)se 2a3p)ts are not nat)rally 'otivated y a desire C1AD Oie!ler, E1ction, Po+er,E J9. Fn the asceticis' of 2a3p)t +arfare in ancient and 'edieval ti'es see ?olff, E0he 2a3p)t.E C1GD Oie!ler, E1ction, Po+er,E J9. 7 12" 7 for personal profitB they strive for the +elfare of those +ho' they !overn.C19D 0hese days the 2a3p)t le!acy of patrona!e has een preserved in so'e 'ini'al +ays, perhaps the 'ost visi le of +hich is the contin)in! 2a3p)t sponsorship of vario)s traditional festivals and rit)als.C2#D &n short, sacrifice and donationIyieldin! )p life and property on ehalf of s) 3ectsIare closely related ela orations of selflessness. 0hey constit)te endo+'ents and co''and'ents, representations of +hat 2a3p)ts are and +hat they o)!ht to e. 0hey de'onstrate the )nderlyin! ass)'ption that +hereas a 2a3p)t is 2a3p)t y nat)re, he eco'es a reali@ed 2a3p)t, a valiant 2a3p)t, thro)!h action in accord +ith his nat)re, action that develops his character.C21D =)st as 2a3p)t 'en have retained the sa$a , +o'en have retained the sati as a para'o)nt so)rce of inspiration in adaptin! to 'odern ti'es and circ)'stances. &n disc)ssin! the sati ideal and in descri in! their everyday lives, 2a3p)t +o'en speak of sacrifice and !ivin!. 0hey e(plain the sati ;s death as the )lti'ate sacrifice, the "alidan that follo+s a life f)ll of sacrifices. 0hey elieve that this death re,)ires a life of sacrificial devotion to the h)s and. &t consists of !ivin! everythin! to hi', to his fa'ily, and to those related to his fa'ily thro)!h lood or friendship. &n this vein, 2a3p)t +o'en often 'ention the hospitality they offer invited visitors as visi le evidence of their in!rained code of !ivin!. Hence tho)!h 'en and +o'en share the ideals of sacrifice and !ivin!, the conte(ts and contents of these ideals differ considera ly. 2a3p)t +o'en translate the caste d)ty of !enerosity +ithin their do'estic conte(t: a 2a3p)t +o'an !ives to her fa'ily as her h)s and !ives to his s) 3ects.C22D 0he inherent capacity and d)ty of 2a3p)t +o'en to !ive and sacrifice do'estically constit)te the asis for their clai' to have the est prospects for eco'in! sativratas . 0hey say that the 2a3p)t +ife is inco'para ly devoted to her h)s and +hile he lives and so is opti'ally disposed to+ard follo+in! hi' +hen he dies. 9oreover, y follo+in! C19D His conviction echoes the position of the *anskrit Hind) le!al te(ts, the dharmashastras , +hich hold that the proper ai' for a +arrior 4$shatriya 6 is dharma 4la+, d)ty, order6, +hereas the proper ai' for a 'erchant 4vaishya 6 is artha 4'aterial s)ccess6. C2#D >ario)s royal and aristocratic fa'ilies hold s)ch festivals at their residences. C21D Oie!ler, E1ction, Po+er,E 2$. C22D 2a3p)t +o'en have endo+ed charities s)ch as te'ples and !irls; schools )t have )nderstood their fa'ilies as their pri'ary arena of !ivin!. :ayatri -evi, a +ell5kno+n 'e' er of the =aip)r royal fa'ily, told 'e of her fr)stration d)rin! <orld <ar && +hen she tried to convince so'e 2a3p)t

no le+o'en to knit s+eaters for &ndian soldiers fi!htin! in .)rope. 0he +o'en ref)sedB it +o)ld e i'proper to !ive s)ch thin!s to stran!e 'en. 7 12% 7 hi' in death she de'onstrates to herself and others the sincerity and s)ccess +ith +hich she has lived as a pativrata . &n this +ay the sati ;s death has served a validatin! f)nction. 8ot every 2a3p)t develops into a 'ilitary hero 4vir 6, and not every 2a3p)t +o'an eco'es a fa)ltless +ife. &n fact, even tho)!h a +o'an +ho is faithf)l to and protective of her h)s and is called a pativrata , the ter' still states an ideal, one she can only appro(i'ate d)rin! her life. /)rther'ore, the e(tent to +hich a +o'an approaches this ideal is diffic)lt, if not i'possi le, for her and others to assess. &n her roles as +ife and as 2a3p)t a +o'an faces conflicts she ')st resolve. Choosin! a'on! priorities and interests often creates lin!erin! )ncertainty. Ket y dyin! as a sati a +o'an ac,)ires the insi!ht and confidence that she has done her d)ty and done it +ell. 0his )nderstandin! of her acco'plish'ent also reconfir's the pres)'ption that eco'in! a sati is anythin! )t an instantaneo)s and rash act. &t is tho)!ht to constit)te proof of the e(istence of character c)ltivated thro)!ho)t life as an aspirin! pativrata . 0o appreciate this fact f)lly +e need to scr)tini@e the content of character. <hen 2a3p)t +o'en define pativrata or e(plain +hat a !ood 2a3p)t +o'an is 4the t+o, as +e have seen, a'o)nt to the sa'e thin!6, they often say, Ea +o'an +ith !ood character 4accha caritra 6.E 0his character is not an a stract constr)ct representin! the s)' total of e(cellent personal ,)alities. &t is itself a ,)ality. 9oreover, it is a ,)ality )nderstood s) stantively. <e speak of a !ood person, a person +ith inte!rity, as a Eperson of s) stance.E 2a3p)ts also say this )t 'ean it literally. 0hey think of a !ood person as havin! sat , a ,)ality that is not a stract )t concrete. &t is a thin!, a 'aterial developed thro)!h co'pliance +ith d)ty. &n the conte(t of +o'en;s d)ty, it refers to the 'oral fa ric ena lin! a +o'an to eco'e a sati , a +o'an incorporatin! sat . 0h)s 2a3p)t +o'en +ill say of a sati that she had tre'endo)s sat in her ody. )at is not an e(cl)sively fe'ale ,)ality. Carryin! all the connotations of the .n!lish collo,)ialis' Ethe ri!ht st)ff,E it also defines the reali@ed character of 2a3p)t 'ales. )at is the a!ent res)ltin! fro' and cataly@in! co'pliance +ith the 2a3p)t code of 'ilitary chivalry and ad'inistrative !enerosity. Understandin! the ter' in oth its fe'ale and 'ale conte(ts is essential to constr)ctin! a f)lly n)anced 'eanin! of the ter' as it applies in either conte(t. <e can el)cidate this ter' 'ost econo'ically y dra+in! on the Nainsi ri 1hyat , a 9ar+ari te(t that reco)nts a n)' er of +ell kno+n 2a3p)t traditions. 0he te(t;s version of the story of :)ha, fo)nder of 7 12$ 7 the :)hils, ea)tif)lly ill)strates the concept)al connection et+een sat and sati on the one hand and sat and 'ale d)ty on the other.C2"D &t +ill e recalled that +hen :)ha;s pre!nant 'other, +ho +as ret)rnin! ho'e fro' a pil!ri'a!e, learned that her h)s and had een slain, she deter'ined to eco'e a sati ri!ht a+ay. *he +as diss)aded fro' doin! so y a Brah'an, +ho insisted that she first ear her child.C2%D *o'e ti'e after the ,)een had !iven irth to :)ha, she desired to f)lfill her intention to die as a sativrata . *he asked the Brah'an +ho had first co)nseled her if he +o)ld raise her son as a Brah'an so that her h)s and;s

ene'ies +o)ld not e a le to identify and slay the oy. 0he Brah'an, ho+ever, +as not ea!er to accept c)stody of the child. He o 3ected that eca)se the oy +as a 2a3p)t, he +o)ld !ro+ )p +antin! to h)nt ani'als and fi!ht +ars. 0hat +o)ld e a horrent to a Brah'an s)ch as hi'self.C2$D He felt that in takin! responsi ility for the oy, he +o)ld e 'orally acco)nta le for the conse,)ences of )n5 Brah'anical activities in +hich the 2a3p)t oy +o)ld do) tless en!a!e. 0he ,)een +as sy'pathetic )t said she co)ld do nothin! a o)t his predica'ent, eca)se )rnin! +as the res)lt of her very nat)re. Havin! een a devoted +ife, she co)ld no lon!er control her )r!e to die as a sati . *he 'ana!ed to console the fearf)l Brah'an, ho+ever, y ass)rin! hi' that her son and his descendants +o)ld e +ell ehaved eca)se their 2a3p)t character +o)ld ena le the' to act appropriately as +ards of Brah'ans, 3)st as it +o)ld ena le the' to act as 2a3p)t kin!s +hen the appropriate ti'e arose for the' to con,)er territory and r)le as kin!s: &f & a' )rnin! eca)se of 'y nat)re 4satsum "alum chum 6, then the descendants of the fa'ily of this oy +ill e 2a3as: they +ill pass ten !enerations 4pidhi 6 follo+in! the 'anner of life of yo)r clan 4$ul 6. 0hey +ill !ive yo) ')ch happiness and prosperity.C2JD Citin! this passa!e of the Nainsi ri 1hyat , Oie!ler notes that the +ord sat carries ')ltiple related 'eanin!s, chief a'on! +hich are Enat)re, essenceB 'arro+B stren!thB virt)eB co)ra!e,E and it derives fro' the C2"D Oie!ler, E1ction, Po+er,E 11"H1$. C2%D &t is )nclear +hether the Brah'an;s reason is disapproval of self5i''olation y a pre!nant +o'an or hope that a pre!nant +o'an 'i!ht ear a son +ho +o)ld preserve her h)s and;s line and inherit his title as kin!. 0his )neasiness over the idea of a pre!nant sati is apparent in a story one +o'an told 'e a o)t a sati in her fa'ily. *he said that +hen the sati approached her h)s and;s pyre, so'e people critici@ed her for intendin! to kill her )n orn infant. &n response, she !ra ed a da!!er fro' a ystander and carved the child o)t of her +o' efore i''olatin! herself. 0he child died any+ay, the story concl)des, leavin! )nsettled the iss)e of +hether a pre!nant +o'an sho)ld die. C2$D Bein! a ve!etarian, the Brah'an +o)ld +ish nothin! to do +ith h)ntin! ani'als or +ith the loody )siness of attle. C2JD Oie!ler, E1ction, Po+er,E 11%. 7 12J 7 *anskrit sattva , 'eanin! Etr)e essence, the principle of ein!B s) stance, any nat)ral property, ,)ality, characteristic, disposition.E He concl)des that sati i''olation Eis part of the Ramni ;s C2ani;sD code of cond)ct, inherent in her nat)re or ,)ality of ein!, 3)st as ein! a r)ler is of her son;s descendants +ho are of the s) stance and code of a 2a3p)t and possess the potential to f)lfill their codes.EC2AD Here and else+here, the +ord sat has t+o distinct tho)!h related 'eanin!s. /irst, sat conveys a !eneric sense of E!oodness at.E Here !oodness is tied to caste5affiliated virt)e and d)ty. /or 'en it 'eans perfection of the d)ty to act as a 2a3p)t and o serve 2a3p)t conventions. :)ha;s sat creates the )r!e to fi!ht and h)nt, )t allo+in! this ehavior violates the Brah'an;s code of cond)ct 4$arm6dharm 6.C2GD .ven if :)ha and his descendants 'ana!e to control their )r!es to ehave as 2a3p)ts +hile hidin! o)t at 8a!da, a f)t)re !eneration is certain to reveal the 2a3p)t character that its pro!enitors repressed. &t +ill con,)er a kin!do' and fo)nd a line of ra3as. 0his !eneric )se of the ter' sat , ho+ever, e(ists alon!side the 'ore specific 'eanin! of sat as !oodness, tr)th, and p)rity.C29D 0his sa'e definition of sat is artic)lated in the &ndian notion of the

three guns or ,)alities.C"#D 1ccordin! to pop)lar +isdo', sat is the virt)e associated +ith Brah'ans +hereas rajas 4passion, activity6 elon!s to 2a3p)ts, and tamas 4darkness, torpor6 to "aniyas . -espite the for'al distri )tion of the three ,)alities a'on! hi!h5caste !ro)ps, 2a3p)ts +ith +ho' & conversed on the topic said that 2a3p)ts have oth rajas and sat and that oth are essential to the perfor'ance of caste d)ty. &t is te'ptin! to spec)late that this do) le identification arises fro' the fact that 2a3p)ts are oth +arriors and r)lers. 1s +arriors they re,)ire rajas , )t as r)lers they re,)ire sat . 1 r)ler +ho is !ood at ein! a r)ler !overns as a kin! +ho is !enero)s and !ood, in accord +ith sat . 0h)s, the attri )tion of sat to 2a3p)ts e(plains the fre,)ently voiced 2a3p)t contention that y caste tendency and d)ty they +ere est s)ited to e kin!s and are no+ +ell s)ited to e politicians. 0his association of sat +ith 2a3p)t character co'ports +ith 9arvin C2AD & id. C2GD & id., 119. C29D 1pte;s *anskrit dictionary defines sat as +hat is Ereal, essential, tr)eE and as E!ood, virt)o)s, chaste . . . est, e(cellentE 4The Practical )ans$rit6English +ictionary , rev. ed. C-elhi: 9otilal Banarsidass, 19AGD s.v.6B Lalas lists very si'ilar definitions )nder sat and )nder the related ter's satya and sac 4*itara' Lalas, Rajasthani< )a"d 1os , vol. %, pt. " C=odhp)r: Cap)asni *hiksha *a'iti, 19AGD, s.v.6. C"#D 0he gun theory is i'portant in *a'khya philosophy, +hich *a'khya5inspired passa!es in the 7hagavad #ita have pop)lari@ed. 7 12A 7 -avis;s findin!s in his st)dy of caste rivalry in Ben!al.C"1D -avis says that the p) lic perceives sat as do'inant in Brah'ans and tamas as do'inant in "aniyas , )t sat and rajas as 3ointly do'inant in 2a3p)ts. 0h)s, ret)rnin! to 2a3asthan, for a 2a3p)t to have sat does not 'ean that he si'ply e' odies and 'anifests the $shatriya 4+arrior6 ,)ality of rajas 4i.e., that he is E!ood atE rajas 6, )t that alon! +ith rajas he e' odies and 'anifests sat , +hich is +hy 2a3p)t sons co)ld live as Brah'ans for seven !enerations. &n disc)ssions of 'eat and +ine this distinction co'es o)t clearly. Both are appropriate fare for 2a3p)ts )t not for 'e' ers of other hi!h castes. 0hro)!ho)t &ndia 'eat and +ine are considered necessary for 2a3p)ts eca)se they )ild passion. 0hey incite readiness for attle as +ell as the l)st essential for interco)rse, the so)rce of children and hence soldiers. /)rther'ore, to have 'any sons 2a3p)t 'en need 'any +ives, +hich 'eans they need a lot of se()al passion.C"2D &n s)', 2a3p)ts e' ody sat , the ,)ality infor'in! !ood 3)d!'ent and the eni!nity cataly@in! discipline and control, in addition to rajas . <ith this in 'ind, +e can ed)ce the !eneric and specific 'eanin!s of sat in the case of +o'en. 1 look at +o'en;s attit)des to+ard eatin! 'eat and drinkin! +ine !ives )s sat ;s !eneric sense. 1s 'en do, 2a3p)t +o'en partake of 'eat and alcohol, )t their cons)'ption is far 'ore 'oderate. &n respondin! to ,)estions a o)t 'eat and alcohol, 2a3p)t +o'en stressed that +hereas it is proper for 2a3p)t 'en to i' i e ,)antities of li,)or, +o'en +ho do so tend to lose their di!nity. 1s one no le+o'an p)t it, E&f a lady drinks too ')ch, she +ill allo+ her hair to fall loose on her sho)lders and she 'ay say too ')ch, oth of +hich are )n efittin! a 2a3p)t +o'an.E Loose hair and loose lips characteri@e a loose +o'an, the opposite of the pativrata and the 2a3p)t ideal.C""D &t is not, then, s)rprisin! to discover that for 2a3p)t +o'en the pri5

C"1D 9arvin -avis, Ran$ and Rivalry 48e+ Kork: Ca' rid!e University Press, 19G"6, %9, $1. C"2D Carstairs reports the elief that 'eat and +ine helped the 2a3p)t )ild se'en 4virya 6 Eand +ith it the ,)alities of co)ra!e and stren!th +hich its possession conveyedE 4T&ice67orn , 1#96. He records a villa!er;s affir'ation: E2a3p)ts are very l)sty, *ahi . &t is eca)se of their food and their drink. &t 'akes the' so that they have to have their l)st, poor fello+sE 4i id., 1GG6. 0he tale of the *isodiya fo)nder, Bappa 2a+al, also e(e'plifies virilityB he eca'e a !reat +arrior and kin! and had a h)ndred sons. <hile 'aintainin! that 'eat and +ine enhance stren!th and passion, ho+ever, 2a3p)ts +arn that overind)l!ence in food or +ine rin!s on +eakness and la@iness, the opposites of stren!th and passion. C""D .ven apart fro' disc)ssions of alcohol cons)'ption, 2a3p)t +o'en 'entioned coverin! the head and soft speech as pri'ary characteristics of a +ell5 red 2a3p)t +ife. &nattention to these conventions conveys 'oral and se()al la(ness. 7 12G 7 'ary associations of drinkin! li,)or and eatin! 'eat are se()al rather than 'artial. 0hese +o'en feel, as their h)s ands do, that +ine and 'eat enhance fertility. 0hey, ho+ever, have no need for 'ilitary passion. 1s +ill e seen in chapter J, the participation of +o'en in attle has al+ays een e(ceptional and )ndesira le eca)se it has occ)rred only +here 'en have een )na le to f)lfill their protective roles and then only )nder )n)s)al circ)'stances. 0h)s for +o'en the 'ilitary 3)stification for cons)'in! +ine and 'eat has een a pale one. 8o+adays 'any 2a3p)t +o'en drink very occasionally and perhaps only cere'onially. *o'e e(plain that yo)n!er +o'en in partic)lar find it )nfashiona le to ind)l!e. 8evertheless, d)rin! +eddin! cele rations all +o'en ')st accept the manvar , the rit)al toast 4as in fi!. A6, for it cele rates the fertility of the ne+ly 'arried co)ple.C"%D =)st as 'arried +o'en ')st accept manvar at +eddin!s, they ')st also cease cons)'in! alcohol and 'eat if they eco'e +ido+s. Beca)se 2a3p)t +o'en do not re'arry, they have no le!iti'ate need for passion. -rinkin! is restricted to pativratas , +o'en +hose h)s ands are still alive. &n follo+in! s)ch 2a3p)t c)sto's as drinkin! alcohol and eatin! 'eat, 2a3p)t +o'en reveal the sense in +hich ein! a !ood 2a3p)t e,)ates +ith ein! a !ood +o'an. 9eat and +ine incline the 2a3p)t +o'an to e a passionate and adorin! +ife. 0aken in 'oderation they enhance personal virt)e. &n this +ay the !eneric sense of sat lends +ith the specific.C"$D &nas')ch as caste d)ty is pri'arily 'ale d)ty, it is easy to see ho+ a'on! +o'en the specific sense of sat predo'inates. Bein! a !ood +o'an 'ay e facilitated y 2a3p)t identity, )t the nor' directs ehavior that is the task of all +o'en, 2a3p)t or not. 0h)s one co''on synony' for sat is the ter' pativrata .C"JD )at , tho)!h defined in t+o +ays, is a sin!le s) stance. 0he story of :)ha reco)nted fro' the Nainsi ri 1hyat , as +e have seen, e(plicitly states that the sa'e sat 'anifested in the ,)een;s death +ill e 'anifested in the son;s desire to act as a 2a3p)t. 1s a !ood 2a3p)t +o'an, C"%D &n for'er days 'en also took opi)' as manvar . Conversations +ith and +eddin! photo!raphs of no les indicate that over the last t+enty to thirty years this practice has !rad)ally di'inished. C"$D 2a3p)t +o'en fre,)ently )sed the ter' gun to classify sat )t na'ed no other guns . 2ather than rajas they spoke of the raja $a caritra , Ekin!;s character,E +hich ein! rave 4"ahadur 6 is that of the hero 4vir 6. C"JD *ee sat in Lalas, )a"d 1os , s.v.B and Nainsi ri 1hyat 4=odhp)r: 2a3asthan Friental 2esearch

&nstit)te, 19J#6, 1: 2 n. "#. 7 129 7 the 'other +ill die a sati B as a !ood 2a3p)t 'ale, the son +ill +ant to h)nt and fi!ht and +ill sire a line of r)lers. 0o reiterate the ,)een;s clai', E&f & a' )rnin! eca)se of 'y nat)re Csatsum "alum chum D, then the descendants of the fa'ily of this oy +ill e 2a3as.E &n other +ords, since the ,)een has een a pativrata , her son;s sat and her 'ale descendants; sat +ill e reflected in their reali@ation of the 2a3p)t d)ties of con,)est and r)le. 0his passa!e not only de'onstrates the connection et+een sat in the sense of pativrata and sat in the sense of caste d)ty, it also clearly sho+s that dyin! as a sati validates previo)s actions. 0he ,)een feels conflict as to +hether she sho)ld die +hen she first hears of her h)s and;s death or after !ivin! irth. Her death as a sati de'onstrates the sincerity of her intention to die despite her decision to !ive irth efore doin! so. &t sho+s that she has een a pativrata all alon!. /ro' the 'o'ent of her 'arria!e she has acc)')lated the sat re,)ired to follo+ her h)s and into the afterlife. 0h)s dyin! as a sati 'anifests the ,)een;s sat , +hich sho+s her to e a pativrata 4a !ood +o'an6 and !)arantees that her son;s descendants +ill e kin!s 4!ood 2a3p)ts6. )at constit)tes her character oth as a 2a3p)t and a +o'an. 9oreover, it ea)tif)lly ill)strates the identification of sat ;s t+o 'eanin!s in its one 'aterial for'. 0his e(a'ination into the i'plicit 'eanin!s of sat allo+s )s no+ to address the ,)estion of sat ;s effect and f)nction. )at is essentially an a)to!enerative 'oral f)el. Prod)ced y !ood activity, it !enerates !ood activity. &n !eneratin! !ood activity, it also prod)ces heat 4garmi 6. Beca)se of sat , the !reat +arrior of ti'es past, havin! fortified hi'self +ith opi)' or alcohol, char!ed onto the attlefield hot +ith attle fren@y.C"AD &f he +as decapitated +hile fi!htin!, his sat ena led hi' to contin)e fi!htin! and even to kill his assailants efore fallin! to the !ro)nd. He eca'e a jhumjhar , a Estr)!!ler,E a 2a3p)t so perfected in character as to have transcended 'erely h)'an herois'. 0he pativrata also !enerates heat. 1s she f)lfills her d)ties, she acc)')lates stores of sat . &f she finds herself +ido+ed, this sat eco'es 'anifest. Her te'perat)re rises. 1s her ody heats, she e(periences the )r!e 4"hav 6 to die as a sati and 'akes a vrat to this effect. &n the process she ac,)ires s)perh)'an po+ers 4+hich are descri ed elo+6. /inally, hav5 C"AD Fpi)' or alcohol +ere tho)!ht to enhance their nat)ral attle f)ry. Fn alcohol cons)'ption Carstairs ,)otes a 2a3p)t villa!e infor'ant: E.very 2a3p)t has t+o pe!s of +hisky efore !oin! to +ar, it is a !eneral c)sto'. *till it is this +ayE 4T&ice67orn , 1GG6. *ee also 2)dolph and 2)dolph 4E2a3p)t 1d)lthood,E 1A96 on the )se of alcohol and opi)' in cele ratin! +ar. 7 1"# 7 in! processed to her h)s and;s pyre and taken his head in her lap, she spontaneo)sly )rsts into fla'es. 0he passion of her co''it'ent to her h)s and cons)'es oth their odies. 1 sati ;s death reveals the sat that has res)lted fro' and contri )ted to a +o'an;s perfor'ance of prior sacrifices of selfish desires. 0he sati ;s fla'es e(hi it her perfected pativrata character, a perfection that co'ple'ents, )t is not synony'o)s +ith, the perfection of the +arrior +ho dies in attle. 0he death of a vir is clearly a sacrifice to the $uldevi , his linea!e protector. 1ltho)!h the sati )ndenia ly sacrifices her life for her h)s and, it is not o vio)s fro' the narratives and co''ents of 2a3p)t +o'en +hether she is tho)!ht to sacrifice herself to her h)s and, her fa'ily protector. 0his see's to 'e not si'ply a 'atter of lan!)a!e 4$o and $e liye 6 )t one of concept)ali@ation, +hich is vivid in the case of the vir and va!)e in the case of the sati . 2a3p)t +o'en si'ply do not speak of sati sacrifice in ter's of

cons)'ptionB they )s)ally disc)ss it in ter's of validation 4in life6 and enefit 4thro)!h death6. 8evertheless, it is te'ptin! to spec)late a o)t sy' olis' of the rit)als descri ed in narratives and conversation and to decipher possi le )nderlyin! ass)'ptions.C"GD Let )s ponder for a 'o'ent the notion that the sati "alidan represents a +ife sacrificin! herself to her h)s and. /ro' this perspective the sacrifice is si'ilar in kind to the sacrifices 'ade y the pativrata , +ho leads a life of pati $i seva . 0his phrase, )sed often y 2a3p)t +o'en to e(plain the notion of +ifely d)ty, 'eans literally Eservice of one;s h)s and,E )t it also 'eans E+orship of :od.E &n 2a3asthan as else+here, +o'en say that one;s h)s and is one;s !odB he !rants salvation. &f a +o'an +orships her h)s and d)rin! life, it see's consistent that she do so at the 'o'ent of death. &n ascendin! his pyre she appears to e offerin! herself )p to hi' as a sacrificial victi'. 0his e(planation, ho+ever, is not co'plete. <ei!hin! a!ainst the e(cl)sive assi!n'ent of s)ch a 'eanin! is the fact that the re!)lar rit)als a +o'an perfor's for her h)s and d)rin! his life 4vrats3 pujas3 ratijagas , and dho$ 6 are ones she directs to deities for her h)s and, not to hi'. *he +orships the' for her h)s and;s +elfare. .ven at the 'o'ent of 'arria!e, +here the !roo' is +orshiped as a !od, the 'etaphorical C"GD Beca)se only fe+ and +idely scattered sati i''olations have occ)rred d)rin! their lives, conte'porary 2a3p)t +o'en ase their ideas of rit)al on narrative. & a' not !enerally interested in the Brah'anical interpretations of rit)al prescriptions, )t rather in the ass)'ptions 2a3p)t +o'en 'ay hold !iven their notions of pativrata3 seva 4service or +orship6, and "alidan . 7 1"1 7 aspect of h)s and as deity is retainedB the +ife treats her h)s and as a !od, )t she is perfectly a+are that he is stillIor at least alsoIa 'an. 9oreover, no rit)al perfor'ed d)rin! a +o'an;s life for'ally depicts the sacrifice of a +o'an to her h)s and in the vivid +ay that 8avratri depicts the sacrifice of a 'an to the $uldevi . 0he sacrifice of a sati to her h)s and is not a strai!htfor+ard and )na' i!)o)s parallel to the sacrifice 'ade in the rit)al of attle. 0he positions of the sati and her h)s and in the rit)al of i''olation s)!!est another set of associations. 0he sati is al+ays descri ed as dyin! +ith her h)s and;s head in her lap. &n takin! her h)s and;s head, the sati see's to e as ')ch a recipient of sacrifice as she is its victi'. 1t this a+eso'e 'o'ent, the +ife +ho sacrifices her life is eco'in! a s)pernat)ral ein!. 0he sat that she has !ained thro)!h !oodness 'anifests as po+er, the sa'e sort of protective po+er +ielded y the $uldevi . 9oreover, even if not called a devi , the sati holdin! her h)s and;s head see's re'iniscent of the classic pose in +hich the *anskritic :oddess accepts the head of a 'ale sacrificial victi'. 1ltho)!h s)ch connotations appear likely, they cannot stand y the'selves, for they fail to convey the cr)cial notion of sati as self5sacrifice. *)!!estive as the sati ;s post)re is of receivin! a sacrifice, her dyin! +ith her h)s and;s head in her lap also represents a certain tenderness. *he has een, after all, his 'ost inti'ate protectorB no+ she is dyin! +ith a 'an she is ass)'ed to have loved.C"9D 9oreover, eca)se 4as +e shall see6 the 'ost venerated 2a3p)t heroes have act)ally lost their heads in the sacrifice that is attle, the sati holdin! her h)s and;s head +o)ld see' to i'ply that her h)s and is a hero. &n this case the vir eheaded in the sa$a and the sati eco'e parallel or 3oint victi's. 0he 'an;s death, ho+ever, is clearly an offerin! to the $uldevi , )t the +ife;s sacrifice is at est indirectly associated +ith the $uldevi . Lackin! ver al testi'ony or icono!raphy to the contrary, +e can ass)'e that the sati sacrifices herself to the $uldevi only to the e(tent that she shares her h)s and;s fate. 1nother possi le 'eanin! of the rit)al is that the sacrifice is not si'ply a sacrifice to so'eone )t a sacrifice )nto itself. By this & 'ean that it see's rather like the 2i! >edic sacrifice of P)r)sha 4cos'ic

'an6, in +hich sacrifice sacrifices itself to itself that creation 'ay occ)r.C%#D 0he C"9D Perhaps the 'ost vivid depiction of this inti'acy and tenderness & fo)nd is a stone that sho+s the sati readin! to her h)s and fro' the 7hagavad #ita as she dies. C%#D Rig 4eda 1#:9#, the EP)r)sha *)kta.E /or a translated version, see 2. C. Oaehner, !indu )criptures 4London: -ent, 19JJ6, GH1#. 7 1"2 7 sati , +ho 3oins her h)s and in the fla'es that she circ)'a' )lated +ith hi' +hen they 'arried, loses her h)'an ody )t eco'es a ein! +ho prod)ces fa'ily +elfare and contin)ity. 1s a protector, she oversees its re5creation. *)ch an association is e(plicit in the +harmasindu te(t.C%1D &n s)', the sati rit)al, +hich is kno+n to +o'en thro)!h ho)sehold stories, not thro)!h personal o servation, is rich +ith possi le associations. 0hese are not, ho+ever, the s) 3ect of +o'en;s o+n spec)lation any 'ore perhaps than the )nderlyin! 'eanin! of lood t)rnin! to +ine is a s) 3ect of spec)lation for the vast 'a3ority of the Christian laity. &n the narratives they tell +o'en are si'ply less concerned +ith +hat sati i''olation is than +ith +ho the +o'an is 4a +o'an +ho has een !ood6 and +hat she does 4 y +ay of practical enefits to her devotees6. 0he proof of +ho she is and the protection she can provide lie in the fla'es that e'er!e fro' her ody and acco'plish the "alidan . /or practical reasons the proof is )s)ally ass)'ed, not de'onstrated. Before a sati ascends her h)s and;s pyre, the pyre has likely een i!nited. 0his se,)ence 'akes it i'possi le for +itnesses to deter'ine the so)rce of the fla'es that envelop a sati and her spo)se. 8evertheless, if the sati is a 2a3p)t, the pres)'ption +ill e that her intentions +ere p)re and therefore +itho)t do) t it +as her sat that cons)'ed her h)s and and herself. Conversely, if the sati is not a 2a3p)t, 2a3p)ts +ill concl)de that her intentions re'ain )nproven and d) io)s. 0here are, as +e shall see, rare cases +hen the sat of a non52a3p)t +o'an ca)ses fla'es that are +itnessed. 0hese e(ceptional satis are re!arded as valid y all, incl)din! 2a3p)t +o'en. Lackin! proof to the contrary, ho+ever, 2a3p)t +o'en re!ard the capacity to develop the stores of sat s)fficient to transfor' a +o'an into a sati as over+hel'in!ly 2a3p)t. Fne last aspect of the identification of sati character as essentially 2a3p)t is +orth considerin!. 0he pri'ary convention that 2a3p)t +o'en re!ard as responsi le for the develop'ent of sat is parda , +hich, they say, has preserved their inherent 'odesty. 9oreover, it has f)nctioned as the pree'inent sy' ol of their ethos and identity. 1sked +hat distin!)ishes 2a3p)t +o'en fro' other +o'en, they predicta ly respond, E2a3p)t +o'en do not !o o)tB they o serve parda .E Parda is the predo'inant 'eans y +hich their sat is !enerated and stored.C%2D 1s one C%1D Pa)l Co)rtri!ht, personal co'')nication to a)thor, 9arch 199#. C%2D .(plainin! parda , one +o'an said, E9any restrictions help )s 'aintain o)r character.E 0he vast 'a3ority of infor'ants sin!led o)t parda as the critical distin!)ishin! characteristic of 2a3p)t +o'en. 2espondin! to the intervie+;s re,)est to descri e the character of 2a3p)t +o'en, infor'ants foc)sed on 'odesty 4sharam3 laj 6, a virt)e they especially associated +ith parda , and on the instit)tion of parda . 7 1"" 7 no le+o'an 'ade clear, parda not only re,)ires 'any sacrifices, it is itself a sacrifice. 1s she

e(plained to 'e, EFne thin! a o)t 2a3p)t +o'enIsacrifice is very i'portant to )s. <e 'ake a lot of sacrifices in o)r lives. .ven the parda +e keep is a sacrifice.E 0h)s sacrifice )ilds character, +hich in t)rn 'akes f)rther sacrifice possi le. 0he fact that 'ost 2a3p)t +o'en identify parda as the instit)tion 'ost responsi le for the reali@ation of their character does not 'ean that they practice it no+ as their 'others and !rand'others did. <hen a 2a3p)t +o'an says that she keeps parda , she 'ay 'ean that she stays +ithin the fe'ale section of the ho)seholdB she 'ay 'ean that she inha its the entire ho)sehold )t does not !o o)t in p) licB she 'ay 'ean that she seldo' !oes o)t in p) lic )t is veiled and escorted +hen she does. 0o +hatever e(tent individ)al 2a3p)t +o'en still practice parda , it re'ains a key sy' ol, a hi!hly condensed representation of their asic val)es and +ay of life.C%"D <hile locatin! the fe'inine +ithin the ho)sehold, it co'')nicates the 2a3p)t criteria for pativrata stat)s: 'odesty and chastity, !enerosity and sacrifice. &n s)', dyin! as a sati is considered to e only the final conse,)ence of a life dedicated to ho)sehold d)ty. &t 'anifests the 'oral s) stance that a +o'an has developed thro)!h the perfor'ance of d)ty. Parado(ically, it sy' oli@es oth the perfection and the transcendence of d)ty. &t transfor's a +o'an +ho +as once a pativrata into a satimata , a s)per')ndane protector of fa'ily. 0he satimata ;s character no+ re,)ires scr)tiny. .(a'inin! the satimata sta!e in the conte(t of its ideolo!ical relation to the pativrata sta!e +ill then let )s discern the theoretical conto)rs of the sativrata sta!e that connects the'.

T&e Satimata6 Family "rote)tor

Like the do'estic $uldevi , the satimata is enevolent to+ard those )nder her !)ardianshipIshe is the very e' odi'ent of !oodness, sat .C%%D 0o +ish or do anythin! that is not )lti'ately !ood for her protM!Mes is si'ply not seen as possi le !iven her sattvic nat)re. 9oreover the protective actions she perfor's are si'ilar, if not identical, to those of the C%"D Frtner, EFn ?ey *y' ols,E 1"%%. C%%D Unlike a pitr or purvaj 4ancestor6, the sati does only !ood thin!s. *he does not 'ake tro) le: ETa'lif $a"hi nahim $arti .E 7 1"% 7 $uldevi . *he appears in drea's in order to +arn +o'en of i'pendin! ho)sehold crises. *he co'es to +o'en to repri'and the' for ne!lectin! to perfor' proper rit)al o servances on her ehalf. /)rther'ore, she provides protection to those aspirin! to live as pativrata s )t +ithdra+s protection in order to teach the' +hen their efforts have lapsed. 1ltho)!h the satimata is !ood, she allo+s children to contract fever and co+s; )dders to +ither if pativrata s ne!lect her protection5sec)rin! rit)als. <hen properly +orshiped, she reverses the ne!ative conse,)ences of +o'en;s oversi!hts. *he restores sick children and co+s to their previo)s health and ree(tends her protective shado+. 8ot only does the satimata act like the 'aternal $uldevi , she also looks like her. 1s a res)lt, +o'en say that so'eti'es they are )ns)re +hether the drea's or visions they have had are of satimata s or $uldevi s. &f the 'essa!e that the heavenly suhagin 4pativrata 6 !ives does not i'plicate her identity, +o'en ')st cons)lt a "hopa , a sha'an, to ascertain it. 1ll acco)nts of satimata visions descri e a +o'an dressed in an a)spicio)s color 4red, pink, oran!e6 of the very finest type of 2a3p)t dress. *he is inevita ly e3e+eled and ea)tif)l.C%$D *o'e representative acco)nts +o'en !ave of appearances y satimata s de'onstrate the standard

circ)'stances )nder +hich a satimata 'akes herself 'anifest. 0he first acco)nt e(e'plifies the drea' +arnin!. Fne pro'inent no le+o'an livin! in Udaip)r descri ed an appearance y a satimata in the drea's of her Brah'an purohit 4fa'ily priest6, +hose 3o it +as to perfor' ho)sehold rit)als )nder her direction. 0he +o'an said that the satimata ;s appearance coincided +ith the arran!e'ents she +as 'akin! for the 'arria!e of her niece. *he had intended to or!ani@e a ratijaga 4ni!ht of sin!in!6 for the niece, )t days slipped y and she had still not 'ade the necessary arran!e'ents. &t finally da+ned on her that she had left herself too little ti'e to prepare for the ratijaga . *he conveniently decided it +o)ld not e essential to perfor' the cere'ony efore the +eddin!. 0hat ni!ht the priest received a drea' of his patroness;s satimata , +ho ordered hi' to 'ake s)re that the a)nt )ndertook the preparations for the ratijaga . <hen he a+oke, he set a o)t f)lfillin! this co''and. 0he circ)'stances of the satimata ;s appearance are identical to those )nder +hich a $uldevi +o)ld appear. 0he story is standard in every +ay, e(cept perhaps for the detail that on this partic)lar occasion the satimata chooses to appear to a purohit in the service of a 2a3p)t +o'an C%$D 1s +e shall see, the satimata is conceived as a reali@ed pativrata 4tho)!h technically she has passed that sta!e since her h)s and has predeceased her6. 7 1"$ 7 and not to the +o'an herself. 1ltho)!h )s)ally a satimata appears directly to the +o'an in char!e of rit)al responsi ilities, once in a +hile she 'ay enlist the aid of an inter'ediaryIso'eti'es a sha'an, here a purohit , else+here a relativeIto pers)ade her. 0he channel of co'')nication that the sati )ses is not tho)!ht to alter the content of the 'essa!e.C%JD 1 second acco)nt ill)strates the +ay in +hich a satimata co'pels a ne!li!ent +o'an to f)lfill her rit)al responsi ilities y +ithdra+in! a 'eas)re of protection. 1 +o'an tells of a ti'e +hen her h)s and had taken ill. *oon after this a satimata ca'e to hi' in a drea' and said, EKo) have for!otten to venerate 'e.E =)st at that 'o'ent the hot5+ater ottle that he +as )sin! )rst. 0he )rstin! of the ottle +as a 'iracle 4camat$ar 6 attestin! to the po+er of its !enerator. Here a!ain the satimata appears directly to a 'an. 0he +o'an narratin! the story, ho+ever, s) scri es to the !enerally shared vie+point that satimata +orship is pri'arily the responsi ility of +o'en. 0he illness of a h)s and can only reflect adly on a +ife +hose fore'ost responsi ility as a +ife is to protect her h)s and. 0his and other instances in +hich a satimata , or a $uldevi for that 'atter, appears to a 'ale )t responsi ility for a rit)al lapse lies +holly or partly +ith a +o'an, s)pport the hypothesis that a +ife is acco)nta le for any rit)al ne!li!ence that occ)rs. 1 third e(a'ple of a satimata ;s appearance ill)strates the role a satimata takes in preparin! a +o'an to 'eet an i'pendin! crisis. 1s in the case of s)ch appearances y $uldevi s, the typical crisis that occasions a satimata ;s appearance is the i''inent de'ise of a close relative. 0he satimata !ives darshan 4a vision6 that +ill help a +o'an cope appropriately and prod)ctively +hen the crisis occ)rs. Here a +ell kno+n 9e+ari no le+o'an descri es s)ch an enco)nter: &t is !ood +hen one;s satimata appears in drea's. *he rin!s peace 4shanti 6. Fne ti'e, a 'onth and a half efore 'y father5in5la+ died, & had a drea'. &n it 'y h)s and and & +ere in the mahasatiyam 4cre'ation !ro)nd6. 0he eleven satimata s of o)r fa'ily appeared and e!an to approach )s. <e +ere seated on a chatri Celevated cenotaphD. . . . 0hey kept co'in! closer and closer. 0hey ca'e all the +ay )p the steps of the chatri . Fne of the ladies said to 'y h)s and EKo)r paddonti +ill soon occ)rE Cpaddonti 4pro'otion6 refers to the rit)al occasion on +hich a son takes over the $ul and fa'ilial responsi ilities of his deceased fatherD. 0hen all the sati s applied $um$um 4saffron ro)!e6 to o)r foreheads.

*i( +eeks later, 'y father5in5la+ died. C%JD & contin)e to e(plore the intri!)in! po+er of s)ch inter'ediaries in 'y +ork on herois'. 7 1"J 7 &n s)', the 'a3or p)rposes for +hich a satimata appears are those for +hich a $uldevi appears. *he co'es to enco)ra!e a +o'an to rectify a rit)al l)nder. 1lternatively, she +ithdra+s so'e of her protection to prod a +o'an into co'pliance +ith rit)al responsi ilities and then, if necessary, appears in a drea' to verify that fa'ily pro le's are related to the lapse of rit)al responsi ilities. /inally, she reveals herself to prepare a protM!Me for ass)'in! rit)al and other responsi ilities in con3)nction +ith a crisis. 1s +e sa+ in chapter ", the satimata does not 'ake her +ill 'anifest y possessin! protM!Mes. Fne +o'an re'arked, E)atimata s don;t possess people: they;re hi!her than pitr6pitrani s 4ordinary ancestors6.E .ven +hen +o'en cons)lt "hopa s to interpret drea's in +hich sati s appear, a "hopa is not possessed y the sati )t y a deity 4al'ost al+ays Bher) or -har'ara36 +ho reveals to the "hopa a sati ;s identity and p)rpose. Concernin! +orship, the satimata is honored ')ch as a 'aternal $uldevi is honored. &n 'ost places fa'ily 'e' ers c)sto'arily !o to their satimata and $uldevi to sho+ respect 4dho$ dena 6 efore leavin! for a 3o)rney or +hen ret)rnin! fro' one. &n this +ay, they de'onstrate that they are 'indf)l of their !)ardians +hen crossin! o)t of and into the !)ardians; 3)risdiction. 0he satimata is also +orshiped +hen a ne+ ride enters a ho)sehold. 1fter she has visited the $uldevi , +hose shrine is her principal destination after her arrival, the ride pays respect to other divine and ancestral spirits +orshiped y her h)s and and his fa'ily. /ore'ost a'on! these is the satimata . <o'en say that visitin! the satimata is essential after co'in! to the ne+ ho'e eca)se, if they i!nore her, she 'ay ca)se havoc. Fne thi$ana ,)een & ca'e to kno+ +ell, a very spirited and independent +o'an in her late t+enties, told 'e that +hen she first +ent to her thi$ana she did not venerate the satimata ri!ht a+ay. /or vario)s reasons she 3)st kept p)ttin! it off. *everal ni!hts after her arrival, she had a ni!ht'are: she drea'ed she +as ein! stran!led. 0he ne(t day she reali@ed that the drea' +as a +arnin! sent y the satimata , so she p)t on her +eddin! clothes and +ent strai!ht to the satimata ;s shrine to pay her respects. 1fter+ard she had no rec)rrence of the drea'. 0he satimata had een satisfied. &n addition to the occasions a ove, there 'ay e other re!)lar sched)led sho+in!s of respect or perfor'ances of puja . Fften, ho+ever, the satimata is left alone e(cept on days sacred to her. 0hese days vary fro' fa'ily to fa'ily. &n all fa'ilies son!s are s)n! in honor of *ati'ata 4as +e shall see, ho+ever 'any satimata s a fa'ily 'i!ht have, it !enerally collapses the' into one personality and refers to the' in the sin!)lar6 7 1"A 7 d)rin! the ni!ht +akes 4ratijaga s6 +o'en keep to cele rate irths and +eddin!s. )atimata +orship 'ay e done +ith the help of a tr)sted fa'ily pujari , )t he is not essential.C%AD &n so'e fa'ilies, +o'en enco)ra!e other fa'ily 'e' ers to 3oin the' in their satimata devotions. &n so'e ho)seholds +o'en attend to these responsi ilities y the'selves. Fther fa'ilies even prohi it 'en fro' enterin! the satimata ;s shrine 4)s)ally a roo' containin! a thapana 6, eca)se the satimata keeps parda . &n one of the !reat thi$ana s o)tside Udaip)r the fa'ily priest is for idden to enter the satimata shrine. He ')st perfor' devotions to her fro' o)tside the shrine;s closed door.

1lon! +ith the 'ode of +orship, the place of +orship varies a'on! fa'ilies. *o'e veneration takes place in the mahasatiyam . &ts distance fro' the ho)sehold poses pro le's for +o'en +ho keep strict parda and cannot !o o)t to the cre'ation !ro)nd. &f +o'en leave the thi$ana to !o on a 3o)rney, ho+ever, they often order their drivers to stop near the mahasatiyam and fro' the car perfor' veiled o eisance to the satimata efore proceedin!.C%GD 9ore accessi le is the 2anana ;s thapana 4cr)de shrine6, +hich is si'ilar to the thapana dedicated to a $uldevi e(cept that )s)ally instead of a trident it sho+s a red handprint, +hich sy' oli@es the a)spicio)sness of a pativrata . 0hen there are the ratijaga s, typically perfor'ed in the 2anana co)rtyard. 2a3p)t +o'en 3oin -holhins 4fe'ale dr)''ers6, Brah'anis 4)s)ally the +ives of Brah'an priests e'ployed y the ho)sehold6, and -aro!as 4'e' ers of a caste of palace servants +hose ancestral fathers +ere 2a3p)t and ancestral 'others non52a3p)t6 in sin!in! to satimata3 $uldevi , and other 'e' ers of the pantheon of fa'ily5protectors. 0he 'ost i'portant +ay in +hich the satimata is venerated, ho+ever, is specific to satimata s. ProtM!Mes o serve o$ s 4restrictions, c)sto's6 that are co''on to their fa'ily lines. 0hese are esta lished d)rin! the period 3)st efore a +o'an 'o)nts a f)neral pyre. & treat the' in the follo+in! section, +hich e(a'ines ho+ the sativrata sta!e links the ideals of the pativrata +ho venerates the satimata and those of the satimata C%AD Oananas often e'ployed fe'ale Brah'ansIpurohitanis 4fe'ale purohits 6 or pujaranis Ito help +ith the puja . People often )se the ter's pujari 4a person, )s)ally a Brah'an, responsi le for offerin! puja 6 and purohit 4a Brah'an advisor6 interchan!ea lyB they do the sa'e for the ter's; fe'ini@ed for's. & 'et one s)ch Brah'an +o'an, a +ido+ e'ployed in the =aip)r royal 2anana , in that part of the 2anana +here a fe+ elderly residents still 'aintained parda . C%GD Located o)tside the o)nds of the villa!e or to+n, the mahasatiyam fre,)ently offers 'ore privacy than an e(terior $uldevi shrine, +hich is )s)ally fo)nd 3)st o)tside the ho)sehold. 7 1"G 7 +ho serves as the pativrata ;s retrospective paradi!' and prospective protector.

Sati(rata6 t&e Transitional State

0he 'eta'orphosis into a satimata , as +e have seen, proves that the sati has perfected the pativrata role. 0h)s +hat the satimata +as is +hat the pativrata sho)ld e. &n !rad)atin! fro' pativrata stat)s, ho+ever, the satimata eco'es lar!er than the pativrata ideal. 9ore than a paradi!', she is an a)tono'o)s and po+erf)l fa'ily protector. 9oreover, the satimata iss)es co''ands. *he re,)ires of her devotees not si'ple e')lation of her protective services )t o edience and faith.C%9D 0he satimata sets the ter's of o edience efore she in fact eco'es a satimata , that is to say, et+een her vo+ of sati and her death. Unlike the satimata , +ho directs individ)als thro)!h drea's or visions, the sativrata can co'')nicate her +ill directly to the 'any +ho +itness her procession. Havin! a andoned her old life and no+ standin! on the threshold of a ne+ e(istence, she attains the po+ers to co'pel her protM!Mes and so chan!e the co)rse of their history. 0he po+ers that she ac,)ires in this condition are essentially t+o: the po+er to !ive a c)rse 4shrap 6 and the po+er to confer a lessin! 4ashirvad 6. Beca)se c)rses last 'any !enerations their i'pact is !enerally severe. Ca)sin! inconvenience, even tra!edy, the shrap s are not easily for!otten. 0hey eco'e part of oral history.

Blessin!s, ho+ever, are soon for!otten. 1s is the case every+here, devotees concentrate on their pro le's rather than co)nt their lessin!s. :rantin! the happinesses that +o'en +o)ld nor'ally achieve +ith any l)ckIeno)!h 'oney, sons, a lovin! h)s andI lessin!s si'ply do not stick in the 'inds of their recipients; descendants. 1ltho)!h individ)ali@ed lessin!s are not recalled, ho+ever, the !eneral lessin! that the satimata !ives, the e(tension of her protection to the fa'ily line, is al+ays re'e' ered. 0his e(tension is sy' oli@ed y the sati ;s i'position of an o$ , a c)sto', practice, ordinance, that takes the for' of a prohi ition. 1s the sativrata prepares to die, she desi!nates an o$ , a special +ay in +hich she +ishes to e honored. By reverencin! the satimata as she +ishes, protM!Mes rene+ their end of the protective covenant. C%9D 9any +o'en, of co)rse, die efore their h)s ands do and so co)ld never directly e')late her. 7 1"9 7 0he shrap and the o$ are cr)cial ele'ents in the esta lish'ent of sati !)ardianship. 0hey for' the fo)ndation for the sati 5devotee relationship.

T&e S&rap
&f for so'e reason a sati is ve(ed at the ti'e she is preparin! to die, she prono)nces a shrap . *he c)rses one or 'ore persons, )s)ally close relatives, to s)ffer ad fort)ne and to have their descendants share their ad fort)ne for a n)' er of !enerations. /or e(a'ple, there once +as a sativrata +hose sasural 4con3)!al ho)sehold6 for so'e )nkno+n reason declined to provide a horse and a dr)''er 4-holi6 for her procession to her h)s and;s f)neral pyre. 1 sati is s)pposed to process to the cre'ation !ro)nd in !rand style. Beca)se a proper procession re,)ires these t+o thin!s, the sati , f)rio)s, prono)nced a c)rse. *he said that fro' then on +henever her in5la+s 'i!ht have need of a !ood horse or a -holi, neither +o)ld e availa le. 0he c)rse proved to e a tre'endo)s hardship, for dr)''er and horse are essential to 'any rit)al occasions, incl)din! +eddin!s and coronations. 0his c)rse is )nconditional. 0he fa'ily has erredB it ')st s)ffer the conse,)ences. 9any shraps , ho+ever, append to )nconditional c)rses i'plicit and contin!ent c)rses. 1 !ood e(a'ple co'es fro' a 9e+ar estate. 9any !enerations a!o, the rei!nin! tha$ur took a ride. 1fter a +hile he fo)nd that he liked ein! 'arried so +ell that he decided to take another +ife. <hen he ret)rned ho'e after his second 'arria!e, his first +ife, enra!ed y 3ealo)sy, a' )shed and ')rdered hi'. 1t that point the second +ife took a vo+ to eco'e a sati . Later, +hile preparin! to 'o)nt her h)s and;s pyre, she prono)nced a c)rse that fro' then on no tha$ur of the fa'ily co)ld e 'arried to t+o +o'en at the sa'e ti'e. 8evertheless, a fe+ !enerations later a tha$ur disre!arded the c)rse. 8ot lon! after the second +eddin!, he s)ddenly and 'ysterio)sly died. Hence the c)rse descri ed in this story i'posed t+o related p)nish'ents, one e(plicit, the other i'plicit and conditional. 0he e(plicit p)nish'ent, the an on poly!a'y, is itself severe. 2a3p)t +o'en often point o)t that in ti'es past poly!a'y +as necessary in order to ens)re that at least one son +o)ld s)rvive as heir. Beca)se attles, illnesses, and co)rt intri!)es 4incl)din! not a fe+ poisonin!s6 all took their toll on pro!eny, to have 'any sons +as essential. &n addition, the c)rse contains an i'plicit Eor elseEB it portends sec5 7 1%# 7 ondary p)nish'ent if the restriction is fla)nted. &n the instance of the foolhardy tha$ur , that

p)nish'ent +as death. /a'ily 'e' ers do not kno+ if disre!ardin! the an +ill al+ays rin! on death. 0hey )ndo) tedly feel it is est not to find o)t. 1nother !ood e(a'ple of s)ch a conditional c)rse is the story of a h)s and +ho fell off a roof and died ine riated. 1s a sativrata , his +ife for ade all 'ales in the fa'ily to to)ch alcoholIor else. *ince that ti'e, the +o'en in that fa'ily told 'e, all 'en have a stained. <hatever for' s)ch c)rses 'ay take, they inevita ly affect the lives of +o'en. 0he a sence of a !ood horse and -holi 'eans serio)s inconvenience for the satis of later !enerations. &t also represents interference +ith reli!io)s cele rations for +hich +o'en are +holly or partially responsi le, s)ch as :an!a)r, 0i3, and 8avratri.C$#D 0he an on re'arria!e of tha$urs 'eant e(posin! the entire fa'ily to the threat of a lapsed linea!e. 1doption, tho)!h accepted y 2a3p)ts and fre,)ent in 2a3p)t history, has al+ays een la'ented as an )ndesira le necessity.C$1D &t has often disr)pted fa'ily har'ony, the preservation of +hich is a para'o)nt responsi ility of pativratas . 0he an on drinkin! has led +o'en in the fa'ily to !ive )p drinkin!, lest they te'pt their h)s ands to res)'e the ha it. Fften not the pri'ary victi's of the sativrata ;s displeas)re, +o'en still share the conse,)ences, for a +o'an ')st al+ays share her h)s and;s fate. &t is a harsh one +hen the shrap is an infertility c)rse, y far the 'ost co''on variety. Biolo!ically, infertility is considered a +o'an;s pro le'. &f a h)s and is c)rsed to e heirless, his +ife is )nderstood to e infertileB ho+ever 'any +o'en a 'an so c)rsed 'ay 'arry, they +ill all e infertile. 0h)s the c)rse i'poses a heavy )rden of s)fferin! on +ives, +ho are denied the opport)nity to ear sons or, in so'e cases, any children at all. Both fates are considered catastrophic. &n one case a sati ca)sed a fa'ily to e arren for si( !enerations, +hich necessitated 'any adoptions. &n another, a sati !ave a shrap that every third !eneration of the line +o)ld e arren. 0his c)rse, +hich has ended +ith the present !eneration, is ass)'ed to have lasted seven !enerations. <hen a sati does not specify the d)ration of a c)rse, it is !enerally elieved to fade after seven !enerations. C$#D 1ll these occasions cele rate the :oddess. C$1D *i( s)ccessive adoptions in the Udaip)r line are attri )ted to a c)rse of infertility y the princess ?rishnak)'ari, +ho +as inadvertently en!a!ed to s)itors fro' t+o royal ho)seholds. 0he ins)lt of an alliance +ith one ho)sehold over the other +o)ld have precipitated a +ar +ith the other, so Udaip)r decided to avoid choice and allo+ its da)!hter to take poison. *he did and prono)nced her c)rse. 7 1%1 7 Up to this point the tar!ets, +hether pri'ary or secondary, have all een 'e' ers of a sati ;s con3)!al fa'ily. 1ltho)!h the 'ost co''on tar!ets of a shrap are 'e' ers of the con3)!al fa'ily, the foc)s 'ay shift to persons +ho are or +ill e o)tside the sasural . Fne 9e+ari no le+o'an told 'e that at her estate a sativrata )ttered a c)rse that for three !enerations the first5 orn da)!hter of the ho)sehold +o)ld never attain happiness or ear children. 0he effect of this c)rse 'eant that +hen the da)!hters 'arried o)t of the fa'ily they took their 'isfort)ne +ith the'. 0ro) le spread o)t fro' the in5la+s; ho'es like an a'oe a. 1 second e(a'ple of a c)rse that applies o)tside the con3)!al fa'ily +as told y another 9e+ari no le+o'an. *he said that once a 'an fro' her thi$ana had a da)!hter +ho eca'e en!a!ed to the son of the 9aharana. Unfort)nately, shortly after her en!a!e'ent the da)!hter;s fiancM died. 0he !irl asked her father to take her to her fiancM;s pyre, )t the father +as rel)ctant. He did not +ant his little !irl to die. 0he t+o ar!)ed on and on )ntil the father, e(asperated, a!reed to help his da)!hter eco'e a sati . He

ri!!ed a c)rtain aro)nd the o)tside of a )llock cart so that she co)ld 'aintain parda d)rin! her trip. By the ti'e he acco'plished this, he had a!ain eco'e heavyhearted. He si'ply co)ld not rin! hi'self to drive her to her destination. 9irac)lo)sly, the cart started on its o+n and drove itself to the fiancM;s cre'ation site. 0here in Udaip)r, the !irl circ)'a' )lated her fiancM;s pyre seven ti'es. &n this +ay she 'arried her intended. C$2D 0hen she 'o)nted the pyre and took her h)s and;s head in her lap. /la'es e'er!ed fro' her ody. Before dyin!, she prono)nced a c)rse on her father;s fa'ily. 0oday no one in the fa'ily recalls the nat)re of that c)rse. 0he narrator said that it lasted seven !enerations, then lapsed. 0his story is partic)larly interestin! for t+o reasons. /irst, it sho+s that no one, not even a father, 'ay interfere +ith a sati ;s plan to share the fate of her h)s and or even of her etrothedB fro' the perspective of the ride5to5 e, at the 'o'ent of en!a!e'ent she is his.C$"D *econd, it reveals that the nat)re of the c)rse is no lon!er i'portant to the fa'ily. <hat 'atters is that en!a!e'ent itself instit)tes a tradition of veneratin! the satimata and of receivin! the satimata ;s protection. *he eco'es C$2D &n the central cere'ony of a Hind) +eddin! the !roo' and ride circ)'a' )late a sacred fire. Here the ride circ)'a' )lates an )nli!hted pyre. C$"D 1fter an en!a!e'ent is roken y either side, the !roo' +ill face no diffic)lty in eco'in! en!a!ed to another !irl, )t the !irl 'ay +ell face !reat diffic)lty, for her en!a!e'ent to 'arry is a co''it'ent of fidelity to one 'an alone. Fn this sit)ation in Ben!al, see /r)@etti, #ift of a 4irgin , "$. 7 1%2 7 the fa'ily;s !)ardian. *ince the ti'e of the c)rse, the satimata has d)tif)lly protected the fa'ily a!ainst har'. <hether a sativrata c)rses her h)s and;s fa'ilyIthe fre,)ent tar!etIor other relatives and their fa'ilies, she )tters a c)rse that is taken to e enevolent and protective. 0he sativrata intends her c)rse as a lesson to those +ho' she loves. *he +ants to deter the' fro' 'akin! f)t)re l)nders. 1t ti'es, ho+ever, a sativrata c)rses persons +ith +ho' she shares no ties of lood +hatsoever. 0hen she p)nishes +itho)t providin! protection. 0o o)tsiders she is 'alevolent and ven!ef)l. 0he follo+in! story provides rich ill)stration of this point. 1t 'y father;s estate there is a satimata . <hen she +as alive she +as a kept Clocal .n!lish for a kept +o'anD of one of 'y ancestors. *he +as a :)3ar Cfro' an a!rarian caste, +hich is lo+er than the 2a3p)tD. &n those days all the tha$urs had to stay 'any 'onths of the year in Udaip)r in order to serve the 9aharana. 0he tha$ur fro' o)r estate died +hile he +as in Udaip)r. By the ti'e the ne+s of his death reached the estate, his f)neral had already taken place. 1 sati is s)pposed to )rn +ith her h)s and;s head on her lap. Beca)se this +as not possi le, the :)3ar !irl, +ho had deter'ined to die a sati , fetched her lord;s t)r an 4pagri 6 so as to i''olate herself +ith that on her lap. 0he fa'ily;s purohit , 8ai C ar erD, and -holi Cdr)''erD Call three fi!)re in the procession and rit)alD ref)sed to elieve that a 'ere consort +o)ld serio)sly consider eco'in! a sati . 0he sister of the deceased rao sahi" Cthe tha$ur D ta)nted her: E9y rother is dead and yo) have taken yo)r ath and p)t on yo)r fineryQEC$%D 0he consort called the purohit , -holi, and 8ai, )t they ref)sed to co'e. 8o ody fro' the fa'ily sho+ed )p for her procession. 0he kept C+o'anD then +ent to the fa'ily cre'ation !ro)nd. *he took the t)r an and a cocon)t as an offerin! to :od. *he prayed and her ody e!an to )rn y itself. 0he people

+ho happened y sa+ y this that she +as a tr)e sati . .very ody ca'e r)nnin! to +atch. 0he sati +as so f)rio)s +ith the Esister5in5la+E Cthe kin!;s sisterD for teasin! her that she c)rsed her, sayin!, EKo) and all f)t)re da)!hters of this fa'ily +ill have no h)s ands. Beca)se of this yo) +ill have no sons. 1lso, yo) +ill have no +ealth.E .veryone +as st)nned. 0he cro+d pleaded for 'ercy. 9oved, the sati chan!ed the c)rse so that the sister and f)t)re da)!hters of the fa'ily +o)ld e +itho)t one of the three ite's 'entioned. &f a da)!hter had a h)s and and +ealth, she +o)ld have no son. &f she had a h)s and and a son, she +o)ld have no +ealth. &f she had a son and +ealth, she +o)ld lose her h)s and. 0his c)rse lasted for seven !enerations. &n o)r !eneration +e are on the 'ar!in. & have only one son )t & have a h)s and and eno)!h 'oney. 9y fa'ily has co'plete faith in *ati'ata. C$%D *he took the p)rificatory ath 4re,)ired efore processin! to a pyre6 and p)t on a)spicio)s pativrata !ar'ents. 7 1%" 7 <henever +e !o to the thi$ana , +e pay o)r respects to her Cthe i'plication: the satimata is no+ pleased +ith the fa'ilyD. 0he satimata also c)rsed the purohit , 8ai, and -holi. 0o the purohit she said, E&n each !eneration yo)r fa'ily +ill have only one son and he +ill e half5cracked Can i' ecileD.E 0his is still tr)e of that fa'ily. 0o the 8ai she said, EKo)r fa'ily +ill not have sons.E 0his also has held tr)e. 0hat fa'ily has al+ays had to adopt. 0o the -holi she !ave a c)rse that +as really not too ')ch of a c)rse. *he said, E&f yo) or yo)r descendants are playin! yo)r dr)' at one end of the villa!e, people +ill not e a le to hear the ')sic at the other end of the villa!e.E 0his has re'ained tr)e to this day. 0his story e(e'plifies +ays that a satimata 'ay conde'n nonrelatives +ho cross her. 0he prono)nce'ents she 'akes )pon the' are not te'pered y the 'ercy that she intends to+ard fa'ily 'e' ers. 0he fact that she sees the' as o)tsiders is e'phasi@ed y the character of the c)rses she directs to+ard the'. *he tailors her c)rses to relate to the perfor'ance of caste d)ty. Hence the Brah'an, +hose d)ty is to learn and teach philosophy and rit)al, is conde'ned to ear the kno+led!e that his 'ale descendants +ill e fe+ and afflicted y i' ecility. 0he ar er, 'any of +hose rit)al f)nctions take place d)rin! child irth cere'onies, is deprived of 'ale children. /inally, the dr)''er and his descendants +ill e di'inished in their capacity to 'ake ')sic. 0he sativrata renders the' incapa le of perfor'in! the very services they failed to provide her +hen she needed the'. &n short, the sati can devastate nonrelatives +ho an!er her. *)ch acts do not ca)se 2a3p)ts to think of her as havin! a dark side. 0he E!ood 'otherEIsati mata I'ay cr)elly destroy others +ho in3)re her fa'ily or +ho ins)lt it y interferin! +ith its proper perfor'ance of tradition. *he seeks ven!eance a!ainst ene'ies 3)st as the heroic jhumjhar seeks ven!eance as he p)rs)es ene'ies +ho have decapitated hi'.C$$D <e 'i!ht ask +hether the satimata has a dark side, at least fro' the perspective of nonrelatives +ho have crossed her. 0radition does not really address this ,)estion. &n all the stories of satis ; c)rses & !athered d)rin! 'y research, not one e(plained fa'ily 'isfort)ne as a res)lt of other people;s satimata . /a'ily 'isfort)ne is re!)larly e(plained y one;s fail)re to perfor' proper puja to one;s o+n satimata , not y the po+er of so'eone else;s satimata . 0his 'isfort)ne is never )nderstood as final or co'pleteB if its d)ration is )nspecified, it is ass)'ed to lapse after seven !enerations. )atimatas

si'ply do not r)in their relatives y C$$D Fn the pervasive 'otif of reven!e in 2a3p)t c)lt)re, see Hitchcock, E9artial 2a3p)t,E 12B and Oie!ler, E1ction, Po+er,E A9HG#. 7 1%% 7 lood and 'arria!e. 0hey p)nish their Ena)!hty childrenE )t do not destroy the lot of the'.C$JD <e 'i!ht also ask +hether, narrative and ideolo!ical e(e!esis to the contrary, 2a3p)t +o'en EreallyE or Edeep do+nE think of a sati as e(actin! reven!e on her o+n fa'ily for the s) 'ission re,)ired of her +hen she +as a pativrata . 0his ,)estion too is hard to ans+er. <henever & tried to s)!!est the notion of spite 4one that see'ed to 'e an o vio)s aspect of a c)rse6 & fo)nd 'yself ein! corrected. Fne elderly +o'an ref)sed to disc)ss satis +ith 'e any 'oreB she felt a s)!!estion like this +as ins)ltin! to her satimata . &f sativratas have felt ven!ef)l to+ard their fa'ilies, their feelin!s are si'ply not interpreted as s)ch y their fa'ilies, +ho pass traditions of sati veneration do+n thro)!h the !enerations. 1 c)rse 'ay in fact acco'plish ven!eance, )t a sati cannot e seen as intendin! ven!eance eca)se self5servin! intentions elie the very definition of sati and pativrata .C$AD 1 sati +ho c)rses o)t of spite +o)ld not e seen as validatin! her life as a pativrata , a +o'an +ho sacrifices selfish desires on ehalf of her h)s and and his fa'ily. 1n ideali@ed representation of sat , she is seen as eni!n to+ard those +ho are her o+n.C$GD :iven this notion of protectin! Eone;s o+n,E the story narrated a ove is especially interestin! in that it provides a rare e(a'ple of a non52a3p)t +o'an +ho eco'es a satimata for 2a3p)ts. 0he fa'ily that do) ted her vo+;s sincerity not only accepts this :)3ar +o'an as a valid sati )t venerates her. <hen she er)pts into fla'es, the fa'ily co'es to reali@e that she has 'ade a proper vo+, +hich )nfort)nately 'eans that her c)rse too +ill e valid. Beca)se the :)3ar +o'an is a C$JD &t +o)ld e interestin! to ask 'e' ers of other castes +hether their fa'ilies have s)ffered fro' the c)rses of 2a3p)t satimatas . Beca)se & +as interested in the perceptions of 2a3p)t +o'en, not others, & did not )ndertake this task, +hich +o)ld e a fascinatin! tho)!h ti'e5cons)'in! one. 2ecently people have cele rated satis 4'any fro' non52a3p)t castes and 'ost fro' eastern 2a3asthan6 in ne+ melas 4fairs6, +hich 'ost 2a3p)t +o'en dis'iss as non52a3p)t or )nnecessaryI2a3p)t fa'ilies have their o+n satis . & ca'e across stories of 'iracles attri )ted to these satis , )t not c)rses. =o)rnalists and acade'ics have stressed the novelty of these melas , +hich see' to e 'ore pop)list and politically char!ed than the private 2a3p)t sati venerationB see anushi %2H%"B and )eminar "%2. Cf. 'y rief description in chapter J, note $, of the =a)har 9ela at Chitor, a festival distinct fro' the fa'ily traditions of 2a3p)t +o'en. C$AD 0he follo+in! chapter e(plores the satimata ;s intentions in detail. C$GD Coccari also notes the attri )tion of )ne,)ivocal !oodness to the satis of Banaras. *he speaks of the Ep)re and )plifted character of the *ati.E *he concl)des: E0he enshrined *atis in the Banaras area are ideali@ed, honored and revered, yet do not see' to evince the po+erf)l a' ivalence +hich +o)ld 'ake the' 'ore rivetin! o 3ects of devotionE 4EBir Ba as,E 12%H2$6. 7 1%$ 7 consort of a fa'ily 'e' er and th)s part of the ho)sehold, she 'a!nani'o)sly !rants the fa'ily her !)ardianship.

0he ,)estion arises, ho+ +as the :)3ar +o'an a le to eco'e a sativrata Q Fne con3ect)re can e dis'issed i''ediately. Bein! the consort of a 2a3p)t did not transfer the :)3ar into a 2a3p)t. 0he 2a3p)t co'')nity +o)ld not have accepted her children as 2a3p)ts. 0hey +o)ld e -aro!as 4also called 2avana 2a3p)ts6, +ho constit)te an endo!a'o)s caste of palace servants.C$9D 2ather, the ans+er has to do +ith livin! in a 2a3p)t environ'ent. By associatin! inti'ately +ith 2a3p)ts, especially her 2a3p)t lover, the :)3ar +o'an eca'e 2a3p)t5like. <hile a consort, e(plain the 2a3p)ts +ho +orship her, she learned to ehave as a 2a3p)t +ife does. &n other +ords, thro)!h her lovin! devotion to her lord she attained a hi!her 'oral and physical 'ake)p. *he ac,)ired lar!e reserves of sat , the sine ,)a non of a sati .CJ#D *)ch a thoro)!h!oin! trans')tation is, as has een stressed, )n)s)al. 1 non52a3p)t +o'an;s association +ith her lord does not y itself transfor' her character. 0he perfection of the pativrata role is diffic)lt even for 2a3p)t +ives. Ho+ ')ch less likely it is for a consort, +ho lacks not only 2a3p)t caste )t also the enefits and privile!es of +ifehood. 0h)s, 'ore typically, the +o'en of another 2a3p)t fa'ily have discredited the death of a non52a3p)t consort of an ancestor. 1ltho)!h their fa'ily has co''e'orated her death +ith a 'arker, it says that it does not reverence her as a sati and has s)ffered no har' on this acco)nt. Parado(ically, eca)se the 2a3p)ts think it )nlikely that s)ch a consort +o)ld acc)')late the sat s)fficient to eco'e a valid sati , they reco!ni@e her as a partic)larly po+erf)l paradi!'. Havin! received fe+er advanta!es than her 'arried hare' 'ates, she can de'onstrate 'ore !ratit)de than they can. Fverco'in! an inherent disadvanta!e, she co'es to represent the epito'e of pativrata selflessness. &n this she co'pares closely to very yo)n! 2a3p)t +ives +ho die as satis . Lackin! the C$9D Fften 2a3p)t 'en took +o'en fro' other castes as consorts and so'eti'es as +ivesB 2a3p)t +o'en 'arried only 2a3p)t 'en. -)rin! 'edieval ti'es the offsprin! of 2a3p)t 'en and consorts +ere not accepted as 2a3p)t, )t those of 2a3p)t 'en and lo+ercaste +ives occasionally +ere 4Oie!ler, E1ction, Po+er,E $2H$$6. 9ore research is needed on +here and +hen the 'arria!e of a non52a3p)t +o'an le!iti'i@ed her offsprin! as 2a3p)t. Conte'porary 2a3p)ts disapprove of all 'arria!es et+een 2a3p)ts 4fe'ale or 'ale6 and non52a3p)ts. CJ#D Fn personal 'o ility in the traditional 2a3asthani conte(t, see i id., 21H2J. 7 1%J 7 stat)s and privile!es of their senior co5+ives and havin! a ne+er attach'ent to their h)s ands, they therefore sho+ !reater !ratit)de in eco'in! sativratas . &f the yo)n!est +ife is the only +ife +ho takes sati5s vrat , she p)ts her elders to sha'e. Her !lory stands in hei!htened contrast to their petty insincerity.CJ1D Beco'in! a sati , the yo)n!est +ife, like the sincere consort, ill)strates the very p)rest of intentions. &!nored or ve(ed, a sati is a dan!ero)s +o'an. 0he nat)re of her +rath, ho+ever, ')st e interpreted accordin! to its tar!ets and the intentions she holds for the'. .ven the consort and the yo)n! ride, only partially or ne+ly inte!rated into a ho)sehold, can prove earnest sati !)ardians. <hat ,)alifies the' is the )nreserved love and respect they have !iven those 'en to +ho' they have dedicated the'selves as pativratas .

T&e O*
<hether or not a sativrata prono)nces a c)rse on the fa'ily 4or fa'ilies6 she +ill protect, she invaria ly confers a specific 'eans y +hich they can co'')nicate their reverence for her. 0his is the

o$ 4c)sto'6. %$s 'ay an the )se of certain ite's or the perfor'ance of c)sto'ary pativrata activities. 0he 'ost co''on restriction desi!nated y a satimata is of desi!nated colors of clothin!. 0ypically, these shades are of pink or red, the colors +orn at the ti'e of 'arria!e. /or e(a'ple, eca)se of one satimata ;s prono)nce'ent, =hala 2a3p)ts have had to !ive )p red +eddin! dresses for !reen ones. 1lso co''on is a prohi ition on the pilya 4literally, yello+6, a deep yello+ half5sari head coverin! +ith a red order and red tie5dyed speckles that +o'en +ear in the period follo+in! child irth. Hence +hen +o'en of 'any linea!es e'er!e fro' the secl)sion that is 'andatory at child irth, they ')st s) stit)te for the pilya so'e other attire. 0hat restrictions on red shades and the pilya do'inate the o$s for clothin! is tellin!. 2ed is the color of passion, the pilya the color of fertility. Both represent a)spicio)sness. 0he second 'ost co''on prohi ition is on types of 3e+elry. 0he ite' restricted is inevita ly so'e orna'ent associated +ith 'arria!e. CJ1D 0he yo)n!est +ife;s enhanced virt)e and po+er e'er!es in stories & collected. Fne e(a'ple tells of a 'aidservant fro' a 9e+ar *olah 0hikana +ho drinks +ater fro' her yo)n! 'istress;s p)rificatory sati athB the +ater 'a!ically co'pels the servant to 3oin her 'istress on the cre'ation pyre )t others restrain and save her. 7 1%A 7 1n )n'arried !irl +ears a 'ini')' of 3e+elry in order not to dra+ to herself the attentions of 'en. 1 +ife, on learnin! of the death of her h)s and, reaks the !lass an!les she is +earin! and !ives a+ay the re'ainder of her +eddin! orna'ents. Beca)se re'arria!e is not considered an option for 2a3p)t +o'en, +ido+s +ish to disco)ra!e 'en;s attention y forsakin! orna'entation. 1ltho)!h no+adays these restrictions are sli!htly rela(ed, 'ost )n'arried !irls and +ido+s +ear little, if any, 3e+elry. .(a'ples of 3e+elry o$s are plentif)l. 0he 'ost co''on ans the noisy ankle racelet 4gughari 6, a chain to +hich 'any tiny s,)are ells 4caurasi 6 are attached. 0he 3in!lin! of these ells is considered all)rin!. 9any &ndian poe's tell of a lover +hose anticipation of a tryst +ith his eloved is hei!htened y the tinklin! so)nd of her approachin! footstep. Here also the interdicted ite' is associated +ith a)spicio)sness. 0he anklet sy' oli@es 'arria!eB the +o'an a+aited in poetry is 'arried to so'eone else. Fther o$s precl)de the +earin! of specific kinds of ar' an!les. 0he 'ost fre,)ently prohi ited an!les are of ivory, either nat)ral5colored or red5dyed, that a ride receives at the ti'e of her +eddin!. *o'e +o'en 'ay +ear red )t not the nat)ral shade. /or other fa'ilies the nat)ral is the accepta le h)e. &n a n)' er of ho)seholds, the an!les prohi ited are thin !lass racelets +ith tiny facets. Beca)se these facets sparkle in the s)nli!ht, they are tho)!ht partic)larly captivatin!. 0he sa'e holds tr)e in other fa'ilies for an!les +ith !old inlay or !old paintin!. 9oreover, !old sy' oli@es affl)ence, +hich enhances the sy' olic val)e of the an!les; a)spicio)sness. /inally, 'any fa'ilies o serve o$s that prohi it vario)s shades of !lass an!les. *o'e fa'ilies do not +ear red ones. Fthers ')st fors+ear p)rple or !reen. 1ll these shades, like the ite's the'selves, represent a)spicio)sness. 1ltho)!h 'ost of the o$s connected +ith dress involve clothin! and 3e+elry, one )n)s)al o$ ears 'ention in passin! eca)se, 'ore radically than any other prohi ition, it ties an o$ to a)spicio)sness. 0his is the an on sindur , the red po+der +orn y 'arried +o'en in the partin! of their hair. 8ot only the ,)intessential 'ark of a pativrata3 sindur is )sed in the +orship 4puja 6 of deities. 1 denser sy' ol of a)spicio)sness co)ld not e fo)nd. 1ll the o$ s disc)ssed th)s far apply directly to +o'en. 1 second class of prohi itions applies to

+o'en thro)!h the children in their char!e. &n this case the o$ s apply to +o'en not as +ives, or potential 'others, )t to those +ho have already had the !ood fort)ne to ear children. 7 1%G 7 0his class of o$ s lar!ely prohi its the )se of a y cradles, tho)!h there are isolated instances of other child5related o$ s. 1 nota le e(a'ple is the o$ prohi itin! 'others in one fa'ily fro' dressin! their children in clothin! )ntil the children have !one thro)!h their hair5c)ttin! cere'onies.CJ2D &t 'eans that children are s)pposed to !o naked d)rin! the first 'onths, even the first year, of life. 0he over+hel'in! 'a3ority of o$ s, then, apply to +o'en in their a)spicio)s roles: +ife and 'other. C)rio)sly eno)!h, a satimata ;s an on desi!nated a)spicio)s ite's is itself a)spicio)sB o servance of the an rin!s a devotee )nder the protection of the satimata , the )lti'ate pativrata . 0he o$ , +hich never lapses, esta lishes a per'anent relationship et+een the fa'ily and a sati . 0he honorin! of prohi itions represents contin)in! acceptance of and appreciation for a satimata ;s protection. 9oreover, o servin! o$ s is an i'portant 'eans for the pativrata to acc)')late sat . <hereas the c)rse is so'ethin! that she ')st s)ffer, the o$ allo+s her to end)re a c)rse, to face the hardships and disappoint'ents of life, and to advance in her aspirations to+ard 'eetin! the ideal that the sati e' odies. Up to this point & have disc)ssed the shrap and the o$ as distinct feat)res of a sativrata ;s po+er and her devotees; response. Fften, ho+ever, the relation et+een shrap and o$ is an inti'ate one. 0his is tr)e +hen the c)rse is conditional. &n the story narrated a ove, +hen a sati c)rsed her tha$ur h)s and 4the one ')rdered y his first +ife6 and all his rei!nin! descendants, she si')ltaneo)sly esta lished an o$ : the a stention fro' ')ltiple 'arria!es. 1 second ill)stration of the association et+een shrap and o$ is presented y the follo+in! story fro' an Udaip)r estate. Fne ti'e a h)s and and +ife fro' o)r fa'ily +ere playin! caupad .CJ"D 0he +ife +as +innin!. 0he h)s and +as irritated y this and 3oked that he +o)ld kill her rother and father. *he eca'e an!ry and +rote a letter to her rother and father to send soldiers to attack her h)s and. 0he soldiers ca'e. 0here +as a i! attle in +hich the h)s and +as killed. 0he +ife eca'e a sati . *he 'ade the o$ that no h)s and and +ife sho)ld play caupad to!ether. 0ho)!h this acco)nt has no e(plicit 'ention of a shrap , the fa'ily )nderstands that a c)rse has occ)rred. 0he sati intends to teach the fa'ily a lessonB her o$ i'plies an Eor else.E 0he story relates no instance of violation, )t the fa'ily ass)'es that to do so +o)ld e perilo)s. &!5 CJ2D 0he hair is )s)ally offered to a !oddess 4a $uldevi or so'eti'es a villa!e !oddess6 or, less often, to her attendant, Bher) =i. CJ"D 0his &ndian oard !a'e looks like a cross et+een chess and parcheesi. 7 1%9 7 norin! an o$ con3oined to a c)rse is si'ply 'ore dan!ero)s than i!norin! an o$ in isolation. 0he conse,)ence of violatin! an isolated o$ is only the satimata ;s +ithdra+al of a 'odic)' of protection. &f the fa'ily rene+s its o servance, the protection res)'es. By contrast, if a sati )tters a prohi ition +hen she is an!ry 4+hen statin! or insin)atin! a c)rse6, the conse,)ences of violation 'ay e ')ch !reater, and perhaps irreversi le. 0he no le'an +ho 'arried and sho)ld not have, received no second

chance. By p)nishin! the individ)al, the sativrata instr)cted the fa'ily, the preservation of +hich is al+ays her fore'ost interest. 0he relation et+een conditional shraps and o$ s is so close that the +ords are so'eti'es )sed interchan!ea ly. 1 +o'an 'ay say that a sati +as an!ry and i'posed an o$ . <hen asked if this 'eans that the sati prono)nced a c)rse, the ans+er +ill e, yes, o vio)sly 42arur 6. 0he concl)sion that the sati ')st have een an!ry 'ay, ho+ever, e ded)ced. &f p)nish'ent for violation of an o$ is kno+n to e severe, the o$ is tho)!ht to involve a c)rse. 0h)s the !ro)nds on +hich a c)rse is ad3)d!ed to have occ)rred are either the initial 'otivation of the sati , an!er, or the conse,)ence of an o$ ;s violation, a severe p)nish'ent, +hich indicates an!er. Conveyin! a f)ller sense of the variety of for's that shrap to!ether +ith o$ can take is this final e(a'ple of sati narrative. Fne ti'e a +ife +as preparin! to die as a sati . *he tried to pers)ade her co5 +ife to 3oin her. 0he co5+ife responded, E&;d love to, really, )t yo) see & have all these dishes to do. Ko) !o on ahead.E Uni'pressed y the fli'sy e(c)se, the sati for ade all the ho)sehold;s +o'en fro' doin! dishes at ni!ht so that they +o)ld e free to tend to 'ore i'portant responsi ilities. Beca)se eco'in! a sati is the e(pression of )lti'ate devotion, the +ork that +as )sed as a reason for not eco'in! a sati is interdicted. &n this story, as in so 'any others, the activity anned y the o$ is an a)spicio)s activity: no !ood pativrata leaves the dinner dishes )ndone. & have stressed the connection et+een o$ and a)spicio)sness thro)!ho)t. & no+ +ish to clarify the rationale ehind annin! a)spicio)s activities, fro' the +earin! of certain clothes to the doin! of dishes at ni!ht. /irst, altho)!h !iven ite's and activities are a)spicio)s, their )sa!e or perfor'ance is ina)spicio)s in specific conte(ts. 1nythin! that sho)ld e associated +ith ein! a pativrata )t that eco'es 'eanin!f)l in itselfIand so potentially, if not act)ally, har's a h)s andIis no lon!er accepta le. 0he e(c)se that a devoted +ife ')st do the dishes rather than die as a sati si'ply +ill not do. &t is 'eanin!less. Playin! caupad +ith a h)s and in order to entertain hi' is not a valid activity if it rin!s 7 1$# 7 a o)t the h)s and;s death. /inally, the donnin! of clothin!, 3e+elry, and cos'etics sy' olic of pativrata stat)s is not accepta le if a +o'an is not prepared to sacrifice these sy' ols of ho)sehold life +hen her h)s and dies. 0his e(planation, ho+ever, is )t half the ans+er. 1ltho)!h eco'in! a sati is an affir'ation of the a)spicio)s role of the pativrata , it res)lts in death. 0he sati is a)spicio)s )t death epito'i@es ina)spicio)sness. 0he activities connected +ith death and the ite's +orn at death or e(plicitly prohi ited at the ti'e of death are necessarily associated +ith death. Ho+ever lessed, death is inescapa ly a tra!edy. /)rther'ore, the sati ;s i''olation is part of a do) le death. 0here is the death of the sati , an intentional death, and there is the death of the h)s and, a death )tterly non5nor'ative fro' the fe'ale point of vie+. .ven +here the 'ale sacrifices his life in attle and th)s attains the !lory and honor that are the !oals of the 2a3p)t +arrior, his death is ina)spicio)s for his +ife and fa'ily. <o'en;s reli!io)s rit)als and +o'en;s ho)sehold tasks are directed to+ard protectin! the h)s and a!ainst s)ch an )nti'ely end. 0h)s death as a sati is characteri@ed y inhar'onio)s associations. 0he act of i''olation is 'eritorio)sB the reason for the act is not. &n s)', eco'in! a sativrata is on one level a)spicio)sIhence the potency of the eneficial o$ Iand on another ina)spicio)sIhence the dan!ero)sness of the sati ;s +rath. 0he stran!ely li'inal condition of the sati 5to5 e specifies the sativrata ;s do) le nat)re. 0he sativrata

is a +o'an +ho has lost her h)s and )t is not a +ido+. *he is neither still in this +orld nor eyond it. -)rin! this 'ar!inal and fleetin! e(istence her po+er of sat c)l'inates and eco'es 'anifest.CJ%D *he has reno)nced life )t is not yet dead. &n this she rese' les the sannyasi , the ascetic +ho has reno)nced the +orld )t contin)es to live in it. 1s the sannyasi has sy' olically perfor'ed his o+n f)neral rites to sy' oli@e his freedo' fro' social responsi ilities, the sativrata , havin! learned of her h)s and;s death, has taken a vo+ to die, +hich relieves her of her d)ties as +ife and 'other. F)t of her devotion sprin!s the +ill to reno)nce the r)les that in life are insepara le fro' devotion. 0hat is to say, she reno)nces her stat)s as a pativrata , +hich, in the a sence of a h)s and, is 'eanin!less, in fact i'possi le. 8evertheless, in eco'in! a sati she is affir'in! her erst+hile stat)s as a pativrata +hile she transcends it. &n this ti'e of s)spension and ren)n5 CJ%D /or the classic str)ct)ralist perspective on 'ar!inality, see >ictor 0)rner, EBet+i(t and Bet+een,E in The Forest of )ym"ols , ed. >ictor 0)rner 4&thaca: Cornell University Press, 19JA6, 9"H111. 7 1$1 7 ciation, the sati is oth po+erf)l and dan!ero)s. Her decisions to apply her po+ers to less and to c)rse are )nderstood to derive fro' a vanta!e point of transcendent +isdo' orn of ren)nciation. 0he a' i!)ity of the d)tif)l +ife +hose h)s and has died sho+s )p in acco)nts of sati processions. CJ$D &n so'e the sati , havin! first roken her an!les, !ives a+ay all her precio)s 3e+elry. *he is perfor'in! the actions of a +ido+, ackno+led!in! that her h)s and has died and that she is no lon!er a +ife in the nor'al sense. *he !oes to the pyre devoid of orna'entation. 0his scenario, the asics of +hich 'y infor'ants often descri ed, 'atches the perceptions of 2o ert -e 8o ili, an early seventeenth5cent)ry =es)it 'issionary +ho reported fro' 9ad)rai on the sati i''olations perfor'ed y +ives of a deceased 'onarch. &n narratin! the story of one partic)lar sati , he says: 0hen she rose . . . and +ent to the river, +here she athed, and p)t on a cloth dyed +ith saffronB she distri )ted her necklace, ear5rin!s, and ar'5rin!s a'on! her relations, ca'e close to the pit, ro)nd +hich she +alked once, speakin! to each of her ac,)aintances, and then, raisin! her hands, 3)'ped +ith a cheerf)l face into the fire.CJJD 1s in 'any other 2a3asthani narratives, this description of a sati ;s death sho+s a +o'an +ho +ears 3e+elry )ntil she is ready to ascend the pyre, )t it lays e'phasis on her !ivin! her 3e+els a+ay. *i'ilarly, 'any 2a3p)t +o'en 'ake ')ch of the fact that the sati , no lon!er the +ife of a livin! h)s and, reno)nces her 'ost precio)s possessions. &n s)ch descriptions ren)nciation connotes +ido+hood. &n other sati acco)nts, e'phasis rests not on reno)ncin! 3e+els )t on +earin! the', at least )ntil i''olation is i''inent. &n this vein, 2a3p)t +o'en note that a sati prohi its a)spicio)s 3e+elry, clothin!, and cos'etics eca)se she is +earin! these at the ti'e of her sacrifice, not eca)se she !ives the' a+ay efore her sacrifice. *o'e +o'en elieve that sati s +ear their 3e+els into the fire. Fthers e'phasi@e that their fa'ilies; sati s dress )p in the finery that pativrata s +ear.CJAD P)ttin! on CJ$D -ennis H)dson;s co'pilation of sati cere'onies incl)des prescriptions y the nineteenth5cent)ry Ben!ali rit)alist 2a!h)nathan: ELet those +o'en, not +ido+ed . . . ein! +ives, ascend . . . to the proper place . . . 4and6 enter the fire +ith the ody of their h)s and.E Cited as E0ranslated y Ko!endra Ch)nder :hose, editor of The English Wor$s of Raja Rammohun Roy , co'piled and p) lished y .shan Ch)nder Bose, 2 vols., CCalc)tta, 1GG$D, >ol. &, footnote one, pp. "$"H$%, translation sli!htly 'odified,E in H)dson;s annotated E.(a'ples of the 2it)al 1ct of *ati.E CJJD /ro' >incent Cronin, ( Pearl to .ndia 48e+ Kork: -)tton, 19$96, $"H$% in H)dson.

CJAD *ee the acco)nt !iven y =ohn *c)dder, a Protestant 'issionary in the 1G2#s, as ,)oted fro' 9ay Pa)line =effry, .da ). )cudder of 4ellore , =) ilee .dition 49ysore City:19$16, 9H1# in H)dson. *o'e infor'ants said that sati s +ore their finery into the fire, e(cept their an!les, +hich +ere kept and p)t into a )ndle +ith the ashes and ones and then +ere stored in a do'estic te'ple. 7 1$2 7 +eddin! dresses or pilya s, t+o co''on s) 3ects of o$ s, these sati s act as pativrata s, as is i'plied y the sati act. B)t the narratives !ive stress to ren)nciation +ith 'ini'al reference to the technicality of +ido+hood. <earin! 3e+elry into the fire or !ivin! it )pIeither act conveys ren)nciation. &n acco)nts of sati i''olation the sy' olis' of +ido+hood 'ay e prono)nced or 'ini'i@ed, )t the interpretation of the sati rit)al is o)nd y the concept of +ido+hood. 0he sy' ols of sacrifice 'ay e those of +ido+hood that in t)rn dra+ on sannya s, ascetic ren)nciationB )n'ediated, they 'ay stress sannya s or si'ply i'ply +ido+hood. 0he )nderlyin! pre'ise re'ains: efore she ascends the pyre, the sati is either oth +ife and +ido+ or neither +ife nor +ido+. 0he t+o for')lations e'ploy the sa'e disco)rse. Both reveal a ')t)ally i'plicatin! tension et+een a)spicio)sness and ina)spicio)sness. 0he a)spicio)s ite's and activities tied to the sativrata , +hose stat)s is a' i!)o)s, re'ain a)spicio)s. B)t their )sa!e or perfor'ance is ina)spicio)s eca)se it indicates ad intentions: it reveals a lapse in the vo+ of the pativrata , +hich is the very fo)ndation of the sati transfor'ation. 0his distinction et+een the a)spicio)sness of the ite's and activities and the ina)spicio)sness of their )sa!e or perfor'ance is s) tle and vital. 1nd, as +e shall see, it ill)'inates the tradition of sati veneration. &n s)', investi!atin! o$ s has div)l!ed the deeper aspects of sativrata character. &t has provided a sy' olic asis for interpretin! the sativrata ;s !oodness and dan!ero)sness. 9oreover, in detailin! the transition that the sativrata sta!e represents, it has el)cidated the concept)al connection et+een the pativrata , +ho sacrifices personal desires to f)lfill those of her h)s and and fa'ily, and the satimata , +ho protects the h)s and and fa'ily directly and also indirectly, y helpin! the pativrata to protect the'. /inally, it has sho+n ho+ the sativrata , not yet a f)lly transcendent ein!, p) licly co'')nicates +ith those +ho' she intends to protect. 9anifestin! her sat , she de'onstrates that her ac,)isition of sativrata po+er res)lts fro' a c)ltivated attit)de of selfless sacrifice, only the final e(pression of +hich is the sacrifice she +ill 'ake on her h)s and;s pyre. &n the co)rse of descri in! the asics of sati transfor'ation, & have 7 1$" 7 presented t+o f)nda'ental propositions. & have stated that the satimata is a paradi!' that inte!rates +ithin a +holly do'estic conte(t the co'petin! aspects of the 2a3p)t +o'an;s identity as a 2a3p)t and as a +o'an. 0his inte!ration is a reflection of the !oodness, the sat , that the satimata reali@ed +hile she herself p)rs)ed the ideal of the pativrata . *econd, & have characteri@ed the satimata as a protector +ho protects her fa'ily 'e' ers, even +hen she c)rses. 0o aid protM!Mes she iss)es co''ands that esta lish c)sto's, +hich condition her contin)in! protection and provide 'eans for veneration. Fn the asis of these propositions, chapter $ e(plores the 'otivations +o'en have as they interpret the satimata ;s orders and assi'ilate the paradi!' of d)ty that she represents. &ts overarchin! p)rpose is to e(a'ine the para'o)nt role of intention in the protective actions that pativrata s perfor'.

7 1$% 7

&apter : Satimata Tradition T&e Role o' Volition

<ith sati veneration, it is clearly the tho)!ht that co)nts. 0his is tr)e +hether +e o serve the satimata +ho har's a fa'ily in the short r)n to help it in the lon! r)n or +hether +e consider the +o'en +ho revere a satimata to avoid her +rath and !ain her lessin!. &n oth cases +e ')st assess intention and 'otiveB +itho)t s)ch an assess'ent, so'e ehavioral aspects of sati tradition fail to 'ake sense. P)rs)in! the sati ideal, +o'en act in +ays that see' contrary to the ideal and yet are interpreted y other +o'en as s)pportive of the ideal eca)se of the valid intentions that !)ide the'. 9y ai' here is to e(plain ho+ it is that in certain 'otivational conte(ts +o'en can p)rs)e the sati ideal +hile not o servin! o$s , not o eyin! their h)s ands, and not dyin! as sati s.

Not O;ser(ing O*s

1s +e have seen, one +ay 2a3p)t +o'en reciprocate the protective services that satimata s render is to honor o$ s, c)sto'ary o servances. P)rs)ant to their satimata ;s re,)est, they reno)nce the perfor'ance of a specific activity or the )se of a special ite'. <hen +e co'pare and analy@e o$ s as reli!io)s sy' ols, +e ')st pay close attention to the e(planation of o$ s that 2a3p)t +o'en offer. 2a3p)t +o'en do not ponder patterns of si'ilarity and differenceIthey 'ay kno+ only the o$ s o served in their o+n ho'es. 8or do they conte'plate levels of sy' olic 'eanin!. 9ost co''only, they si'ply say that o servance of o$ s 7 1$$ 7 Esho+s faith in *ati'ata.E 0ho)!h si'ple, this ans+er is helpf)lB it travels a !ood distance to+ard e(plainin! so'e of the pec)liar +ays in +hich o$ s are practiced or, perhaps 'ore acc)rately, not practiced. 2a3p)t +o'en stress faith to s)ch an e(tent that in 'any cases their o servance of an o$ does not necessarily re,)ire the practice of the o$ . <hat is prohi ited eco'es per'itted if respect 4samman 6 for the sati ;s +ishes is retained. 9any +o'en +ho say they o ey o$ s )t in practice )se +hat they sho)ld not, e(plain that they 'ay do +hat is prohi ited eca)se they sho+ respect for their satimata in an alternative +ay. 0hey concl)de that if they ackno+led!e o$ s and e(press faith, then they 'ay avoid the inconvenience associated +ith that o$ . 0here are vario)s +ays in +hich +o'en 'ana!e o$ s so as to 'ini'i@e inconvenience and yet sho+ d)e respect. 0hey often concl)de that they 'ay )se a prohi ited ite' if it is not p)rchased or if it is not act)ally o+ned y the fa'ily. 2eno)nced y the fa'ily, it 'ay e )sed if it co'es fro' a so)rce o)tside the fa'ily. 0h)s, for e(a'ple, the +o'an +hose children +ere prohi ited fro' +earin! clothes efore their hair5c)ttin! cere'onies co)ld allo+ her children to +ear clothes orro+ed fro' o)tside the fa'ily or !iven to the fa'ily. &n this sit)ation and in 'any sit)ations like it, the ass)'ed so)rce of prohi ited ite's +ill e natal fa'ilies of da)!hters5in5la+. 0his is not to say that all fa'ilies o serve only the spirit and not the letter of the sati ;s in3)nctions. &n so'e fa'ilies cradles are prohi ited o)tri!ht. Ket in 'ost, cradles 'ay e orro+ed or accepted as presents. 0he sa'e holds tr)e for interdicted ite's of clothin! and 3e+elry. *o'e fa'ilies practice

co'plete a stinence. Fthers orro+ or accept the ite's as !ifts. *till others re3ect the idea of orro+in! or receivin! !ifts )t +ill per'it )se of a anned ite' if a 'e' er of the fa'ily provides a token pay'ent for it. *)ch is the case in the fa'ily to +hich ver'ilion 4sindur 6 is prohi ited. /a'ily 'e' ers cannot p)rchase ver'ilion directly )t can receive it fro' others +ho have o)!ht ver'ilion if in ret)rn they hand over a s'all s)', )s)ally a r)pee. &n one case, a +o'an circ)'vented the pro le' of not ein! a le to )se a cradle for her a y y !ivin! her fa'ily;s satimata a 'iniat)re silver cradle in lie) of the a stinence i'posed y the sati ;s o$ . Borro+in! prohi ited ite's, receivin! the' as !ifts, providin! only token financial consideration for the', or replacin! the' +ith alternate sacrifices 'ay all see' like too convenient +ays of !ettin! aro)nd prohi itions and so s) vertin! a satimata ;s p)rpose. *)ch cynicis' is )n+arranted. <o'en;s p)rpose in o eyin! o$ s is to sacrifice in honor of 7 1$J 7 the satimata that in t)rn she 'i!ht protect their h)s ands and help the' protect their h)s ands. &f the intent to honor the satimata is present and 'arked y so'e for' of o servance, then the satimata ;s +ill is not fr)strated. &n short, if the spirit of self5sacrifice is preserved and co' ined +ith proper respect and +orship of the satimata , then all 'ay e tho)!ht proper. 0he concl)sion to e reached: devotion to the satimata and devotion to the h)s and +ho' she protects re,)ire not 'ere a stinence )t active, 'indf)l ren)nciation. &f the spirit of sacrifice is present, then the act 'ay e adapted. 8ot e'pty rit)al, it is elieved, )t 'indf)l ren)nciation +ill please the sati so that she +ill !ive protection and help the pativrata perfor' her 3o of protection.C1D 0he ren)nciation practiced y attention to o$ s parallels the ren)nciation practiced y the sati at the ti'e of her cre'ation. <hen a pativrata decides to re3ect or a andon an o$ ;s o servance, she ')st s) stit)te an alternative o servance, +hich +ill ena le her to sho+ respect for her !)ardian +hile allo+in! her to do thin!s she 3)d!es essential for a pativrata , s)ch as clothin! her children and providin! the' +ith cradles. 0his 'otif of diso edience tr)e to the spirit of ein! a pativrata is not, ho+ever, confined to the o servance or, rather, non5o servance of o$ s. &t is a 'otif that pervades the stories told a o)t fa'o)s pativrata s and a o)t pativrata s +ho eco'e sati s. *)ch stories provide conte(t for an ade,)ate interpretation of intent and sacrifice in the sati scenario.

Not O;eying Hus;ands

0he sati , +e have seen, reno)nces pativrata stat)s +hile she reincorporates the pativrata ideal on a s)pernat)ral level. 1s a protector, the satimata is the preserver of fa'ily fertility. Beca)se of her death as a pativrata , she is especially e'po+ered to pro'ote irth. Her incorporation of the ')t)ally dependent processes of irth and death 'akes her a co'pellin! sy' ol. 0hro)!h self5sacrifice the satimata ac,)ires po+er over the 'ost asic life processes. &n a parallel +ay, the pativrata too rin!s to!ether self5sacrifice and irth. 0he pativrata is the very e' odi'ent of chastity, itself a for' of ren)nciation. &t is clear fro' the stories +o'en tell and the e(planations C1D Fn the notion that intention is 'ore i'portant than action see :old, Fruitful /ourneys , 29AH9G, on pil!ri'a!eB and Bennett, +angerous Wives , %9, on puja .

7 1$A 7 they offer for the pri'acy of chastity that it represents the fe'ale co)nterpart of 'ale celi acy 4"rahmacarya 6. Chastity pres)pposes oth ren)nciation and fertility: it ass)'es active se()ality +ithin the confines of 'arria!e. <hat is reno)nced is not se()ality )t )n+ifely se()ality. <hat is affir'ed is the fertility of the fa'ily line, and hence of $ul and caste. /)rther'ore, to set this notion in its roader conte(t, +hat is denied is not the self per se )t those self5centered i'p)lses that are y definition )n+ifely. 0he role of +ife and 'other re,)ires e(pression of se()ality as a d)ty, one that a 2a3p)t +o'an can and sho)ld assert herself to p)rs)e.C2D <ives speak fre,)ently of the i'portance of attractin! one;s h)s and y +earin! flatterin! clothes, plenty of 3e+els, and s+eet perf)'es.C"D 9arital fidelity, the 'ost f)nda'ental aspect of the pativrata role, !ives )s a 'odel for other acts of ren)nciatory assertion. <hen a +o'an sacrifices in order to f)lfill a d)ty, her acts 'ay appear, o)t of conte(t, radically ins) ordinate and 3)st plain ad ehavior. &n other +ords, e!innin! +ith chastity and e(tendin! to the other d)ties of a +ife, the ethic of protective sacrifice is not si'ply a ne!ative, self5effacin! role. 9any +o'en & intervie+ed co''ented that perfor'in! a pativrata ;s role re,)ires +isdo', for +o'en ')st often 'ake hard decisions. 0he d)ty to sacrifice al+ays needs interpretation. *o'eti'es a +o'an ')st even decide +hether o edience to her h)s and is a service or a disservice to hi'. 2a3p)t lore is f)ll of e(a'ples of pativratas +ho eco'e sativratas after they controvert their h)s ands; orders and in this +ay help the' and their fa'ilies, +hose +elfare depends on the proper perfor'ance of +ifely d)ty. <e have had a !li'pse of this d)ty to controvert 'ale +ishes in the disc)ssion of c)rses. 0he sati +ho c)rses her +ine5lovin! h)s and and the sati +ho c)rses her previo)sly 'arried h)s and oth act in +ays see'in!ly inco''ens)rate +ith the ideal of the pativrata . Both +o'en, ho+ever, find that their h)s ands have e(ercised ad 3)d!'ent. 1ltho)!h alcohol and poly!a'y are reco!ni@ed as per'issi le for 2a3p)t C2D 0hro)!ho)t &ndia se()al interco)rse is )nderstood in the first instance as a fe'ale need and its satisfaction as the d)ty of h)s andsB see, for e(a'ple, Carstairs, T&ice 7orn , A"B the disc)ssion of Ethe l)stf)l rideE in *h)l'an, Tamil Temple yths , 1%1, 1JJHAJB and F;/laherty, )iva , esp. 1%1, +hich ,)otes the divine yo!i, *hiv: E0his !irl +ith her 'a!nificent )ttocks ')st not co'e near 'e. . . . <ise 'en kno+ that a +o'an is the very for' of .nchant'ent . . . the destr)ction of ascetics.E C"D 2a3p)t +o'en tend to re!ard their peers in !eneral as havin! a )ni,)e ea)ty and all)re. <hen asked to descri e 2a3p)t +o'en, infor'ants often noted 2a3p)t +o'en;s facial feat)res, +hich they considered partic)larly refined and aristocratic5lookin!. 9any correlated these attractive feat)res +ith the need for parda . 7 1$G 7 'en, the 'en are e(pected to drink and 'arry responsi ly. <o'en +ho have 'arried into the fa'ilies of these satis ad3)d!e the satis5 c)rses to e 3)stified. 0he c)rses are tailored to ens)re that 'en +ill learn their responsi ilities as 'en. &t 'ay here e o 3ected that these interpretations of sativratas5 co''ands are only rationali@ations )sed y +o'en to serve their o+n a!endas. B)t this is precisely the point. <o'en elieve that the c)rses convey co''ands that +o'en are o)nd to f)lfill or to see that 'en f)lfill. 0he very fact that +o'en interpret c)rses olsters their o+n a)thority as +ives and 'others. 1s fa'ily5protectors they e(plain and enforce the fa'ily5protectin! orders that satimatas !ive. 1 clear e(a'ple of this is the +ay +o'en in the fa'ily +hose sati prohi ited 'en fro' drinkin! alcohol today enforce their sati5s +ill and also provide an e(a'ple y their o+n a stinence.C%D

1ltho)!h 'en venerate satimatas , their +ives perfor' the 'a3ority of satimata rit)als. <o'en )nderstand shraps and o$s as e(pressin! the +ill of their predecessors, +hich they interpret and enforce. <o'en are the pri'ary tellers of satimata tales and perfor'ers of satimata rit)al. <hen 'en participate in satimata +orship, they see' not to alter the 'eanin! of the rit)als and stories that +o'en in the fa'ily share. &n short, satimatas5 shraps and o$s confer a)thority on +o'en, +ho at ti'es )se their a)thority to protect their ho)seholds in apparent deviation fro' the nor' of +ifely o edience. *acrificin! their personal desires 4s)ch as the desire to please their h)s ands6, they 'ay le!iti'ately de'and that satimatas e properly propitiated and that their prono)nce'ents e honored. &t is al+ays a +o'an;s responsi ility to 'ake her h)s and tend to all his rit)al d)ties, for these d)ties contri )te to his +elfare, the preservation and pro'otion of +hich are his +ife;s s+orn responsi ility. 0his correlation et+een the ren)nciation of selfish +ants and the d)ty to 'ake 'en do +hat they o)!ht e(tends to 'any conte(ts. .(e'plifyin! the !eneral notion of ren)nciation as entailin! a positive for')lation of fe'ale d)ty are the follo+in! stories, +hich tell of +o'en controvertin! 'ale +ishes to pro'ote 'ale d)ty, as they )nderstand it. 9any of these stories reco)nt s)ccessf)l atte'pts y 2a3p)t +o'en to !oad or trick 'en into perfor'in! their d)ties as +arriors. &n C%D *ee Harlan, E*ati >eneration,E in E8e+ Li!ht on *ati,E ed. =ohn *tratton Ha+ley. 9any +o'en do not like their h)s ands to drink ')ch alcoholB they consider alcoholis' a pro le' in their co'')nity partic)larly eca)se 2a3p)t drinkin! is sanctioned y tradition. 0hey often say that pro le's of ad3)st'ent ca)sed y disinheritance have ca)sed 'any 'en to eco'e depressed and drink too ')ch. 7 1$9 7 one story that +o'en love to tell, a h)s and, +ishin! he +ere +ith his +ife rather than in the attle then ra!in! aro)nd hi', a andons the field for his fortress. Havin! een told of the approach of her h)s and, ho+ever, his +ife directs a servant to have the fortress !ates locked ti!ht so that her h)s and +ill not e a le to co'e ho'e. 0he sad soldier;s only option is to ret)rn to attle. &n a si'ilarly pop)lar story a'on! 2a3p)t +o'en, a h)s and co'es ho'e in the 'idst of +ar and !oes to see his +ife and 'other. 0he 'other tells her da)!hter5in5la+ to prepare so'e food for hi'. 0he +ife, +ho is o)tra!ed y her h)s and;s co+ardice, an!s her cookin! pots as she prepares his 'ealB her 'other5in5la+, also f)rio)s, scolds her for handlin! the kitchen )tensils too noisily. &n a voice lo)d eno)!h to ens)re that her son can hear, she calls into the kitchen, EKo) ')stn;t fri!hten 'y son. Ho+ the so)nd of clan!in! iron terrifies 'y ti'id little sonNE 0he 'other5in5la+;s insin)ation that iron kitchen )tensils an!ed to!ether so)nd to her son like clashin! s+ords, +hich fri!hten hi', is of co)rse hi!hly ins)ltin!. 1n!ered, the son ret)rns to the attlefield. Hence despite an ostensi le respect for the +arrior;s desire to stay ho'e, the +ife and 'other 'ana!e to drive hi' o)t into the attlefield, +here he risks his life instead of his honor.C$D 2a3p)t +o'en tell 'any other stories in +hich +o'en are credited +ith sha'in! their h)s ands into doin! their d)ty.CJD &n one, a +o'an fro' one of 9e+ar;s i!!est thi$anas tells her 'aidservant not to rin! her co+ardly h)s and coals for his pipe in an iron container eca)se iron 'i!ht re'ind hi' of the +eapons he so fears. Havin! fled attle, the 'an does the honora le thin! y co''ittin! s)icide. *tories s)ch as these artic)late a nor' of positive ren)nciation. 0he 'other or +ife sets aside her desire to !ratify her loved one and sec)re his safety. &n oth instances, the +o'an acts as a +ife of the fa'ily and a perpet)ator of the fa'ily line. *he sacrifices her personal happinessIpredicated on the safety of her h)s andIin order to s)pport his role as a perfor'er of 'ale/caste d)ty.

0he principle that !)ides these stories co' ines +ith the sati ideal in the t+o follo+in! pop)lar le!ends that & here consider to!ether for p)r5 C$D 1'on! the e(e'plary 'others +ho sha'e their sons into attle is one +ho says to her faint5hearted son, EKo);ve dr)nk 'y 'ilk, no+ slay the ene'y.E 0his recalls the story of :)ha, +hose 'other says that if she has sat , then her son and his descendants +ill e s)ccessf)l kin!s. CJD 2a3asthani folklore fre,)ently )ses the 'otif of +o'en 'otivatin! +arriors 4?othari, E.pics of 2a3asthan,E 1$6. Fne tha$ur e(pressed the sa'e notion of 'otivation: EF)r ladies tell )s +hat +e sho)ld do, other+ise +e cannot do it. &t;s the 'other;s 3o to tell the son to kill, to die, to fi!ht in attle.E 7 1J# 7 poses of co'parison. <o'en often recited the' to 'e d)rin! 'y stay. 0he first, the story of Hari 2ani, CAD involves a +o'an +ho is not a sati in the narro+ sense of the ter': she does not i''olate herself on her h)s and;s pyre. &n fact, she kills herself +hile her h)s and lives and faces no i''inent dan!er of death.CGD 8evertheless, she is called *ati Hari 2ani and is invoked in disc)ssions on satis eca)se her death is seen as a direct 'anifestation of her sat . 2ather than reco)nt one of the 'any detailed and ela orate acco)nts of this fa'o)s story & incl)de here only the are ones essential to its paradi!' of d)ty. 0his co)rse is partic)larly appropriate as 'ost 2a3p)t +o'en kno+ only the story skeleton and ase their interpretation on it. 0he narrative fro' an intervie+ +ith a 9e+ari tha$urani is a !ood e(a'ple: Hari 2ani had 3)st een 'arried to the Lord of *al)' ar Cone of the 'a3or estates of 9e+arD +hen he +as s)''oned y the 9aharana to help rep)lse an attack y 1)ran!@e . 0he h)s and +as so ena'ored of his ne+ ride that he had !reat diffic)lty p)llin! hi'self a+ay fro' her to !o and fi!ht. Barely 'ana!in! to leave her, he co)ld ')ster no enth)sias' for the )pco'in! attle. <hen he reached the palace !ates, he sent +ord ack to Hari 2ani that she sho)ld send hi' so'e so)venir to take to +ar +ith hi' so that he co)ld feel she +as y his side. <itho)t hesitatin!, the devoted +ife dre+ a s+ord and sliced off her head so that he co)ld take that +ith hi'. <hen a 'aidservant delivered the head to hi', he affi(ed it to his saddle and, inspired y his +ife;s e(a'ple of devotion, rode off to do his d)ty as a soldier. 0he second story is that of 2)thi 2ani or the 1n!ry S)een. 1 typical version of this tale +as told to 'e y another tha$urani fro' 9e+ar. 0here +as once a very ea)tif)l princess of =aisal'er. Both =aip)r and =odhp)r +anted her in 'arria!e. 0here +as al'ost a +ar, so 'any kin!s +anted to 'arry her. 0he 9ahara3a of =odhp)r forced his presence on her father. 0hey si!ned a treaty, one of the conditions of +hich +as that the 9ahara3a +o)ld have the hand of the =aisal'er princess. 0he father, ho+ever, 'ana!ed 'atters so that the !roo';s gaddi 4+eddin! throne6 +o)ld e precario)sly perched over a hidden pit. 0h)s +hen the !roo' atte'pted to sit do+n, he +o)ld fall to his death. Havin! discovered this plot, the da)!hter sent a 'aid to +arn her etrothed that he sho)ld test the gaddi +ith his s+ord efore sittin! )p it. *he also pleaded +ith her father not to carry o)t his plan, )t to no avail. 1t CAD EHariE 4Hadi6 is a fe'ini@ed patrony'ic, indicatin! that the father of the ,)een 4rani 6 +as fro' the Hara sha$h of the Ca)han $ul .

CGD &n this she rese' les the sati +ho dies in jauhar . 0he jauhar sati dies efore or +hile her h)s and fi!hts +hat appears to e an )n+inna le attle. By dyin!, she frees hi' fro' +orry a o)t her +elfare and saves herself fro' the possi le sha'e of rape y tri)'phant ene'y forces. 7 1J1 7 the cere'ony, the !roo' tested the gaddi and its seat fell into the pit elo+. 1nother gaddi +as set )pon a safe spot and the cere'onies +ere co'pleted. 1fter the +eddin!, the !roo' +ent to the ridal cha' er. His +ife +as preparin! for her +eddin! ni!ht in a ack roo'. 0he !roo' sat +aitin! for her. *tron! drink and dancin! !irls had een provided for his entertain'ent. Havin! +aited so'e ti'e and cons)'ed so'e +ine, the !roo' !ra ed one of the dancers, sat her on his lap, and e!an to a')se hi'self +ith her. =)st then the princess entered the roo'. -is!)sted, she t)rned and left. Havin! seen his +ife;s ea)tif)l face, the !roo' eca'e i'passioned. He pleaded +ith her to stay, )t she kept on +alkin!. 0hen she sent hi' a 'essa!e that eca)se he +as so i'patient that he co)ld not +ait for her even a short ti'e, she had decided not to 3oin his hare'. 4He already had 'any +ives.6 He hoped she +o)ld chan!e her 'ind, )t after seven days he decided he had etter !o ho'e. 0he ,)een;s fa'ily tried to convince her to !o +ith hi', )t she ref)sed. Beca)se she +as no+ a ,)een of =odhp)r, the 9ahara3a left +ith her a s)ita le staff of servants. 0+o or three years passed. 0he ,)een +as still an!ry, even tho)!h she kne+ her h)s and;s ehavior +as typical of kin!s. 1 o)t that ti'e, the 9ahara3a fo)nd it necessary to !o to +ar. He sent 2)thi 2ani a 'essa!e askin! her to co'e to hi' efore he faced attle. 2el)ctantly, she a!reed. <hen the ,)een;s procession neared =odhp)r, the 9ahara3a sent her a 'essa!e that he +o)ld soon e o)t to !reet her. 9ean+hile, a Caran ca)!ht si!ht of the ento)ra!e and san! o)t a son! 4doha 6. &n effect he said, E<e tho)!ht that this +o'an +as ea)ty and pride incarnate, )t no+ +e see that she is 3)st an ordinary +o'an.E Her an!er rekindled, the ,)een ret)rned to =aisal'er. 0he =odhp)r 9ahara3a +as killed in the attle. He had left orders that +ere he to e slain, his head sho)ld e sent to his an!ry +ife. Upon receipt of the head, the ,)een i''olated herself as a sati . Both stories e(e'plify +illf)l diso edience y +o'en. 0he +ives sha'e their h)s ands and s) vert their h)s ands; intentions. <o'en nonetheless hold the' )p as e(e'plary pativratas . 0heir stron! +illpo+erIan attri )te that 'any 2a3p)t +o'en see the'selves as possessin!Iena les the' to 'ake 'en do the ri!ht thin!.C9D Like the +ives in the stories of the locked palace !ates and the clan!in! dishes, these rides force their h)s ands to ehave in +ays contrary to their personal +hi's )t co''ens)rate +ith their stat)s as 2a3p)ts. &n 'ost of the stories presented, the 'otive that +o'en have in chastisin! their h)s5 C9D 2a3p)t +o'en fre,)ently stress their insistence on proper ehavior. Fne said, E.ven if 'arria!e is suli Itort)re y i'pale'entIyo) ')st e +illin! to perfor' yo)r d)ties.E 1nother e(plained, E<e 2a3p)ts have very stron! +illpo+er and the !)ts to face all o)r pro le's. &n the old days, 2a3p)t 'en 'arried three or fo)r ti'es, )t the +ives didn;t fi!ht +ith one another eca)se they had !)ts.E *till another e(tended this notion of +illpo+er to control over others. EBeca)se of their +ill,E she said in .n!lish, 2a3p)t +o'en !et +hat they +ant done, E y hook or y crook.E

7 1J2 7 ands is patent. 0hey +ant their h)s ands to f)lfill their d)ties as +arriors. &n the final story, ho+ever, the 'otive is co'ple( and less clear. 2)thi 2ani !ives her h)s and t+o re )ffs. 0he conte(t of each is i'portant. <ith the first re )ff, 2)thi 2ani reacts a!ainst +hat she )nderstands to e i'proper ehavior on the part of her !roo'. 1s the no le+o'an +ho narrated the story co''ented, it is not +ron! for a kin! to toy +ith da'selsIthat is to e e(pected. <hat incenses 2)thi 2ani, she +ent on to say, is the lack of respect the kin! sho+s for her as his +ife. 1s a ride deter'ined to 'ake herself as all)rin! as possi le to her h)s and, the ,)een takes ti'e to e athed and adorned. <hen she is ready to !ive herself to her h)s and, ho+ever, she finds that he has allo+ed a 'ere dancin! !irl to )psta!e his ride. 0he kin!;s ehavior is ins)ltin!B it de'eans her sense of +ifely d)ty and di!nity. 1ltho)!h s)ch actions are appropriate to a 2a3p)t kin! )nder other circ)'stances, here they are offensive, +hich is +hy she eco'es so an!ry. 0he second half of the story de'onstrates that y +ithdra+in! fro' her h)s and;s co'pany, 2)thi 2ani proves that she +ill not allo+ hi' to for!et his trans!ression: the 9ahara3a ')st not e allo+ed to conf)se the place of +ife and conc) ine. .specially strikin! is the story;s endin!. *till lovesick, the kin! finally pers)ades the ,)een to see hi' efore he !oes off to +ar. &t +as, after all, c)sto'ary for +o'en to see their h)s ands off and so inspire the' as they left for attle. 8evertheless, +hen the ,)een hears the itin! criticis' of the Caran, +hose caste d)ty is to sin! of the 9ahara3a;s achieve'ents in order to e(pand the 9ahara3a;s !lory and po+er, she deter'ines to re )ff her h)s and a second ti'e. <ere her reason 'ere vanity, ho+ever, do) tless she +o)ld not e held )p as an e(e'plar. 0o interpret this rene+ed re3ection +e need to foc)s on t+o ele'ents, the sy' olic character of the ard and the connection et+een the ,)een;s arrival and the inception of attle. /irst, the ard. Pres)'a ly the son! he sin!s is desi!ned to protect the kin!;s honor. His p)rpose is to ar the ,)een fro' the kin!;s residence. &f she enters, she i'poverishes her pride, a pride ased on her relationship +ith her h)s and and a pride that has een instr)ctive, if painf)l, for her h)s and. 9akin! this especially vivid is a variation on the ard;s advice that the h)s and of one of 'y infor'ants narrated to 'e in poetic 4doha 6 for'. <ishin! the +ife to !o a+ay, the ard sin!s, E&f the ,)een keeps her pride, she loses her h)s andB if she keeps her h)s and, she loses her pride. 0hese t+o elephants cannot e chained in 7 1J" 7 the sa'e sta le.EC1#D 0hat the ard intends the ,)een to choose pride and sacrifice her intention to e +ith her h)s and is apparent, for he disco)ra!es her fro' proceedin!. *econd, the +ar. &ts o)t reak 'eans that the ,)een arrives 3)st as the kin! sho)ld leave ho'e. & heard no specific co''entary on this circ)'stance )t spec)late that the ,)een;s arrival 'i!ht threaten the kin!;s resolve to do attle. 0he other narratives sho+ the dan!er that a kin!;s preocc)pation +ith his +ife can prove to the kin!;s d)ty and his kin!5do';s +elfare. &n this instance, the kin!;s infat)ation +ith his very ea)tif)l and lon!5inaccessi le +ife 'ay +ell distract hi'. 0h)s the story offers the ,)een an e(cellent reason to t)rn ack. Her !oal in co'in! to =odhp)r is to do her d)ty as a +ife y s)pportin! hi' in his perfor'ance of 'ilitary d)ty. <hen she reali@es that her decision to co'e to =odhp)r +ill not achieve that end )t rather defeat it, she deter'ines to +ithdra+. Her !oal has re'ained constantB her 'eans of arrivin! at that !oal has chan!ed alon! +ith her

destination. 0hat the kin! thinks his +ife a virt)o)s +o'an is de'onstrated y his order to have his head sent to her after his death. 0he delivery of the head s)!!ests the kin!;s e(pectation that his +ife, ein! virt)o)s, +ill eco'e a sati y i''olatin! herself +ith his head on her lap.C11D His e(pectation is f)lfilled. 0he ,)een;s death 'anifests the p)rity of her heart and the stren!th of her +ifely devotion. 1ll these stories contri )te to the concl)sion that +ifely sacrifice is a positive d)ty. *elf5denial prod)ces protective po+er. &n for' al+ays yieldin!, a +ife 'ay either confor' to or re el a!ainst her h)s and;s +ill. 0hese tales descri e +o'en;s sacrifices as affir'in! and reinforcin! h)s ands; perfor'ance of 2a3p)t d)ty. 0hey repeat the 'essa!e: a 2a3p)t +o'an ')st s)pport her h)s and;s caste responsi ilities, for these are the so)rce of his honor, +hich defines his hi!hest self. .ven if s)pportin! a h)s and;s 2a3p)t responsi ilities 'eans p)shin! the h)s and C1#D &n his version of the story, 2)thi 2ani, +ho still had not sho+ed her face to her h)s and, lived apart fro' hi' in 13'er. <hen *her *hah +as 'archin! to+ard =odhp)r, a Caran sent a 'essa!e to 2)thi 2ani to 3oin her h)s and there. *he +as !oin! to !o, )t her h)s and;s first +ife told a Caran 4the nephe+ of the first one6 to diss)ade 2)thi 2ani fro' co'in!B he recited to 2)thi 2ani the EelephantE doha a ove. *eein! its +isdo', she decided not to !o. <hen her h)s and +as killed, ho+ever, she led the char!e a!ainst *her *hah and then died a sati . C11D 1 friend s)!!ested to 'e that the kin!;s act see's spitef)l. *pitef)l or not, the kin!;s order to have his head delivered see's to ass)'e his +ife +ill e a sati and serve as enco)ra!e'ent for her. &t rather neatly parallels the +ay Hari 2ani e(pects and enco)ra!es her h)s and to do his d)ty. 7 1J% 7 into certain death on the attlefield, the 2a3p)t +o'an is s)pposed to do so, for it is a sha'ef)l thin! to have a co+ardly h)s and. 0he parado( occasioned y her fail)re as a pativrata to protect his life is then sy' olically resolved y self5i''olation. 0his act, as +e have seen, verifies her p)rity of intent. Beca)se 2a3p)t +o'en see their caste as ena lin! the' to est appro(i'ate the fe'inine ideal, they )nderstand their d)ty to help their h)s ands perfor' 2a3p)t d)ties as especially strin!ent. 0h)s +hereas 2a3p)t d)ties are )nderstood as in the first instance 'ale,C12D the fe'ale d)ty to sacrifice is conceived +ith reference to 2a3p)t 'ale d)ties. &n other +ords, it interprets and 3)stifies itself in ter's consistent +ith and s)pportive of the !eneral 2a3p)t ethos of sacrifice. 0he fe'ale d)ty to sacrifice co' ined +ith the 2a3p)t ethos of sacrifice 'ake for a 'andate of non5co'pro'ise. 1s a 'iddle5a!ed no le+o'an re'arked, E&f h)s ands prove co+ardly, +e 2a3p)t +o'en reak o)r an!les, 3)st as +ido+s do.E 0here see's little roo' for ne!otiatin! the iss)e. 0his resol)te co)ra!e characteri@es the stories. Hari 2ani does not hesitate efore decapitatin! herself +ith a s+ordB its )se is partic)larly appropriate as she +ants to enco)ra!e her h)s and to )se his s+ord in attle 4fi!. 2$6. *he sacrifices herself that her h)s and 'i!ht c)t do+n his ene'y. 2)thi 2ani also does not delay: she sacrifices the life of a nor'al +ife to teach her h)s and to ehave properly and honora ly. Behavin! honora ly herself, she heeds the ard;s advice to stay a+ay fro' her h)s and as he prepares for attle. 9oreover, her sacrifice of self and protection of honor re'ain concept)ally ent+ined +ith the f)nda'ental a stinence that is chastity. 2)thi 2ani is a paradi!' of sacrificial chastity, a notion +ith i'portant i'plications for the ethos of protection. <hen +o'en speak of chastity, they co''only )se the +ords sharam and laj , oth of +hich translate as sha'e and 'odesty. 0he ter's the'selves sho+ that chastity does not si'ply 'ean restraint fro' e(tra'arital se()ality: that 'ay e taken for !ranted. F 3ectified as the parda 4c)rtain6, chastity infor's and str)ct)res the entire code of +ifely d)ty. 1s it f)nda'entally represents the e(pression of se()ality in s)pport of a h)s and, so, in the appropriate conte(t, it connotes the sha'e or 'odesty to

reno)nce a +o'an;s p)rs)it of personal desires, C12D Caste d)ties follo+ a division of la or set o)t in the classical le!al te(ts 4the dharmashastras 6 and pop)lar +isdo'B 'en perfor' specific caste d)ties +hile +o'en have co''on d)ties, those of +ife and 'other. 1sked +hat 2a3p)ts do, oth 'en and +o'en nearly al+ays refer to the tasks of 2a3p)t 'en: r)lin! and fi!htin!. 7 1J$ 7

2$. Hari 2ani sends her h)s and her head as a 'e'ento 4cover fro' a poetic narration of the deeds of Hari 2aniB y per'ission of Pratap *inh 9ahiyariya and Hi''at *inh 1shiya6. 7 1JJ 7 even desires to please a h)s and, if these do not ai' at helpin! hi' act as he sho)ld. *acrifice and the consistent controversion of 'ale desires fo)nd in satimata and pativrata tales are not the ')t)ally e(cl)sive ehaviors that they appear to e. 0heir so)rce is the chaste devotion of a pativrata and their !oal is the protection of honor. 0he chain of connotation does not end here. Chastity as protection not only preserves 'ale honor 4!ained thro)!h the perfor'ance of 'ale d)ty6, it defines fe'ale honor. 0he chaste +ife is the honora le +ife. 1t the e(panded level, chastity takes on a refle(ive character: eca)se +ifely chastity depends on 'ale protection and control of the 2anana , 'ale and fe'ale honor are ')t)ally dependent. Both the +anton +ife and the +ife violated y an invader destroy a h)s and;s honor, for a h)s and is d)ty5 o)nd to preserve his +ife;s honor. Her dishonor de!rades hi' )ntil he e(acts reven!e.C1"D 0he ter's 'ay e reversed. 1 'an +ho s)ffers a h)'iliatin! death in attle ro s his +ife of honor. 0he slain +arrior is dee'ed h)'iliated if scalped, for scalpin! insin)ates that the victi';s +ife has een or +ill e violated. 0his h)'iliation ste's partly fro' the connotation of castration that scalpin! carries. C1%D B)t it also conveys the idea that the soldier slain and stripped of his 'anhood is incapa le of protectin! his +ife. 0he +ife of a 'an so h)'iliated is herself stripped of honor )nless his scalpin! is aven!ed.C1$D &n s)', the pativrata , a ter' often rendered in .n!lish as Echaste +ife,E is a +o'an +hose chastity serves as a fo)ndation for the overall fidelity she reali@es y protectin! her h)s and;s life, d)ty, honor. 0hese in t)rn depend on her h)s and;s perfor'ance of his 2a3p)t role as a protector. 0o artic)late the nor's e(plicit and i'plicit in ancestral sati stories +e have looked at the' in relation to one another and in the conte(t of other nonancestral, the'atically si'ilar stories. 8o+ let )s e(a'ine the +ay in +hich the sati stories, oth ancestral and nonancestral 4i.e., Epop)larE6, are constr)ed as paradi!'atic. :ranted that these stories convey nor'ative 'essa!es, can +e ass)'e that they directly represent ill)strations of pativrata ehaviorQ 8o and yes. 0he pativrata stories, even the stories of Hari 2ani and 2)thi 2ani, C1"D Fn reven!e, see Oie!ler, E1ction, Po+er,E A9HG#B Hitchcock, E9artial 2a3p)t,E 12. C1%D Oie!ler, E1ction, Po+er,E A9HG#.

C1$D 1 fa'ily 'e' er or the +arrior hi'self co)ld kill the scalper. 1s +e have seen, a !reat +arrior 4jhumjhar 6 e(acts reven!e for death itself. 7 1JA 7 +ho eco'e sati s, foc)s on the proper ehavior of pativrata s d)rin! e(traordinary circ)'stances. 0hese +o'en act in directly paradi!'atic +ays. Pativrata s ad'ire the +ay these t+o ehave and refer to the' as +o'en +ho' they +o)ld like to e')late. 0he ancestral sati stories told in chapter %, ho+ever, foc)s not on pativrata perfor'ance )t on the sativrata sta!e, in +hich the nor'al conditions of life and the nor'al r)les of ehavior are s)spended. 0he po+er that the sati de'onstrates d)rin! this period has een )ilt )p y confor'ity to the pativrata paradi!'. 0he )se to +hich this po+er is p)t, ho+ever, transcends the code and the capa ility of the pativrata . /or e(a'ple, each sati appears in p) lic for all to see. /)rther'ore, she 'ay address +ho' she +ill. *he 'ay rin! destr)ction, al eit instr)ctive destr)ction, )pon her sasural or she 'ay da'n the ho)ses of those +ho have offended her. F vio)sly no +ife +o)ld interpret s)ch actions as options for herself. 0he sati is no lon!er si'ply h)'an. &t is s)perh)'an po+er that 'akes her c)rse and o$ efficacio)s. &n the sati3 sat has overflo+ed the o)ndaries of h)'an ein! and s)rpassed the capacities of h)'an reason. *pecific acts perfor'ed d)rin! the sativrata period are not, then, to e )nderstood as e(e'plary in any literal sense. 8evertheless, the sati ;s !eneral ehavior is nor'ative in t+o i'portant +ays. /irst, the scenario is nor'ative. Beco'in! a sati is only the c)l'ination of a process of sat acc)')lation. 0he +o'an;s act of dyin! reveals a life that has follo+ed the pativrata ideal 3)st at the 'o'ent +hen she transcends the ideal. 0he sativrata +ho is no lon!er a pativrata inspires +o'en to e pativrata s. *econd, and perhaps less o vio)s, is the sati ;s for'al affir'ation of the d)al pattern of protection and controversion. 0he sati protects the fa'ily line directly, thro)!h lessin!s 4correspondin! to the +ife;s f)lfill'ent of her h)s and;s desires6, or indirectly, thro)!h c)rses 4correspondin! to the +ife;s denial of her h)s and;s desires +hen they +ill ro hi' of honor6. Her c)rses are not to e e')lated y pativrata s, )t the 'odel of controversion as an occasional aspect of fe'ale d)ty to s)pport 'ale d)ty is nor'ative for the'. 0he an!ry sati ;s e(a'ple is a paradi!' of constr)ctive re ellion, that is, denial consistent +ith the pativrata ;s code of sacrifice, denial of the sort practiced y Hari 2ani and 2)thi 2ani. 0his a straction e!s the interpretive ,)estion: ho+ and +hen are +o'en to decide +hether ins) ordination is +arrantedQ 1ltho)!h the sati paradi!' le!iti'i@es controvertin! 'ale desires, it ')st e re!arded 7 1JG 7 in the conte(t of a co''on )nderstandin! of 'ale desire and 'ale d)ty as )s)ally synony'o)s or, at least, har'onio)s. &f a satimata prono)nces a c)rse, it is often eca)se a fa'ily 'e' er has ind)l!ed personal desire at the e(pense of d)ty. <hatever the reason for the c)rse, all 'e' ers ass)'e it is a 3)stifia le 'eans for ri!htin! a +ron!f)l sit)ation. 0hey kno+ that even if the c)rse does not see' 3)st to the' it ')st e 3)stB the sati kno+s est. 0he 'otives of an ordinary +o'an are al+ays less evident. Ho+ever far s)ch a +o'an 'ay have pro!ressed to+ard incorporatin! the pativrata ideal, she is )nderstood to e s)scepti le to self5servin! rationali@ations, +hich reveal that her desire and d)ty 4not her h)s and;s6 have taken separate paths. Fne of the +orst acc)sations that is 'ade of a +o'an is that she +illf)lly 'anip)lates her h)s and for

selfish ends. *)ch 'anip)lation is seen as the so)rce of nasty co)rt intri!)es in ti'es past and of devastatin! fa'ily ,)arrels today. &n 2a3asthan, as else+here in &ndia, contrivin! +ives are seen as spoilers of fa'ily solidarity. Hence the pres)'ption to kno+ etter than a h)s and, to control hi', or to diso ey his +ishes is pri'a facie arro!ance. 1s the stories sho+, only +hen the desires of a h)s and are patently 'is!)ided is controversion +arranted. 1s one no le+o'an p)ts it, a pativrata Eseeks to e eyond reproach.E *he and other 2a3p)t +o'en speak of their d)ty to avoid dra+in! criticis' fro' their h)s ands; fa'ilies. 0he +isdo' of controversion ')st e salient, self5evident. :iven the stress +o'en p)t on the pativrata ;s d)ty to o ey, sacrifice of a h)s and;s +ishes sho)ld e an ano'aly in the co)rse of daily sacrifices that f)lfill a h)s and;s +ishes. 1ll sacrifices are done in the interest of d)ty. 0h)s a satimata ;s c)rses do not le!iti'i@e partic)lar acts of re ellion )t de'onstrate a conviction that !ives positive for' and 'eanin! to the roles +o'en play as +o'en. Conditionally, they !ive a)thority. /or 2a3p)t +o'en, then, the sati is a sy' ol enco'passin! paradi!'s of confor'ity and re ellion, ho+ever conte(t)ali@ed. <ithin the para'eters of the sati paradi!', re ellion is not a violation or re3ection of d)ty )t rather another 'ode of reali@in! it. 0he d)ty of the pativrata is to s)pport 'ale d)ty )t not necessarily 'ale desires, as the lore so aptly ill)strates. /e'ale d)ty applied as o edience or diso edience is )nderstood as sacrificeB in the road sense sacrifice is the lot of the pativrata as it is of the 2a3p)t 'an. 9oreover as & have stressed, 2a3p)t +o'en elieve that their 2a3p)tness ena les the' to carry o)t their fe'ale d)ties. 2a3p)t lood predisposes 2a3p)ts to proper intentions and devoted serviceB it ena les 'en 7 1J9 7 to sacrifice for the real' and ena les +o'en to sacrifice for the fa'ily. /e'ale service does not, ho+ever, restrict itself to ho)sehold affairs. &t is concerned +ith preservin! the proper delineation et+een ho)sehold and nonho)sehold 4'ale6 affairs. &f a h)s and or son does not respect the division et+een these spheres, his +ife;s or his 'other;s task is to ed)cate hi'B hence the stories of Hari 2ani;s decapitation and the +ife +ho ordered the palace !ates to e locked. 0his r)le of separation is reinforced oth y stories s)ch as these and y the act)al division of the ho)sehold into 'ale and fe'ale ,)arters. 1 'an;s entry into the 2anana co''ences a visit. 0he 'ale is a !)est +ho co'es for a specific reason, food and drink, the attentions of his +ife, or the co'panionship of his 'other and sisters. Fnce his needs are f)lfilled, he is e(pected to ret)rn to 'ale ,)arters and 'ale co'pany. &f he lin!ers too lon! in fe'ale co'pany, +o'en 'ay event)ally sha'e hi' into leavin! y ta)ntin! hi' or !i!!lin! at hi'. .(tensive ha itation of the 2anana is considered e'asc)latin! and, so, non52a3p)t.C1JD 0h)s 2a3p)t stat)s is )nderstood to connote ideal 'anliness as +ell as ideal fe'aleness. Caste identification delineates the separation and descri es the ')t)al s)pport of the t+o. 0hat +o'en and 'en )lti'ately e,)ate the ideals of !ender and caste does not 'ean that they apply their shared ethic of protection in consistent, har'onio)s +ays. 0he pro le' of priorities re'ains. 0he satimata stands as the e' odi'ent of pativrata d)ty, +hich enco'passes the nor's of service to a h)s and thro)!h o edience and service to a h)s and thro)!h doin! +hat is est for hi'. <hen the t+in 'andates of service contradict each other, a pativrata +ill have to )se her 3)d!'ent to assess +hich path pativrata d)ty +ill take. 1ltho)!h the +isdo' of diso edience sho)ld e patent, the f)nda'ental r)le ein! o edience, a pativrata +ill have to 'ake decisions that see' disrespectf)lIshe 'ay even sha'e her h)s and and sho+ hi' her an!erI+hich is one reason +hy stat)s as a !en)ine pativrata 'ay only e validated retrospectively.C1AD Beca)se this pro le' of priorities differs fro' the pro le'

+e sa+ in precedin! chapters, a rief co'parison of the ,)estions of priority in sati and $uldevi traditions +ill e )sef)l. 0he $uldevi chapters de'onstrated that +o'en do not al+ays reach the sa'e sol)tions to conflicts et+een the fe'ale conception of 2a3p)t C1JD /or an interestin! ill)stration of this point, see Oie!ler, E1ction, Po+er,E G1HG2. C1AD <o'en see' 'ost vocifero)s in challen!es concernin! alcohol cons)'ption and acco'panyin! ra)co)s ehavior. <e +ill hear 'ore a o)t their assess'ents in chapters follo+in!. 7 1A# 7 d)ty as it applies to the ho)sehold and the !eneral conception of 4'ale6 2a3p)t d)ty as it applies to the $ul or one of its s) divisions. 1ul tradition re,)ires loyalty to its $uldevi . 8evertheless, so'e +o'en 'ay )nderstand their natal fa'ily;s $uldevi as etter a le to serve the f)nctions assi!ned to the con3)!al fa'ily;s !oddess. 0he re ellionIor co'pro'iseIintended y those +o'en to s)pport 'ale service contradicts the 'ale5defined notion of s)pport of 'ale service. &n this case there is a conflict et+een the $ul e(pectation and the fe'ale interpretation of d)ty. &n the case of satimata +orship, ho+ever, this conflict tends not to arise. 0he satimata is an ideal: she is a pativrata so co'plete in her reali@ation of d)ty as to have transcended pativrata stat)s alto!ether. Her independence as a s)pernat)ral ein! is predicated )pon her perfect confor'ity to fe'ale d)ty thro)!h her s)pport of 'ale d)ty. <orship of the satimata is not a $ul d)tyB it is a fa'ily d)ty. 9oreover, it is pree'inently a fe'ale d)ty. 0he satimata , )nlike the $uldevi , is over+hel'in!ly a ho)sehold pheno'enon. 0he ne!lect of a satimata or the incorporation of ne+ satimata s into ho)sehold rit)al +ill not directly threaten the $ul . 0his is not to say that conflict cannot arise fro' interpretation of satimata 'yths and perfor'ance of satimata rit)als. 2ather, it is to say that satimata +orship occ)rs +ithin a concept)al fra'e+ork of s)pport of 'ale d)ty, so that conflict arises +ithin the concept)al para'eters of fe'ale d)ty. 0he satimata is identified +ith the ho)sehold first and last. 0he $uldevi is identified +ith the attlefield ori!inally and the ho)sehold derivatively. 0h)s, +ith the satimata no ,)estion of caste vers)s fa'ily loyalty is possi le. 0he satimata serves the separation of 'ale and fe'ale spheres of d)ty and e,)ates the latter +ith service of the for'er. *he is perceived as a resident of the 2anana . 2isin! o)t of the 2anana , she is the apotheosis of fe'ale sacrificial s)pport. By contrast, the $uldevi is an )tterly transcendent deity +ho descends to the attlefield. *he is +orshiped differently in the mardana and the 2anana . *he is oth the ani'al !oddess of attle and the suhagin !oddess of ho'e. 9oreover, to the e(tent that she is oth +arrior !oddess and ho)sehold !oddess, she incorporates and de'onstrates the tensions that 'ay arise et+een perceptions of 'ale d)ties and fe'ale d)ties. 0hese tensions create and are reflected y the te'ptation to split her f)nctions and +orship her as t+o $uldevi s. 0he o serva le effect of the deli'itation of satimata 3)risdiction is the fle(i ility attendin! her +orship. 0here is no co'petition possi le 7 1A1 7 a'on! sati s. <hereas there ')st al+ays e only one official $uldevi , there are 'any possi le sati s. 0he !reater the n)' er, the pro)der the fa'ily that perfor's their devotions. &f sati s are i'ported thro)!h +eddin!s, so ')ch the etter. Ff chief i'portance in the conte(t of sati +orship is the sati scenario, +hich states the reali@ation of the fe'inine ideal. .ach sati is revered eca)se she confor's

to the scenario, +hich proves the p)rity of her heart. Hence all sati s easily 'er!e into a )nitary satimata personality. 1nd so, +hen +o'en say that they place their faith in *ati'ata, they are not selectin! one fro' a'on! 'any. 0hey are affir'in! the f)nctional e,)ivalence of all. &n no +ay does this e,)ivalence 'ean that the stories of individ)al sati s cease to e i'portant. S)ite the contrary. .ach story e(e'plifies and affir's the paradi!'. 9oreover, the concl)sion that sati s do not co'pete one a!ainst another does not s)!!est that satimata +orship cannot cataly@e conflicts concernin! fe'ale responsi ilities. <e have seen that the satimata scenario can le!iti'i@e re ellion as a 'ode of confor'ity to the principle of d)ty. <hat nonco'petition affir's is that satimata s are )nderstood as representin! fe'ale d)ty s)pportin! 'ale d)ty. 0heir e(a'ple 'akes l)cid the ideali@ed har'ony et+een the t+o. 0he $uldevi co'es +ith co'petin! 'ale5oriented 4$ul 6 and fe'ale5oriented 4fa'ily6 'yths of ori!in. 0he satimata ;s ori!in is al+ays the sa'e: fla'es er)pt fro' the internal fire of sat kindled y a lifeti'e of service as a pativrata . 0h)s, +hereas $uldevi tradition reveals tensions et+een conceptions of 'ale d)ty and conceptions of fe'ale d)ty, satimata tradition de'onstrates tensions et+een fe'ale d)ties to serve the desires of 'en as they are and to serve the needs of 'en as they sho)ld e. <o'en ')st venerate $uldevi s as protectors )t e')late $uldevi s directly as pativrata s. 0hey ')st venerate satimata s as protectors, )t )nderstand satimata s as oneti'e pativrata s +hose footsteps can e follo+ed. 0herefore co'pared to the $uldevi , the satimata is an inti'ate protectorB she !)ards ho)seholds she has chosen, not an entire $ul , +hose 'e' ers 'ay e scattered far and +ide over 2a3asthan, and perhaps eyond. <hile she resides in heaven y her h)s and;s side, she is yet ever accessi le to her protM!Mes. 0he sati stands for a scenario of sat acc)')lation, the internal dyna'ic correspondin! to and res)ltin! fro' perfor'ance of the pativrata role. 0o concl)de, all sta!es of the sati scenario de'onstrate the conviction that a 2a3p)t +o'an;s d)ty to+ard her h)s and 'ay re,)ire violatin! his +ishes. 1s +o'en;s 'yriad stories of shrap s and o$ s and of rave 7 1A2 7 +o'en and co+ardly 'en reveal, the 2a3p)t +o'an is d)ty5 o)nd as a 2a3p)t and as a +o'an to do +hat is est for her h)s and. 0his )s)ally 'eans o edience )t occasionally 'eans ins) ordination. 0he correctness of the dedicated +o'an;s action is not the for' of her action )t rather the intention that !)ides it. 0hat intention ')st confor' to the !eneral ass)'ptions that attend her stat)s as a pativrata and her desire to revere, if not enact, the e(a'ple provided y the sativrata .

Not 3ying as Satis

& have spoken of the process of eco'in! a satimata as one 'ore or less confined to the past. 1nd yet, alon!side the tradition of veneratin! satimata s +ho died on their h)s ands; pyres decades or even cent)ries a!o, e(ists an e'er!in! tradition of +orshipin! ne+ satimatas +ho, oddly eno)!h, have not act)ally died. &n introd)cin! these satimata s +ho, tho)!h livin!, are e(plicitly likened to the classic ancestral sativrata s, & hope to sho+ the e(traordinary e(tent to +hich intention, not 'ere action, !overns the concept)ali@ation of the pativrata ideal and the sati transfor'ation process. 0he ne+, livin! 4jivit 6 satimata tradition evidences an i'pressive contin)ity of val)es. 0he livin! satimata is a +o'an +hose h)s and has died )t +ho has not een a le to 3oin hi' in the afterlife. 0he 'ost fa'o)s e(a'ple is Bala *ati'ata, +ho tried to i''olate herself a o)t forty years a!o )t +as prevented fro' doin! so. 1nother is U'ca *ati'ata, +ho said she never tried to i''olate herself eca)se that action +o)ld have h)rt her fa'ily.C1GD Her !reat devotion to her h)s and, she told

'e, 'ade her a sati . Both livin! satimata s have died, Bala *ati'ata a fe+ years a!o and U'ca *ati'ata 3)st recently. B)t their follo+ers contin)e to venerate the' and to enlist their aid in solvin! pro le's. 0he t+o are tho)!ht still capa le of perfor'in! 'iracles.C19D /ro' the ti'e of their h)s ands; deaths, oth Bala *ati'ata and U'ca *ati'ata, like the other livin! satimata s for +ho' & have infor'ation, stopped re,)irin! the nor'al necessities for s)rvival.C2#D 0he liv5 C1GD /a'ily 'e' ers and other persons +ho facilitate a sati ;s self5i''olation can e tried as acco'plices to +hat is le!ally constr)ed as s)icide. C19D Bala *ati'ata;s death occ)rred 3)st after & ret)rned fro' the field and U'ca *ati'ata;s occ)rred d)rin! the copyeditin! of this ook. &t is too soon since their deaths to atte'pt a st)dy of the +ays in +hich deceased sati s of this type +ill e venerated. 1t present devotees of Bala *ati'ata and U'ca *ati'ata are de atin! the partic)lars of rit)al veneration. C2#D & have li'ited infor'ation on three other livin! satimata s, one 2a3p)t and t+o Caran. 7 1A" 7 in! satimata re'ains in this +orld )t is no lon!er of it. *he is no lon!er a pativrata in the standard sense of the ter', nor is she technically dead. *he reathes yet re,)ires no food, drinks no +ater, and needs no sleep. 0he f)el that keeps her alive is sat , the internal heat that she has acc)')lated as a pativrata . 0he livin! sati5 s s)rvival and her s)perh)'an po+ers, the conse,)ences of her acc)')lation of sat , co'pare for'ally to the ascetic yo!i;s s)rvival and 'irac)lo)s skills. 0hese res)lt fro' his c)ltivation of tapas , another kind of spirit)al heat. Like the yo!i, the livin! sati !ains her po+ers thro)!h ren)nciation. 9oreover, as she contin)es to live +itho)t food or +ater, her position co'pares even 'ore closely to the penance5perfor'in! yo!i, for her po+er to live +itho)t e(ternal no)rish'ent is also the so)rce of her contin)in! spirit)al po+ers. 0h)s, for the sati , livin! a ste'io)sly is oth the res)lt of a lifeti'e of ren)nciations and the contin)in! ca)se of her effectiveness. )at and tapas appear to e si'ilar, perhaps even overlappin!, cate!ories of spirit)al heat. Besides the fact that the classic satimata has died and the livin! satimata has not, the 'ost nota le distinction et+een the' is that the traditional satimata is +orshiped y fa'ilies of her relatives and other fa'ilies she desi!nated thro)!h o$ s and shrap s, +hereas the livin! satimata is +orshiped y 2a3p)ts and others +ho desi!nate her as a !)ardian. 0h)s the livin! satimata is venerated in the ho'es of 'any )nrelated +o'en. Beca)se they can still see and talk to her, they can cons)lt her as a teacherB they refer to her as !)r). Both Bala *ati'ata and U'ca *ati'ata en3oy enor'o)s pop)larity in +estern 2a3asthan. Bala *ati'ata lived o)tside =odhp)r. Her i''ense follo+in! incl)des 'any 2a3p)t and non52a3p)t +o'en fro' Udaip)r. U'ca *ati'ata lived in the s'all to+n of U'ca, a fe+ ho)rs; drive fro' Udaip)r. *he +as not a satimata as lon! as Bala *ati'ata +as 4she lived for a o)t a decade after her h)s and died6 and had fe+er follo+ers than Bala *ati'ata, )t she en3oyed a special pop)larity in and aro)nd Udaip)r, the chief area of 'y investi!ation. Ff the handf)l of s)ch satimatas in 2a3asthan, Bala *ati'ata is y far the est kno+n. & co'piled this acco)nt of her life fro' a n)' er of intervie+s +ith 2a3p)t +o'en. <hen Bala *ati'ata +as a yo)n! +o'an, her h)s and died. *he intended to die a sati )t +as prevented fro' doin! so y her fa'ily. 0o keep her fro' 'akin! repeated atte'pts to

take her o+n life, her relatives locked her in a roo'. .very day they +o)ld slide a tray of food )nder the door. .very ni!ht 7 1A% 7 they retrieved the tray, only to find it )nto)ched. /inally, fearin! that the +o'an +o)ld die of h)n!er and thirst, they )nlocked the door and +ent into the roo' to check on her. 0o their astonish'ent, she appeared perfectly healthy. Her h)'an needs had 'irac)lo)sly vanished. *ince that day, a o)t forty years a!o, Bala *ati'ata . . . re'ained in the sa'e condition, healthy )t independent of h)'an needs. &n addition to this +idely kno+n story of Bala *ati'ata;s transfor'ation, 'any +o'en tell stories a o)t the po+ers Bala *ati'ata de'onstrated. 0he follo+in! acco)nt, told y a +o'an +ho elon!ed to the e(tended royal fa'ily of =odhp)r, sho+s ho+ s)ch stories are taken to de'onstrate the stat)s and stren!th of livin! satimata s. Fne ti'e, the royal fa'ily of =odhp)r +ished to test Bala *ati'ata to see if she tr)ly lives +itho)t no)rish'ent. 0he fa'ily invited her to stay in one of its residences. <hile she visited, it posted !)ards to see that she received no food or +ater. -espite the severe heat that =odhp)r end)red d)rin! her stay, Bala *ati'ata cons)'ed not a sin!le drop of +ater. 1nd, of co)rse, she ate no food. Had she een an ordinary 'ortal, she +o)ld s)rely have died in a co)ple of days. *he re'ained stron! eca)se of her sat . Beca)se of Bala *ati'ata;s a stinences and eca)se of the 'iracles that her sat ena led her to perfor', this fore'ost of satimata s eca'e fa'o)s thro)!ho)t 2a3asthan and attracted 'any disciples and patrons. 9any people ca'e to visit her, incl)din! 'e' ers of the =odhp)r royal fa'ily and pil!ri's fro' vario)s parts of 2a3asthan. *ince her death her poster has eco'e o'nipresent in =odhp)r and co''on in the ho'es of her Udaip)r devotees. 0he story of U'ca *ati'ata is less +idely kno+n.C21D *he +as so devoted to her h)s and that after his death she co)ld no lon!er eat, drink, or sleep. 1ltho)!h so'e of the 2a3p)t ladies & intervie+ed ass)'e that she atte'pted to die as a sati , as & have 'entioned, U'ca *ati'ata denied this. *he said that she never tried to die as a sati )t very ')ch +anted to e +ith her h)s and, +ho' she loved. *he attracted so 'any devotees that +hen she visited Udaip)r in -ece' er 19G%, lar!e cro+ds asse' led to pay their respects and receive her lessin!. Like classic satimata s, Bala *ati'ata and U'ca *ati'ata are )nderstood to have acc)')lated sat thro)!h devotion to their h)s ands. Beca)se of the p)rity of their intention to protect their h)s ands, they acc)')lated the reserves of sat necessary to perfor' 'iracles 4camat$ar s6 for the enefit of their protM!Mes. 1s the classic satimata s do, they 'ost C21D &n 19G$ infor'ants said she had een a satimata for less than ten years. 7 1A$ 7 often perfor' 'iracles of healin!. 1 yo)n! Udaip)r no le+o'an narrated a typical e(a'ple. Bala *ati'ata +as visitin! the to+n +here 'y 'other;s elder sister lived. 1ltho)!h 'y a)ntie +as a devotee of Bala *ati'ata, she +as ill and co)ld not !et o)t of ed to !o and see her. *he had een vo'itin! constantly. *he +as too +eak to 'ove. 1fter so'e ti'e people e!an to po)r into 'y a)ntie;s ho)se. 0hey +ere all follo+ers of

Bala *ati'ata. 0hen Bala *ati'ata herself ca'e into the ho)se and asked, E<hy don;t yo) !et off yo)r ed and co'e +ith )sQE 0hen she said, E0here;s nothin! +ron! +ith yo). Ko);re 3)st 'akin! e(c)ses for not co'in!.E *ati'ata p)t her hand on 'y a)ntie;s head. =)st then all her pain +ent a+ay. *he !ot )p and follo+ed *ati'ata o)t the door.C22D Here Bala *ati'ata c)res y layin! her hands on her devotee. &n other cases she does so y !ivin! to afflicted persons +ater she has lessed. 0his holy +ater is )nderstood to c)re diverse ail'ents. 1 second po+er possessed y livin! and classic satimata s alike is the pro'otion and 'ana!e'ent of fertility. 0o oth Bala *ati'ata and U'ca *ati'ata is attri )ted the capacity to c)re arrenness. U'ca *ati'ata is kno+n to have !ranted the !ift of a son to a pro'inent Udaip)r 2a3p)t +o'an +ho had previo)sly orne only da)!hters. /inally, livin! satimata s share +ith classic satimata s the po+er to !rant other protective lessin!s. 1ll satimata s, as for'er pativrata s, atte'pt to protect fa'ilies fro' all varieties of disaster. Happiness, like health and fertility, is essential to the fa'ily. 0h)s +hen one Udaip)r no le+o'an sa+ her fa'ily pla!)ed y 'isfort)ne and acri'ony, she so)!ht the protection of U'ca *ati'ata. *he tells the story. Before 'y fa'ily e!an to live in the haveli in +hich it lives no+, it had t+o previo)s o+ners. Fne +as a ?ayasth.C2"D <hen o)r fa'ily 'oved here all sorts of tro) le e!an to happen. 0he head of the fa'ily died and there +as !reat hostility et+een his t+o sons. 1fter a ti'e the sons +o)ldn;t even speak to each other. 0here +as !reat tension in the ho)se. 1t that ti'e & +ent to U'ca *ati'ata and asked her +hy this +as happenin!. *ati'ata said, E0here is a stone in the drive+ay of yo)r haveli . People are al+ays drivin! and +alkin! over it disrespectf)lly. &t is fre,)ented y the spirit of a ?ayasth +ho )sed to live in the ho)se.E *ati'ata told 'e to prepare so'e food 4"hog 6 on a tray 4thali 6 as an offerin! to the spirit and C22D 1 Caran ac,)aintance related a si'ilar camat$ar . He took his ailin! 'other to Bala *ati'ata to e c)red. 0oo +eak to +alk fro' the station, she +ent to Bala *ati'ata;s ashra' in a cart. 0he satimata ;s lessin! !ave her stren!th to +alk ack to the station. C2"D 0he ?ayasth is a hi!h5rankin! caste +hose 'e' ers often served 2a3p)t kin!s as econo'ic 'ana!ers and political advisors 4*ee :. 8. *har'a, )ocial ,ife in edieval Rajasthan =>?@@A>B@@ (. +.C 41!ra: Laksh'i 8arain 1!ar+al, 19G#6, 9"H9%. 7 1AJ 7 then to have so'eone take it to a lake. 1t the lake the person +as to e'pty the food into the +ater and then +alk a+ay +itho)t lookin! ack. 9y fa'ily prepared the thali as an offerin!. 0hen t+o 'en took it to the lake. 0he 'an carryin! the thali e(perienced !reat chan!es in his ody te'perat)reIthe spirit +as +ithin hi'. Both 'en e'ptied the food into the +ater and left +itho)t lookin! ack at the lake. 1fter this the tro) le disappeared. 1s U'ca *ati'ata had predicted, the stone eca'e vacant and har'less. &t +as the stren!th of her 'editation on the pro le' that led to this. 1ltho)!h this story ill)strates the 'otif of protection that pervades satimata stories, it diver!es fro' the stories of classic satimata s in a cr)cial respect: conte(t. 0raditionally, the protM!Me of a satimata !ained protection for her fa'ily y o servin! o$ s, !ivin! dho$ , participatin! in ratijaga s, and heedin! +arnin!s received in the drea's and personal appearances. &n the story a ove, ho+ever, and in

the case of the a)ntie +ho +as c)red y Bala *ati'ata, the relationship et+een sati and devotee is not rit)ali@ed or episodic )t infor'al and on!oin!. 1s +e have seen, co'pared to the classic satimata , the livin! satimata is accessi le. <hereas the classic satimata appears only +hen she +ills, the livin! satimata is availa le at any ti'e. <hen needed, she can e approached and, 'ore i'portant, asked direct ,)estions. Beca)se of her availa ility, the livin! satimata has another advanta!e over the classic satimata . <hereas the 'essa!es of the classic satimata 'ay e va!)e, e(pressed as they are in the sy' olis' of drea's and in the 'ystery of visions,C2%D the 'essa!es !iven y the livin! satimata are strai!htfor+ard. 9oreover, not only can +o'en receive specific instr)ctions to face periodic pro le's, they can also eco'e st)dents of the satimata and so learn ho+ to avoid or handle f)t)re pro le's. Both Bala *ati'ata and U'ca *ati'ata have ashra's 4spirit)al retreats that contain hostels for e(tended stay6, +here devotees can co'e to receive lessin!s and to learn. -)rin! 'y intervie+ +ith U'ca *ati'ata & learned that she ta)!ht t+o asic lessons: the +ays of the pativrata and devotion to :od. U'ca *ati'ata +o)ld not en)'erate her teachin!s on the pativrata ideal d)rin! 'y visit. 2ather, she invited 'e to stay +ith her for t+o +eeks in order to learn the secrets of pativrata devotion. Beca)se 'y sched)le +o)ld not per'it this 4& +as a o)t to leave &ndia6, & asked if she co)ld not tell 'e a fe+ of her tho)!hts on the s) 3ect. *he responded that s)ch +isdo' cannot e !ained thro)!h 'ere listenin!: &t ')st e de'onstrated, a sor ed, and applied. 0ho)!h U'ca *ati'ata +o)ld not say +hy +atchin! her activities +o)ld de'5 C2%D *)ch drea's and visions 'ay re,)ire the interpretive services of a "hopa . 7 1AA 7 onstrate ho+ to e a pativrata , she i'plied that thro)!h +atchin! her perfor' her daily re!i'en of 'editation on and service to :od & +o)ld learn a o)t the devotion and discipline necessary for pativrata service. 0his connection et+een service to a h)s and and service to :od leads )s to another 'a3or +ay in +hich the livin! satimata differs fro' the classic one. 0he livin! satimata sees herself not only as a !)r) +ho instr)cts and in ret)rn receives devotion )t as a "ha$t , a devotee of :od. <hen U'ca *ati'ata, for e(a'ple, +as not +ith her devotees 4cela s6, she +orshiped the na'eless, for'less :od +ho' she ca'e to kno+ thro)!h her !)r).C2$D 9oreover, she ta)!ht her visitors to respect and love :od, that they 'i!ht live etter lives and e etter people. <hat is partic)larly interestin! a o)t the fact that the livin! satimata practices and teaches devotion to :od is that 2a3p)ts )nderstand "ha$ti yo!a as an activity efittin! +ido+hood. 0hey consider preocc)pation +ith :od s)ita le for a +o'an +hose h)s and has died and )nderstand :od to e the only proper recipient of the a'oro)s affections she +o)ld nor'ally have esto+ed )pon her h)s and +ere he alive. Oealo)s "ha$ti 'ay distract pativrata s fro' their proper d)ties as !ood +ives )t is an appropriate and eneficial occ)pation for those +ho can no lon!er perfor' as pativrata s.C2JD Hi!hli!htin! the idea that the livin! satimata is in so'e sense a +ido+ is the fact that she e'ploys the sy' olis' of +ido+hood. &n the 'anner of a +ido+ she +ears a +hite or ')d5colored sari and sh)ns e' roidery and orna'entation. 9oreover, her a stentions fro' food, drink, and sleepI+hich res)lt fro' her li eration fro' h)'an needsIare precisely the ehaviors e(pected of a +ido+, +ho sho)ld perfor' ascetic penances. &n s)', )nlike the classic satimata , +hose sy' olic association +ith +ido+hood is fleetin! and )neasy, the livin! satimata , +hose appearance and ehavior are appropriate to a +ido+, d+ells a'on! the livin! for years even tho)!h she is a satimata , one +ho has re3ected +ido+hood.

Called a satimata , the livin! satimata co'pares sy' olically to the classic sativrata 4descri ed in chapter %6. 1ct)ally, the livin! satimata co' ines into one the )lti'ate and pen)lti'ate sati sta!es. 1s a sati6 C2$D *he referred to hi' as -ayal =iB he 'ay have een a follo+er of the "ha$t , -ad) -ayal, or this saint hi'self, +ho spent ')ch of his life in 2a3asthan. He ta)!ht a co' ination of Hind) and 9)sli' ideas, and stressed the )nity of :od, +ho' he called E:)r)E 4:. 8. *har'a, )ocial ,ife , 2"$H"A6. Fn -ad), see <inand 9. Calle+aert, E-ad) and the -ad)5Panth,E in The )ants , ed. ?arine *cho'er and <. H. 9cLeod 4-elhi: 9otilal Banarsidass, 19GA6. C2JD /r)@etti points o)t that in Ben!al "ha$ti is not necessary for pativrata s 4The #ift , 1"6. 7 1AG 7 mata , she !ives +arnin!s and perfor's acts of healin!. 1s a sativrata , she 'ay +ield sativrata po+er, tho)!h the nat)re and e(tent of this po+er re'ain relatively )ncertain and )ndefined. 0he livin! satimata is certainly seen as capa le of prono)ncin! c)rses on those +ho fail to sho+ her proper respect. Late in 'y intervie+ +ith U'ca *ati'ata, the 2a3p)t friends +ho had acco'panied 'e to her ashra' e(pressed an(iety that 'y arra!e of ,)estions 'i!ht irritate her and event)ally incite her to prono)nce a c)rse on )s.C2AD 1part fro' this, ho+ever, & never ca'e across any 'ention of c)rses prono)nced y livin! satimata s. 1s yet, c)rsin! is not c)sto'ary. 8or have & heard of livin! satimata s i'posin! o$ s. 1s far as & kno+, Bala *ati'ata and U'ca *ati'ata are the only livin! satimata s +ho have died, and & kno+ of no o$ s that have een associated +ith the' as yet.C2GD 0raditionally a sati i'poses o$ s 3)st efore she dies to allo+ a rit)ali@ed for' of co'')nication +ith her protM!Mes after her death. Until 'ore livin! satimata s die, +e cannot kno+ +hether the i'position of o$ s +ill eco'e a feat)re of their veneration.C29D Here tradition re'ains incipient. &n any case, the tradition of livin! satimata veneration incorporates 'any of the ele'ents of the classic tradition. &t also e(pands and 'odifies it. .ven as the livin! tradition adapts the classic, it preserves the centrality of intention that )nderlies the older tradition, +hile liftin! the i'portance of intention to a ne+ level. 0he classic satimata tradition stresses intention to the point that o$ s need not necessarily e practiced if they are ackno+led!ed sy' olically. &f o$ s are re'e' ered y s) stit)tions or adaptations 4e.!., orro+in! an ite' instead of a stainin! fro' its )se6, then the satimata , pleased, contin)es her protection. 0h)s for the pativrata the intention to o serve o$ s, +hich represent her co''it'ent to her satimata , rid!es the !ap et+een elief and practice. 0he livin! satimata tradition stresses intention to the e(tent that a +o'an no lon!er needs to die in order to eco'e a satimata . 1ll that C2AD *he told 'e & +as her first forei!n visitor and see'ed a little nervo)s. *he did not, ho+ever, eco'e irritated. 2ather, she de'onstrated considera le patience and hospitality, +hich c)l'inated in a lar!e ve!etarian 'eal. C2GD & )nderstand that Bala *ati'ata and U'ca *ati'ata +ere cre'ated. & had +ondered +hether, since devotees consider the' to have slo+ly )rned the'selves a+ay y livin! on sat , they 'i!ht e )ried as so'e ascetics are. 0he ascetics are tho)!ht to have )rned a+ay their social selves +hen they cre'ated their sacred threads and therefore not to re,)ire odily cre'ation. C29D & have heard of no o$ ein! o served y the follo+ers of Bala *ati'ata or U'ca *ati'ata. Beca)se they are not fa'ilial sati s to 'ost of their devotees, any o$ s they i'posed +o)ld not e si'ply ancestral c)sto' as o$ s have tended to e.

7 1A9 7 really 'atters is that a pativrata possess an )n+averin! desire to sacrifice the self in order to 3oin her h)s and in the afterlife. /or the pativrata +hose h)s and has died, the intention to eco'e a satimata is of itself transfor'ative. 0his e'phasis on the efficacy of intention is an idea inte!rally associated +ith caste. U'ca *ati'ata attri )ted the passion of her devotion to her h)s and +hile she +as a pativrata to the fact that she +as a 2a3p)t. *he said that she +as a satimata eca)se of her sat , +hich she felt co'es easily to 2a3p)t +o'en. Undo) tedly, eca)se she +as a 2a3p)t and other 2a3p)t +o'en perceive her to have had a nat)ral advanta!e in c)ltivatin! the pativrata role, her transfor'ation into a satimata is partic)larly credi le. 1s the story of Bala *ati'ata and the =odhp)r royal fa'ily de'onstrates, initially so'e 2a3p)ts 'ay have do) ted Bala *ati'ata;s transfor'ation, the idea of livin! satimata s then ein! ne+. 8o+ the 2a3p)t co'')nity is co'forta le +ith the pre'ise that a +o'an can eco'e a satimata +itho)t dyin!, and s)ch s)spicions have not attached to other 2a3p)t satimata s. 0his, at least, has een the case +ith U'ca *ati'ata. & never heard of 2a3p)t +o'en testin! her po+ers. <hereas in ti'es past sat +as 'anifested y confla!ration, +hich +as ass)'ed spontaneo)s in the case of 2a3p)t +o'en, it is no+ ass)'ed present +hen 2a3p)t satimata s thrive +itho)t food, drink, or sleep. 0he sa'e cannot e said a o)t non52a3p)t livin! satimata s. 1ddressin! reports of s)ch individ)als, 2a3p)t +o'en often sho+ their traditional skepticis'. 8ot one +o'an intervie+ed listed a non52a3p)t livin! satimata as a recipient of their veneration. 2a3p)ts invest their devotional ener!ies in +orshipin! the vario)s protectors +hose intentions they can discern or, in the case of 2a3p)t sati s, si'ply ass)'e. 0h)s, this e(a'ination of o$ o served in the reach and sati stripped of death has e'phasi@ed the para'o)nt role intention plays in the +orship and e')lation of satimata s y pativrata s. <hereas death is the traditional validation of life as a pativrata 4or, for 'en, life as a +arrior6, death is not essential if alternative validation is availa le. *)ch validation is provided y caste. =)st as 2a3p)t caste verifies the e'er!ence of sat even +hen internal fla'es of sat cannot e distin!)ished fro' the li!hted fla'es of a pyre, so it verifies the e'er!ence of sat even +hen a livin! satimata ;s daily re!i'en is not 'onitored y skeptics. 0he satimata , classic or livin!, and the 2a3p)t caste in !eneral share a d)ty of protection, +hich re,)ires the sacrificin! of self or selfish desires on ehalf of others. 0he 2a3p)t 'ale perfor'in! his d)ty as a sol5 7 1G# 7 dier is ideali@ed in the +arrior5t)rned5ascetic +ho sacrifices his life in the sa$a in order to preserve the real'. 0he 2a3p)t +o'an perfor'in! her d)ty as a pativrata is ideali@ed in the sati , +ho sacrifices her life on the pyre to preserve her h)s and;s honor y sho+in! her devotion. 0o 2a3p)t +o'en the sati stands for the stren!th necessary to sacrifice thro)!ho)t a lifeti'e. 1ltho)!h dyin! as a sati is no lon!er a pop)lar path, the sati re'ains a po+erf)l ideal infor'in! 2a3p)t +o'en;s )nderstandin! of their o+n roles as +ives. 1s in the past, she inspires conte'porary 2a3p)t +o'en, +ho desire not to die as sati sIto have their h)s ands predecease the'I )t rather to protect their h)s ands as acco'plished 2a3p)t pativrata s. &n concl)din! it is helpf)l to revie+ so'e of the clai's 'ade a o)t the relationship et+een 2a3p)t sati s and their protM!Mes. Like that et+een $uldevi s and +o'en, the relationship et+een satimata s and +o'en is oth reciprocal and paradi!'atic. &t is reciprocal in the sense that satimata s !ive +o'en divine protection in ret)rn for devotion and veneration. &t is paradi!'atic in an o li,)e or contin!ent

+ay. )ati s and $uldevi s tend to perfor' services of +hich ordinary +o'en are incapa le. 0hey 'irac)lo)sly revive dyin! soldiers5h)s ands and protect the' a!ainst diseases and other cala'ities. <o'en can only protect in ')ndane h)'an +ays. 0hey e')late satimata s and $uldevi s, ho+ever, y perfor'in! analo!o)s )t li'ited services for their h)s ands. 0hey follo+ the e(a'ples set y s)pernat)rals y protectin! their h)s ands to the est of their a ilities. 0h)s, in accord +ith their interpretations of these e(a'ples, they e')late o li,)ely. 0here is an i'portant e(ception to this !enerali@ation. 1s +e sa+, eca)se a satimata passes thro)!h a sativrata sta!e, in this rief period she perfor's activities, specifically rit)al activities, that are directly paradi!'atic. 0hese activities are nor'ative, tho)!h not o li!atory, for a +o'an +ho finds herself in the sativrata ;s sit)ation of incipient +ido+hood. -irect e')lation of a sativrata is contin!ent in the sense that it is conte(t5specific. /or the pativrata , the sativrata can only e a conditional 'odel eca)se eco'in! a sati sho)ld not e intended a priori. Unless or )ntil a h)s and dies or is a o)t to die, the sole nor'ative feat)re of the sati scenario is the spirit of devotion it ill)strates. 0he satimata is not revered eca)se of protective services she rendered +hen she +as a pativrata . 1 !ood +ife;s services are e(pected, not e(ceptional. <hat +o'en ad'ire is the sati ;s sacrificial inclination, +hich enco)ra!es and fortifies the' in their perfor'ance of everyday d)ties. 0h)s for the +o'an +hose h)s and still lives, the sativrata ;s actions 7 1G1 7 are only o li,)ely directive: as a sativrata !ives a+ay her possessions eca)se life +itho)t a h)s and has 'ade the' 'eanin!less, so a +ell5intentioned, ordinary +ife esche+s selfish pleas)res and deli!hts only in those thin!s eneficial to a h)s and. 0he sativrata ;s actions are directly paradi!'atic only for the +o'an +ho has lost or +ill soon lose her h)s and and th)s is in a position to eco'e a sativrata herself. &n either case, the sativrata transcends and validates the e(perience of the pativrata . 0his concept of transcendent validation serves as a point of depart)re for an investi!ation of the nat)re of h)'an herois'. 0he follo+in! chapter e(plores the nor' of protection y co'parin! nor'ative and heroic actions fo)nd in pop)lar le!ends a o)t 2a3p)t +o'en. 0he +o'en +ho perfor' heroic deeds are dee'ed a'on! the finest e(e'plars of 2a3p)t +o'anhood, yet the deeds they perfor' re,)ire s)spensions of socially shared r)les and entail conte(t5specific reversals of ideal relationships. 0hese fi!)res are revered rather than +orshipedB the attraction they hold lies not in the !eneral )t in the partic)lar episodic protective services they perfor'. F)r o 3ective is to discern another an!le on the protective nor's of caste and !ender y investi!atin! the character and lo!ic of ad'iration. 7 1G2 7

&apter < T&e Heroi) "aradigm Padmini

Pad'ini had character and p)rityB she died y 3a)har Ci''olationD. & ad'ire Pad'ini, +ho died in Chitor. Fne has to die any+ay, so +hy e h)'iliatedQ

7eing a pativrata is li$e &hat Padmini did. )he died "y jauhar rather than allo& herself to "e accosted "y the uslims. )he &as very "rave. . . . The heroines from e&ar are especially "rave3 each in her o&n &ay. ICo''ents of three no le+o'en &t +o)ld e te'ptin! to ded)ce that 3)st as a 2a3p)t hero is one +ho s)per ly f)lfills his d)ty as a soldier, so the 2a3p)t heroine ')st e one +ho s)per ly f)lfills the role of the pativrata . <e have seen that 2a3p)t +o'en )nderstand 2a3p)t stat)s as that +hich ena les the' to e inco'para le pativrata s: they interpret their capacity to perfor' pativrata action as ,)alitatively s)perior to that of other +o'en. 0h)s it +o)ld see' reasona le to s)ppose that those +o'en ad3)d!ed est a'on! 2a3p)t +o'en 4sa" se acchi 2a3p)t nariyam 6 'ost perfectly, 'ost 'echanically, e(ec)te the pativrata role. B)t they do not. 1s +e shall see, +hat is strikin! a o)t the e(e'plars of 2a3p)t +o'anhood is their trans!ression of f)nda'ental 2anana 5linked la+. 8evertheless, altho)!h heroines; ehavior violates pativrata standards, it )lti'ately validates the pativrata paradi!'. 1 +idely ad'ired +o'an is si'ply stated to e !ood 4acchi 6 and to have !ood character 4accha caritra 6 oth in spite of and eca)se of her e(ceptional ehavior. 2a3p)t +o'en are ,)ite consistent in respondin! to the t+ofold ,)estion: +ho are the est e(e'plars of 2a3p)t +o'en and +hy are 7 1G" 7 those +o'en !oodQ 0he na'es of Pad'ini and 9ira Bai over+hel'in!ly predo'inate. Co''only, respondents !ave oth na'es. <hen these t+o e!an to rec)r re!)larly, & decided to ask for eval)ations of the', +hether or not all respondents incl)ded the' in their lists. 42espondents al'ost al+ays incl)ded at least one.6 0hese eval)ations to!ether +ith the other eval)ations 'ade of all e(e'plars listed de'onstrate that oth Pad'ini and 9ira Bai, in ,)ite different +ays, re3ect the pativrata role and reaffir' the pativrata paradi!'. 0hey also sho+ that re3ection and reaffir'ation are vital to the ad'iration they inspire. &nterestin!ly eno)!h, altho)!h all +o'en )nderstand Pad'ini as an ill)strio)s pativrata , al'ost all deny that 9ira, tho)!h virt)o)s, can properly e called a pativrata , at least +itho)t alterin! the ordinary sense of the ter'. Co'parin! these +o'en +ill help )s discover the para'eters of the pativrata concept and deepen o)r )nderstandin! of the protection it conveys. 0his task e!ins +ith an acco)nt of the Pad'ini le!end. <hat +e sho)ld note fro' the acco)nt elo+, +hich is a co'posite of narratives recited y those intervie+ed, is that altho)!h Pad'ini dies a sati , she deviates fro' the sati scenario as +e have )nderstood it. Her sacrifice is preceded y a se,)ence of actions atypical of pativrata ehavior.

T&e Tale o' "admini

Pad'ini, a ,)een of 9e+ar, +as reno+ned for her inco'para le ea)ty. 1la5)d5din, the notorio)s 1f!han invader, deter'ined to take Chitor and capt)re her. His initial char!es proved )ns)ccessf)l, )t l)st sp)rred hi' on. /inally, fr)strated, he s) 'itted a co'pro'ise: he +o)ld +ithdra+ his troops if he co)ld e allo+ed )t a !li'pse of the fair lady;s face. 0he 9aharana consented )t stip)lated that to protect Pad'ini;s 'odesty, the 9)sli' +o)ld only e a le to see her face reflected in a 'irror. 0he offer havin! een accepted, the ,)een +as taken to a palace in the 'iddle of a lar!e tank. *he stood

ne(t to a +indo+ +ith her ack to+ard the o)tside. 1la5)d5din +as placed in a )ildin! at the ed!e of the tank, fro' +hich considera le distance he +as allo+ed to catch a fleetin! !li'pse of Pad'ini;s reflection in a 'irror, +hich +as held )p to the ,)een for a fe+ seconds. /ar fro' satisfyin! his desire, this vision infla'ed it. He decided to do) le5cross the 9aharana and 'ake Pad'ini his o+n. Beca)se the 9)sli' had arrived in Chitor alone and th)s de'onstrated his faith in 2a3p)t honor, the 9aharana felt co'pelled to ret)rn 7 1G% 7 the co'pli'ent y personally acco'panyin! hi' ack to his ca'p. <hen they arrived, ho+ever, 1la5 )d5din took his escort hosta!e and de'anded Pad'ini as ranso'. 0he 2a3p)t ar'y co)ld not conte'plate s)ch a trade. 0o ask the ,)een to co'pro'ise herself +o)ld contravene the 2a3p)t code of honor, +hich protects +o'en. Pad'ini herself ordered that the trade e e(ec)ted )t, havin! si@ed )p 1la5)d5din as no 'an of honor, also plotted an a' )sh. *he sent 1la5)d5din a 'essa!e consentin! to his ter's provided that she e allo+ed to rin! alon! her elon!in!s and attendants. He a!reed. 0hen the ,)een ordered 'any c)rtained palan,)ins, +hich +ere desi!ned to transport ladies5in5+aitin!, to e filled instead +ith soldiers. Beca)se the soldiers +ho +ere to e concealed in this +ay kne+ they +o)ld not e a le to defeat 1la5)d5din;s po+erf)l ar'y, they prepared the'selves to die in a attle of honor, a sa$a . <hen the palan,)in procession reached its destination, Pad'ini asked 1la5)d5din that she e per'itted to id fare+ell to her h)s and efore leavin! hi'. Havin! a!reed, the 9)sli' took his ride5to5 e to the place +here her h)s and +as held captive. 1s soon as the 9aharana;s location +as kno+n, the 2a3p)t soldiers spran! )pon the 9)sli's and li erated the captive kin!. &n the )proar, oth Pad'ini and her h)s and 'ana!ed to escape. Pad'ini +as +hisked ack to the palace, +hile the 9aharana fled for the hills. Beca)se it +as clear that his forces +o)ld lose the attle, he retreated so that he 'i!ht plot an assa)lt on 1la5)d5din at a later 'ore pro'isin! 'o'ent. Back at Chitor, seein! that the 9aharana;s forces faced defeat, Pad'ini led h)ndreds 4so'e say tho)sands6 of +o'en to the va)lts )nder the palace, +here they co''itted jauhar , 'ass i''olation.C1D &n !eneral, jauhar is )nderstood to acco'plish closely related p)rposes. 0o e!in +ith, it preserves fe'ale virt)e.C2D 0he no le+o'en C1D 0his representative narrative is a condensation of +hat 0od !ives as t+o episodes. &n 0od, 1la5)d5 din takes ti'e to reco)p his losses and then e!ins another attack. /auhar follo+s this attack, in +hich the 9aharana is killed. 8o respondent 'entioned t+o attacks or the circ)'stances s)rro)ndin! the 9aharana;s death, +hich is central to 0od;s detailed acco)nt 4(nnals and (nti'uities 1:212H1J6. 0od identifies Pad'ini;s h)s and as Bhi' *inh, )t official palace records at Udaip)r identify the kin! as 2atan *inh. Bhi' *inh elon!ed to the collateral ranch of the fa'ily at *isoda. C2D &n the Rajasthani )a"d 1os the first definition of jauhar is E3e+elE 4ratna 6. 0he second is EproofE 4pramana 6 of the EcharacterE 4svarup 6 of a s+ord as seen y fineness of the striations in its iron. 0he third is E,)ality, ea)ty, characterE 4vishesta3 $hu"i3 gun 6. 0he fo)rth is Ethe 'ass )rnin! of live 2a3p)t +o'en on a pyre +hen their h)s ands, +earin! saffron, are a o)t to lose their fort to the ene'y, so that the ene'y cannot !et the'.E 0he fifth is the EpyreE 4cita 6 +here s)ch )rnin! occ)rs. 0he final, si(th entry ties the EriteE 4$riya 6 of i''olation of anyone 4$isi 6 to the 'otive of Ereven!eE 4prati$ar 6 for in3)stice. 4&t pres)'a ly applies to i''olations of others esides the 2a3p)t +o'en 'entioned in the fo)rth definition. 0his is interestin! eca)se +o'en so'eti'es say jauhar p)nishes ene'ies y deprivin! the' of the opport)nity to satisfy their carnal desires6. /auhar shares asic associations of

sat . Like sat , it refers to ,)ality and characterB like sati it is proof 4of fe'ale character and !oodness6. 0he link et+een E!e'E and character appears to e the sa'e 'ade in .n!lish +hen +e refer to so'eone as a Ereal !e'.E &n short, the pri'ary 'eanin!s denote characterB the derivative 'eanin!s refer to the rit)als that de'onstrate it. 7 1G$ 7 ,)oted at the very e!innin! of this chapter said, EPad'ini had character and p)rityB she died y jauhar .E 1s noted previo)sly, 2a3p)ts have een keen to protect the p)rity of 2a3p)t lood. Beca)se con,)est ro)!ht +ith it the likelihood of rape, they have seen con,)est as a threat to fa'ily inte!rity and caste identity. Until no+, another +o'an co''ented, the p)rity of 2a3p)t lood has not een dil)ted. *he said that +ith society chan!in!, that 'i!ht happen in the f)t)re, )t said she +as pro)d that E lood5 'i(in!E really had not happened to any apprecia le e(tent as yet. /auhar also pro'otes caste d)ty, +hich is sy' oli@ed )lti'ately y the sa$a , the Ec)ttin! do+nE that ens)es. &t inspires soldiers to fi!ht )nto death, for they have nothin! left to lose.C"D 1ltho)!h jauhar often precedes the death of a h)s and 4or a +ife;s kno+led!e of the death of her h)s and6, +o'en +ho so die are referred to as satis . Hence, as a heroic strate!ist, Pad'ini ena les her h)s and to face his ene'y in attle and then, as a sati , pro'pts his co)ra!e and pro'otes his honor.C%D 0+o 'atters concernin! the Pad'ini narrative 'erit i''ediate attention. /irst, altho)!h Pad'ini is a sati , she is not si'ply assi'ilated to the cate!ory of satimata . 0r)e, Pad'ini is a satimata to *isodiyas. B)t +hen *isodiyas speak of their satimata , they do not sin!le o)t Pad5 C"D <o'en;s renditions )s)ally 'ention no children or elderly persons. 1s +e sa+ in the tale of :)ha, a child 4)n orn6 raises an iss)e of conflictin! loyalty that 2a3p)t 'ytholo!y resolves in vario)s +ays. &n one 'yth a sati first c)ts her )n orn child fro' her +o' . &n other stories, +o'en die pre!nant or +ith their childrenB heirs are s')!!led a+ay )t everyone else perishes in fla'es. & sa+ only one 'iniat)re paintin! of the Pad'ini jauhar , +hich depicts +o'en dyin! to!etherIno children or 'en. 0he iss)e deserves historical st)dy. 0he point of the Pad'ini 'yth told y +o'en, ho+ever, see's to e the sacrifices 'ade y +o'en for the enco)ra!e'ent of 'en. C%D 0he ena lin! f)nction of +o'en;s sat is so'e+hat like the 'otivational aspect of sha$ti , the fe'ale po+er disc)ssed +idely in literat)re on +o'en and !oddesses in &ndia. 9y 2a3p)t infor'ants did not invoke sha$ti in disc)ssions of satis or heroines. 0hey descri e the :oddess or a $uldevi as ein! *hakti 4a *anskritic epithet6 or havin! sha$ti , )t they over+hel'in!ly speak of satis , heroines, and ordinary +o'en as havin! and seekin! sat , )nderstood as s) stantive virt)e and po+er. &nfor'ants )nderstood +hat & 'eant +hen & spoke of sha$ti )t the'selves e'ployed the ter' sat +hen talkin! a o)t +o'en;s d)ties, po+ers, and !oals. )at is the ter' they e'ploy +hen they descri e the'selves and their 'otivations in ad'irin! and +orshipin! $uldevis3 satimatas , heroines 4and heroes and other deities6. *ee the disc)ssion of sat in chapter $ and that of jauhar elo+. 7 1GJ 7 'ini fro' other satis . *elf5i''olation is the asis for the +orship she receives as one of the satis +hose identities 'er!e into the inte!rated satimata persona!e. <hat ca)ses Pad'ini;s na'e to e re'e' ered and revered is not 3)st the 'ode of her death )t the 'anner in +hich she lived her life.C$D 0+o +o'en th)s s)''ari@ed their senti'ents: E& ad'ire Pad'ini eca)se she +as very cleverB she sho+ed the 9)sli's thatNE and E& like Pad'ini eca)se she 'et dan!er +hen her h)s and +asn;t aro)nd to protect her.ECJD

0his is not to do+nplay the i'portance of Pad'ini;s death: it is the cli'a( of the Pad'ini narrative. Fne 2a3p)t +o'an noted that +hen Pad'ini leaves the palace to attack 1la5)d5din, Eher ody eco'es hot +ith sat ,E +hich clearly foreshado+s her death as a sati . 1cts that 'ake her story so'ethin! 'ore than a sati scenario, ho+ever, are the resc)e she plots and the a' )sh she directs. 0o e(ec)te her plan she a andons her ho)sehold and takes to the attlefield. /or these reasons she is revered even y 2a3p)ts 4and others6 +ho do not +orship her as a satimata . *econd, Pad'ini;s heroic action contravenes a cardinal r)le. Pad'ini leaves parda . 0he story )ilds to+ard this event and d+ells on its si!nificance. 0he 'irror incident, in +hich Pad'ini sho+s her face to 1la5)d5din, portends this tran!ression. 0he stereotype of the l)stf)l 9)sli' is +ell kno+n to 2a3asthani 'ytholo!y. <hen the villaino)s 1la5)d5din sees the reflection of Pad'ini;s face, it is a fore!one concl)sion that desire +ill defeat honor and he +ill conspire to ravish her. 0he ar!ain he strikes is there y transfor'ed fro' an end in itself to a 'eans of con,)est. /)rther'ore, +hile the elief that Pad'ini;s ody eco'es hot +hen she e(its the palace sho+s that Pad'ini does not there y a andon her virt)e, it also stresses that she deviates fro' c)sto'. Her dra'atic depart)re e'phasi@es that the state of affairs in Chitor has eco'e so C$D 1t Chitor there is an ann)al cele ration of herois' kno+n as the =a)har 9ela. 2a3p)ts parade thro)!h Chitor to honor the co)ra!e of their ancestors. 1ltho)!h the festival foc)ses on jauhar , it does not ear a specific sati ;s na'e. &t takes place on the anniversary of another jauhar , )t 'ost 2a3p)ts & kno+ ass)'e it cele rates the jauhar led y Pad'ini. &ts or!ani@ers intended the festival to co''e'orate all three sacks and jauhars at ChitorIthey chose the anniversary they did eca)se it is a ti'e +hen neither st)dents nor far'ers are )sy. 1ltho)!h the procession co''e'orates the ravery of 2a3p)t ancestors, it also occasions fiery political speeches and protests a!ainst the la+'akers in -elhi for !rievances related to the loss of political po+er. CJD 1l'ost +itho)t e(ception the +o'en +ho 'entioned Pad'ini said they ad'ired her eca)se of her ravery. 0he only +o'an +ho 'ade a ne!ative re'ark a o)t Pad'ini said that altho)!h she +as rave, EPad'ini sho)ld have co''itted s)icide early onB that +ay there +o)ld have een no need for a +arNE &n other +ords, she co)ld have done even 'ore for her h)s and. 7 1GA 7 perilo)sly chaotic that only Pad'ini, a +o'an, can save it. Chitor ')st s)spend its o+n la+ to reesta lish the order that the la+ is intended to preserve. 0h)s Pad'ini;s depart)re is richly sy' olic and 'ovin!ly dra'atic. &n !oin! o)t to +ar 4over and over, +o'en specified that she +ent o)t C"ahar D to fi!ht6, she disre!ards fe'ale c)sto' and perfor's 'ale d)ty. 0readin! on 'ale territory she ass)'es her h)s and;s co''and. Hence Pad'ini is heroic not eca)se she f)lfills the codified role of the pativrata )t eca)se she departs fro' it to ass)'e another, 'ore )r!ent, role. <hen Pad'ini leaves the ho)sehold and there y inverts the relationship et+een her h)s and and herself, she a andons the ehavior nor'ally inc)' ent on a pativrata +hile p)rs)in! a p)rpose in accord +ith pativrata d)ty. 0his inversion is verified y the story se,)ence. <hile Pad'ini;s h)s and is concealed as a hosta!e in 1la5)d5din;s ca'p, Pad'ini leaves her conceal'ent to lead her h)s and;s ar'y. Fnce she has served in her h)s and;s place to resc)e her h)s and, she retreats to Chitor, +hich reinverts her inverted stat)s. /inally, self5i''olation proves that her intentions have een p)re. *he has trans!ressed o)ndaries solely to protect her h)s and and not for self5a!!randi@in! p)rposesB she acts for her h)s and, not herself. 0he pativrata role enco'passes and )lti'ately reval)es violation as consistent +ith its p)rpose. &t cannot, ho+ever, ar itrate the i''ediate contradiction. <o'en say that Pad'ini is a

pativrata , )t they also say that she is rave 4"ahadur 6 eno)!h to have defied pativrata convention y !oin! o)t a'on! 'en. 0h)s there e(ists oth con3)nction and dis3)nction et+een Pad'ini;s heroic action and the role of the pativrata . Both are 'eanin!f)l. 0hey constit)te the e(perience and the end 4!oal6 of conflict. &t see's that eca)se Pad'ini s) stit)tes for her h)s and, she e(e'pts herself fro' the r)le of s)pport synony'o)s +ith the pativrata role, )t eca)se she dies as a sati , she sho+s that she also f)lfills the s)pport f)nction she trans!ressed. &n s)', +hen Pad'ini crosses ack into the 2anana , she is not 'ysterio)sly Ea solved fro' the sinE of leavin! the 2anana . Her reentry sy' olically, not lo!ically, states oth the opposition and consonance of her actions, +hich have a sin!le intention. &ntention is, as al+ays, key. 0he sy' olis' of conflict and con3)nction is predo'inantly spatial. <e have seen ho+ protection is located +ithin spheres. 0he protection offered y pativratas , e they divine 4'aternal $uldevis 6, se'idivine 4satimatas 6, or h)'an, has its so)rce +ithin the o)ndaries of the 2anana . <e have also seen that inte!ral to fe'ale protection is s)pport of 'ale 7 1GG 7 d)ty, +hich is perfor'ed on the attlefield. <hile that s)pport is a 'ode of protection that acco'panies a h)s and o)tside the ho)sehold, it is predicated on the partition of 2anana and mardana . <o'en defend honor y re'ainin! in the 2anana. Parda , +e have seen, not only )ilds a'on! 'en the esprit de corps essential for ar'y lifeB it preserves and enhances the 'odesty and p)rity of +o'en. CAD Parda , then, represents and c)ltivates the character of +o'en and 'en. 1s their character flo)rishes so does their rep)tation, the st)ff of +hich herois' is 'ade. <hen +o'en ac,)ire sat thro)!h chastity, they )ild !ood rep)tations. 0he rep)tation of a +ife protects and f)rthers the rep)tation, and so the honor, of her h)s and. Beca)se rep)tation is )nderstood to reflect honor and is th)s insepara le fro' it, fe'ale chastity, sy' oli@ed y parda , stren!thens the character of oth +o'en and 'en and reinforces their respective d)ties of protection. Ket Pad'ini, like other 'ilitary heroines, a andons parda . <hen she leaves the fe'ale sphere, she no lon!er f)nctions as a s)pporter of 'ale d)tyB she eco'es a perfor'er of 'ale d)ty, +hich is the very fo)ndation of her herois'. 0h)s it is not insi!nificant that in speakin! of Pad'ini 2a3p)t +o'en often re'ark that they ad'ire her not si'ply eca)se she +as a pativrata )t eca)se Eshe fo)!ht like a 'an.E Pad'ini;s steppin! o)t of the 2anana constit)tes an inversion of fe'inine and 'asc)line as +ell as a transfor'ation fro' ho)se+ife to heroine.CGD *)ch an act is not !ood in itself. &t is !ood in the conte(t of a hi!hly )ndesira le state of affairs in +hich a h)s and, thro)!h death or other incapacitation, cannot carry o)t his 'artial d)ty, a d)ty predicated on the royal5caste responsi ility of protection. Fnly in s)ch a case 'ay a +o'an s) stit)te for her h)s and in order to protect hi' and, if he is still alive, ena le hi' to protect as his caste responsi ility de'ands. 0his point e'er!es fro' the Et+o elephantsE variation on the 2)thi CAD 0he sat that +o'en and 'en inherit thro)!h the lood they increase thro)!h appropriate ehavior. 0his notion is ill)strated in one tha$urani ;s clai' that E eca)se Pad'ini and the other heroines like her had !ood lood, they co)ld fi!ht.E Pad'ini;s character, developed y ein! a pativrata , !ives her the a ility to perfor' her h)s and;s tasks. 2ecall that in the :)ha story, the sat of the 'other dyin! as a sati ena led her 'ale descendants to con,)er a kin!do'. 2ecall also that in the stories in +hich +o'en sha'e their 'en into fi!htin!, the sat of the 'other or da)!hter enco)ra!es the son or h)s and to fi!ht 4'yth variants often interchan!e +ife and 'other6. CGD 1 heroine 4virangana 6 takes a 'asc)line role in vario)s &ndian 'yths and le!ends. Fn the )se of

E'ale attire, as +ell as the sy' ols of 'ale stat)s and a)thority, especially the s+ord,E see ?athryn Hansen, E0he >iran!ana in 8orth &ndian History,E Economic and Political Wee$ly , "# 1pr. 19GG, 2JH 2A. 1n interestin!, if partial, *o)th &ndian parallel is the 9ad)rai heroine 9inakshi, +ho is trained as a prince 4here the heroine does not die )t eco'es the spo)se of *hiv6. 7 1G9 7 2ani story 'entioned in the previo)s chapter. <ell efore the ard tells 2)thi 2ani she ')st choose et+een pride and her h)s and;s affection, she ponders +hether to lead an ar'y a!ainst her h)s and;s ene'y +hile her h)s and lives. 1sha'ed that her h)s and has not led an ar'y to challen!e his ene'y sooner, she thinks of doin! so herself. 1 ard +arns her that if she fi!hts, people +ill ridic)le her h)s and and destroy his honor, so she chooses not to fi!ht. *he leads forces a!ainst the 9)sli's only after her h)s and;s death. *) stit)tin! for a h)s and is the asis for a +o'an;s herois'. 0he act is not o li!atory )t s)perero!atory and pres)'a ly for this reason is dee'ed heroic. 0he trans!ression it entails can e reco''ended only indirectly y the rare e(a'ples of e(ceptionally co)ra!eo)s 4"ahadur 6 +o'en +ho face the horrors of attle in violation of their nor'al and nor'ative code of ehavior. 0hat this violation is conceived as s)ch is clear fro' t+o attendant ass)'ptions. /irst, a hero attains a stat)s that o)!ht to e per'anent, and a heroine achieves a stat)s ass)'ed te'porary. &ndivid)al heroes are +orshiped at individ)al shrines constr)cted in their honorBC9D heroines, +e have seen, are +orshiped only as satimatas , in +hich case they lose their individ)al identities. -eath oth validates the inversion )nder!one y the heroine and confir's pativrata stat)s. &n s)', a heroine is ad'ired for her violation )t +orshiped 4if +orshipedB the 2ani of =hansi, +e shall see, is not6 +itho)t reference to violation, or for that 'atter to any other distin!)ishin! acts precedin! sati i''olation. *econd, fe'ale herois' is e(ceptional and personal. 0he heroine enters the attlefield )nattended y other heroinesB other +o'en re'ain +here they sho)ld, at ho'e. 0h)s the heroine has sole char!e of her destiny as she attles for the real'. 0e'porarily transcendin! the 'odel of spatial s)pport that the 2anana offers the mardana , she +orks alone in a +orld t)rned chaotic. Her inversion is task5specific: she is to cataly@e a restoration of order. Fnce she has set the process in 'otion, she +ill res)'e her proper place a'on! other +o'en in the 2anana . 0he threat of conflict loo's lar!e in the story despite the )nderstandin! that it is )lti'ately resolved. 0he conflict Pad'ini faces is sy'pto'atic of a 'ore !eneral dile''a. 0he idea that only Pad'ini can accept the villain;s ter's and th)s save the kin!, the protector of the real', )nderscores the afore'entioned conviction that +here conflict has ca)sed order to disinte!rate, it 'ay take a +o'an to restore it. *)ch is C9D *ee, for e(a'ple, *onthei'er, EHero and *ati5stones.E 7 19# 7 the case +ith the cos'ic conflict descri ed in the +evimahatmya . 0here, +hen de'ons have so de'olished the +orld order that the !ods are po+erless, the :oddess steps in to set thin!s strai!ht. & never heard +o'en e(plicitly liken the Pad'ini story to the +evimahatmya , )t even +itho)t an i'plicit co'parison the te(ts reveal a co''on )nderstandin!: +hen the +orld has t)rned topsy5t)rvy, a fe'ale 'i!ht e a le to t)rn it ri!ht side )p.C1#D Closely related to this concl)sion is the o servation that Pad'ini;s depart)re fro' parda and

ass)'ption of 'ale d)ty are occasioned y opposition stated in the narrative et+een the 'ale d)ty to protect the real' y fi!htin! and the 'ale d)ty to protect the real' y protectin! +o'en.C11D Honor prevents 'en fro' relin,)ishin! either !oal and so paraly@es the'. Fnly +hen Pad'ini takes char!e are 'en delivered fro' their dissonance. 0h)s Pad'ini;s inversion not only handles the dile''a of co'petin! pativrata responsi ilities, it ena les 'en to act and there y cataly@es a attle for restoration. &n s)', restoration of order 'eans that conflict has een resolved and that conflict had e(isted. &f restoration has een effective, act)al, not apparent, conflict ')st have een overco'e. 0his ein! so, +hat is to e 'ade of the sy' olis' of Pad'ini;s ret)rn to the 2anana and of the conviction that her pativrata stat)s has not een interr)pted or di'inishedQ 0+o tho)!hts co'e to 'ind. Fn the one hand, +o'en clearly ass)'e that the 'ilitary heroine crossin! o)t of parda internali@es the 4se()al6 control that parda sy' oli@es. &t +o)ld see' she takes parda and the sat it has )ilt +ith her and so is not 3)d!ed i''odest. Perhaps this tho)!ht e(plains +hy so'e variants on the Pad'ini and Hari 2ani stories descri e the heroines; faces as still veiled, tho)!h 'ost & have co'e across descri e heroines as o)t of parda and +itho)t veil 4ghunghat 6 or 'ention no veil.C12D 4Pres)'a ly a veil +o)ld 'ake fi!htin! especially tro) leso'e.6 &n any case, the internali@ation of parda is verified y her death as a sati . .ven +here death occ)rs not thro)!h fire )t C1#D 0he notion that a +o'an, pres)'a ly +eaker than a 'an, is especially a le to de'onstrate 2a3p)t herois' rin!s to 'ind the the'e of the yo)n!est sati , 'entioned previo)sly, +ho is the ideal sati B she is the +eakest, havin! had the least opport)nity to acc)')late sat . People d+ell on the ea)ty and fra!ility of Pad'ini, pres)'a ly eca)se she is so ')ch +eaker than one +o)ld e(pect a soldier to e. Cf. Beck;s parallel findin! that people identify +ith the yo)n!est si lin! in *o)th &ndian folk narratives 4Three T&ins , "$6. C11D Fn the 'ale d)ty to protect a +o'an and the preservation of honor, see Oie!ler, E1ction, Po+er,E G#. C12D *ee also 1nn :rod@ins :old, E*tories of *haktiE 4paper presented at the 1ssociation for 1sian *t)dies 1nn)al 9eetin!, <ashin!ton, -.C., 9arch 19G96, 1$. 7 191 7 in attle, it verifies internali@ation, for the heroic 2ani of =hansi, +ho is felled +hile fi!htin!, ears the sati epithet.C1"D Fn the other hand, +hen a +o'an leaves the ho)sehold she i'plicitly ass)'es 'ale p)rpose and d)ty, so that the person o)tside parda is perhaps not ,)ite the person +ho +as inside it, altho)!h the o)tsider still intends to ret)rn once her task is acco'plished. &n other +ords, the person +ho confor's to the pativrata paradi!' 'ay e tho)!ht of as not really leavin! the 2anana and its parda B +hile a sent fro' the 2anana and perfor'in! 'ale d)ty, the heroine 'ay e not ,)ite herself. Her intentions and so her honor +o)ld re'ain veiled y parda , +hich is located at ho'e. 2eentry +o)ld then si!nal a sy' olic confir'ation of the pativrata ;s contin)ed presence in the 2anana . &n either case, it see's to 'e, the heroine !ains a 'ode of control !enerally attri )ted to 'en. 0he chastity she has e(ercised in the 2anana , chastity protected y 'ales and protectin! the' on the attlefield, no+ e'po+ers and protects her as she sets o)t for +ar. Her chastity protects her person as she fi!hts for her h)s andB as she fi!hts for hi' she is a le to protect the chastity of her person. 0he heroine;s internali@ation of parda and ass)'ption of 'ale identity con3ointly reveal a f)rther valence of o)ndary sy' olis'. 0his is the idea, +idespread in 2a3asthan as else+here in &ndia, that 'arria!e 'er!es the discrete 'ale and fe'ale into a sin!le sy' olic persona!e. 0he notion that a

+o'an is part of her h)s and pervades &ndian classical and pop)lar c)lt)re. 1 'an needs a +ife to eco'e +hole. <itho)t one, he cannot perfor' essential Hind) rit)als. 0his idea finds e(pression in the fa'iliar i'a!e of 1rdhanarishvara, *hiv as half hi'self and half his +ife, Parvati.C1%D &n co''entin! on the ehavior of Pad'ini and other heroines, a tha$urani fro' a leadin! 9e+ar estate 'ade e(plicit reference to this i'a!e. Havin! said that these +o'en +ere pativratas and that ein! a pativrata is a +o'an;s hi!hest d)ty, she said: E&;d !ive 'y life for 'y h)s and CalsoD. Ko) can defa'e :od )t not a h)s and. & a' half his odyB &;d do any sacrifice for hi'.E &f +e apply this notion, s) stit)tion for the h)s and co)ld also represent 'er!in! +ith hi'. 0he heroine, havin! )nited +ith her h)s and thro)!h perfor'ance of his role, eco'es the recipient of her o+n C1"D *)''ari@in! her assess'ent of this ,)een;s character, one +o'an stated, E0he 2ani of =hansi +as very rave and had !ood character. *he +as a lady )t she had to co'e o)t of parda to fi!htNE C1%D & a' !ratef)l to -ennis H)dson for rin!in! )p this point in disc)ssions of chastity and herois'. 7 192 7 po+er. *he acts for hi'B he acts thro)!h her. Her passa!e into 'ale space transfor's her so that she is oth heroine and 'asc)line, or at the very least 'ale5like. 0his transfor'ation of Pad'ini;s po+er as she enters the attlefield +o)ld see' to e'phasi@e the f)nctional andro!yny indicated y sta!in! a 'ilitary a' )sh. -)rin! this ti'e of disorder, in +hich c)sto'ary se!re!ation is s)spended, Pad'ini;s perfor'ance of her h)s and;s 'ilitary d)ty 4as strate!ist and co''ander6 points to the )lti'ate theoretical har'ony of se!re!ated roles. 1t the sa'e ti'e, the sy' olic 'er!in! of se()al identities represented y Pad'ini ,)a soldier, +o'an as perfor'er of 'ale caste d)ty, points to their differentiation in ordinary e(perience. Pad'ini;s crossin!s o)t into attle and ack into parda sho+ that the s)spension of c)sto' is not final. &n the end she res)'es her traditional role as is e(pected. &n fact, her crossin! o)t carries overtones of the rit)al crossin! o)t of a sati on the +ay to the pyre. 2ecall that +hen Pad'ini leaves the palace, her ody eco'es hot +ith sat . &t is at this precise point, the intersection of inner and o)ter spheres, that satis traditionally sy' oli@e their intention to die as satis y placin! their handprints of +et ver'ilion on the entry !ates. 0h)s the o servation that Pad'ini eco'es hot +ith sat as she e'er!es fro' the palace likens her crossin! into the attlefield to the crossin! that a sativrata 'akes as she processes to the cre'ation !ro)nd 4mahasatiyam 6. 0hat she is a sati Ishe is f)ll of sat Iis clear. &t is te'ptin! to dra+ o)t the analo!y y s)!!estin! a f)rther co'parison et+een the sati procession and Pad'ini;s caravan procession. &n the case of the sati procession, a +o'an is )nderstood to e !oin! to the mahasatiyam as a ride to e 3oined once a!ain +ith her h)s and: the fire is the asis for oth the 'arria!e cere'ony and 3oint cre'ation.C1$D 1t the sa'e ti'e, the sativrata is technically a +ido+ and the con3)nction of ride and +ido+ sy' olis' e(presses the po+er she possesses and the fear she inspires thro)!h her capacity to c)rse. Pad'ini is reco!ni@ed to fei!n a do+ry5carryin! procession to+ard 'arria!e 4or perhaps 'arria!e of sorts6 +ith her ene'y +hile tr)ly advancin! to+ard re)nion +ith the 9aharana, her h)s and. Her 3o)rney appears to e'phasi@e her fidelity in 'arria!e. Her 'ission is to li erate her h)s and in order to ena le hi' to fi!ht, altho)!h it is clear that the 2a3p)ts cannot +in a!ainst the 9)sli's, +ho vastly o)tn)' er the'. C1$D Hence so'e satis +ear +eddin! dresses. 9oreover, as +e have seen, a etrothed +o'an +ho circ)'a' )lates her financM;s f)neral fire and ascends it, eco'es +ife and sati .

7 19" 7 :iven this sit)ation, Pad'ini;s procession portends i''inent +ido+hoodB it is a prel)de to jauhar . Hence the ride5+ido+ ele'ents of sati sy' olis' fall easily into Pad'ini;s procession, tho)!h their presence is not necessary to prove the si!nificance of the f)nda'ental sati analo!y stated y Pad'ini;s 'anifestation of sat . 0he fact that Pad'ini +ill die a sati , altho)!h no act)al sati procession is possi le )nder the circ)'stances, is plain fro' the ti'e she disin!en)o)sly a!rees to 1la5)d5din;s ter's.C1JD /ro' this perspective, Pad'ini, +hose sat is 'anifest, is a sativrata . *he is transfor'ed not si'ply fro' +ife to heroine )t to sati as +ell. 8either concept)ali@ation +ill s)ffice independently. 1ltho)!h Pad'ini is like a sativrata , she does die a sati B altho)!h Pad'ini is a sati , she en!a!es in e(ceptional ehavior that does not literally confor' to the sati scenario. Perhaps the est +ay to conceive the ')t)ality of the t+o perspectivesIPad'ini the sati de'onstratin! nor'ative pativrata6sati ehavior and Pad'ini the soldier e(hi itin! e(traordinary heroic ehaviorIis to think of one as the 'irror i'a!e of the other. 0he 'irrored representation is e(actly +hat is reflects, its e,)ivalent. &t is also the opposite of +hat it reflects and therefore reflects in faithf)l denial every detail it reprod)ces. 1nd so the heroine is a sati , +hich is +hy her sat 'anifests. B)t she is also like the sati in that she plays a perfect 4heroic6 co)nterpart, +hich carries the char!e of her story;s dra'atic e'phasis on trans!ression, oth nor'ative and locative. 0his trans!ression, ho+ever har'onio)s +ith her p)rpose, is sy' olically reversed +hen Pad'ini crosses ack into parda and res)'es the c)sto' of se!re!ation dee'ed necessary in society. 0his reentry is )nderstood as the 'ost pro(i'ate prel)de to death. 1s Pad'ini;s depart)re for the attlefield is 'eanin!f)l in ter's of a sativrata ;s procession, so her ret)rn to the fortress connotes and points to+ard crossin! into fire, +hich is a salient p)rpose of reentry. 0he fortress then takes the place of the mahasatiyam . 0he h)s and ein! alive, jauhar occ)rs +here the h)s and has lived rather than the place +here he is to die. <hat, +e 'i!ht ask, +o)ld have happened if the 2a3p)ts had +on a ,)ick, decisive victoryQ <o)ld Pad'ini then have had no need to kill herselfQ <o)ld not reentry then e ro ed of half its 'eanin! and sy' oli@e not le!iti'ation )t a!!re!ationQ <o)ld Pad'ini still have een C1JD &n one +o'an;s tellin! of the tale, Pad'ini +ears a +eddin! dress to the a' )sh. &n another;s, Pad'ini dresses for attle 4pres)'a ly as a 'an6 and then p)ts on her +eddin! dress +hen she ret)rns to die a sati . &n oth, +earin! a +eddin! dress is preparation for jauhar . 7 19% 7 a para!on of virt)eQ *)ch ,)estions force iss)es not to e forced. *y' olis' is 'eanin!f)l relative to the sit)ations in +hich it is fo)nd. 0o alter its pre'ise or artificially e(pand its conte(t is to invite )nso)nd spec)lation. 9oreover, even to cond)ct intervie+s to deter'ine +hat +o)ld have happened if only this or that ele'ent of the story +ere chan!ed, +o)ld 'ean askin! respondents to disr)pt the relations a'on! story ele'ents and da'a!e the narrative;s inte!rity. &n the Pad'ini story, death 'akes sense of the events it follo+s. &t confir's the reversion of the transfor'ation essential to fe'ale herois', even if individ)als intervie+ed do not e(pressly artic)late this notion in e,)ivalent ter's. 1s 'yths are social instit)tions, their 'eanin! cannot e +holly e(plained y individ)als called )pon to dissect the'.C1AD 0he efficiacy of the sy' ols they co'prise e(ists +ithin the arena of social conscio)sness, ele'ents of +hich individ)als 'ay not e conscio)sly a+are. 0h)s the ,)estion to e

posed is not +hether death is re,)ired and if not, +hat thenB rather, it is +hat death 'eans +here it occ)rs and then, in a si'ilar vein, +hether its occ)rrence has a 'eanin!f)l pattern else+here in the c)lt)re;s 'yth and rit)al. <e have seen already that death validates p)rity of intention in the Pad'ini story and, 'ore !enerally, in the i''olation rit)al. -eath as a sati , a tr)e sati , proves p)rity of the heart. :iven the analo!y and e,)ation of the Pad'ini story and the sati scenario, +e have concl)ded that death as validation oth 3)stifies +hat has preceded the story;s cli'a( and cataly@es and constit)tes that cli'a(. &t is, ho+ever, le!iti'ate and advisa le to in,)ire +hether s)ch a death is typical of stories that tell of sit)ations si'ilar to the one Pad'ini faced. 0he conte(t of a sy' ol is defined not only y the story in +hich it is fo)nd )t y those stories )tili@in! the sa'e the'atic and sy' olic ele'ents. 0he stories ')st e dra+n fro' the sa'e social ele'ent. *till, not any old 'yth availa le fro' that ele'ent +ill s)ffice. Preli'inary relevance ')st e(ist not in the 'ind of the researcher )t in the 'inds of the storytellers. 0h)s here & invoke only those 'yths chosen y 2a3p)t +o'en as earin! on the ,)estion at hand: the e(e'plification of !ood 2a3p)t character. :iven this li'itation, & find it si!nificant that the 'yths told y 2a3p)t +o'en concl)de +ith the death of the prota!onist. .ven 9ira, +hose ehavior ears little o vio)s rese' lance to that of the heroines disc)ssed in this chapter, dies a le!iti'i@in! death. -eath is an essential C1AD >ictor 0)rner, E*y' ols in 8de' ) 2it)al,E in The Forest of )ym"ols 4&thaca: Cornell University Press, 19JA6, 2JH2A. 7 19$ 7 aspect of all their stories; 'eanin!s.C1GD 0o ill)strate this point it +ill prove fr)itf)l to co'pare the Pad'ini story +ith the stories of the only other e(e'plars +hose stories are 'entioned +ith any re!)larity.

ases 'or omparison6 t&e Rani o' 2&ansi and Hari Rani
0he first of these e(e'plars is the 2ani of =hansi, the +ido+ed ,)een +ho died fi!htin! the British follo+in! the &ndian 9)tiny of 1G$A. 1ltho)!h the historical reasons for the ,)een;s attle are co'ple(, the asic !rievance the ,)een had +ith the British +as their fail)re to reco!ni@e her adoptive son;s clai' to the throne. *he took to the attlefield in order to protect her h)s and;s estate and re!ain her son;s inheritance. Havin! strapped her son to her ack and 'o)nted a char!er, she fo)!ht her +ay to fa'e and !lory in an )n+inna le skir'ish. C)rio)s fro' o)r perspective is that the 2ani of =hansi +as not a 2a3p)t )t a Brah'an and +as 'arried to a 9aratha, facts of +hich 'any 2a3p)t +o'en are )na+are. *o'e of those +ho kno+ she +as not a 9aratha 'aintain that she nevertheless ill)strates the character a !ood 2a3p)t +o'an possesses. Both !ro)ps of respondents have varyin! de!rees of )nfa'iliarity +ith the 2ani of =hansi;s le!end. Unlike the case of Pad'ini, there is no standard version kno+n to 2a3p)ts. 0h)s their tellin! of the tale is often partic)larly i'provisational. /or e(a'ple, so'e +o'en ass)'e that the 2ani of =hansi died as a sati +hen it eca'e clear she +o)ld lose to the British. 0he lo!ic ehind this ass)'ption is apparent. 1s the ,)een;s intentions +ere selflessIshe fo)!ht as her h)s and in protectin! the +elfare and stat)s of her sonIshe died a sati . /or those +o'en +ho elieve that she ')st have retreated fro' the attlefield at the last 'o'ent to i''olate herself, the 2ani of =hansi is literally a sati . /or those +ho kno+ that the ,)een +as slain on the attlefield, she is a sati y analo!y. &n either case, her death is ad3)d!ed )nselfish sacrifice. &t 'anifests her !oodness, her sat . &t therefore acco'plishes +hat self5 i''olation acco'plishes: it validates her pativrata stat)s.C19D

C1GD &n this respect the heroines; deaths rese' le 'artyrdo'. 0here is, ho+ever, a cr)cial distinction in that 'artyrs are re'e' ered as heroic individ)als as a res)lt of their deaths, +hereas these heroines are cele rated eca)se of their ehavior +hile livin!. 0heir deaths are far 'ore co''onplace than their lives. C19D 0he 2ani of =hansi +as a +ido+ for ,)ite so'e ti'e, a fact of +hich 'any +o'en are )na+are. 0hey take her h)s and;s death as a 'ore i''ediate catalyst for hers. 7 19J 7 0he 2ani of =hansi is not a satimata for any 2a3p)t fa'ily. *he is not +orshipedB she is ad'ired. Fnce a!ain, the asis for the ad'iration she receives is her leavin! ho'e to perfor' her deceased h)s and;s d)ty. 0h)s Eshe fo)!ht the ene'y,E as one +o'an e(plained, Eand did everythin! once her h)s and died.E Havin! taken on her h)s and;s role as an ad'inistrator, she no+ ass)'es his place on the attlefield, +hich dra'ati@es her transfor'ation. &t is the 'ilitant, e,)estrian i'a!e of the 2ani of =hansi that is enshrined in p) lic 'e'ory. &t fits easily into the concept)al fra'e+ork already artic)lated. 9)ch is 'ade of her leavin! ho'e. <hen she does so, she !oes ar'ed +ith s+ord and shield. Her vent)re into attle de'onstrates her ravery, and her death, even if it is kno+n to have occ)rred on the attlefield, reveals the p)rity of her 'otive. 9oreover, her death serves as a second crossin! 4a crossin! ack into parda 6, for it esta lishes her as a sati and verifies her life as a pativrata . 0he second and final ill)stration is provided y Hari 2ani, +ho, +e have seen, is )nderstood as sati 5like. By slicin! off her head +ith a s+ord, she li erates her h)s and fro' concern over her +elfare and ena les hi' to fi!ht valiantly on the attlefield. Her act th)s rese' les jauhar . *he ears the epithet sati , )t it is y no 'eans s)re that she is +orshiped as a satimata . 8o Hara Ca)han +o'en & intervie+ed 'entioned her as a satimata +hen asked a o)t their fa'ilies; satimata traditions. Like other 2a3p)t +o'en +ho na'ed her as an e(a'ple of a !ood 2a3p)t +o'an, they )s)ally referred to her as a sati , this epithet not esta lishin! a separate tradition of satimata +orship. 0heir satimata re'ains an a'al!a'. <hat is partic)larly odd a o)t the Hari 2ani narrative is that the ,)een sacrifices herself very early in the story se,)ence. *he 'arries, then dies to help her h)s and. Her a r)pt e(it +o)ld see' to elie the o servation that the 'ilitary heroine is re'e' ered not for her death )t for her action. *)ch a concl)sion, ho+ever, is )n+arranted. /irst, Hari 2ani;s death is an )n)s)al action per se. *he does herself in tho)!h nothin! indicates that her h)s and +ill perish on the attlefield. 9oreover, she dies y the s+ord, the instr)'ent she +ishes her h)s and to )se. 0he 'ode and 'eanin! of her death are nota ly specific: they are not si'ply assi'ilated to the sati 'old. /)ther'ore, Hari 2ani;s participation in the story does not end +ith her death. 0he kin! of *al)' ar, e' oldened y the ravery of his +ife, straps her head to his saddle and char!es o)t the palace !ates to !ain !lory as a +arrior. 0he sy' olis' here is patent: +hen the kin! leaves 7 19A 7 his castle, his ,)een !oes +ith hi'. *he not only cataly@es 4s)pports6 his co)ra!e, she is 4s) stit)tes for6 his co)ra!e. Hence Hari 2ani 'eets the co''on criterion of crossin! o)t of the palace and into the attlefield. Her face e(posed to all eholders, she leaves parda . Ket she does so in inverted order: she dies, then fi!hts. 0he kin!;s attach'ent of the ,)een;s head to his saddle stands as a s)ccinct reversal of the 2ani of =hansi;s act of strappin! her son to her ack. 0he 2ani of =hansi fi!hts odily )t +ith the spirit of her

h)s and 4the co)ra!e of a 'an, +hich is sy' oli@ed y his heir6. Hari 2ani lends her spirit 4the co)ra!e of a 'an, possessed y a +o'an6 to her h)s and, +ho fi!hts odily. <hat is essential, evidently, is not the lo!ical order of the crossin!s 4Hari 2ani dies in the 2anana efore !oin! to the attlefield6 )t the sy' olic val)e of those crossin!s. 1ltho)!h Hari 2ani has severed her head, she enters the attlefield a h)'an, not a s)pernat)ral ein!. 1s a heroine, she fi!hts after her death, +hich has already verified that she has een a pativrata .C2#D Hari 2ani;s do) ly inverted herois'Icrossin! o)t 4like other heroines6 pl)s crossin! o)t after death 4)nlike other heroines6Iocc)rs in the conte(t of 'ale herois'. 2a3p)ts conceive of fe'ale herois', as +e have seen, in 'asc)line ter's and reco!ni@e a likeness et+een the heroines and heroes, +ho are the devotional co)nterparts of satimatas . 0here is a special si'ilarity et+een the heroine and the type of 'ale hero kno+n as jhumjhar 4str)!!ler6, +ho contin)es to fi!ht after his head has een severed. /humjhars fi!)re a'on! the 'ost ill)strio)s of heroes eca)se their s)rfeit of sat ena les the' to fi!ht fiercely efore s)cc)' in! to death. 9any 2a3p)t fa'ilies have preserved their jhumjhar 'yths. 1ltho)!h these 'yths are a varied lot, their o)tlines closely rese' le the pattern of the follo+in! acco)nts, taken fro' intervie+s and chosen for incl)sion here eca)se to!ether they de'onstrate the alien and do'estic settin!s jhumjhar plots can ass)'e. 0he 2ao *aha 9aha *inh +as en!a!ed in +ar +ith the 9)sli' 2an a3khan. 0he 2ao *aha had a c)sto' of !rantin! a oon to so'eone every 'ornin!. 2an a3khan;s 'other ca'e to the kin!;s co)rt dis!)ised as a Bhil +o'an and asked of hi' the oon that in the )pco'in! attle her son e allo+ed to strike the first lo+. 0he kin!, thinkin! her son an ally, assented. C2#D Fne +o'an said she appreciated Hari 2ani for facin! )p to adversity and sacrificin! for her h)s and: E*he !ave her head for her h)s and. *he;s 'y favoriteI&;d like to e like Hari 2ani. *he +as so rave not r)nnin! a+ay fro' hardship.E 1nother noted that Hari 2ani +as old and so she fo)!ht y 'akin! her h)s and fi!ht. 0ypically, these infor'ants ass)'e Hari 2ani +as present, as her head sy' olically indicates. 7 19G 7 0hen the Bhil +o'an revealed her identity Cas a 9)sli'D, )t the kin! had already !iven his +ord and +as honor5 o)nd y it. <hen the attle e!an, 2an a3khan char!ed to+ard the kin! and +ith a sin!le slash of the s+ord re'oved his head. 0he kin!, o)tra!ed y the t+in ins)lts of trickery and decapitation, fo)!ht on rilliantly )ntil he had reven!e in the for' of 2an a3khan;s head. 0he decapitatin! lo+ he dealt also split in half his ene'y;s elephant and elephant5saddle. 0o this day +e +orship the 2ao *aha ;s s+ord and shield on -ashara. 0he jhumjhar +e +orship +as the eldest !randson of the kin! 4tha$ur 6. He +as very reli!io)s and ro)tinely stayed )p all ni!ht in one or another villa!e in the real' in order to attend perfor'ances of Pa ) =i.C21D 0he !randson;s )ncle +as 3ealo)s that the oy +as heir to the throne. 0he )ncle told the !randfather a lie. He said that the oy edded stran!e +o'en d)rin! his noct)rnal e(c)rsions. 0he !randfather +as f)rio)s. He !ave the )ncle per'ission to assassinate the oy. 0he first thin! the )ncle did +as to tell the lie he had told to the !randfather to the oy;s +ife. H)rt and an!ry, the +ife retreated to her second5story edroo', +here she olted her

door so that her h)s and +o)ld not e a le to co'e to her after ret)rnin! fro' his ni!htly o)tin!. <hen the oy ca'e ho'e and ascertained the state of affairs, he resi!ned hi'self to sleepin! in the !ro)nd5floor co)rtyard. 0he )ncle had foreseen that this +o)ld happen and had hidden hi'self near y. <hen his nephe+ fell off to sleep, he leapt o)t fro' his hidin! place and o)nd the oy to his ed. 0hree or fo)r acco'plices then a' )shed the captive. 0he )ncle sliced off his nephe+;s head, )t the oy 'ana!ed to rise and +hile still tied to his ed sle+ his assailants efore fallin! to the floor. 1s these stories ill)strate, the jhumjhar 'ay lose his head thro)!h attle or palace intri!)e. 0o die fi!htin! is not a 'isfort)neB it is the !oal 4virgati 6 of all 2a3p)t +arriors. 8evertheless, to die of decapitation +hether on the attlefield or at ho'e is de!radin!: it violates the +arrior;s physical inte!rity, +hich is insepara le fro' his 'oral inte!rity.C22D *)ch h)'iliation can e erased only y reven!e. 1 s)rfeit of sat ena les the jhumjhar to s)rvive the loss of his head lon! eno)!h to aven!e +ith interest the ins)lt paid hi'. Before dyin! he kills at least a fe+, and perhaps 'any, ene'ies. 0his reven!e takes victory fro' the hands of his slayers and i''ortali@es his valor. 1t the 'ost i''ediate level, the co'parison et+een Hari 2ani and the jhumjhar takes the for' of contrast: one fi!hts +ith odiless head, the other +ith headless ody. 0his co'parison, ho+ever, is red)ctionistic, for +hile the jhumjhar fi!hts headlessly, he still )ses his head. C21D Perfor'ances of the epic of Pa ) =i, a 2atha)r hero, are still !iven y h)s and5and5+ife tea's, +hich travel thro)!ho)t 2a3asthan to sin! of the hero;s e(ploits. C22D Oie!ler, E1ction, Po+er,E G#B and 9arriott and &nden, E.thnosociolo!y,E 22G. 7 199 7 0ho)!h severed, it f)nctions as it sho)ld. &t contin)es to allo+ the jhumjhar to see: it foc)ses and directs the co)ra!e sprin!in! fro' his heart. &n like fashion, Hari 2ani;s head contin)es to f)nction past the point of its severance. 8o lon!er attractin! the kin! and distractin! hi' fro' his d)ty, it inspires hi' to attack his ene'ies and so save face, +hich +o)ld have re'ained lost had he een allo+ed to contin)e dotin! on his ride. 9oreover, it ena les hi' to !ain a rep)tation for ravery. 0here is in this scenario an )n'istaka le 'er!ence. &t is the ,)een +hose head is severed, )t it is the kin! +hose ody aven!es the loss of his ,)een. 0he kin!;s 'otivation to fi!ht is heavily char!ed +ith reven!e. His +ife, his protM!Me, has lost her life eca)se of the ene'yB therefore the ene'y ')st s)ffer. Literally speakin!, of co)rse, the ,)een;s death is not the ene'y;s fa)lt. -eath is her idea. Her 'otivation also fits in +ell +ith the jhumjhar scenario. Let )s look 'ore closely at jhumjhar sy' olis'. <hen a jhumjhar ;s head s)rvives its ody, it 'ay roll a !reat distance in order to achieve an a)spicio)s destination, +hich is then 'arked y a shrine. *i'ilarly, Hari 2ani;s head travels a o)t to attain its end, her h)s and;s !lory. 0his co'parison also hin!es on the 'ale5fe'ale inversion, for Hari 2ani;s head does not ani'ate the ody fro' +hich it is severed )t the ody to +hich it is offeredIthe ody of her h)s and. 0he sy' olis' of three types occ)rs: s) stit)tion, co' ination, and sacrifice. /irst, Hari 2ani;s head serves for her h)s and;s. 0he ,)een can s) stit)te to the e(tent that she does eca)se she is part of her h)s and, +hich her 'etaphorical transfor'ation into a sati has already sho+n. *econd, +hile her ashes and his do not co''in!le, her head acco'panies hi' and !ives hi' stren!th. &t is eca)se the ,)een is +ith hi' that her h)s and has the po+er to fi!htB they act as one. 0hird, as sati i''olation is a sacrifice, so is decapitation: the ,)een offers her head on a silver platter, the instr)'ent +orshipers )se to present offerin!s to deities.C2"D Beca)se her death res)lts fro' her desire for her h)s and;s s)ccess, it is, as sacrifices are, creative and e'po+erin!. &t s)stains and

ena les. &n so doin!, it protects the h)s and and his soldiers y ca)sin! hi' to do his d)ty, that is to say, y 'akin! hi' p)rs)e the co)rse of herois' ordained for a 2a3p)t +arrior. &n s)', the dyin!5then5fi!htin! se,)ence of the Hari 2ani story 'akes sense +ithin the conte(t of 'ale herois'. /e'ale herois' ')st occ)r +ithin the 'ale sphere. 0his notion 3)stifies the attle5related )se C2"D Fn the a' i!)ities of sati i''olation as sacrifice, see chapter %. 7 2## 7 of the ,)een;s head. Fnce victory is attained, Hari 2ani;s head is retired. &t is a!ain identified +ith its proper discrete ody eca)se Hari 2ani is conceived as a sati , a stat)s lo!ically esta lished prior to attle. /)rther'ore, she is not +orshiped for her herois', +hereas jhumjhar s are +orshiped as the ,)intessence of herois'. 0here is no class of heroine stones. Hero stones co''e'orate the deeds and lives of heroes, and sati stones co''e'orate the deaths of +o'en.C2%D Heroes and satis are +orshiped as nat)ral co)nterparts. 0heir co'ple'entarity e(ternali@es the role separation that is sy' oli@ed y the c)rtain et+een the mardana and 2anana . 0his co'ple'entarity does not precl)de the cele ration of fe'ale heroines, +ho are revered precisely eca)se their actions do not fit 4are not li'ited y6 the social fra'e+ork.C2$D 0here is to the jhumjhar , as +ell as to the sati and partic)larly to the heroine, a pervasively li'inal aspect. 0he period that e(tends fro' the jhumjhar ;s decapitation to his collapse parallels that ti'e et+een a sati ;s vrat and i''olation. Both the jhumjhar and the sati pass fro' strictly h)'an to s)perh)'an states, yet their 'ar!inal periods contin)e to reflect 'ale and fe'ale roles. 0he jhumjhar f)lfills his 'ale d)ty so +ell that he e(ceeds it and so !ains the po+er to fi!ht on and destroy his ene'iesB the sativrata f)lfills her fe'ale d)ty so +ell that she e(ceeds it and so !ains the po+ers to less and to c)rse, that is, to 'ana!e, her ho)sehold. &n oth cases, a s)rfeit of sat occasions a transfor'ation in consonance +ith the concept of d)ty insofar as d)ty translates in ter's of role f)lfill'ent, that is, +ith reference to accepta le and la)da le actions. 0o the e(tent that the heroine partakes of sati sy' olis', she confor's to the role5specific conception of d)ty. Ket she !oes eyond the o)ndaries of role f)lfill'ent defined y co'pliance +ith its r)les.C2JD *he receives ad'iration eca)se of +hat she does. Ket +hat she does 2a3p)t +o'en )nderstandIas +e ')stIin ter's of +hat she is . Hence +e ')st resort to the voca )lary of virt)e. 2a3p)t +o'en hold that Pad'ini, the 2ani of =hansi, and Hari 2ani are !ood 2a3p)t +o'en eca)se they are rave 4"ahadur 6 and eca)se they have !ood character 4sat 6. 0o reiterate a cr)cial point: their actions are not !ood C2%D 1 jhumjhar , like other heroes, is +orshiped in the for' of a stone relief i'a!e of a +arrior on horse ack, placed o)tdoors on a villa!e o)ndary or near the villa!e +ell. &f a jhumjhar has no stone, the ho)sehold keeps a s'all 'etal i'a!e of hi' in a +ooden o( or asket. <hen a hero;s +ife dies as a sati the co)ple so'eti'es shares a stone. C2$D Fn saintly virt)es as ini'ita le, see =ohn *tratton Ha+ley, ed., )aints and 4irtues 4Berkeley: University of California Press, 19GA6, (viH(vii, passi'. C2JD /or hi!hly prod)ctive disc)ssions of r)le co'pliance vers)s d)ty f)lfill'ent & a' inde ted to -avid <ills. 7 2#1 7 per se. &ndeed, considered o)t of conte(t, their actions offend conventional +isdo' and its r)les and

o li!ations. Heroines trans!ress )t receive ad'iration. 0he appropriate ,)estion to ask is not, is +hat they +ere doin! !oodQ &t is rather, in doin! +hat they did, +ere they !ood +o'enQ

T&e Heroine as -oodness

1t this 3)nct)re let )s recall that !oodness, character, is oth s) stantive and nor'ative, s) stance and nor' ein! ')t)ally dependent and reciprocally transfor'ative.C2AD <e have already seen ho+ +hat one is !ives val)e to +hat one does 4the 2a3p)t sati is ass)'ed valid, the non52a3p)t sati is s)spect6, )t +e have also seen that +hat one does esta lishes +hat one is 4the :)3ar sati is scr)tini@ed for 'otive, )t in the case e(a'ined, fo)nd validB all valid sati s are dee'ed y the 'ode of their deaths to have een pativratas 6. :iven a s) stantialist orientation to+ard character,C2GD +e 'i!ht ask +hat ethical i'plications can e !leaned fro' the heroine;s chan!e of identity. &n !ainin! and sharin! a 'ale identity, the heroine re'ains the sa'e person, the sa'e +o'an, !)ided te'porarily y the nor's appropriate to 'ale ehavior. &n so doin!, she identifies +ith her h)s and, +hich is the p)rpose of each individ)al pativrata )t represents an ideal )nreacha le y the ordinary pativrata . 0he identification that the heroine achieves ill)strates +hat 9arriott and &nden call the Epartic)lateE nat)re of the individ)al.C29D 0he adoption of the 'ale role de'onstrates a co' ination of the essences of t+o persons dee'ed for other 4social role5perfor'ance6 p)rposes individ)al. &dentified +ith the 'ale, the heroine represents an ideal and reali@es it altho)!h and eca)se the ideal controverts social cate!ories. 0h)s the heroine, the person, is !ood oth eca)se she is +ho she isInot an individ)al in the typical sense of the ter', )t an individ)al identified as 'er!ed +ith another, her h)s andIand eca)se her actions as a heroine de'onstrate, sy' oli@e, and proclai' her attain'ent of +ho she sho)ld e. 0he transfor'ation of identity is sy' oli@ed y action 4the earin! of 'ale +eapons, the perfor'in! of 'ale responsi ilities6 )t the i'port C2AD 9arriott and &nden, E.thnosociolo!y,E 22G, passi'B Oie!ler, E1ction, Po+er,E 2"H2$. C2GD 9arriott and &nden refer to the *o)th 1sian perception of persons as E)ni,)e co'posites of diverse s) tle and !ross s) stancesE 4E.thnosociolo!y,E 2"26. C29D 9arriott and &nden )se this concept to analy@e caste 4i id.6, )t it is also helpf)l in considerin! !ender identification. 7 2#2 7 of s)ch action is its validation of intention. <itho)t appropriate intention, s)ch a transfor'ation is a 'as,)erade. 1s & e'phasi@e repeatedly, the sy' olis' of transfor'ation refers to the s) 3ective as +ell as the o 3ective state. 0he heroine +ho is a pativrata does not 'ake sense in ter's of social classificationB she 'akes sense only in ter's of 'otivation. 0h)s +e ')st )nderstand virt)e as the heroine incorporates it. 0he heroine possesses ravery, +hich her cond)ct validates. 0hat cond)ct is sy' olicB it has a preordained set of 'eanin!s and co''ands a conte(t consistent +ith the character it ill)strates. Beca)se sy' olis' depends on settin! for 'eanin!, sy' olic action ')st fall +ithin a co'prehensi le pattern. &solated actions neither co'')nicate nor instr)ct. 0herefore the individ)al perfor'in! an isolated act cannot e paradi!'atic, either directly or o li,)ely. <hat 'akes sense of a narrative;s sy' olis' is the pattern the individ)al enacts, alters, or ref)tes y s) stit)tin! or co' inin! it +ith another pattern. &n order to )nderstand fe'ale herois' it is essential to co'pare and contrast pattern ill)strations, each

of +hich contri )tes to the pattern;s 'eanin! over ti'e and at any partic)lar 'o'ent for one partic)lar person. <e co'prehend the story of Pad'ini y co'parison +ith the pativrata6sati scenario fro' +hich it deviates and +ith the fe'ale heroic scenario, +hich like the 'yths of Hari 2ani and the 2ani of =hansi it e(e'plifies. <hat is especially interestin! is that it affir's the identity and necessity of !ood character, esta lished not thro)!h specific actions )t thro)!h intent, sy' olically validated y death. 1nd so altho)!h technically deviant, heroines are e(ceptionally !ood persons, persons +hose characters instr)ct and inspire over the co)rse of ti'e thro)!h the 'edi)' of personal interpretation. 1s narrators dra+ on these e(e'plars over and over a!ain, they tell )s ')ch a o)t the on!oin! creative tension et+een reli!io)s tradition and sociali@ation. 0hey e' ody and ill)strate sat . 0hro)!h ad'iration of the possessors of sat , narrators vivify the past that inspires the'. &n oth veneration of sati s and ad'iration of heroines, then, +o'en praise the acc)')lators of sat . 0his does not 'ean they the'selves +ant to eco'e heroines any 'ore than it 'eans they +ant to eco'e sati s. 0he sati s and heroines they ad'ire are over+hel'in!ly fi!)res fro' the 2a3p)t past. 2a3p)t +o'en see the' as 'odels that can help +o'en e 'indf)l of pativrata responsi ilities. <e 'ay find it diffic)lt to think of these 'odels as e'po+erin! +o'en to perfor' their do'estic roles, )t 2a3p)t +o'en do not: the sacrifices of these +o'en 'ade the' into !reat, s)perh)'an ein!s. 2a3p)t +o'en see the'selves as +o'en +ho 7 2#" 7 do not !o o)t )t +ho perfor' sacrifices at ho'e for the sake of h)s ands and fa'ilies. 0hey still ad'ire the spirit of those +hose sat eco'es 'anifest in sacrificial fireB its inspirational force appears in the co''ents of 'any of the +o'en +ho' & intervie+ed. Fne +o'an told 'e stories of Pad'ini, 2)thi 2ani, and Hari 2ani and +ent on to descri e a relative +ho carried o)t a s)icide pact +ith her h)s and d)rin! the 19$#s +hen her h)s and +as severely depressed y the disinheritance after 19%A. 0he +o'an +ho narrated these stories sa+ her relative as a !ood +o'an )t did not consider her a sati eca)se the relative;s fear of ein! a yo)n! +ido+ see'ed to e her 'otivation, not tr)ly selfless devotion. 0his narrator told 'e of another +o'an +ho died in the sa'e period +ho is considered a sati eca)se she had the proper 'otivation.C"#D *he considered that sati to have died in a transitional period, ho+ever, and does not think sati i''olations are valid today. 1nother +o'an +ho descri ed her favorite heroines then told 'e that circ)'stances have chan!ed )t Ethere is so'ethin! a o)t fire that still attracts 2a3p)t +o'en.E *he said that they still cannot )t !a@e into the fire and feel an )r!e to 3oin it. By this, & elieve, she 'eant that altho)!h the practice of sati i''olation has chan!ed, +o'en still have sat , +hich their shared attraction to fla'es de'onstrates. C"1D >ie+in! it as oth inherent and c)lt)ral, a no le'an also 'entioned this te'ptation to 'e and recited for 'y instr)ction a +ell5kno+n doha a o)t a spectator +ho sees a lion 42a3p)t6 dra+n to a fire )t fearf)lly skirtin! aro)nd it and then sees a 2a3p)t +o'an dra+n to a fire and fearlessly 'in!lin! +ith it. 0he narrator )sed this verse to ack )p his point that 2a3p)t +o'en are act)ally raver, 'ore heroic, 'ore virt)o)s than their 'en. He then recited one of the stories in +hich a +o'an sha'es her 'an into attle 4the story of Ethe so)nd of clan!in! ironE in chapter $6 and concl)ded that even today, E<hatever +e C'enD do, it is o)r +o'en +ho 'ake )s do it.E &t see's s)ch stories and the one a o)t Hari 2ani re'ain poi!nant to +o'en today. 0hey dra'atically ill)strate the +idely shared elief that thro)!h !ivin! )p the self, +o'en !ain character and po+er. &n s)', the e(e'plars of sat are paradi!'s for pativratas , +ho seek to protect their h)s ands and fa'ilies. 2a3p)t +o'en )nderstand the d)ty of protection to enco'pass their caste and !ender

responsi ilities. 1s +o'en and as caste 'e' ers they act y protectin! their h)s ands; C"#D 0hat +o'an;s shrine is fo)nd on the airport road in =odhp)r. C"1D Her description re'inded 'e of the te'ptation to 3)'p so'e people descri e +hen they stand at the ed!e of a cliff or tall )ildin!. 7 2#% 7 lives and y p)shin! their h)s ands to perfor' their d)ties. 2eferrin! to and passin! on paradi!'s of protection, these +o'en conserve and contri )te to a 'ythical tradition that 'akes sense of and !ives 'eanin! to the ever5i'perfect character of social convention and social life. &dentifyin! +ith the heroine, the ordinary pativrata accepts and affir's the necessity to internali@e social control thro)!h sacrifice, +hich is ho+ +o'en perfor' their protective role. 2elatin! !ood character 4sat 6 and the d)ty 4dharm 6 of protection is ravery, +hich +o'en see as a disposition to+ard sacrifice. 1ll heroines and satis are rave 4"ahadur 6 2a3p)t +o'en +ho Edo not r)n a+ay fro' hardship,E as one +o'an p)t it.C"2D 0his ravery !ives kinetic force to !oodness and cataly@es protective sacrifice, +hich preserves life and +elfare. &t effects f)lfill'ent of a preconceived protective d)ty, perfor'ance of +hich is the para'o)nt e(ternal inde( of character. 1s & e'phasi@ed, d)ty is not e(pressed in specific action, altho)!h certain acts s)ch as reli!io)s fasts or 'arital o edience are tho)!ht pri'a facie to accord +ith it. &t is e(pressed in ter's of intention, +hich is +hy 'oral e(e'plars are e')lated despite their violation of approved cond)ct. Bravery ani'ates a selfless intention to sacrifice, e it that of personal desires y a pativrata or of life y hero, sati , or heroine +ho is )lti'ately a sati . 0he heroines +e have considered confor' to a pattern of protection that f)nctions +hen the standard social pattern of protection reaks do+n. =)st as the d)ty of the +arrior is to protect the real' and the d)ty of the +ife is to protect her h)s and as he protects the real', the responsi ility of the heroine is to protect +here ordinary protection no lon!er s)ffices. <here society is threatened fro' +itho)t and c)sto'ary defenses prove inade,)ate to their task, the interiori@ation of the social orderI 'etony'ically represented as parda I y the heroine, +ho co'es to perfor' the tasks of 'en, s)stains the social and 'oral order. Pad'ini and the rest affir' the pativrata paradi!' 3)st as certainly as they violate the pativrata role. Beca)se of their character, they are called pativratas and 3)d!ed the est a'on! the'. F)r attention no+ t)rns to the other fi!)re fre,)ently listed as ein! a'on! the est of 2a3p)t +o'en, 9ira Bai. <e ')st discover the c)rio)s lo!ic y +hich 9ira, +ho also violates the pativrata role )t is not herself called a pativrata , is interpreted o li,)ely to affir' it. C"2D Fne +o'an noted that 9e+ari +o'en are especially raveB she said +o'en livin! in =aip)r co)ld never have done +hat Pad'ini and the others did. 7 2#$ 7

&apter = T&e Bhakt "aradigm "ira Bai

. li$e ira "ecause she gained enlightenment :mo$sh;. )he &asn5t a pativrata3 though. )he didn5t sacrifice for her hus"and. 7ut in my estimation3 she had ta$en ,ord 1rishna as her hus"and "efore she married. . . .. thin$ &hat she did &as not &rong "ecause she did it out of devotion. ay"e she sang in the streets3 "ut at least she sang only songs of devotion. 9ira left everythin! eca)se of her p)3a. & can;t co''ent on that. <ell, she sho)ldn;t have left. 2a3p)t ladies are very ')ch tradition5'inded. 0hey are e(pected to 'ind their ho'es. 9ira +as very dedicated Cto ?rishnaD. *he a andoned everythin!, +hereas a 2a3p)t +o'an livin! in a fa'ily ')st perfor' her d)ties. 1 2a3p)t +o'an +o)ldn;t dare to !o o)tB every ody can;t e like 9ira. & certainly ad'ire 9ira. <hen people +ere so orthodo( that they +o)ldn;t step o)t Cof pardaD at all, she had the !)ts to step o)t. 9ay e eca)se & can;t step o)t, & ad'ire her so. *he +as not a pativrataB she +as devoted to ?rishna. *o, +e don;t consider her an ordinary 2a3p)t +o'an . . . ICo''ents of fo)r no le+o'en 0he h)'an e(e'plars e(a'ined to this point are all protectors of their h)s ands; +elfare, honor, and d)ty. 0hey sho+ that herois' entails an inversion of pativrata nor's in servin! its ai's. 0h)s, Pad'ini and the others physically trans!ress the 2anana o)ndary and lo!ically transcend the pativrata cate!ory )t are pativratas nonetheless. 7 2#J 7 9ira Bai is a different 'atter.C1D 1ltho)!h 2a3p)t +o'en list 9ira as one of the t+o +o'en they 'ost ad'ire, they are a+are that she radically and finally departs fro' the pattern that the 'ilitary heroines esta lish. Fn the one hand, they say that they ad'ire 9ira as a 2a3p)t +o'an eca)se of her e(ceptionally !ood character. 1s +e have seen, 2a3p)t +o'en )nderstand a +o'an of !ood character as a pativrata . Fn the other hand, they assess 9ira as an e(e'plar of !ood character +ho is not a pativrata .C2D 0he reason: rather than serve her 4h)'an6 h)s and, 9ira opts to dedicate herself to :od. *he is a devotee, a "ha$t , of Lord ?rishna. 9any 2a3p)t +o'en cele rate her even tho)!h or perhaps eca)se she radically oversteps the li'its of the pativrata paradi!'.C"D 1ppreciatin! the dra'atic nat)re of 9ira;s trans!ression re,)ires a !ood look at the +ay her story is told in 2a3asthan. 0he acco)nt here is the standard variation kno+n to +o'en & intervie+ed.C%D

T&e Story o' ,ira 4ai

9ira +as orn a princess in the 9ertiya ranch of the 2atha)r clan. 1s a child, she adored the co+herd !od, ?rishna, an i'a!e of +ho' she treated as a doll. Fne day, +hile +atchin! a +eddin! procession

9ira asked her 'other, E<ho +ill e 'y ride!roo'QE Ca)!ht y s)rprise and )ns)re +hat to say, her 'other replied, ELord ?rishna.E Havin! 'at)red into an attractive yo)n! +o'an, 9ira +as 'arried to 9e+ar;s heir apparent.C$D Her love for ?rishna )ndi'inished, she set off for her ne+ ho'e at Chitor. *oon after she arrived, her in5 la+s e!an to press)re her to a andon her affection for ?rishna and to venerate .klin! =i 4the incarnation of *hiv associated +ith the royal ho)sehold6 as +ell as the royal $uldevi . 1s a da)!hter5in5 la+ 9ira +as s)pposed to revere the deities of her h)s and;s fa'ilyB even so, she cared only for ?rishna. *he spent her days co'posin! love son!s for ?rishna and dancin! for hi' in a te'ple she had pers)aded her h)s and to )ild. C1D Beca)se 9ira;s ehavior is diffic)lt to e(plain, it si'ply prod)ces 'ore vol)ntary and detailed e(e!esis than the ehavior of other heroines, as +ill eco'e apparent. C2D 1 fe+ +o'en accord to 9ira the title of pativrata )t, they specify, not in the )s)al sense. C"D 1s the first ,)otation a ove ill)strates, ein! a "ha$t , 9ira sin!s and dances in the street, ehavior tho)!ht appropriate for co)rtesans, not proper 2a3p)t ladiesB even dancin! for :od has sed)ctive associations. /or a vivid e(a'ple of the tension et+een pativrata devotion and "ha$ti , see Bennett, +angerous Wives , 221H2$B also 9ar!lin, #od61ing . C%D &t !enerally a!rees +ith the io!raphy in 1. =. 1lston, The +evotional Poems of 9otilal Banarsidass, 19G#6, %HA. ira"ai 4-elhi:

C$D 1ltho)!h +o'en never na'ed hi', 'any local people identify this person as Bho3 2a3. 7 2#A 7 9ira;s i'p)dence enra!ed the ho)sehold. 1ddin! ins)lt to in3)ry, 9ira deni!rated her 'arria!e y speakin! of ?rishna as her tr)e h)s and and refrainin! fro' se()al contact +ith her h)'an h)s and, +ho' she re!arded as a rother. 0h)s not only did 9ira re3ect +ifely d)ties, she ref)sed to e a +ife at all. *o'e +o'en say her h)s and +as inf)riated y her ehavior. Fthers say he did not 'indB he hardly ever interfered +ith her puja . 9ira;s h)s and died yo)n! and heirless. Later, +hen her father5in5la+ died, her h)s and;s yo)n!er rother 4devar 6 ca'e to the throne. 0he devar resented 9ira;s attit)des, partic)larly her )n+illin!ness to act as a +ido+ on the !ro)nds that her tr)e h)s and, Lord ?rishna, +as alive. Havin! failed to ind)ce the princess to ehave properly, the devar plotted to have her killed. /irst he ordered her ni!htly drink to e laced +ith poison. 0he princess drank this do+n, )t ?rishna rendered the poison har'less. Undisco)ra!ed, the kin! sent 9ira a asket of fr)it in +hich a co ra +as concealed. Fnce a!ain 9ira escaped in3)ry. *o'e say ?rishna t)rned the snake into a flo+er !arland. Fthers say the snake it her, )t its poison eca'e a' rosia. 1t this point 9ira tho)!ht it pr)dent to leave Chitor. 0akin! )p the life of a 'endicant ascetic, she co'')ned +ith 'ale ascetics 4sadhus or yo!is6CJD and as she traveled, danced and san! for ?rishna alon! the road+ays and in the +oods. &n ti'e she arrived at Brindavan, the forest ho'e of ?rishna;s yo)th. 1fter so'e ti'e 9ira traveled to -varaka, ?rishna;s ho'e in his later years. 0here she spent her days attendin! ?rishna at one of his te'ples. By this point, ')ch to the royal fa'ily;s dis'ay, 9ira had !ained +idespread fa'e as a "ha$t . 1t the sa'e ti'e that her rep)tation +as spreadin!, 9e+ar +as s)fferin! fro' vario)s pro le's, so'e political, so'e 'ilitary. 9any felt that these pro le's +ere either ca)sed or a!!ravated y the sha'e that the errant princess +as rin!in! the royal fa'ily. 0hey

vie+ed her activities as ro in! the kin! and so his kin!do' of di!nity and stren!th. 0o rectify the sit)ation the 9aharana dispatched a retrieval party.CAD <hen the party 'e' ers arrived in -varaka and entered the te'ple +here 9ira served ?rishna, they discovered that 9ira had disappeared into ?rishna;s icon. Her sari, draped on the icon, +as all that re'ained to testify to the 'iracle. CJD 2a3p)t +o'en )se these +ords interchan!ea ly to refer to +anderers seekin! enli!hten'ent. CAD 0his detail is at odds +ith Priyadas;s acco)nt, in +hich the 9aharana sends for her eca)se he e!ins to appreciate 9ira;s !reatnessB see the 7ha$tirasasam"odhini 4cited in =ohn *tratton Ha+ley and 9ark =)er!ens'eyer, )ongs of the )aints of .ndia C8e+ Kork: F(ford University Press, 19GGD, 12J6. 7 2#G 7 2eco)ntin! this story and reflectin! on 9ira;s character, 'any +o'en e'phasi@e her co)ra!e. 9ira had to e rave, they say, in order to +ithstand social criticis' and cr)elty fro' her h)s and;s ho)sehold.CGD 9oreover, she had to e rave in order to leave the sec)rity of even an )npleasant sasural in order to search for ?rishna.C9D *everal +o'en co'pare 9ira to Pad'ini on this point. 0hey elieve that 9ira;s co)ra!e allo+ed her to seek :od, 3)st as Pad'ini;s co)ra!e allo+ed her to li erate her h)s and. *)ch a co'parison o)!ht not to o sc)re a cr)cial distinction that 2a3p)t +o'en perceive. 9ira;s co)ra!e does not arise fro' her life as an ordinary pativrata Ia +o'an devoted to the 'an she has 'arried. 2ather, her co)ra!e ori!inates fro' :od and is s)stained y her love for :od. Beca)se 9ira sees herself as :od;s +ife, she is a le to a andon her fa'ily. 0his distinction is the asis for the cr)cial ,)alification 'entioned a ove: altho)!h 2a3p)t +o'en tend to think that as a "ha$t saint 9ira had !ood character, they also think that 9ira +as not a pativrata . *o'e +ere ,)ite frank a o)t their diffic)lty in )nderstandin! her ehaviorB others looked )nco'forta le +hen narratin! her depart)re fro' conventional nor's. <hile ad'irin! 9ira, +o'en clearly reco!ni@e her )n'istaka le, even shockin!, deviation fro' the fe'ale role they aspire to f)lfill. 1s one yo)n! no le+o'an e(pressed her reservations: E& like 9ira eca)se of her dedication to ?rishna. =)st the dedication & likeIshe +asn;t a pativrata . *he +as 'arried to s)ch a handso'e 'an, )t still she +asn;t a pativrata NE 1nother said, E9ira +as st) orn and ca)sed tro) le in her 'arria!e. 7ha$ti is a hi!h callin!, )t 9ira +as 'arried. 1fter 'arria!e it is +ron! to leave and eco'e a "ha$t .E 0his +o'an )lti'ately concl)ded, as t+o others did, that she co)ld not even ad'ire 9ira.C1#D Her reaction, ho+ever, is e(ceptional: an over+hel'in! n)' er of +o'en 'entioned 9ira as a +o'an they ad'ired. 0o )nderstand this ad'iration te'pered +ith consternation, let )s e(a'ine the dis3)nctions and confl)ences 2a3p)t CGD Fne +o'an said the 'ain reason she ad'ired 9ira +as E eca)se of +hat she C9iraD ore fro' her in5la+s.E 0his +o'an see'ed to think this detail +as cr)cial in revealin! !ood character. C9D Cf. =ohn *tratton Ha+ley, E9orality Beyond 9orality in the Lives of 0hree Hind) *aints,E in )aints and 4irtues 4Berkeley: University of California Press, 19GA6, $$H$9. C1#D 1nother !ave the sa'e reason for not ad'irin! 9ira even tho)!h she +as a descendant of 9ira;s fa'ily: E& feel that if she +as a devotee follo+in! ?rishna, she sho)ldn;t have !ot 'arried. Fnce she +as 'arried, she sho)ld have perfor'ed her d)ties as a +ife and rani . & don;t ad'ire her.E 1 third said, E9ira served ?rishna )t in the 2a3p)t co'')nity, one has to 'arry Ca 'ortalD.E 7 2#9 7

+o'en perceive et+een perfor'ance of pativrata d)ty and conte'plation of the divine. 1s one 'i!ht s)spect fro' the tenor of the yo)n! tha$urani ;s re'ark, altho)!h 2a3p)t +o'en ad'ire 9ira;s co)ra!e they cannot say that they +o)ld have done +hat she did. 0hey elieve that an ordinary 2a3p)t +o'an sho)ld aspire to e a pativrata y perfor'in! pativrata d)ties and not ai' to e a !reat "ha$t , +hich 'andates ren)nciation of pativrata d)ties. &n the +ords of another no le+o'an, E9ira +as a ove the 2a3p)t r)les and re!)lations. 0hat;s okay only if yo);re a saint.E 0hese co''ents 4and 9ira;s diso edience6 not+ithstandin!, 2a3p)t +o'en say that 9ira;s ravery sprin!s fro' her constit)tion as a 2a3p)t +o'an. Fne no le+o'an re'arked, E0here +as only one 9ira. &t +as diffic)lt to prod)ce even one 9ira. Fnly in the 2a3p)t co'')nity +as that possi le. Beca)se she +as a 2a3p)t, she had stren!th of character.E Hence 'ost 2a3p)t +o'en are pro)d that 9ira is one of the' and feel that eca)se she is one of the' she +as a le to acco'plish +hat she did 4fi!. 2J6. 1ccordin! to another +o'an, the co)ra!e 9ira de'onstrates in re3ectin! 2a3p)t c)sto' co'pares to the co)ra!e ena lin! the ordinary 2a3p)t +o'an to s)ffer the pains and deprivations ende'ic to life as a pativrata . 2a3p)t +o'en are a le to ad'ire and aspire after the co)ra!e 9ira possesses +hile re3ectin! for the'selves the co)rse of action it ena les her to take. &n other +ords, 2a3p)t +o'en +ho ad'ire 9ira e')late her as a 'oral e(e'plar, )t they do so o li,)ely. 0hey +ish to e pativratas as 9ira is a "ha$t . 0his o li,)e e')lation is very different fro' +o'en;s e')lation of $uldevis and satimatas . 0o the e(tent that 2a3p)t +o'en e')late $uldevis and satimatas , they do so eca)se they have vo+ed to protect their h)s ands to the )t'ost of their a ility, tho)!h of co)rse they cannot perfor' the s)perh)'an acts of protection of +hich $uldevis and satimatas are capa le. By contrast, +hen +o'en e')late 9ira o li,)ely, they feel not si'ply that they co)ld not )t rather that they should not do +hat she did. Fne +o'an neatly s)''ari@ed the sit)ation: E9ira +as a "ha$t . <hatever she did she did eca)se of :odB she didn;t like her h)s and. *he !ot mo$sh , +hich +as !ood for her, )t it is !ood for )s to do everythin! for the h)s and.E <hat then of the ,)estion of contin!ent e')lationQ <o)ld a 2a3p)t +o'an do +hat 9ira did if she +ere in 9ira;s e(act positionQ <e have seen that 'ost +o'en elieve ordinary +o'en sho)ld not try to follo+ 9ira;s e(a'ple y leavin! their fa'ilies, even if they +ish to search for 7 21# 7

2J. 9ira Bai dances for ?rishna 4cover of a devotional pa'phlet6. 7 211 7 :od. 1s a fe+ +o'en noted, altho)!h 9ira +as tr)ly a !reat +o'an, they co)ld not e like her eca)se they +o)ld never e in 9ira;s )ni,)e sit)ation. 9any factors ro)!ht 9ira to it: the childhood etrothal to ?rishna, the persec)tion y in5la+s, the death of her h)s and, heartless relatives, and so forth. 8ot ein! stereotypical, it is very different fro' the sit)ation of a sativrata +ho, like 'any +o'en thro)!ho)t history, ')st decide +hether to die +ith or live +itho)t her h)s and. 9ira does not, then, play o)t a scenario. *he creates an inco'para le and intensely personal relationship +ith :od. 0h)s, her ehavior cannot e 'eas)red a!ainst o)r 'erely h)'an standards. Her devotion to :od has taken her o)t of the social real', the real' of nor' and c)sto'. &n the +ords of one +o'an, E9ira +e can;t say +as 3)st h)'anB she +as so'ethin! s)perh)'an.E 0he i'plied ,)estion: so ho+ are +e to

3)d!e herQ .choin! this +o'an;s senti'ents, 'ost 2a3p)t +o'en +o)ld never conde'n 9ira for actin! as she did, yet they certainly feel they +o)ld e reprehensi le for actin! no+ as she did then. 0hey point o)t that even tho)!h 9ira;s sit)ation +as intolera leIshe +as 'ercilessly persec)ted y her in5la+sI still, ordinary pativratas in harsh conditions sho)ld concentrate, even 'editate, on their devotion to their h)s ands or, if +ido+ed, to their h)s ands; 'e'ories. 8onconfor'ity is the privile!e of saints. /or ordinary 2a3p)t +o'en, it is etter to aspire to e pativratas rather than !reat "ha$t saints. 1s one +o'an +ho ad'ires 9ira re'arked, E9ira only did "ha$ti B she had no faith in society. *he didn;t like 2a3p)t society, only puja3 "ha$ti . *he c)t off all her social relationships. &n !eneral & don;t think that is a !ood thin!B it;s etter to e a pativrata . . .E Closely related to the 'atter of e')lation is the ,)estion of ho+ +o'en 'ediate the disparity et+een 9ira;s !ood character and her actions. 0his 'ediation appears to e acco'plished sy' olically. Fnce a!ain, 2a3p)t +o'en foc)s on her intention revealed y death. 1s the story says, 9ira;s life ends thro)!h a sorption into ?rishna. 1s in the case of other heroines, 9ira;s death validates her 'otivations and sanctions her o 3ectives. <hen 9ira 'elds +ith ?rishna;s i'a!e, she attains her life;s p)rpose, )nion +ith :od. *he sho+s that she has lived as a h)'an ein! )t that she has done so in the conte(t of a transcendent 'ystical association +ith :od. Beca)se her death is 'irac)lo)s, her character cannot e 3)d!ed y ')ndane criteria. &n addition to validatin! her character, 9ira;s death confir's her 7 212 7 clai's of divine 'arria!e, for it certainly connotes sati i''olation. 0he sati ;s ashes co''in!le +ith those of her h)s and, and so the sati )nites +ith hi' in a +ay not possi le d)rin! life. <hen 9ira;s ody dissolves into stone, she also )nites +ith her eloved in a 'irac)lo)s 'anner. &n oth cases, a +ife partakes of her h)s and;s essence and destiny. Fne +o'an 'akes this association in her co''ent that Ea sati dies in a fire, )t 9ira disappearedNE Her point is that 9ira;s death is not 3)st e,)ivalent to sati i''olationB it is even 'ore i'pressive as testi'ony to her !reatness. 9oreover, the dissolvin! of 9ira;s ody into stone recalls co''e'orative sati stones. &n 2a3asthan, 'any of these 'e'orials depict satis standin! alon!side their heroic h)s ands. <hat 3oins the spo)ses physically and sy' oli@es their shared destiny is the stone itself. =)st s)ch a )nion is indicated y the e' race of 9ira;s sari and ?rishna;s i'a!e. -avid *h)l'an cites a parallel instance, that of a 0a'il princess +ho 'er!es +ith a stone i'a!e of :od after she has een +ed to hi' y the kin! +ho' her father had intended for her h)s and. 0he i'a!e, a ling , a sor s her ody, e(cept for her hand, +hich contin)es to protr)de. *h)l'an posits a correspondence et+een this hand and the hand insi!nias fo)nd on sati stones: E0he +o'an;s hand e'er!in! fro' the linga has an iconic analo!)e in the sati stone. *o'eti'es these stones sho+ an ar' edecked +ith an!les e'er!in! fro' a pillarB the an!les s)!!est a +o'an +hose h)s and is still alive.EC11D 0ho)!h 9ira is a "ha$t , not a pativrata 4at least as this ter' is nor'ally )nderstood6 like the 0a'il princess, she is transcendently vindicated. 0he validation of her intention to love only :od 'akes it possi le for +o'en to ad'ire her and to e')late her o li,)ely. Bein! a transcendent validation, ho+ever, it e'phasi@es the chas' et+een the transcendent +orld of the saint vers)s the ordinary +orld of the 2a3p)t +o'an. Hence in speakin! of 9ira, 2a3p)t +o'en can say that lovin! :od does not le!iti'i@e leavin! a fa'ily, for one sho)ld never leave a fa'ily. 2ather, lovin! :od le!iti'i@es lovin! a h)s and.

&n affir'in! a for' of ehavior that she e(plicitly violates, then, 9ira rese' les Pad'ini, tho)!h only to a certain point. Co'parin! affir'ations of the pativrata role reveals the li'its of Pad'ini;s trans!ression and the li'itlessness of 9ira;s trans!ression. Co'parison also discloses the nat)re and place of "ha$ti in the lives of ordinary +o'en. C11D *h)l'an, Tamil Temple yths , J%. 7 21" 7

,ira and "admini6 a omparison

9ira rese' les Pad'ini in at least three si!nificant +ays. Both 9ira and Pad'ini violate the convention of parda , take on 'ale roles, and de'onstrate )ne,)ivocal devotion. B)t they differ in the e(tent of and reasons for their trans!ressions, as +e shall see. &n the first instance, they cross o)t of parda , +hich is the asis of ho)sehold or!ani@ation and !ender identity. 1 2a3p)t +o'an is and sho)ld e an insiderB she perfor's pativrata d)ties inside the +o'en;s ,)arters, +hich are inside the ho)sehold. F)tside it 'en +ork as perfor'ers of caste f)nctionsB y tradition, 2a3p)t 'en are con,)erors, r)lers, and defenders of territories. 8evertheless, Pad'ini leaves the 2anana to la)nch a 'ilitary offensive that +ill li erate her h)s and. 9ira leaves the 2anana to travel the road leadin! to :od. &n oth instances, o)ndary sy' olis' is clearly critical. Both depart)res si!nal a crossin! o)t of social convention and into arenas +here dan!er is to e enco)ntered and distinction eco'es possi le. <hen Pad'ini leaves parda , ho+ever, she clearly intends to die. Her ody eco'es hot +ith sat , +hich states that her intentions are chaste and s)!!ests that if she lives thro)!h the a' )sh, she +ill ret)rn to the palace to die properly, as a sati . Pad'ini;s e(it, then, e!ins the first half of a circle that her ret)rn and death co'plete. 9ira also risks her rep)tation )t does so +itho)t an intention to ret)rn. &n fact, +hen she leaves the palace for the road she a andons her rep)tation.C12D 1s this chapter;s epi!raphs indicate, she re3ects parda and sin!s Ein the streets.EC1"D *he f)rther dis!races her fa'ily y )na ashedly 'i(in! +ith 'ale ascetics. 1 +o'an +ho +ithdra+s fro' s)pervision, even a +o'an +ho does so in order to seek :od, dra+s to herself the s)spicions of those +ho re'ain in the ho)sehold and so contin)e to o serve social nor's and 'ores. &n !oin! o)tside, she re3ects a f)nda'ental nor'. *)ch an )ns)pervised +o'an is tho)!ht to e 4as +e 'i!ht say in .n!lish6 a Eloose +o'an,E a Ep) lic +o'an,E a Estreet+alker.EC1%D Ff co)rse, s)ch s)spicions lead to da'a!ed rep)tations: 9i5 C12D 9any poe's attri )ted to 9ira foc)s on this: for e(a'ple, P. Chat)rvedi;s poe' 9" 4.n!lish trans. in 1lston, +evotional Poems , A26. iram"ai $i Padavali

C1"D Carstairs reports that the people in the villa!e he st)died fo)nd a fil' a o)t 9ira se()ally s)!!estive. &t +as sho+n y a travelin! cine'a on three s)ccessive evenin!s. Carstairs says: E0he fil' +as ;9ira ai; . . . and it +as noticea le here, as in Udaip)r, that it +as the sin!in! and dancin! +hich 'ost po+erf)lly !ripped the a)dience;s attention: and oth of these +ere at once reli!io)s and sens)al . . . 'any of the villa!ers +ent each ni!ht to see the three5ho)r fil' over a!ainE 4T&ice67orn , 9$6. C1%D /or co'parative insi!hts on fe'ale i'a!ery of indin! and loosenin!, see 416 1lf Hilte eitel, E-ra)padi;s Hair,E Purusartha $ 419G16B 426 :ananath F eyesekere, edusa5s !air 4Chica!o: University of Chica!o Press, 19G16B and 4"6 Holly Baker 2eynolds, E1n 1)spicio)s 9arried <o'an,E in The Po&ers of Tamil Women , ed. *)san *no+ <adley 4*yrac)se: *yrac)se University, 19G#6. Fn this the'e and 9ira;s ehavior, see Lindsey Harlan, E1 andonin! *ha'eE 4paper presented at the conference, 2epresentations of &ndia;s Past, >aranasi, &ndia, -ece' er

19G96. 7 21% 7 ra;s rep)tation and eca)se of hers, the rep)tations of 9ira;s h)s and and his fa'ily. 0herefore altho)!h 9ira;s ad'irers think of her as eyond reproach, they note that she did har' her h)s and and sasural at the ti'e.C1$D 1 ad rep)tation al+ays di'inishes fa'ily honor, +hich 2a3p)ts are partic)larly keen to preserve. Her ehavior elicits t+o f)rther criticis's. 9ira is a +ido+ and has therefore failed to perfor' a pativrata ;s pri'ary p)rpose, protection of her h)s and. <orse, she is a +ido+ +ho ref)ses to act as a +ido+. Havin! re3ected the role of +ife, she then ref)ses to think of herself as a +ido+ +hen her h)s and dies. 1s one +o'an said rather heatedly, E.ven +hen she +as a +ido+, she contin)ed to +ear suhag Cpativrata D clothesNEC1JD Here +e enco)nter a sit)ation that rese' les that of the sativrata . 9ira oth is and is not a +ido+. 1s a +ido+, she violates parda . B)t fro' the transcendent perspective she does not )nderstand herself as 'arried to her prince and cannot violate parda , for :od lives every+here. 0herefore 2a3p)t +o'en oth call 9ira the prince;s +ife 4then +ido+6 and deny that she is the prince;s +ife 4then +ido+6B oth state'ents are tr)e fro' distinct )t valid perspectives. &n this sense, then, 9ira;s shiftin! identity as +ifeHnot +ife and later as +ido+Hnot +ido+ recalls the +ay in +hich the sativrata procession oth sy' oli@es and denies +ido+hood. 9ira has left ho'e )t has not yet fo)nd :od. Havin! left the palace and taken to the road, she crosses o)t of society and its constraints. *he drifts fro' place to place seekin! salvation in the for' of a lastin! )nion +ith :od. C1$D 1ll acco)nts cite the ad fort)ne of Chitor as reason for her atte'pted retrieval )t specify no pro le's. Fne no le+o'an fro' =aip)r said that eca)se of this ad fort)ne 9e+ari +o'en still tend not to respect 9ira and that in Udaip)r 2a3p)t +o'en +ill not even sin! her "hajans B she said in Udaip)r only co''on people sin! 9ira;s son!s, )t in =aip)r and =odhp)r every ody does. Fnly one other +o'an 'entioned s)ch resent'ent a!ainst 9ira in Udaip)r. & fo)nd no evidence that 9ira is especially disliked in 9e+ar, and the Ban 9ata te'ple in the Udaip)r City Palace is adorned y a series of lar!e 9ira paintin!s. 9oreover, & fo)nd concern a o)t 9ira;s ad ehavior distri )ted a'on! +o'en in all parts of 2a3asthan. 0he 9ira "hajans 'any +o'en kno+ these days in Udaip)r and else+here they have learned fro' the radio. &n the villa!e +here & +orked, fe+ people are fa'iliar +ith 9ira Bai;s storyB they consider it so'ethin! only ed)cated people +o)ld kno+. C1JD 1nother +o'an noted ho+ stran!e 9ira;s reaction to +ido+hood is, even y conte'porary standards: E9ira +as a +ido+B +ido+s are like ve!eta les. 0hey;re not s)pposed to take part in 'erry'akin!. 0hey;re s)pposed to +ear lack, +hite, or 'aroon Cdra colorsD.E 7 21$ 7 0he road leadin! a+ay fro' society takes 9ira into the forest, +here she associates +ith sadhus , 'en +ho have )tterly reno)nced the social order. 0he classic 4*anskritic6 &ndian notion of social order is s)''ed )p y the concept of varnashramadharma . 1t its core, varnashramadharma e(plains the caste syste';s division of la or and sets o)t fo)r sta!es of life for hi!h5caste 'en.C1AD &deally, d)rin! the first t+o sta!es of life a 'an lives as a chaste st)dent 4"rahmacarin 6 and then, havin! finished his st)dies, eco'es a ho)seholder 4grihastha 6, an )pholder of society and a contri )tor to social order. He raises a fa'ily and perfor's his caste occ)pation to s)pport that fa'ily. 0hen +hen his children are !ro+n, alone or perhaps acco'panied y his +ife, he leaves his ho)sehold to eco'e a forest d+eller 4vanaprastha 6. 0his third sta!e of life is a prel)de to co'plete +ithdra+al fro' +ife and society in the

final sta!e. <hen the forest d+eller feels ready, he eco'es a f)ll5fled!ed reno)ncer 4sannyasi 6. He lives alone in the forest that he 'i!ht devote hi'self to )ndistracted a sorption in spirit)al 'atters. 1s the traditional sta!es of life 'ake clear, the forest is )nderstood as the traditional place of 'editation and its conco'itant, asceticis'. 0here live 'en in the last sta!es of life. 9oreover, +ithin it 'en of any a!e can escape all the sta!es of life. &n other +ords, 'en can eco'e reno)ncers +itho)t first !oin! thro)!h the three dharm sta!es. 1ll they need do is leave society and head for the road and the forest. <hen 9ira, a +ido+ +itho)t children and so a +o'an devoid of pri'ary fa'ily responsi ilities, !oes into the forest, she declares herself a reno)ncer, a sannyasi or sadhu , for the forest is the a ode of the sadhus . <hen she leaves parda , accordin! to one +o'an, she reno)nces a sol)tely everythin! and lives +itho)t attach'ent. *he then p)rs)es an ascetic discipline of "ha$ti . 0his perspective is s)''ed )p in the follo+in! lines fro' one of 9ira;s poe's addressed to ?rishna, hi'self an ascetic: &;ll take )p yo)r yo!ic !ar I yo)r prayer eads, earrin!s, e!!in!5 o+l sk)ll, tattered yo!ic clothI &;ll take the' all 1nd search thro)!h the +orld as a yo!i does +ith yo)Iyo!i and yo!ini, side y side.C1GD C1AD 0hey represent the ideal life pattern in the classic le!al te(ts, the dharmashastras B 'ost 'en pass )p the final t+o sta!es of increasin! asceticis'. C1GD Chat)rvedi, in Ha+ley and =)er!ens'eyer, )ongs , 1"9. 7 21J 7 &n s)', 9ira;s so3o)rn in the forest sy' olically states her develop'ent into a +holly co''itted "ha$t . Both the forest and the road on +hich she travels represent the ren)nciation of do'esticity essential to co'plete reli!io)s transfor'ation. 0akin! )p an ascetic life de'onstrates 9ira;s co''it'ent to :od and her freedo' fro' social nor's, +hich only interfere +ith her co''it'ent to :od. <o'en are not only concerned y the fact that 9ira +as a reno)ncer of the responsi ilities and val)es they )phold. 0hey are also tro) led that she kept the co'pany of 4'ale6 reno)ncers. &t +as ad eno)!h that she entertained sadhus at the palace, as so'e elieve she did. B)t +hen she traveled +ith the' )nchaperoned, she tr)ly ehaved o)tra!eo)sly. Fne +o'an re'arked, EFnce the 9aharana died, she san!, ate, and lived +ith the sadhus NE 1nother said that Eas her h)s and died +hen she +as yo)n!, she did mala CrosaryD, san! "hajans Chy'nsD, and perfor'ed puja +hile she kept the co'pany of sadhus NE 1 third o served that Epeople spoke adly of her !oin! aro)nd +ith sadhus . 0here +ere r)'ors.E 1nd a fo)rth e(plained that Ethe 2a3p)ts didn;t like it +hen she +ent aro)nd +ith the sadhus . 2oyalty doesn;t p)t )p +ith that sort of thin!. 0he fa'ily tho)!ht it +as dis!racef)l.E 0hat the r)'ors a o)t Ethat sort of thin!E are se()al is 'ade e(plicit in the +ell5kno+n story of ho+ one of 9ira;s sadhu co'panions tried to pers)ade her to have se( +ith hi'. He said that, as a holy 'an and representative of :od, he had the ri!ht to de'and her se()al favors. *he consented +ith the caveat that their )nion e cons)''ated in front of ?rishna;s i'a!e so :od co)ld +itness her Eofferin!E to hi'. <ary of :od;s +rath, the sadhu lost his nerve and ran a+ay. 0his l)stf)l sadhu story ill)strates the )nderstandin! +idely held in &ndia that ascetics, +ho have repressed their se()al instincts for lon!

periods, can e partic)larly lascivio)s if te'pted y )ns)pervised +o'en, especially +o'en alone in the +oods.C19D 0he life of a reno)ncer is tho)!ht not really appropriate for +o'en. 2eno)ncin! +o'en are !enerally tho)!ht s)scepti le to sed)ction in the +oods, +hich 'akes their stay there pro le'aticB they are also tho)!ht to enact a role f)nda'entally 'ale. =)st as the syste' of varnashramadharma applies to 'en I'en eco'e st)dents, 'en perfor' caste f)nctions as ho)seholders, and so forthIso does its ren)nciation. C19D *ee F;/laherty, )iva , esp. on 2ishyashrin!a and the pine forest sa!es. 0he traditional co'ple'entarity of ascetic5co)rtesan !ives stren!th to the street+alkin! associations of 9ira;s ren)nciation. 7 21A 7 &t elon!s to the'.C2#D &n takin! on the ascetic option as a +o'an, then, 9ira acts like a 'an. &n this second +ay she co'pares to Pad'ini. 2ecall that to li erate her h)s and, Pad'ini ass)'es his role as co''ander of the ar'y. *he s) stit)tes for her h)s and, )t only )ntil he is a le to reclai' the role she has ass)'ed. 0h)s Pad'ini;s perfor'ance of her h)s and;s caste d)ty is a li'ited one. *he acts as a 'an +hile intendin! to re!ain her place a'on! the ladies of Chitor 3)st as soon as she is a le. 9ira, ho+ever, ass)'es a 'ale role that is per'anent. *he has no intention of ret)rnin! to society once her 'ission is achieved. Havin! reached her !oal, she +ill e in the li eratin! e' race of ?rishna, fro' +hich post)re a ret)rn to nor'al life is )nthinka le. 2eno)ncers reno)nce on a per'anent asis. 0h)s speakin! specifically of 9ira, 'any 2a3p)t +o'en have co''ented that it is ,)ite i'possi le for a "ha$t +ho has reali@ed mo$sh to live at ho'e and play the part of the pativrata . 1 +o'an can e a saint or a pativrata )t not oth: E0hese are t+o separate paths.E 1s these +o'en indicate, 9ira is a reno)ncer5devotee +ho !ives )p ein! a pativrata , even tho)!h a pativrata ;s role is not +hat a reno)ncer5"ha$t is s)pposed to s)rrender. 1s +e have seen, +hat is to e !iven )p is varnashramadharma , +hich applies not to +o'en )t to 'en. 0his )nderlyin! ass)'ption e(plains the disco'fort of 2a3p)t society, like &ndian society in !eneral, +ith fe'ale ascetics. 8arro+ly speakin!, a fe'ale ascetic does not 'ake sense: a +o'an cannot reno)nce +hat she co)ld never e, +hich is to say, a perfor'er of 'ale d)ty. &n any case, !ivin! )p not 'ale )t fe'ale d)ty, the )nrestricted fe'ale ascetic is )nderstood as partic)larly dan!ero)s to society, for +o'en ear children. 0hey are the asis of caste p)rity and social or!ani@ation.C21D <hereas Pad'ini !ives )p fe'ale d)ty to s)pport 'ale d)ty and traditional society, 9ira !ives )p fe'ale d)ty +itho)t re!ard for fa'ily or society and !oes +here fa'ily and society feel she does not elon!. 0he kin! confir's the traditional attit)de +hen he tries to retrieve her: a +o'an is not 'eant to e Eo)t thereE +itho)t a socially eneficial p)rpose. Pad'ini;s vent)re is contained y the corrective nat)re of her intentions. *he s)pports society y stayin! inside +hen she can and !oin! o)tside only +hen she ')st. 0he sa'e is tr)e of the other 'ilitary her5 C2#D *ee Bennett, +angerous Wives , 22#B and F;/laherty, )iva , G#HG1, 9GH1#1. C21D *ee the 7hagavad #ita 1:%#H%% 4e.!., as translated in van B)itenen, 7hagavadgita , A"6. 7 21G 7

oines. 9ira, ho+ever, has intentions that transcend social p)rpose. 1live, she threatens the social order. Her +ay of life is ina)spicio)s. *ociety sees it as the ca)se of its ad fort)ne. 0he final si'ilarity that Pad'ini and 9ira e(hi it is )ne,)ivocal devotion. Pad'ini sacrifices her safety to save her h)s and and her life to honor hi'. 9ira sacrifices also, )t she sacrifices 'ore than her co'fort and honorB she sacrifices her d)ty. 0h)s fro' the perspective of society, she is an ascetic. Ket accordin! to the lo!ic of her ren)nciation, she is the devoted ride of her eloved ?rishna. 0he sacrifice of society 'akes self5sacrifice as a ride of :od possi le. Beca)se of this relationship, it is nat)ral that 2a3p)t +o'en co' ine ascetic and ridal i'a!ery in descri in! 9ira. 9ira is a yo!i5sadhu and a ea)tif)l yo)n! +ife. 0his sa'e d)ality is s)ccinctly e(pressed in the follo+in! 9ira poe': &f the Beloved tells 'e, & +ill p)t on a red sari. &f he tells 'e, & +ill don the ochre ro e. & +ill decorate 'y hair5partin! +ith pearls Fr leave 'y scattered locks )nke'pt, .ither accordin! to his +ish.C22D Here 9ira shifts ack and forth et+een the ascetic and ridal perspectives. Fn the one hand, she speaks of +earin! a red sari and placin! pearls in her hairB oth sy' oli@e 'arria!e +ith ?rishna. Fn the other, she says she +ill +ear an oran!e ro e and let her hair !ro+ +ildB oth indicate ascetic 'editation on ?rishna and disre!ard for the +orld. 0he inti'ate connection et+een 9ira;s asceticis' and ridal 'ysticis' carries a do) le sense of illicitness. 9ira;s )ns)pervised ra' lin!s +ith sadhus rankle social conventionB her 'ystical association +ith ?rishna reeks of ad)ltery. 2a3p)t +o'en often co'pare 9ira to 2adha, ?rishna;s ad)ltero)s lover.C2"D 1ny ,)ick per)sal of a collection of 9ira;s poe's reveals that, like 2adha, 9ira yearns for trysts +ith ?rishna.C2%D C22D 1lston, +evotional Poems , 9J. & )se the i'a!es in this poe' and the precedin! one si'ply to ill)strate ideas +idely accepted in 2a3asthanIthat 9ira +as oth a reno)ncer of the +orld and a ride of ?rishna. & 'ake 'y case on the asis of the narrative, not poe's, fifty of +hich & translated )t none of +hich & collected in sit). C2"D 1 n)' er of +o'en pointed o)t the rese' lance et+een 9ira and the gopis 4devotees6. 2adha and 9ira flank ?rishna;s i'a!e at Chitor. C2%D *ee, for e(a'ple, 1lston, +evotional Poems , "$. 7 219 7 &n short, fro' the +orldly perspective she is oth an ascetic and an ad)ltero)s lover of :od. &n each role 9ira participates in a relationship +ith :od that violates the social conception of the relative stat)s of the se(es. 1s an ascetic 9ira is not e,)al to :od, yet she is e,)al to other 'ale ascetics seekin! enli!hten'ent. &n fact, she is a distin!)ished 'e' er of the transient co'pany of sadhus . Fddly eno)!h, eca)se 9ira is a reno)ncer and plays a 'ale role, she can e a f)lly devoted consort of :od. 9ale "ha$ts think of the'selves as fe'ale in relation to ?rishna. 9ira, ein! fe'ale, takes on a 'ale role that in t)rn reidentifies her +ith the fe'ale capacity of se()al )nion +ith a 'ale lover. 0h)s, tho)!h it is 'ore diffic)lt for a +o'an to e a reno)ncer, it is easier for a +o'an +ho is a reno)ncer to e a lover of :od.C2$D

1s :od;s lover, 9ira en3oys a certain e,)ality +ith :od. /rMdMri,)e 9ar!lin sho+s that the relationship et+een ?rishna and his devotees, the gopis , de'olishes traditional canons of !ender hierarchy. Beca)se the attraction of :od and devotees is ')t)al 4:od sed)ces and is sed)ced y the gopis 6, +ithin the conte(t of their relationship their stat)s is e,)al. ?rishna and the gopis are partners in illicit, socially )napproved love'akin!. ?rishna;s )nions +ith the' are para$iya 4+ith the +ife of another6.C2JD 0hat 9ira is the +ife of another is 'ade even clearer in the 9ira narratives than it often is in the gopi tradition. Unlike the gopis , 9ira is )nderstood as a historical person +ho +as 'arried to an e(ceptionally pro'inent person, the heir to the throne of 9e+ar. 9ira;s 'arria!e to this prince 'akes her trans!ression of pativrata tradition that ')ch 'ore vivid. 1nd yet the final perspective, +hich sees 9ira li erated fro' the ro)nd of re irths, reidentifies 9ira as a +ifeB 9ira;s death y a sorption sho+s her to e a tr)e +ife of :od. 0h)s )lti'ately :od;s relationship +ith 9ira is sva$iya 4+ith one;s +ife6 and therefore )ne,)al.C2AD 9ira is taken into +hat is !reater than she is, ?rishna as lord and 'aster, +hich 'akes s)ch thin!s as her scandalo)s +earin! of suhag clothes after her 4h)'an6 h)s and;s death )nderstanda le. C2$D *ee 1. ?. 2a'an)3an, EFn <o'en *aints,E in The +ivine Consort , ed. =ohn *tratton Ha+ley and -onna 9arie <)lff 4Berkeley: University of California Press, 19G26, "2%. C2JD /rMdMri,)e 1pffel 9ar!lin, E0ypes of *e()al Union and 0heir &'plicit 9eanin!s,E in The +ivine Consort , ed. =ohn *tratton Ha+ley and -onna 9arie <)lff 4Berkeley: University of California Press, 19G26, "#"HA. C2AD & id., "#". 7 22# 7 0his )lti'ate ine,)ality is i'plicitly e(pressed y the very clai' so'e +o'en 'ake that E+hen yo) co'e to think of it,E or Ein the end,E 9ira is :od;s pativrata .C2GD Contrastin! this )sa!e of the ter' +ith its )s)al )sa!e de'onstrates the fact that 9ira;s relationship +ith :od is not parallel to the relationship +ith a h)s and )t rather a thoro)!h transfor'ation of it.C29D <hen +o'en )se the ter' pativrata to refer to the'selves or to other +o'en they kno+, they take it to 'ean a +o'an +ho is devoted to her h)s and, her pati . 1s +e have seen, ho+ever, pati 'eans not only Eh)s andE )t E:od.E 1 pativrata treats a h)s and as :od, for her h)s and is a deity to her and the path to her salvation.C"#D &n sayin! that 9ira is a pativrata of ?rishna, +o'en effectively t)rn this analo!y aro)nd. 9ira treats :od as if he +ere her h)s and. *he is a le to do this eca)se of her celi acy.C"1D 0his )sa!e of the ter' pativrata is not, as & have said, a co''on one in 2a3asthani 2a3p)t c)lt)re, +hich is +hy +o'en tend to re3ect the )n,)alified idea of 9ira as a pativrata . Ket it is evidently co''on else+here in *o)th 1sia. F eyesekere disc)sses s)ch a )sa!e in his st)dy of fe'ale ascetics in *ri Lnaka.C"2D 0here fe'ale ascetic "ha$ts are spoken of as pativratas of :od. 0he devotion these +o'en !ive their heavenly h)s and 'andates celi acy +ith re!ard to their h)'an h)s ands. 9ira, a )ni,)e fi!)re in 2a3asthan, confor's to this conception. Her asceticis' is ad)ltero)s, )t it is also transitive: it leads to a state that s) s)'es it. 1s a pativrata , 9ira de'onstrates )n'iti!ated devotion that is oth a denial of society and a transcendence of society. Hers is the nat)re of li'itless "ha$ti . &f, as 2a3p)t +o'en say, 9ira is the ,)intessential )n o)nd "ha$t , then +e can appreciate ho+ s) versive )nli'ited "ha$ti really is. 0o co''it oneself to :od re,)ires leavin! ho'e for the road and

the forest. 8evertheless, "ha$ti is not so'ethin! perfor'ed y saints alone. 1ll C2GD <hen talkin! of 9ira 'any +o'en identified her as a "ha$t and contrasted her +ith +o'en they ordinarily la el as pativratas 4Pad'ini, Hari 2ani, etc.6. 1'on! the 'any +o'en +ho ad'ire 9ira, only three said 9ira +as a pativrata of :od at the e!innin! of their testi'ony. 0he rest, if they )sed the ter' pativrata at all, applied it after speakin! of her trans!ression of pativrata nor's and stat)s. C29D /or a parallel to this !od;s relationship +ith a fe'ale "ha$t as para$iya and sva$iya , see disc)ssion on the *o)th &ndian saint 9ahadeviyakka, +ho +as a devotee of *hiv 41. ?. 2a'an)3an, )pea$ing of )iva C9iddlese(: Pen!)in Books, 19A"D, 111H126. C"#D 1s one infor'ant repeated this o'nipresent idea, E1 2a3p)t +o'an;s h)s and is her !odEB cf. /r)@etti, The #ift , 1". C"1D 1 co''on o servation +as that 9ira did not E eco'e attached toE or Efall in love +ithE anyone else. Fne +o'an said, E9ira never looked at another, so stron! +as her faith.E C"2D F eyesekere, edusa5s !air , J%HJ$. 7 221 7 +o'en a!ree that one sho)ld e devoted to :od )t feel that this devotion ')st serve rather than interfere +ith devotion to a h)s and.C""D Practiced in the ho'e and for enefit of the ho)sehold, devotion to :od ena les +o'en to eco'e etter pativratas . <e have seen that y +orshipin! $uldevis and satimatas , +o'en !ain s)perh)'an protection for the ho)sehold and the stren!th to e protectors of the ho)sehold. 0he sa'e holds tr)e for devotion to ?rishna, *hiv, other deities clai'ed y the ho)sehold and +orshiped y +o'en. .nco'passed y do'estic concerns, "ha$ti reinforces the pativrata ideal. 0he in5the5ho'e, for5the5sake5of5the5ho'e caveat is f)rther ill)strated y the fact that 2a3p)t no le+o'en do not !o to p) lic te'ples to sin! "hajan s. 1s 'entioned previo)sly, even those +o'en +ho interpret parda very loosely stay o)t of p) lic te'ples, for s)ch places attract cro+ds that incl)de 'any 'en +ith )nkno+n ack!ro)nd and character. Fne tha$urani co''ented to 'e that she +as terri ly i'pressed y 9ira;s )nchaperoned +anderin!s +ay ack +hen eca)se even no+, +ith c)sto's loosenin! a it, she had never dared visit any of the villa!e te'ples in her thi$ana . *he added that to !o to a te'ple in to+n +o)ld take 'ore co)ra!e than she had, for no one +o)ld approve of that, incl)din! her h)s and. 0h)s a 2a3p)t +o'an is e(pected to perfor' all re!)lar +orship +here she lives her life and serves her h)s and. &f her h)s and predeceases her, ho+ever, then she !ains license and enco)ra!e'ent to practice 'ore stren)o)s "ha$ti . Bein! a +ido+, she 'ay +ell s)ffer fro' feelin!s of sha'e and fail)re. 0o sho+ that +itho)t her h)s and she has no need or )se for the +orld, she sho)ld devote herself to :od. 1s a lover of :od, she practices the celi acy that is e(pected of +ido+s and she !ains spirit)al 'erit that +ill 'iti!ate the de'erit she has earned y o)tlivin! her h)s and. /or a 2a3p)t +ido+, an a)stere life of reli!io)s devotion ass)res society of her faithf)lness to her h)s and and !ives her p)rpose and hope for self5i'prove'ent. 0he fervent practice of "ha$ti as a +ay to honor a dead h)s and is so'ethin! that the livin! satimata perfor's partic)larly +ell. Havin! dedicated the re'ainder of her life to the service of :od, she esta lishes an ashra' 4apart fro' society yet for 'e' ers of society d)rin! their pil!ri'a!es6 and appro(i'ates the ideal of the ascetic "ha$ti yo!i. *he 'akes an e(cellent devotee eca)se of the practice she had and the

C""D 0ypical co''ents are those of one +o'an, +ho noted that doin! "ha$ti is a !ood thin! )t that she +o)ld never leave her d)ties as a pativrata to +orship :odIshe +o)ld do her puja at ho'eIand of another, +ho said that even to +orship :od, one sho)ld take per'ission fro' one;s h)s andIonly then is it a !ood thin!. 7 222 7 po+er she !ained as a pativrata . 8evertheless even the livin! satimata , +ho 'oves aro)nd 'ore freely than 'ost 2a3p)t +o'en, preserves a socially approved alance et+een +orshipin! :od and honorin! the h)'an h)s and. 9oreover her desi!nation and distinction as oth sati and "ha$t are ased on the fact that she is a teacher of pativrata 'orality, s)pported y devotion to :od. 1s a teacher, she is revered y pativrata devotees +ho seek a ove all else to e pativratas . .ven the ,)alified f)sion that satimata6"ha$t sy' oli@es is not possi le for +o'en +hose h)s ands are alive. 0hey can co' ine these roles to a lesser de!ree. 1s +e have seen, a 'arried +o'an cannot e oth a +holly en!a!ed +ife and a +holly a sor ed "ha$t . <hereas the pativrata )pholds society, the "ha$t 5yo!i reno)nces society. 1nd, +hereas the pativrata lives at ho'e, the "ha$t 5yo!i leaves the ho'e. 8o ordinary +o'an can live in the ho'e and the forest at the sa'e ti'e. 0hese places re,)ire different states of 'ind. &f the forest creeps into the ho'e, the ho'e disappearsB if a ho)se is )ilt in the forest, the forest disappears. 1 2a3p)t +o'an, 9ira possesses the innate !ood character re,)ired to re3ect the social ideal that the 2a3p)t +o'an is considered opti'ally constit)ted to reali@e. 2a3p)t +o'en ad'ire 9ira not eca)se she re3ects the pativrata role to+ard +hich they strive )t eca)se thro)!h "ha$ti she reali@es the sa'e role on a transcendent plane. 9ira;s s)ccess, attested y her 'ode of death, ill)strates a deter'ination and a co''it'ent that 2a3p)t +o'en )nderstand as their herita!e and their d)ty. &n short, 2a3p)t +o'en identify the spirit ani'atin! 9ira;s re ellion as the sa'e spirit that 'otivates and ena les the' to reali@e the pativrata ideal. 7 22" 7

&apter > on)lusion

.la orated y 'ythic tradition, the 2a3p)t pativrata is a constr)ction )ilt on t+o different and so'eti'es shiftin! pre'ises, the 2a3p)t and the fe'ale. &ts co'ponents of caste and !ender e(press a nor': the pativrata ')st e a !ood 2a3p)t and a !ood +o'an. &t th)s relates the pre'ises )t does not and cannot con3oin the'. 0hey cohere in theory )t not al+ays in practice. 0he 'yths & disc)ss represent this non5coherence in t+o interrelated +ays. 0he first is spatial. 0he $uldevi tradition e(presses it y contrastin! o)ter and inner do'ains of 3)risdiction. 0he $uldevi has one 3o , that of protection, )t t+o arenas of activity, the attlefield and the ho)sehold. 0he !oddess of the attlefield represents the discrete political identity of her $ul or sha$h . 0his $uldevi is +holly 'artial and her for' is a lone east. *he has no h)s and to serve, only po+er to +ield. 9oreover, tho)!h eni!n fro' the $ul ;s 4or sha$h ;s6 point of vie+, she is a cons)'er of h)s ands, a protector s)stained y fa'ily lood. /or the sake of their !ro)p she sacrifices the' as +arrior5protM!Ms and in doin! so ena les the' to f)lfill their caste d)ty and attain the )lti'ate !oal of a 2a3p)t protector, +arrior heaven.

By contrast, the fa'ily $uldevi , the !oddess +ho protects individ)als constit)tin! the $ul , is a perfect ho'e ody. 2esidin! +ithin the ho)sehold, she staves off sickness, poverty, and infertilityIanythin! that 'i!ht da'a!e the ho)sehold. *he is the d)tif)l +ife, an eternally !lo+in! rideB altho)!h her h)s and is i'plicit 4he is si'ply ass)'ed6 she is 7 22% 7 represented as a devoted h)s and5protector. 1s a pativrata she is not a sacrificer of 'en )t of self, for a +ife;s self5sacrifice stren!thens a h)s and and his fa'ily. 8ot a +ild vir!in )t a devoted +ife, she does not drink her children;s lood )t rather preserves and replenishes it. <hat links $uldevi i'a!es is the conception of the co'ple'entary and sy''etrical protective services she perfor's in each 3)risdiction. <hen any +arrior dies in attle, ho+ever, all concept)al sy''etry cr)' les. *acrificin! a +arrior, the $uldevi takes the life of a h)s and, +hose death s)!!ests a fail)re of her do'estic protection and that of her pativrata protM!Me, his +ife. *y''etry is reesta lished only thro)!h a f)rther sacrifice, that of the +ife on ehalf of her h)s and. 0he sati scenario, then, creates a sy' olic sol)tion to spatial discontin)ity. 1t the sa'e ti'e the sati scenario itself sy' oli@es a second discontin)ity, a te'poral one. 0he +ife;s sacrifice as a sati co'es after the fact.C1D 0he sativrata , the devoted +ife, is also a +ido+I+hich is a nonsensical e,)ation. 0he pativrata ;s death !ets aro)nd this lo!ical inconsistency y condensin! ti'e. 0he dyin! +o'an +ho has o)tlived her h)s and eco'es a sahagamini , one +ho E!oesE at the sa'e ti'e. *he is )nderstood, retroactively, to have protected her h)s and thro)!ho)t his life and death, oth of +hich she has shared. 0he h)s and;s death happened despite her protection and eca)se of circ)'stances Eo)t there,E circ)'stances s)ch as +ar that she cannot control e(cept )lti'ately y dyin!. Both spatial and te'poral ano'alies occ)r in the stories that present h)'an paradi!'s of protective d)ty. /irst, oth Pad'ini and 9ira ne!otiate the d)ties of 2a3p)tness and fe'aleness thro)!h spatial inversions. Like the +arrior $uldevi , Pad'ini and 9ira are lone fe'ales operatin! in nondo'estic space. 0he !oddess of the attlefield takes on ani'al shapes +hereas Pad'ini and 9ira o)tdoors perfor' 'ale roles. Pad'ini ill)strates the identification of 2a3p)t and 'ale +hen she s) stit)tes for her h)s and and fi!hts as a 2a3p)t in his place. 9ira ill)strates the identification of 2a3p)t and 'ale +hen she re3ects her 2a3p)t stat)s, +hich is so'ethin! that only a 2a3p)t 'an sho)ld e a le to do. 0hese inversions ena le the' to acco'plish pativrata ai's y violatin! and clai'in! 'ale space. Both inversions s)pport the pativrata ;s protective paradi!'. C1D 0his lapse does not apply to jauhar , +hich occ)rs in anticipation of a h)s and;s death. 8evertheless, as +e have seen, jauhar yields the sa'e res)lt as sati sacrifice. 9oreover, tho)!h jauhar technically ypasses the sativrata a' i!)ity of +ido+Hnot +ido+, it ears all the sa'e sy' olis' of later sati sacrifice. 7 22$ 7 <hile ne!otiatin! the ano'aly spatially, 9ira and Pad'ini also ne!otiate it te'porally. &n dyin! 2a3p)t deathsIliteral or sy' olic sati deathsI oth transcend the li'inal circ)'stances associated +ith their invasion of 'ale space and validate their intentions as pativratas . Pad'ini dies a sati B her e(c)rsion has not red)ced, )t increased, her !oodness <hereas Pad'ini dies efore her h)s and and so el)des the prospective a' i!)ity of +ido+Hnot +ido+, she does !ain a' i!)ity in that she takes Eti'e o)tE of her do'estic pativrata role to e on the attlefield. 9ira too dies in an )n'istaka ly sati 5like 'annerB she has een a +ido+ in the +orldly sense, )t in the transcendent sense she has een a pativrata . Like

the sati , she is odily a sor ed into the one for +ho' she is a pativrata . 0he death of each +o'an, then, sho+s that in no period +as she tr)ly Eo)t of o)nds.E 0he protective ideal that all these 'yths vario)sly e(e'plify re'ains the enco'passin! one for 2a3p)t +o'en today. 0he 2a3p)t pativrata is a sy' ol that contin)es to inspire. Ket the 2a3p)t d)ty, the d)ty to protect y fi!htin! and y r)lin!, has een dispossessed of its conte(t. .ven those 2a3p)ts +ho are in the ar'y no lon!er fi!ht to 'aintain r)le. <hile soldierin! is an honora le profession for a 2a3p)t, its stakes and rationale are no lon!er associated +ith caste. -espite the fact that caste f)nction has di'inished, even vanished, 'ythic caste5!ender paradi!'s contin)e to infor' the protective d)ty 2a3p)t +o'en inherit and interpret. 0he 'a3or reason this re'ains so is that the caste identity predicated on caste f)nction has re'ained vital. 2a3p)ts 'ay no lon!er fi!ht to r)leIthey have not really done so since efore British daysIyet they contin)e to )nderstand the'selves as possessors of a no le 'artial nat)re. 0herefore as 2a3p)ts, 2a3p)t +o'en retain their identities as protectors of 2a3p)t h)s ands. 0hey do not, no+, have to +orry ')ch a o)t the possi ility of their h)s ands; dyin! 'ilitary deaths. Beca)se in 'ost cases the attles a +ife ')st help her h)s and fi!ht are only 'etaphorical, she can s)pport hi' in his attles +itho)t riskin! his lo!evity. 0his effectively do'esticates the elli!erent $uldevi . *he need no lon!er sacrifice 'en for the $ul B she need only help the' +in E+arsE for the fa'ily. 0h)s, as & have ar!)ed, the $uldevi has eco'e for the 'ost part a !)ardian of fa'ily. Her pativrata aspect has predo'inated. &n s)', since the perfor'ance of pativrata d)ty no lon!er re!)larly clashes +ith that of caste, the theoretical co'ple'entarity et+een 2a3p)t and pativrata protective d)ties eco'es act)al and practical. Hence +o'en confidently prono)nce their 3)d!'ent that 2a3p)t +o'en 'ake 7 22J 7 the est pativratas . 0heir 2a3p)tness no+ al'ost +holly reinforces their fe'ale d)ty. 0he proof, they say, lies in parda , for that is a predo'inantly 2a3p)t reinforce'ent of the pativrata ideal.C2D 0his clai' see's odd to the o)tsider eca)se parda has een rela(ed. 8ot+ithstandin! its fl)idity as a c)sto', parda re'ains a po+erf)l definin! and or!ani@in! concept. 0he o)ndaries distin!)ishin! inside fro' o)t 'ay shift, )t they retain their referential po+er. 2a3p)t +o'en still )nderstand the'selves as +o'en +ho stay inside, 3)st as a do'estic $uldevi 4or for that 'atter, a satimata 6 does. 0heir acts as pativratas follo+ fro' this asic )nderstandin!. /ro' parda , ho+ever artic)lated, co'es pativrata po+er, to tend to h)s and and fa'ily, to protect the' oth fro' sickness and sorro+, to e(cel in all f)nctions that the do'estic $uldevi and satimata perfor'. 1 parallel red)ction in caste and !ender discontin)ity has res)lted fro' the loss of sati i''olation as an alternative to +ido+hood. 0he sati stated, as +ell as rid!ed, the !ap et+een the pativrata d)ty to protect a h)s and and that to s)pport a h)s and in his perfor'ance of 2a3p)t d)ty and its )lti'ate !oal of 'ilitary death. 8evertheless, the sati has s)rvived the prohi ition on self5i''olation. <hereas parda has een relocated, the sati has een redefined to s)it conte'porary circ)'stance. 1 sati can no+ live, so lon! as she lives as if dead. 1s the soldier;s attle has eco'e a 'etaphor, so has the sati ;s death. 0he te'poral fiction that f)nctionally collapsed the sativrata sta!e no+ applies to a protracted e(istence. 0he !eneration of a ne+, livin! satimata paradi!' vividly de'onstrates the adaptive !eni)s of 2anana tradition. &n for'er ti'es, the practical necessity of inte!ratin! +o'en fro' diverse ack!ro)nds into a sin!le con3)!al fa'ily provided an innovative i'pet)s to+ard reinterpretation. 8o+adays, the practical necessity of adaptin! to a ne+ social and le!al order has occasioned a 'ore drastic revision. <hat re'ains consistent is the asic disposition of +o'en in the ho)sehold to+ard creative, if s) tle,

chan!e. 0his chan!e is not set over a!ainst tradition. &t is part of tradition, the via ility of +hich hin!es on conveyance and on interpretive appropriation thro)!ho)t the !enerations. <e co'e finally to the conte'porary co!ency of the traditional h)'an paradi!'s. &t strikes 'e that these have retained special i'portance C2D 9any other hi!h5caste +o'en have also kept parda , )t 2a3p)t +o'en )nderstand the instit)tion as one started y 2a3p)t +o'en, al+ays partic)larly @ealo)s to protect their honor y avoidin! contact +ith nonfa'ilial 'en. 0hey also see the'selves as the co'')nity that has est preserved the c)sto' in the ,)ickly chan!in! conte'porary +orld. 7 22A 7 a'on! 'odern 2a3p)t +o'en eca)se they l)cidly e(e'plify the cardinal i'portance of intention in ne!otiatin! o)ndaries, oth spatial and te'poral. Pad'ini;s story, for e(a'ple, states that altho)!h Pad'ini did +hat a pativrata sho)ld not doIshe violated parda Ishe intended to e a pativrata and so +as proven one. <e find that Pad'ini did not really violate parda eca)se she did not violate it in spirit. 0his e'phasis on intention contin)es in 'odern 2a3p)t +o'en;s concept)ali@ation of parda . 1s +o'en have redefined parda and entered +hat +as 'ale space, they have held onto the notion that their intention to o serve parda is 'ore i'portant than its traditional place'ent. 0h)s +hile doin! +hat has een prohi ited, that is, leavin! the 2anana , 2a3p)t +o'en have 3)stified their innovation y pointin! to the p)rity of their 'otivation and its preservation of 2a3p)t pativrata character. 0hat intention retains its se'inal role is evident in 9ira;s e(a'ple. 9ira ref)sed to ehave as a +ido+ sho)ld, yet she is seen as !ood and )lti'ately not a +ido+. Beca)se her intention +as to e a pativrata to :od, her fail)re as a h)'an pativrata is irrelevant to her essential character. 1ppearances to the contrary, every ody ackno+led!es, 9ira +as a !ood 2a3p)t +o'an. 0oday there is rarely a +ido+ed 2a3p)t +o'an +ho literally confor's to the old 2a3p)t scenario y dyin! as a sati . 2a3p)t +ido+s feel that these days they ')st live on. 8evertheless, eca)se their intentions have een !ood 4they +o)ld not think of dyin! as satis eca)se their deaths +o)ld only har' their fa'ilies and co'')nity6, their lives as +ido+s have attained a ne+ li'ited )t i'portant validation. 9oreover, in 'any cases "ha$ti has reinforced this validation. =)st as 9ira;s +ido+hood +as le!iti'ated, al eit posth)'o)sly, y her devotion to :od, so the 'odern 2a3p)t +o'an;s +ido+hood is le!iti'ated, at least partially, y her devotion to :od. 0he 'ost thoro)!h!oin! e(pression of )nity et+een the intention to e devoted to a h)s and and the intention to e devoted to :od is fo)nd in the livin! 2a3p)t satimata , for she sy' olically reconciles the t+o previo)sly co'petitive paradi!'s, the pativrata and the +ido+ "ha$t . 1s a satimata , she has een a pativrata B as a +ido+, she is no+ a "ha$t . 1nd finally, eca)se the conte'porary, livin! 2a3p)t satimata does synthesi@e these previo)sly irreconcila le roles, she serves ordinary +o'en, oth +ido+s and pativratas +ho +ish never to eco'e +ido+s, as an inspiration to e devoted to oth h)s and and :od. *he preserves the characteristically 2a3p)t role of the sati +hile introd)cin! 7 22G 7 a hei!htened e'phasis on the po+er of "ha$ti to enhance and s)pple'ent pativrata devotion. &n short, even +here the 2anana has vanished as a location, it has retained a discrete presence in the vario)s traditions that have e,)eathed its 'orality to descendin! !enerations. 0his 'orality has

proven not a sta!nant code )t a fl)id set of paradi!'s that have oth o d)rately conserved and creatively adapted the con3ointly 2a3p)t and pativrata ethic of protection. 7 229 7

!ppendi1 ! Inter(ie+ 4a)*ground

1s noted, & cond)cted the intervie+s in Hindi or occasionally in .n!lishB 'ost +o'en in no le ho)seholds speak oth lan!)a!es. 0hose +ho have een ed)cated for'ally speak a 'ore or less standard Hindi +hen in p) lic. 9ost of the older +o'en speak only one of the vario)s Hindi5related dialects 49e+ari, 9ar+ari, :)3arati, etc.6. <hen these +o'en 'arried they ro)!ht into their h)s ands; ho)seholds their native dialects. 1ny standardi@ation has een the event)al conse,)ence of conversations et+een rides and the 'en, children, and servants in the fa'ily, all of +ho' have a co''on dialect. &n Udaip)r, this dialect is 9e+ari. &ntervie+in! +as an e(tre'ely ti'e5cons)'in! process. 0he vast 'a3ority of intervie+s took 'ore than an ho)r and 'any lasted three or fo)r ho)rs. & )s)ally 'et a variety of relatives and spent e(tra ti'eIho)rs, even daysIconversin! infor'ally +ith the'. 0o avoid overe'phasi@in! the traditions of individ)al fa'ilies, & intervie+ed no 'ore than t+o +o'en livin! in the sa'e ho)sehold. 0he no le+o'en & intervie+ed in 9e+ar represented all three strata of the local aristocracy.C1D 9y intervie+ strate!y +as essentially fo)rfold. /irst, & +anted to elicit fact)al infor'ation a o)t 'a3or 2a3p)t reli!io)s traditions. 1s the intervie+ sched)le indicates, & so)!ht to find o)t +hat & co)ld a o)t the 'a3or reli!io)s traditions practiced y the fa'ilies of respondents; h)s ands, fathers, and 'others. 0he data revealed discrete patterns of si'ilarity and difference. /or e(a'ple, as one 'i!ht e(pect, +o'en kno+ ')ch a o)t the traditions of their h)s ands; fa'ilies and their fathers; fa'ilies )t kno+ co'paratively little a o)t their 'others; fa'ilies. 8ot havin! lived in their 'others; natal ho)seholds, they kno+ C1D /ro' 'y initial foc)s on 9e+ar;s *olah 0hikana fa'ilies 4the si(teen 'ost pro'inent fa'ilies of 9e+ar;s aristocracy6, & ,)ickly e(panded the intervie+ sched)le o)tside this circle, +hich in any case incl)ded +o'en fro' natal fa'ilies elon!in! to lesser 9e+ar circles. & intervie+ed +o'en fro' these other 9e+ar thi$anas and fro' vario)s strata of the no ility in 2a3asthan, and occasionally other parts of &ndia, +here so'e +o'en;s natal fa'ilies reside. 7 2"# 7 a o)t these ho)seholds only +hat they 'ana!ed to o serve d)rin! rief childhood visits and +hat they happened to hear fro' their 'others. 9y second p)rpose +as to discover the vario)s pres)ppositions that condition and str)ct)re the reli!io)s traditions & +as researchin!. 0hese pres)ppositions e'er!ed not fro' the fact)al infor'ation +o'en !ave )t fro' the e(e!esis they vol)nteered. /or instance, fre,)ently +hen +o'en did not kno+ the na'es of vario)s deities +orshiped in their 'others; ho)seholds, they re'arked that the +orship of the deities ')st have een the sa'e as the +orship cond)cted in their fathers; or h)s ands; ho)seholds. >ery co''on co''ents +ere E& really don;t re'e' er, )t it ')st have een the sa'e as +e do hereE or E&t;s al+ays the sa'e in 2a3p)t ho)seholds.E *)ch re'arks +ere partic)larly characteristic of older +o'en. Ko)n!er +o'en, havin! 'arried recently, nat)rally recalled 'ore rit)al

differences et+een their h)s ands; and fathers; fa'ilies. <o'en;s co''entary revealed not only fact)al )t also nor'ative pres)ppositions. 0h)s, for e(a'ple, +o'en repeatedly voiced the conviction that the only traditions +ith +hich a +o'an should concern herself are those of her h)s and;s fa'ily. &n short, +hile providin! infor'ation a o)t the three fa'ilies, +o'en eval)ated and rated the i'portance of ')ch of the infor'ation they offered. 9y third intention +as to !ather reli!io)s 'yths and stories that +o'en felt +ere relevant to the traditions & +as investi!atin!. 0he narratives & collected ela orate and s) stantiate the pres)ppositions +o'en e(pressed either clearly or inco'pletely in their vol)ntary e(e!esis. .(cept for vrat $atha stories 4those acco'panyin! rit)al fasts6, the stories +o'en narrated in ans+erin! intervie+ ,)estions have no fi(ed rit)al conte(t. Perhaps in the re'ote past so'e of the stories +ere associated +ith mardana or 2anana rit)als. 0hose +o'en intervie+ed, ho+ever, said that the tales they kne+ +ere recited to the' infor'ally. 9others, a)nts, !rand'others, !randa)nts, sisters5in5la+, and 'aids )sed to tell s)ch stories re!)larly in the ho)rs efore edti'e. 1s one +o)ld e(pect, +o'en rarely recall the specific circ)'stances )nder +hich they first heard specific stories. 2ather, they kno+ that in !ro+in! )p +ith s)ch stories, they ca'e to kno+ 'any of the'. 1s the 2a3p)t co'')nity contin)es to adapt to conte'porary circ)'stances, traditional storytellin! is slo+ly )t s)rely losin! its pro'inent place a'on! ho)sehold activities. Ho'e+ork and television )s)rp a si!nificant a'o)nt of children;s leis)re ti'e, 'ore of +hich in ti'es past they +o)ld have spent learnin! traditional 2a3p)t lore. 9any +o'en in 2a3p)t ho)seholds re'arked that not only children )t also da)!hters5in5la+ are less interested in learnin! fa'ily traditions, incl)din! stories, than they the'selves +ere at the sa'e a!e. 0he circ)'stances & en)'erated certainly e(plain their perception, and yet +o'en of vario)s a!es 'ake this o servation a o)t their 3)niors. &t see's a )niversal fact that each !eneration conceives itself as 'ore pio)s than its s)ccessors. Hence one can only spec)late ho+ ')ch of the apparent apathy of yo)n!er !enerations is instit)tional and ho+ ')ch derives fro' recent social chan!e. 0he last 'a3or ai' of the intervie+ +as to correlate fact)al and narrative infor'ation a o)t reli!io)s traditions +ith conte'porary social circ)'stances. 0he intervie+ contains a n)' er of ,)estions a o)t identity and lifestyle. *o'e 7 2"1 7 of the ,)estions in this vein are intentionally road eca)se to narro+ the' +o)ld create leadin! ,)estions. 0h)s 'y ,)estion, E<hat does it 'ean to e a 2a3p)t +o'anQE is not intended to elicit infor'ation on specific ele'ents of identityB it is rather intended to discern +hich if any ele'ents of identity rec)r thro)!ho)t the intervie+ sa'ple. :iven the looseness of this ,)estion, & find it si!nificant that al'ost +itho)t e(ception 2a3p)t +o'en define the'selves +ith pri'ary reference to the instit)tion of parda , the secl)sion of +o'en +ithin the ho)sehold. 0h)s, as & have 'entioned, & heard 2a3p)t +o'en stress as the 'ost si!nificant aspect of their character the fact that, in their +ords, E2a3p)t +o'en don;t !o o)t.E 0he e'phasis on parda and ela oration of other c)sto'ary feat)res of 2a3p)t +o'en;s lives fro' the first part of the intervie+ helped 'e conte(t)ali@e 'any rec)rrent the'es in the narratives +o'en recited in response to later ,)estions. 7 2"" 7

!ppendi1 4 Inter(ie+
1. 8a'e 2. /ather;s fa'ily: place 4state, thi$ana , or villa!e6B !enealo!y 4vamsh3 $ul3 sha$h3 $hamp3 na$ 6B father;s title ". 9other;s fa'ily 4,)estions as a ove6 %. H)s and;s fa'ily 4,)estions as a ove6 $. Birth date J. 9arria!e date A. .d)cation G. <ork e(perience 9. &ntrod)ctory ,)estions 4open5ended E+ar'5)pE ,)estions6 a. <hat does it 'ean to e a 2a3p)t +o'anQ Ho+ +o)ld yo) descri e a 2a3p)t +o'an to so'eone +ho has never 'et oneQ . <hat a o)t 2a3p)t 'enQ <hat are they like and ho+ +o)ld yo) descri e the'Q 0hese days +ho keeps )p the 2a3p)t traditions: +o'en, 'en, othQ 1#. 0he traditions a. 1uldevis 1. <hat do yo) kno+ a o)t the $uldevi of yo)r father;s fa'ilyQ -o yo) kno+ any stories a o)t herQ Ho+ is she +orshipedQ 1re there ratijagas Q /or +hat reasonsQ <hen and for +hat reasons is dho$ !ivenQ <here is she +orshipedQ 2. <hat do yo) kno+ a o)t the $uldevi of yo)r 'other;s fa'ilyQ 4,)estions as a ove6 ". <hat do yo) kno+ a o)t the $uldevi of yo)r h)s and;s fa'ilyQ 4,)estions as a ove6 . Bher)s 1. &s there a Bher) =i +orshiped y yo)r father;s fa'ilyQ -o yo) kno+ any stories a o)t hi' 4the'6Q Ho+ is he 4are they6 +or5 7 2"% 7 shipedQ &s he 4are they6 connected +ith ratijagas Q <hen and +hy is dho$ !ivenQ <here is he 4are they6 +orshipedQ 2. &s there a Bher) =i +orshiped y yo)r 'other;s fa'ilyQ 4,)estions as a ove6 ". &s there a Bher) =i +orshiped y yo)r h)s and;s fa'ilyQ 4,)estions as a ove6 c. )atimatas 1. &s there a satimata in yo)r father;s fa'ilyQ -o yo) kno+ any stories a o)t herQ Ho+ is she +orshipedQ &s she connected +ith ratijagas Q <hen and +hy is dho$ !ivenQ 1re there any shraps associated +ith this satimata Q <hat a o)t o$s Q <here is she +orshipedQ

2. &s there a satimata in yo)r 'other;s fa'ilyQ 4,)estions as a ove6 ". &s there a satimata in yo)r h)s and;s fa'ilyQ 4,)estions as a ove6 d. /humjhars 1. &s there a jhumjhar in yo)r father;s fa'ilyQ -o yo) kno+ any stories a o)t hi' 4the'6Q &s he 4are they6 connected +ith ratijagas Q <hen and +hy is dho$ !ivenQ <here is he 4are they6 +orshipedQ 2. &s there a jhumjhar in yo)r 'other;s fa'ilyQ 4,)estions as a ove6 ". &s there a jhumjhar in yo)r h)s and;s fa'ilyQ 4,)estions as a ove6 e. Purvajs 1. &s there a special purvaj 4or are there special purvaj s6 +orshiped in yo)r father;s fa'ilyQ -o yo) kno+ stories a o)t hi' 4her/the'6Q &s he 4is she/are they6 connected +ith ratijagas Q <hen and +hy is dho$ !ivenQ <here is he 4is she/are they6 +orshipedQ 2. &s there a special purvaj 4are there special purvaj s6 +orshiped in yo)r 'other;s fa'ilyQ 4,)estions as a ove6 ". &s there a special purvaj 4are there special purvaj s6 +orshiped in yo)r 'other;s fa'ilyQ 4,)estions as a ove6 f. .shtadevtas 1. <hat is yo)r ishtadevta Q -o yo) have other ishtadevtas Q &f so, +hoQ 2. <hat is yo)r father;s ishtadevta Q FthersQ ". <hat is yo)r 'other;s ishtadevta Q FthersQ %. <hat is yo)r h)s and;s ishtadevta Q FthersQ 11. &nfor'ation on e(e'plars. Lookin! ack over 2a3p)t history, +hich +o'en do yo) think e(e'plify +hat it 'eans to e a !ood 2a3p)t +o'anQ <hy +ere these +o'en !reatQ <hat +as their character likeQ 12. & )nderstand that )nlike other people, 2a3p)ts are allo+ed to eat 'eat and drink +ine. -o yo) eat 'eatQ &f so, +hyQ &f not, +hy notQ -o yo) drink +ineQ &f so, +hyQ &f not, +hy notQ 1". -o yo) keep any vrat sQ -o yo) keep any +eekly onesQ <hich onesQ Ho+ a o)t 'onthly vrat sQ <hich onesQ 1nn)al vrat sQ <hich onesQ 7 2"$ 7 1%. :eneral closin! ,)estions a. <hen yo) +ere !ro+in! )p, +ho told yo) storiesQ <hat kind of storiesQ -o yo) have childrenQ -oes anyone tell the' storiesQ <hat kind of storiesQ . Ho+ did yo) learn to e a !ood +ifeQ -id anyone teach yo) at yo)r father;s ho)seQ <hat a o)t at yo)r h)s and;s ho)se, did anyone teach yo) thereQ c. Have & left anythin! o)tQ 1re there i'portant parts of yo)r reli!io)s tradition that & have left o)tQ d. <o)ld it e possi le to see the mandir s and thapana s of this ho)se 4thi$ana 6Q

7 2"A 7

-lossary
9any of these +ords are prono)nced differently in the vario)s 2a3asthani dialects. 0o avoid chaos and conf)sion, & )se the standard Hindi spellin! and drop )nprono)nced final a. 2a3asthani +ords that have no e,)ivalent in Hindi retain their 2a3asthani endin!s. <here the 2a3asthani and the Hindi spellin!s differ, the Hindi and *anskrit entries appear in parentheses. 1d 9ata C1d 9ataD 1shap)ra C1sap)raD ashra' Casra'D asur Cas)rD =hala $uldevi

Ca)han $uldevi

spirit)al retreat de'on, e.!., 9ahishas)r, the B)ffalo -e'on defeated y the !oddess -)r!a raveB valiant

"ahadur C ahad)rD Bala *ati'ata CBala *ati'ataD

livin! satimata +ho resided in north+estern 2a3asthan

"alidan C alidanD sacrifice, )s)ally a lood sacrifice "aniya C aniyaD 'erchantB refers to a person in one of a n)' er of )siness castes *isodiya $uldevi

Ban 9ata CBan 9ataD Bappa 2a+al CBappa 2avalD Bara Battis 0hikana CBada Battis 0hikanaD

ill)strio)s forefather of the *isodiyas of 9e+ar Bi! 0hirty5t+o 0hikanaB a thikana elon!in! to the !ro)p of 9e+ari estates +ith stat)s lo+er than the *olah 0hikanas and hi!her than the Chota Battis 0hikanas

7 2"G 7 "ha$t C haktD "ha$ti C haktiD devotee of a deityB lover of :od e'otional co''it'ent to a deityB devotional love !enealo!ist caste possessionB infl)ence 4Hindi and *anskrit, Bhairava6 !)ardian deityB each 2a3p)t $uldevi is associated +ith a Bher) tri e fa'ed for archery skillsB the lood rothers of :)ha 'edi)' +ho is possessed y vario)s deities vo+ to perfor' a stated service for a deity if the deity first !rants a devotee;s desires

Bhat CBhatD "hav C havD Bher) CBher)D

Bhil CBhilD

"hopa C hopaD

"olma C ol'aD

B)kh 9ata CB)kh the H)n!ry :oddessB epithet of Ban 9ata, 9ataD $uldevi of the *isodiyas of 9e+ar ca"utra Cca )traD platfor' 'arkin! a sacred placeB s,)are on +hich a cenotaph 4chatri 6 is so'eti'es 'o)nted camat$ar Cca'atkarD Caran CCaranD caritra CcaritraD 'iracleB confir'ation of s)perh)'an po+er ard caste character, nat)re

Ca)han CCa)hanD a 2a3p)t $ul

Chitor CCitod or Cita)dD

a for'er capital of 9e+ar

chota "hai 2a3p)t little rother 2a3p)tB a villa!e 2a3p)t, +ho Cchota hai clai's descent fro' a yo)n!er rother of 2a3p)tD a r)ler Chota Battis 0hikana CChota Battis 0hikana Little 0hirty5t+o 0hikanaB a thikana elon!in! to a !ro)p of 9e+ari estates ranked 3)st elo+ the Bara Battis 0hikanas kite, ird of prey f)neral pyre offsprin! of a 2a3p)t father and a lo+er5 caste consort a)spicio)s si!ht of a Hind) deity, a revered person, or a sacred place 9other of /ateB na'e of a !oddess +orshiped in 2a3asthan and for +ho' ten 4das 6 stories are told ill)stratin! the enefits of keepin! an ann)al vo+ for her festival cele ratin! the victory of 2a'a, hero of the Ramayan , over his de'on ne'esis 2avana yo)n!er rother5in5la+ !oddess, ter' often applied to the *anskritic :oddess 4-evi6

cil CcilD cita CcitaD -aro!a C-aro!aD

darshan CdarsanD

-asha'ata C-asa'ataD

-ashara C-asharaD

devar CdevarD devi CdeviD

7 2"9 7

+evimahatmya C-evi'ahat'yaD

part of the 9arkandeya UpanishadB te(t praisin! the :oddess, +ho is seen as )lti'ate realityB translated in Hindi as the +urga Path 4lesson of -)r!a6 d)tyB la+B c)sto'B order *anskritic le!al te(t

dharm Cdhar'D dharmashastra Cdhar'asastraD dho$ CdhokD -holi C-holiD doha CdohaD

respect paid a Hind) deity dr)''er caste short co)plet, often cha'pionin! heroic virt)es *anskritic !oddess +orshiped especially on 8avratri incarnation of *hiv associated +ith the r)lin! fa'ily of 9e+ar +o'en;s practice of coverin! their faces to preserve 'odesty in front of 'en and so'eti'es senior +o'en in their con3)!al ho)seholds !ro)p of people clai'in! spirit)al descent fro' a co''on preceptor fo)nder of the :)hil $ul of 9e+ar $ul to +hich the *isodiyas elon! a!rarian caste ,)alityB one of the three ,)alities, +hich are sattva , rajas , and tamas

-)r!a C-)r!aD

.klin! =i C.klin! =iD ghunghat C!h)n!hatD

gotra C!otraD

:)ha C:)haD :)hil C:)hilD :)3ar C:)3arD gun C!)nD

Hari 2ani CHadi 2aniD

2a3p)t heroine +ho sliced off her head to !ive to her h)s and as a 'e'ento +hen he +ent off to +ar divine sa!e, Bappa 2a+al;s spirit)al teacher traditional )r an ho)sehold that a 2a3p)t no le'an )sed +hen he ca'e to the state capital to serve in the kin!;s co)rt chosen deityB !od or !oddess chosen y an individ)al or fa'ily as a !)ardian deity history ?achvaha $uldevi

Harit CHaritD

haveli ChaveliD

ishtadevta CistadevtaD itihas CitihasD =a'vai 9ata C=a'vai 9ataD =at C=atD

a!rarian and 'artial caste especially n)'ero)s in Pan3a literally, kind or !en)sB irth !ro)p, caste, or caste !ro)p 4Hindi, 3a)har6 +o'an;s self5i''olation to avoid capt)re y ene'y forcesB 3e+elB proofB ,)alityB rit)al reven!e taken a!ainst an ene'y

jati C3atiD

jauhar C3a)harD

7 2%# 7 =hala C=halaD jhumjhar C3h)'3harD a 2a3p)t $ul literally, str)!!lerB hero +ho, havin! een decapitated in attle, e(acts reven!e for his death y killin! 'any ene'ies efore his ody falls to the !ro)nd a 2a3p)t $ul +hose 'e' ers incl)de the

?achvaha

C?achvahaD ?ali C?aliD

r)lers of =aip)r the Black :oddessB con,)eror of de'ons in the +evimahatmya $uldevi of a Caran $ul

?arni 9ata C?arni 9ataD ?ayasth C?ayasthD $hamp Ckha'pD

scri e caste

t+i!B kinship )nit et+een the sha$h and na$ co+herd !od, charioteer in the 7hagavad #ita B incarnation of >ishn) 'others of ?artikeya, the *anskritic +ar !od 'e' er of any +arrior caste

?rishna C?rsnaD

?rittikas C?rttikasD $shatriya CksatriyaD $ul Ck)lD

kinship )nit co'prisin! the lesser se!'entary )nits sha$h , $hamp , and na$ !oddess of a $ul or so'e lesser kinship )nit a for'er capital of 9e+arB a fortress constr)cted in r)!!ed hill co)ntry in the fifteenth cent)ry y 9aharana ?)' ha 'odesty, sha'e racelet +orn on the )pper ar'

$uldevi Ck)ldeviD

?)' hal!arh C?)' hal!adhD

laj Cla3D madaliyau C'adaliya)D aha"harat C9aha haratD

!reat epic relatin! the advent)res of the Pandava rothers

9ahara3a C9ahara3aD

!reat kin!B title )sed y r)lers of 'ost lar!e 2a3asthani statesB title )sed y a yo)n!er rother in the royal fa'ily of 9e+ar !reat kin!B title )sed y the r)ler of 9e+ar cre'ation !ro)nd in +hich the cenotaphs of sati s are fo)nd 4*anskrit, 9ahisha6 the B)ffalo -e'on +hose death at the hands of the !oddess -)r!a is told in the +evimahatmya and cele rated on the festival of 8avratri shiny foil )sed to adorn reli!io)s icons

9aharana C9aharanaD mahasatiyam C'ahasatiya'D 9ahish C9ahisD

malipanau C'alipana)D mandir C'andirD

Hind) te'ple

7 2%1 7 manvar C'anvarD rit)al toast or !ivin! of honorB in traditional 2a3p)t +eddin!s it can involve rit)al sharin! of alcohol and so'eti'es of opi)' mardana C'ardanaD 'ale ,)arters in a traditional 2a3p)t ho)sehold

9ar+ar C9arvadD state in north+estern 2a3asthan r)led y the 2atha)rs mata C'ataD mela C'elaD 9e+ar C9evadD 'otherB epithet of !oddesses reli!io)s festival, fair state in so)th+estern 2a3asthan r)led y

the *isodiyas 9ina C9inaD tri al !ro)p defeated y the ?achvahas on their arrival in the =aip)r area 9e+ari princess +ho left Chitor to eco'e a devotee of ?rishna enli!hten'ent 2atha)r $uldevi

9ira Bai C9ira BaiD mo$sh C'oksD 8a!anecha =i C8a!anecha =iD 8ai C8aiD nari CnariD 8avratri C8avratriD o$ CokD

ar er caste +o'an festival cele ratin! the defeat of 9ahish, the B)ffalo -e'on, y the !oddess -)r!a o servanceB prohi ition esta lished y a sativrata ,)een +ho i''olated herself +ith other 2a3p)t +o'en in the va)lts of a palace of Chitor literally, protectorB e' ossed pendant earin! a divine i'a!e and +orn y +o'en to protect their h)s ands the +ife of another

Pad'ini CPad'iniD

pala CpalaD

para$iya CparakiyaD parda CpardaD Parvati CParvatiD pativrata CpativrataD

literally, c)rtainB secl)sion of +o'en a *anskritic !oddess, +ife of *hiv +o'an +ho has taken a vo+ 4vrat 6 of devotion to her h)s and 4pati 6B a +ord often )sed to descri e any +ife +hose

h)s and is alive pitr CpitrD pitrani CpitraniD puja Cp)3aD 'ale ancestor fe'ale ancestor +orshipB devotional service to a deity at a te'ple or shrine priest +ho perfor's devotional services type of te(t, !enerally in *anskrit, that tells of EancientE 'atters, incl)din! 'any 'yths a o)t the !ods Brah'anical reli!io)s advisor to a 2a3p)t fa'ily ancestor e' ossed pendant +orn aro)nd the neckB see pala a ove

pujari Cp)3ariD purana Cp)ranaD

purohit Cp)rohitD

purvaj Cp)rva3D putli Cp)tliD

7 2%2 7 ra3a Cra3aD kin!, title )sed y r)lers of oth independent states and thi$anas son of a kin!B 'e' er of a 'ilitary caste hero of the epic, the Ramayan B an incarnation of >ishn) epic cele ratin! the deeds of ?in! 2a'

2a3p)t C2a3p)tD 2a' C2a'D

Ramayan C2a'ayanD 2ani'an!a C2ani'an!aD

!enealo!ist +ho records the irths and 'arria!es of 2a3p)t +o'en

2ani of =hansi C=hansi ki 2aniD

9aratha ,)een +ho died fi!htin! the British

2atha)r C2atha)dD 2a3p)t $ul +hose 'e' ers incl)de the r)lers of 9ar+ar ratijaga Crati3a!aD ni!ht +ake in +hich son!s to vario)s fa'ily deities are s)n! rup Cr)pD for', shapeB incarnation 4of a deity6

2)thi 2ani C2)thi the 1n!ry S)een, +ho felt ins)lted y her 2aniD h)s and;s attentions to dancin! !irls )t )lti'ately died a sati sadhu Csadh)D sa$a CsakaD holy 'anB +orld reno)ncer c)ttin! do+nB enterin! into attle +ith no e(pectation of s)ccess or s)rvivalB sacrifice 4"alidan 6 +orld reno)ncerB one +hose !oal is li eration fro' re irth the *even 9others associated +ith the Pleiades in *anskritic tradition h)s and;s ho)sehold !oodness, p)rity, tr)thB character !ood +o'anB a +o'an +ho dies on her h)s and;s f)neral pyre sati B a !)ardian of fa'ily fate and fort)ne

sannyasi CsannyasiD *apta'atrikas C*apta'atrkasD sasural Csas)ralD sat CsatD sati CsatiD

satimata Csati'ataD sativrata CsativrataD sattvic CsattvicD

+o'an +ho has taken a vo+ to 3oin her h)s and in the afterlife characteri@ed y sat

seva CsevaD sha$h CsakhD

+orship, service of a !od or h)s and ranchB kinship )nit et+een $ul and $hamp po+er, stren!th associated +ith +o'en and !oddessesB consort !oddessB epithet of the :oddess 4*hakti6 'odesty, shyness

sha$ti CsaktiD

sharam Csara'D

7 2%" 7 *hila 9ata C*ila 9ataD *hiv C*ivD shrap CsrapD sindur Csind)rD !oddess +hose shrine in 1' er is patroni@ed y the r)lin! fa'ily of =aip)r *anskritic deity, h)s and of Parvati 4Hindi and *anskrit, shap6 c)rse ver'ilion

*isodiya C*isodiyaD 2a3p)t $ul a'on! +hose 'e' ers are the r)lers of 9e+ar *kand C*kandD *olah 0hikana C*olah 0hikanaD ?artikeya, !od of +ar *i(teen 0hikanaB a thikana elon!in! to the !ro)p of 9e+ar estates ranked hi!hest 'etals'ith caste pativrata B a +o'an +hose h)s and is alive fa'ily 4vamsh 6 of the s)n, the one to

*oni C*oniD suhagin Cs)ha!inD

*)ryava'sh

C*)ryava'sD sva$iya CsvakiyaD tapas CtapasD ta'lif CtakliphD tha$ur Cthak)rD tha$urani Cthak)raniD thapana CthapanaD

+hich the *isodiya :)hils elon! one;s o+n +ife heat !enerated y ascetic penances tro) le, diffic)lty no le'an, kin! no le+o'an, ,)een

4Hindi, sthapana6 placeB si'ple shrine to a deity estate r)led y a no le'an trident, associated +ith !oddesses and *hiv livin! satimata fro' so)th+estern 2a3asthan initiation cere'ony for hi!h5caste Hind) 'enB spirit)al re irth 'e' er of any one of a n)' er of a!ric)lt)ral or 'erchant castes fa'ilyB the lar!est 2a3p)t kinship !ro)p, +hich co'prises vario)s $uls

thi$ana CthikanaD trishul Ctris)lD

U'ca *ati'ata CU'ca *ati'ataD upanayan C)panayanD vaishya CvaisyaD

vamsh Cva'sD

vrnashramadharma *anskritic code of d)ties artic)lated in Cvarnasra'adhar'a dhar'ashastric literat)re and pertainin! D to caste and the sta!es of life for hi!h5 caste 'en vir CvirD hero

virgati Cvir!atiD

literally, the !oal of heroes, +arrior heaven vo+ +o'en;s ,)arters in a traditional 2a3p)t ho)sehold

vrat CvratD 2anana C@ananaD

7 2%$ 7

4i;liograp&y
4oo*s and !rti)les
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*h)l'an, -avid -ean. The 1ing and the Clo&n in )outh .ndian Princeton University Press, 19G$. *h)l'an, -avid -ean. Tamil Temple yths: )acrifice and +ivine Tradition . Princeton: Princeton University Press, 19G#.

*hya'aldas, ?avira3. 4ir 4inod . % vols. Udaip)r, privately p) lished y the 9e+ar dar ar Cca. 1GG%D C2eiss)ed. -elhi: 9otilal Banarsidass, 19GJD. *in!er, 9ilton. E0he :reat 0radition in a 9etropolitan Center: 9adras.E &n Traditional .ndia: )tructure and Change , 1%15G2. 1)stin: University of 0e(as Press, 19$9. *o'ani, 2a' >alla h. !istory of 19AJ. e&ar :From earliest times to >D?> (.+.; . =aip)r: C. L. 2anka,

*onthei'er, :)nther -. EHero and *ati5stones in 9aharasthra.E &n emorial )tones: ( )tudy of Their %rigin3 )ignificance3 and 4ariety , ed. *. *ettar and :)nther -. *onthei'er, 2J15G1. -har+ad: &nstit)te of 1rt History, ?arnatak University and Heidel er!: *o)th 1sia &nstit)te, University of Heidel er!, 19G2. *onthei'er, :)nther -. Pastoral +eities in Western .ndia , trans. 1nne /eldha)s. F(ford: F(ford University Press, 19G9. *tan!roo', Cynthia Packart. E0he -evelop'ent of the 9edieval *tyle in 2a3asthan: 8inth and 0enth Cent)ries.E Ph.-. dissertation, Harvard University, 19GG. *tern, Henri. ELe te'ple d;.klin!3i et le roya)'e d) 9e+ar 42a3asthan6, 4rapport a) divin, roya)tM et territoire: so)rces d;)ne 'aVtrise6.E Purusartha: )ciences )ociales en (sie du )ud 1# 419GJ6: 1$5"#. 0a' iah, *. =. E/ro' >arna to Caste thro)!h 9i(ed Unions.E &n The Character of 1inship , ed. =ack :oody, 1915229. Ca' rid!e: Ca' rid!e University Press, 19A". 0ara o)t, :iles. )acrifier et donner * voir en pays ala"ar: ,es fEtes de temple au 1erala :.nde du )ud; . Paris: .cole /ranLaise d;.(trW'e5Frient, 19GJ. 0hapar, 2o'ila. E-eath and the Hero.E &n ortality and .mmortality: The (nthropology and (rchaeology of +eath , ed. *. C. H)'phries and Helen ?in!, 29"5"1$. London: 1cade'ic Press, 19G2. 0hapar, 2o'ila. E&n History.E )eminar "%2, E*ati: a sy'posi)' on +ido+ i''olation and its social conte(tE 4/e r)ary 19GG6: 1%519. 0h)rstan, .d!ar. Castes and Tri"es of )outhern .ndia . A vols. 9adras: :overn'ent Press, 19#9.

0od, =a'es. (nnals and (nti'uities of Rajasthan . 2 vols. 1G29. 2eprint. -elhi: 9. 8. P) lishers, 19AG. 7 2$2 7 0)rner, >ictor. EBet+i(t and Bet+een: 0he Li'inal Period in 2ites de Passa!e.E &n The Forest of )ym"ols: (spects of Ndem"u Religion , 9"5111. &thaca: Cornell University Press, 19JA. 0)rner, >ictor. E*y' ols in 8de' ) 2it)al.E &n The Forest of )ym"ols: (spects of Ndem"u Religion , 195%A. &thaca: Cornell University Press, 19JA. van B)itenen, =. 1. B. The 7hagavadgita in the 19G1. aha"harata . Chica!o: University of Chica!o Press,

>idal, -ennis. ELe p)its et le sanct)aire. Fr!anisation c)lt)elle et so)verainetM dans )ne ancienne principa)tM de l;Hi'alaya occidentale.E Purusartha: )ciences )ociales en (sie du )ud 1# 419GJ6: "15 $%. <adley, *)san *no+. EPo+er in Hind) &deolo!y and Practice.E &n The Ne& Wind: Changing .dentities in )outh (sia , ed. ?enneth -avid, 1""5$$. 0he Ha!)e: 9o)ton, 19AA. <adley, *)san *no+. )ha$ti: Po&er in the Conceptual )tructure of 1arimpur Religion . Chica!o: -epart'ent of 1nthropolo!y, University of Chica!o, 19A$. <adley, *)san *no+., ed. The Po&ers of Tamil Women . *o)th 1sia *eries, no. J. *yrac)se: *yrac)se University, 19G#. <eis'an, *teven 2., E&ndian <ido+;s -eath at Pyre Creates *hrine,E Ne& 0or$ Times , 19 *epte' er 19GA. Kal'an, 8)r. 8nder the 7o Tree: )tudies in Caste3 1inship3 and Berkeley: University of California Press, 19JA. Oaehner, 2. C. !indu )criptures . London: -ent, 19JJ. Oie!ler, 8or'an. E1ction, Po+er, and *ervice in 2a3asthani C)lt)re: 1 *ocial History of the 2a3p)ts of 9iddle Period 2a3asthan.E Ph.-. dissertation, University of Chica!o, 19A". arriage in the .nterior of Ceylon .

Films
(n .ndian Pilgrimage: Ramdevra . 9adison: University of <isconsin C19AAD. )itala in )pring . =oint vent)re of *hape /il's and University of <isconsin. Calc)tta: *hape /il's C19GAD.

"amp&lets
1nil, 2a3k)'ar. Rajasthan $e +urg . -elhi: *ahitya Prakashan, 19G%. Cat)rsen, 1carya. Rajput Nariyam . -elhi: Pra hat Prakashan, 19G%.

"eriodi)als
anushi , nos. %25%", special do) le iss)e, *epte' er55-ece' er 19GA. )eminar "%2, E*ati: a sy'posi)' on +ido+ i''olation and its social conte(tE 4/e r)ary 19GG6.

7 2$" 7

Inde1
!
1d 9ata, $% 5$$, A1 , A9 adoption of children, 1%# 1har, 112 511" 1indri, G2 1la5)d5din, "# , 1#A B and Pad'ini, 1G" alcohol, and sat , 129 . )ee also +ine 1' a 9ata, J# ancestors 4pitrani 6: fe'ale +arriors, A1 5A2B and ori!in of $uls , 2A B possession y, JA 5JGB stat)s of, 119 annadata 4E!iver of !rainE6, 2a3p)ts as, 122 (nnals and (nti'uities of Rajasthan 40od6, 2 5% 1nnap)rna, J# 1rdhanarishvara, 191 aristocracy: intervie+s +ith, 1$ 519B as preservers of tradition, 1$ ascetics, s)spicion of fe'ale, 21A 1shap)ra, $J 5$A, J# , J" 1vri 9ata, %9

4
Bala *ati'ata, 1A2 51A"B life of, 1A" 51A%B po+ers of, 1A% 51A$ "alidan 4sacrifice6, 12" B

sati as, 1"# . )ee also sacrifice Ban 9ata, "2 , J# , J2 , AA 5AG, 1#1 B arrival in ne+ kin!do' thro)!h 'arria!e, 1## , 1#2 Banas)r, a de'on, J# 5J1 "aniyas 4'erchants6, 122 512" Bappa 2a+al, 29 5"#B s)pernat)ral instr)ction of, AA 5AG Bara Battis 4Bi! 0hirty5t+o6 0hikanas, "" , "% attlefield: arena of $uldevis , $9 5J#, J2 , G$ B case of Pad'ini on, 1G% , 1GJ , 1GA B death on, J2 B role of +o'en in co' atin! co+ardice on, 1$9 B and traditional !oals of 'en, 1#J , 1GG Bhairava, %A "ha$t 4devotee of a deity6, 2#$ 5222B co'parison of Pad'ini and 9ira Bai, 21" 5222B livin! satimata as, 1AA , 22A 522GB story of 9ira Bai, 2#J 5212 "ha$ti 4e'otional attach'ent to a deity6: of 9ira Bai, 22# 5221B per'issi le in the ho'e, 221 "ha$ti yo!a, efittin! +ido+hood, 1AA , 222 hav: as possession, JJ 5JGB as )r!e, 129 Bher) =i 4Bhairava6, !)ardian deity, G$ , 2"" 52"%B possession y, JJ 5JAB sho+n on pendants, G2 "hopa 4'edi)' possessed y vario)s deities6: and Bher) =i, JA B revelation of satimata ;s p)rpose y, 1"J ird i'a!ery, $9 5J#

lessin! 4ashirvad 6, po+er of sativrata to !ive, 1"G lood offerin!s, 1#" 51#% "olma 4vo+ connected +ith specific pro'ise6, %G 5%9 Bond, =a'es, % Brah'anis, G2 , 1"A 7 2$% 7 Brah'ans: !enerosity of 2a3p)ts to, 122 B role of in 2a3p)t fa'ilies, %9 B and sat , 12A ride: chan!e of $uldevi y, 9" B e'otions at +eddin!, 91 592B !rad)al acceptance of ne+ $uldevi , 9J 59AB loyalty to old $uldevi so)rce of friction, 9" 59JB 9ira as, 21G B relation of $uldevi to, 1## 51#1B +orship of satimata y, 1"J . )ee also 'arria!e Britain: adaptation to, "2 B 2a3p)t treaties +ith, 2$ )ffalo, rit)al slayin! of, J1 , J" , GG B)kh 9ata 4H)n!ry 9other6, J2 B story of, 1#A 51#G

Ca')nda, G2 B story of, G$ Candi, G2 Carans 4 ards6: and ed)cation of 2a3p)t oys, $# B lost as ards, $"

caste: attle the d)ty of 'en, $9 , 12G 5129, 22$ B d)ties of for +o'en, 2 , 12G B and !ender, J" , 1J9 B and the $uldevi , GJ B and the livin! satimata , 1A9 B ,)alities of 2a3p)ts, 12J 512AB and the 2a3p)t pativrata , 22" B and sa$a , 122 B and satimatas , 12# 5121 Ca)han $ul , "% chastity: of the heroine in attle, 191 B and honor, 1JJ B and h)s and as protector, 1JJ B of the pativrata , 1$J 51$AB +o'en;s vie+ of, 1J% , 1JJ children: relationship of $uldevi to, A# B sta!es of learnin! y 'ale child, AG Chitor, J B sack of, "# B and Pad'ini, 1G% , 1GJ n$ Chota Battis 4Lesser 0hirty5t+o6 0hikanas, "" chota "hai 4Elittle rotherE6 2a3p)ts, 9 , 1$ B intervie+s +ith, 1$ City Palace, Udaip)r, % classes 42a3p)t6: chota "hai , 9 B maharajas , J B nonaristocrats, 9 B rajas , J 59B in Udaip)r, J 59 clothin!, colors of, 1%J

colle!e, for +o'en, %1 consorts, stat)s of, 1%$ Co)rtri!ht, Pa)l, 12# n1% co+, seen as 'aternal fi!)re, AG C)'davat, "" c)res, y livin! satimatas , 1A% 51A$ c)rse 4shrap 6, 1"9 51%J, 2"% B contin!ent, 1"9 51%#B effect on +o'en, 1%# B not c)sto'ary for livin! satimatas , 1AG B o)tside the con3)!al fa'ily, 1%1 B po+er of sativrata to !ive, 1"G B as protective, 1%2 B as p)nish'ent +itho)t protection, 1%2 51%"B relation to o$ , 1%G 51%9B +o'en as interpreters of, 1$G B )nconditioned, 1"9 51%#

3
-aro!as 4offsprin! of 2a3p)t fathers and lo+er5caste consorts6, 121 , 1"A , 1%$ -asha'ata vrat , %$ 5%JB strin! necklace of, %J da)!hters, trainin! of, A2 da)!hters5in5la+: declinin! interest in learnin! fa'ily traditions, 2"# B persistence of resistance to ne+ reli!io)s tradition y, 9G B senior and others, 9A B sharin! of $ul 'yths y, 99 -avis, 9arvin, 12J 512A death: on attlefield for 'en, 1#J 51#AB of heroines, 1G9 B as ina)spicio)s, 1$# B of jhumjhars , 19A 5199B

of 9ira Bai, 211 5212B in the Pad'ini story, 19% B parado( of, 1#9 B of the sati as 'etaphorical, 22J B as )lti'ate sacrifice, 121 dehydration: as $uldevi p)nish'ent, J9 B restoration of fl)ids, A# deities: Bher) =i, JJ 5JA, G$ , 2"" 52"%B .klin! =i, %G nJ", AG B ?rishna, 2#$ 52#A, 21G 5219B linea!e, 11 B scholarship on, 1# 511B *hiv, %1 , AG , 191 , 221 B t)telary, 11 . *ee also $uldevi B !oddesses -elhi, "2 -el+ara, 1$ -e8o ili, 2o ert, 1$1 -evi 4*anskritic !oddess6, G$ , 9$ +evimahatmya , 1#% , 19# +harmasindu , 1"2 dho$ 4prostration6, %J , GJ , 2"% B of ride to h)s and;s $uldevi , 92 B to $uldevis , GA B re,)ire'ents for, %J 5%A -holhins 4fe'ale dr)''ers6, 1"A donation: as code of 2a3p)t 'en, 122 512"B y 2a3p)t +o'en, 12" drea's: appearances of $uldevis to +o'en in, G9 B appearances of satimatas , 1"% 51"$

dress: for da)!hters, "9 B for da)!hters5in5la+, "9 -)r!a, %$ , $A B and the $uldevi , J# B and 8avratri, J1 , 1#% B and *anskritic :oddess, 9$ B and *hila 9ata, 1#% B vir!inity of, A1 -varaka, 2#A

E
ed)cation: of 'ale child, AG B ne+ e'phasis on, "$ B of 2a3p)t oys, %9 5$#B for +o'en, %1 .klin! =i, %G nJ", AG B and 9ira Bai, 2#J e(o!a'y, i'portance of $ul in, "1 7 2$$ 7

F
fa'ily: protection of ride;s old $uldevi , 9% 59$ satimata as protector of, 1"" 51"G fastin!, %$ d)rin! 8avratri festival, GG fertility: and chastity, 1$A $uldevi ;s f)nction as pro'oter of, G% 5GJ pro'oted y livin! satimatas , 1A$ 51AJ fl)ids: !ivin! of y $uldevis , A#

!ivin! of y pativrata , A# )ee also dehydration forest, 9ira Bai in, 21$ 521J fo)ndation 'yths, $" , $% 5J% 1d 9ata, $% 5$$, $9 1shap)ra, $J 5$A, J# Ban 9ata, $A , J# and caste, J" 5J% evol)tion of in retellin!, 99 51## and -)r!a, J1 5J2 f)nda'ental points of, $9 5J# =a'vai 9ata, $$ 5$J, $9 , J# 8a!anecha =i, $J , $9 versions of, $% nJ /o(, 2ichard, %"

:an!a)r, 1%# !ender: and caste, J" , 1J9 and devotional traditions, 1A 519 and the $uldevi , GJ and the 2a3p)t pativrata , 22" )ee also 'enB +o'en !enealo!y: fe'ale, $# kept y Carans, $# of 2a3p)ts, 2J 5"" ghunghat 4coverin! the face6, GJ :irnar, 1## !oddesses: early career as $uldevis , $2 B $uldevi as one of seven !oddesses, A9 5G2 li'its on $uldevi as +arrior !oddess, A# 5A1

*anskritic, J# 5J1, AJ gopis 4devotees of ?rishna6, and 9ira;s relation to ?rishna, 219 gotra 4!ro)p of people clai'in! descent fro' a co''on sa!e6, "1 :)ha, 2A 52G first soverei!n of line in Chitor, 29 story of ill)stratin! sat , 12% 512$, 12G :)hil $ul , 2A , "# and *isodiyas, "1 5"2 :)3ar caste, story of +o'an of, 1%2 51%", 1%% 51%$ gun 4,)ality6, 12J !)r): instr)ction y, AG livin! satimata as, 1AJ 51AA

H
hair c)ttin!, of children, 1%G Hari 2ani, 1J# , 1J% , 1JJ , 1J9 , 2## , 2#2 co'parison +ith Pad'ini, 19J and jhumjhars , 19G 5199 sy' olis' of, 199 52## Harit, instr)ction of Bappa y, AG havelis 4)r an 'ansions6, 19 heat 4garmi 6, prod)ced y sat , 129 heroes: Bappa 2a+al, 29 5"# :)ha, 2A 529 jhumjhars as, 19A 52#1 si'ilarity +ith heroines, 19A stat)s of, 1G9 heroines, 1G2 52#% cases for co'parison, 19$ 52#1 conte(t of, 2## as !oodness, 2#1 52#% 'ale role of, 2#1 , 22%

'yths of, $# 5$1 of 2a3p)t +o'en, 1# si'ilarity +ith heroes, 19A stat)s of, 1G9 s) stit)tin! for a h)s and, 1G9 tale of Pad'ini, 1G" 519$ )ee also Hari 2aniB 2ani of =hansi history 4itihas 6, 'ale do'ain, $" of 2a3p)ts, 2$ 52J ho)sehold: pativratas seen as protector of, J% relation of $uldevi to, A# ho)sehold stories, J% 5GJ aid y $uldevis in, J% for' of $uldevis in, J$ $ul !oddess and fa'ily !oddess, AA 'ilitancy of 2a3p)t +o'en, A2 5AJ and possession, JJ p)nish'ent y $uldevis , J9 +arnin!s y $uldevis , JG h)s and5protector, +ife;s role as, %$ h)s ands: Pad'ini s) stit)tin! for, 1GG role of volition in not o eyin!, 1$J 51A2 +ife;s d)ty in pro'otin! caste d)ties of, 1J2 51J% hyper!a'y, %2 5%"

I
identity, 2a3p)t: i'portance of !enealo!y, 2J $ul , "1 5"2 sha$h , "1 i''olation: to avoid +ido+hood, %%

no+ rare and conde'ned, 11G veneration of satimata , 12 51" *ee also sati B sativrata &nden, 2onald B., 2#1 &ndependence, a shock to 2a3asthan, 2J inheritance, and the $ul , "2 intention: i'portance of in ne!otiatin! o)ndaries, 22J 522A key to Pad'ini;s actions, 1GA role of for livin! satimata , 1AG 51A9 )ee also volition intervie+s: ack!ro)nd of, 22G 52"1 +ith chota "hai 2a3p)ts, 1$ classes incl)ded, 1$ , 229 lan!)a!e of, 2# , 229 +ith no le+o'en, 1A other so)rces of infor'ation, 22 o)tline of, 2"" 52"$ pro le's of access, 19 strate!y of, 229 52"1 s) 3ect of, 19 52# ishtadevta 4chosen deity6, %G , 2"% ride;s natal $uldevi as, 9% 59$

2
=aip)r, 2A different style of life in, 2" intervie+s in, 1A r)lin! $ul of, "2 =a'vai 9ata, $$ 5$J, $9 , J# , AA , G$ and *hila 9ata, 1#2 51#% jati 4caste6, 2a3p)t, 9 , 2J )ee also caste

jauhar 4self5i''olation to avoid capt)re y ene'y forces6, 1G2 , 22% clothin! for, 19" 'eanin! of, 1G% n2 and :continued on ne-t page; 7 2$J 7 :continued from previous page; Pad'ini, 1G% 51G$ p)rposes of, 1G% 51G$ 3e+elry: ans on, 1%A of the sati , 1$1 51$2 =hala $ul , "% , $% jhumjhar 4+arrior +ho contin)es fi!htin! after death6, %A , 19A 5199, 2"% =odhp)r, 2A intervie+s in, 1A

5
?achvaha $ul , 2A , "2 , $$ and =a'vai 9ata, $$ 5$J, 1#2 , 1#" and *hila 9ata, 1#2 51#" ?ali, G2 and *hila 9ata, 1#$ ?alika, G2 ?alika 9ata, J# and Ban 9ata, 1## ?arni 9ata, %9 , A1 ?edar, $uldevi of, 1#% ?el+a, 1$ ?halap)r, %" $hamp 4t+i!6, "# of *isodiya, "" kin!. *ee tha$ur< maharaja< maharana

?rishna: devotion of 9ira Bai to, 2#$ 52#A 9ira as ride of, 21G 5219 poe' of 9ira to, 21$ )ee also 9ira Bai $ul 4fa'ily6, 1# ride;s chan!e of, 92 59", 9$ deity traditions of, 12 and e(o!a'y, "1 inheritance thro)!h, "2 kinship )nits )nder, "# $uldevi as protector of, J9 5A#, 11# 5111 lack of political f)nction, "" and 'arria!e, %2 , 92 and the satimata , 1A# s) sidiary of vamsh , 2A +o'en;s conception of, J% , 1A# $uldevi 4!oddess of the $ul 6, 1# , 11 512 association +ith kin!s, $9 , J" attle5field as arena of, $9 5J#, J2 , G$ , 1A# , 22" and Bher) =i, JJ 5JA ride;s alle!iance to natal, 9% 59G characteristics of insin)ation of t+o roles y, A9 co'')nication y visions and +arnin!s, JG do'ains of 3)risdiction, 22" fo)ndation 'yths, $% 5J% as ho)sehold protector, A# , 22" intervie+s related to, 19 as lovin! 'others, A9 'odern aspects of, 1#9 5111, 22$ as one of !ro)p of seven !oddesses, A9 5G2 as pri'arily protective, AJ priority and tradition of satis and, 1J9 51A2 p)nish'ent y, J9

and the ratijaga , %A relation to fertility, G% 5G$ relationship +ith +o'en, vs. 'en, A# , A1 and satimata , 1"" 51"% scholarship on, 1# 511 as seen y +o'en, 12 vir!inity of, A1 +arrior5pativrata character of, AA , 1#A 51#G $uldevi tradition, $2 5111 acco'pani'ent of ride y $uldevi , 1## 51#2 ride;s e(pected chan!e of loyalty, 92 characteristics of in 'yth and story, $9 5J# diffic)lties of chan!e, 9A 599 displace'ent of one $uldevi y another, 1#" and dissonance, 92 51#J do) le nat)re of, 1#J effects of inter'arria!e +ith $ul , 99 in ho)sehold stories, J% 5GJ h)'an sacrifice, 1#G narrators of, $" reconciliation of con3)!al and natal $ul !oddess, 9% 59G traditional 'ale and fe'ale 'otivations, 1#J 5111 veneration in mardana and 2anana , GJ 59# $uldevta :$ul deity6, 11 protector of the $ul , "1 ?)' hal!arh, J , 1#G

L
Lake Palace, Udaip)r, % , $ livin! satimata , 1A2 51G1 availa ility of, 1AJ Bala *ati'ata, 1A2 51A" as !)r) and "ha$t , 1AA 'essa!es of, 1AJ

non52a3p)t, 1A9 po+ers of, 1A% 51AJ practice of "ha$ti y, 221 5222 si'ilar to sativrata , 1AG U'ca *ati'ata, 1A2 51A" )nion of pativrata and +ido+ "ha$t in, 22A 522G and 2anana tradition, 22J

,
9aha *inh, 19A aha"harat , %9 9ahar, 9ichael, %" maharaja 4!reat kin!6, J maharana 4!reat kin!6, J adoption of, "1 incident of s)ccession, "% 5"$ place in political str)ct)re, "" service of, "% mahasatiyam 4cre'ation !ro)nd6, veneration of satimatas at, 1"A 9ahishas)r, J1 5J2 9an *inh, "2 , 1#" mandir 4Hind) te'ple6, 2"$ manvar 4rit)al toast6, +o'en;s acceptance of, 12G mardana 4'ale ,)arters6: in estates, 1A $uldevi veneration in, GJ 59# puja in, %G traditions of, "A +o'en;s responsi ility for +orship in, G9 9ar!lin, /rMdMri,)e, 219 'arria!e: and acco''odation to chan!e, "9 arran!ed, %1 5%2 ehavior after, %" 5%%

et+een 2a3p)ts and non52a3p)ts, 1%$ , 1%$ n$9 and co'petin! fe'ale roles, 1#J hyper!a'y, %2 5%" and $ul 'e' ership, %2 E'arryin! +est,E %" 'er!in! of 'ale and fe'ale, 191 7 2$A 7 9arriott, 9c?i', 2#1 9ar+ar: $uldevi fro', 1#1 in solar vamsh , 2A 9ata =i 49other6, AG epithet of all $uldevis , A9 'eat, )se of y 2a3p)ts, 12A , 2"% 'en: code of sacrificin! a'on! 2a3p)ts, 121 512" conflict in d)ties of, 19# and history, $" and $uldevi tradition, $2 5$", J" 5J% 'ale space clai'ed y heroines, 22% 8avratri o servance y, GG relationship of $uldevi to, A# , AA traditional 'otivation of, 1#J 5111 )se of 'eat and +ine y, 12A +orship of $uldevi y, GA 9e+ar, % 5$ and Ban 9ata, 1## , 1#1 fo)ndin! father of, 29 5"1 pendants of $uldevi6matri$as +orn in, G2 plains of, $ 5J political str)ct)re of, "" 5"A to)rist literat)re of, 2 vamsh of, 2A

9e+ari, dialect of Udaip)r, 229 9ira Bai: attit)des to+ard, 211 as "ha$t , 21J celi acy of, 22# co'pared to Pad'ini, 21" 5222 conflict of "ha$t and pativrata , 2#9 , 21A co)ra!e of, 2#G d)ties thro)!h spatial inversion, 22% in the forest, 21$ 521J as :od;s pativrata , 22# as heroine, 1G" , 2#% , 222 'ale role of, 21J 521A, 21G 5219 not a pativrata , 2#9 , 22# n2G o li,)e e')lation of, 2#9 , 212 role of intention in, 22A sati 5like death of, 22$ stories a o)t, 1% , 19% story of, 2#J 5212 )ne,)ivocal devotion of, 21G 'otivation, of heroines, 2#2 , 2#" 9)sli's, adaptation to, "2 'yths: chan!es in retellin!, 99 Efo)ndation,E $" , $% 5J% of heroines, $# 5$1 of jhumijhars , 19A and the 2a3p)t pativrata , 22" of *hila 9ata, 1#2 51#". )ee also fo)ndation 'yths

N
8a!anecha =i, $J , 1#1 , 1#2 position in Ban 9ata;s te'ple, 1#1 , 1#1 51#2n2%

Nainsi ri 1hyat , 12% story of :)ha in, 12% 512$, 12G na$ 4t+i!5tip6, "# 8avratri, festival of, $9 , J1 , 1%# lood offerin!s at, 1#% i'portance of, 11# $uldevi +orship d)rin!, GA 5GG 8avratri vo+, %$ Ne& 0or$ Times , 1" no ility, as keepers of tradition, 1$ no le+o'en: access to, 19 chosen for intervie+s, 1A pil!ri'a!es of, %9

O
F eyesekere, :ananath, 22# %ctopussy 4=a'es Bond6, % o$ 4o servanceB c)sto'B prohi ition esta lished y sativrata 6, 1"G , 1%J 51$", 2"% and a)spicio)sness, 1%9 51$#, 1$2 ans applied to +o'en, 1%A ans i'posed y, 1%J 51%A ans related to children, 1%A 51%G not c)sto'ary for livin! satimatas , 1AG role of volition in not o servin!, 1$% 51$J and relation +ith satimata , 1%G and shrap , 1%G 51%9 opi)', and sat , 129

"
Pa ) =i, 19G Pad'ini, 1G2 , 2## , 2#G co'parison +ith Hari 2ani, 19J 519A co'parison +ith 9ira Bai, 21" 5222 co'parison +ith 2ani of =hansi, 19$ 519J

d)ties thro)!h spatial inversion, 22% 522$ 'er!in! of 'ale and fe'ale roles in, 192 , 21J parda a andoned y, 1GJ 51GA, 1GG as pativrata , 2#$ possession of sat , 192 519", 2#2 and role of intention, 22A as sati , 1G$ 51GJ, 22$ tale of, 1% , 1G" 519$ )ne,)ivocal devotion of, 21G pal 4protector6, added to na'es, "J Pa'var $ul , "% Parda 4secl)sion of +o'en6: and access to te'ples, GJ i'portance of preservin!, 2# internali@ation of, 19# leavin! of y heroines, 1GJ 51GG, 19A 'odern versions of, "G 5"9 and preparation for 'arria!e, "9 preserved y 2a3p)t +o'en, 22J , 2"1 and the protection of +o'en, "A relation to sati , 1"2 51"" role of intention in 'odern version, 22A tho)!ht essential to ar'y life, 1GG violated y Pad'ini and 9ira, 21" Parvati, 191 and the $uldevi , J# pativrata 4one +ho has vo+ed to protect her h)s and6, %$ asic +ays of, 119 and "ha$ti , 221 as !ood +o'an, 22" and the $uldvis , J% , J9 , AA , GA $uldevi spheres of activity, 22" 522% occasional 'ilitancy of, A2 and parda , 1"2 51"", 22J

po+er of sati in relation to, 1JA , 2#" pre'ises of, 22" as 2a3p)t, 22" role re3ected and paradi!' reaffir'ed, 1G" sati as confir'ation of ideal, 12% , 1"# s)periority of 2a3p)t +o'en as, 22$ 522J traditional 'otivation of +o'en, 1#J 51#A, 11G and traditional 'yths, $1 patrona!e, of 2a3p)t 'en, 12" 7 2$G 7 pendants 4pala 6: and fertility, G$ identification of $uldevis on, 9J of $uldevimatri$as , G2 Pichola, Lake, % pil!ri'a!es, and "olma , %9 pitr6pitanis 4ordinary ancestors6, 1"J political str)ct)re: and the $ul , "" of 9e+ar, "" 5"A poly!a'y: and choice of +ife, %2 necessity for, 1"9 possession 4"hav 6: y ancestors, JA 5JG avoidance y 'en, JA avoidance y satimatas , 1"J y Bher) =i, JJ 5JA y !oddess, JJ and lo+5caste people, JA pri'o!enit)re, 9 protection: y $uldevi of fa'ily in ride;s ne+ ho'e, 9% 59$

2a3p)t r)lers; role in, "J and reli!ion, %$ 5%9 re'ainin! ideal of 2a3p)t +o'en, 22$ and role of the $uldevi , AA and the role of +o'en, "J 5"A, 11G 5119 of +o'en y $uldevi , $% , J" +o'en;s conception of, J% puja 4+orship6, %A 5%G, G$ in $uldevi te'ple, GA and 9ira Bai, 2#$ , 2#A 'istakes in, G9 pujari 4te'ple officiant6, %9 5$# and satimata +orship, 1"A puranas , 11# purohit 4Brah'anical reli!io)s adviser6, %9 5$# appearance of satimata to, 1"% P)r)sha, 1"1 purvaj 4ancestor6, 2"% possession y, JA 5JG

R
2adha, 21G raja 4kin!6, J 5A rajas 4passion, activity6, associated +ith 2a3p)ts, 12J 2a3asthan: )nder British r)le, 1 classes in, J dress of, $ field+ork in, 1 52 'arria!e in, %" and the 2a3p)ts, 2$ 5$1 )ni,)eness of, J . )ee also Udaip)r 2a3p)t:

caste of, 1 , 9 classes of, J 51# code of sacrificin! a'on!, 121 co''on traditions, 1# d)ty of !ivin! y, 122 512" !enealo!y and identity, 2J 5"" Ehi!hE as preservers of tradition, 1$ and idea of livin! satimata , 1A9 'eanin! of ter', 1 'odern aspects of $uldevis for, 1#9 5111, 22" political str)ct)re of, "" 5"A present occ)pations of, "$ as protectors, "J ,)alities of, 12J 512A and 2a3asthan, 2$ 5$1 rearin! children of, "$ B recent history of, 2$ 52J and role of +o'en, "J 5"A, 121 on satimata as ideal, 12# 51"" )se of 'eat and +ine y, 12A +o'en;s traditions and life sta!es, "A 5%$ 2a3p)tni 4fe'ale 2a3p)t6: and the heroic paradi!', 1G2 i'a!es of as +arriors, A2 5A$ occasional 'ilitancy of, A2 5AJ role of volition in ideal of satis , 1$% 51G1 task of +ives a'on!, 1J9 )se of jauhar a'on!, 1G% 51G$ 2a' -ev, %9 Ramayan , %9 2anavat $hamp , "1 2an a3khan, 19A 2ani of =hansi, 1G9 , 191 , 2## , 2#2 co'parison +ith Pad'ini, 19$ 519J, 19A

2atha)r $ul , 2A and 8a!anecha =i, $J and *isodiyas, "1 , "% ratijaga 4ni!ht +ake6, %A sin!in! in 2anana to satimata , 1"A re ellion, as a +ay of reali@in! d)ty, 1JG reli!ion, and protection, %$ 5%9 "olma , %G 5%9 honorin! ho)sehold deities, %J 5%A puja , %A 5%G ratijaga , %A vrats , %$ 5%J reli!io)s cere'onies, diffic)lt access to for +o'en, "G re'arria!e, for idden, %% , 1%A ren)nciation, and +ifely d)ty, 1$G research process, 1% 52% intervie+s +ith aristocracy, 1$ other so)rces of infor'ation, 22 , 2% pro le's of access, 19 52# storytellin! process, 2# Rig 4eda , 1"1 royal +o'en: li'ited intervie+s +ith, 1A travels of, 1A 2)p ?an+ar, 1" 2)thi 2ani, 1J# 51J1, 1J% , 1JJ on s) stit)tin! for a h)s and, 1GG 51G9

S
sacrifice 4"alidan 6: as code of 2a3p)t 'en, 121 512" and Hari 2ani, 199 relation of sat to, 2#% of sati to her h)s and, 1"# 51"2, 1$A

of vir to his $uldevi , 1"# 51"1 sadhus , 9ira Bai;s association +ith, 21J , 21G 5219 sahagamini 4dyin! +o'an +ho has o)t5lived her h)s and6, 22% sa$a 4the c)ttin! do+nB sacrifice6, 122 , 12" *aktavat, "" *al)' ar, Lord of, "% sannyasi 4asceticB +orld reno)ncer6, 1$# , 1$2 *anskritic :oddess 4-evi6, J# 5J1 ride;s identification of $uldevis +ith, 9$ 59J epithets of on pendants, G2 'ilitant 7 2$9 7 aspects of, AJ polari@ed aspects of, AJ n$# *aran!devot, "" *apta'atrikas 4*even 9others6, in 2a3asthen, G2 sasural 4h)s and;s ho)sehold6, relation of ride;s $uldevi to, 1## 51#1, 1#2 sat 4!oodnessB character6, 12% as a)to!enerative 'oral f)el, 129 51"# of heroines, 2## 52#% and the livin! satimata , 1A" in 'ale and fe'ale conte(ts, 12% 512$ 'eanin!s of, 12J , 12G 5129 and parda , 1"2 , 1GG of satis , 1"1 51"", 1JA sati 4+o'an +ho i''olates herself on her h)s and;s pyre6, 1# c)rses on o)tsiders, 1%2 51%" as end)rin! ideal, 1G# eni!'a of, 1#G 51#9 as essentially 2a3p)t, 1"2 51"" holdin! head of h)s and, 1"1 i'position of shrap y, 1"9 51%J 'anifestation of sat , 129 51"#

'eanin! of, 11$ , 11G 'eanin! of death in, 19% as 'odern so)rce of inspiration, 12" 512%, 22J B pattern of protection and controversion in, 1JA , 1JG perfection of pativrata character, 1"# po+er ased on ren)nciation, 1$# and pre!nancy, 12$ n2%, 129 priority in $uldevi and sati traditions, 1J9 51A2 redefinition of, 22J and ratijaga , %A role of volition in ideal of, 1$% sacrifice to h)s and, 1"# 51"1 stat)s of, 1%J as sol)tion to spatial discontin)ity of $uldevi s, 22% stories of as paradi!'atic, 1JJ veneration of, 12 51", 11" *ee also satimata satimata 4a !)ardian of fa'ily fort)ne6, 2"% accessi ility of livin!, 1AJ lessin!s of, 1"G c)rses of, 1"9 51%" fle(i ility of +orship of, 1A# 51A1 f)nction of, 119 as ideal, 12# 51"" identity +ith ho)sehold, 1A# occasions for +orship of, 1"J as paradi!' that inte!rates aspects of 2a3p)t +o'en, 1$2 51$" place of +orship for, 1"A possession sh)nned y, JG as protector, 1$" ,)estion of dark side, 1%" 51%% as re'inder of rit)al responsi ilities, 1"% 51"$ stat)s of, 119 512# and sativrata , 1"G 51"9

veneration of, 12 51" +ho has not died, 1A2 +o'en as interpreters of, 1$G , 1A# )ee also livin! satimatas satimata tradition, 112 51G1 not dyin! as satis , 1A2 51G1 not o eyin! h)s ands, 1$J not o servin! o$ s, 1$% 51$J the o$ , 1%J 51$" satimata as fa'ily protector, 1"" 51"G satimata as ideal, 12# 51"" sativrata , the transitional state, 1"G 51"9 the shrap , 1"9 51%J sta!es of sati transfor'ation, 11G 512# sativrata 4+o'an +ho has taken a vo+ to 3oin her h)s and in afterlife6: a)spicio)s vs. ina)spicio)s in, 1$2 do) le nat)re of, 1$# 'eanin! of, 119 , 119 n12 po+ers of, 1"G transitional state, 1"G 51"9, 1G# 51G1 scalpin!, 1JJ self5i''olation, no+ rare and conde'ned, 11G se()ality, and role of +ife and 'other, 1$A sha$h 4 ranch6: defined, "# protected y a $uldevi , "1 shakti: as consort, G2 as the :oddess, J1 , A9 n$G, 9$ as $uldevi , $% nA, G2 as po+er or 'otivation, $9 , J# n1G, G2 , 1G$ n% and sat , 1G$ n% *hila 9ata, 1#2 51#" appeal of, 1#%

relation to =a'vai 9ata, 1#" 51#% *hiv, %1 , AG , 191 , 221 and Bappa 2a+al, AG fastin! to please, %$ 2a3p)t $uldevis associated +ith, G2 5G" )ee also .klin! =i shrap )ee c)rse *h)l'an, -avid, 212 sindur 4red po+der +orn in hair y 'arried +o'en6, an on, 1%A *inh 4lion6, added to !iven na'e, "J *isodiya, "# $ul na'e of, "1 'yths related to con,)ests y, 1## snake i'a!ery, $9 5J# and 8a!anecha =i, 1#1 *olah 0hikanas 4the !reat E*i(teen .statesE6, "" , "% *olar vamsh : 9e+ar a 'e' er, 2J other 'e' ers, 2A EstoriesE 4$ahaniyam 6: vs. history, $" B ho)sehold, J% 5GJ lack of rit)al conte(t, 2"# as +o'en;s concern, $" 5$% )ee also ho)sehold storiesB 'yths storytellin!, 'odern loss of, 2"# suhagin 4a +o'an +hose h)s and is alive6, and $uldevis , A1

T
tapas 4heat !enerated y ascetic penances6, and the yo!i, 1A" television: and decline of storytellin!, 2"# a pro le' in Udaip)r, 2# te'ples, 2"$

of Ban 9ata and ?alika 9ata, 1## of Ban 9ata in Udaip)r, 1#1 p) lic, not visited y 2a3p)t +o'en, 221 7 2J# 7 tha$ur 4kin!6, J 5A deference of, "$ 5"J in 9e+ar;s political str)ct)re, "" protection y $uldevi , $9 5J# role of as sacrificer and sacrificed, J1 5J2, J2 5J" +orship of $uldevi y, GA thapana 4si'ple shrine to a deity6, 2"$ for $uldevi +orship in 2anana , GA and satimata +orship, 1"A thi$anas 4estates6, 9 intervie+s in, 1A $uldevi +orship in, GJ visits to, 2" 0i3, 1%# 0od, =a'es, 2 5%, 1#A trishul 4trident6, sy' ol of $uldevi , 9$ t)telary deities, a' i!)ity of ter', 11

U
Udaip)r: )ildin!s of, % 5$ classes and traditions, J 51% dialect of, 229 description of, % 5$ layo)t of, % research process in, 1% 52% royalty in :)hil $ul , 2A site of field+ork, 2 in solar fa'ily, 2J

U'ca *ati'ata in, 1A" U'ca *ati'ata, 1A2 51A" po+ers of, 1A% 51AJ upanayan 4initiatory re irth6, AG

V
>aishnavi, G2 vamsh 4fa'ilyB lar!est 2a3p)t kinship )nit6, 2J , "1 in 2a3asthan, 2J varnashramadharma 4*anskritic code of d)ties6, 21$ , 21A ven!eance, not characteristic of sativrata s, 1%% >i3ay 2a3, J2 5J" vir 4hero6, death of, 1"# virangana 4heroines6, 1# volition: in not o eyin! h)s ands, 1$J 51A2 in not o eyin! o$ s, 1$% 51$J in not dyin! as sati s 1A2 51G1 vrat 4vo+6, %1 , %$ , 2"% 'odern escalation of, 11# of satimata , 119 ti'in! of, %$ 5%J vrat $atha 4stories acco'panyin! rit)al fasts6, 11# , 2"#

W
+eddin!, 2a3p)t: ride, 92 descri ed, 91 592 )ee also ride +ido+hood: of 9ira Bai, 21% and the sati rit)al, 1$2 +ido+s: "ha$ti of, 221 cons)'ption of 'eat and +ine y, 12G

life of, %% livin! satimata s as, 1AA 'odern interpretation of, 22A +ine, )se of y 2a3p)ts, 12A 512G, 2"% +o'en: access to reli!io)s cere'onies, "G ehavior after 'arria!e, %" 5%% and caste, J% conflict in roles of, 1#G connection et+een sat and pativrata , 129 dress of, %" ed)cation for, %1 e'phasis on ein! a !ood +ife, %1 5%2 favorite heroines of, 1% interpretations of parda , "G 5"9 3)stified ins) ordination of, 1JA $uldevi +orship y, GA 'arria!e of, %1 5%" in 'ilitary e'er!encies, A1 5A2 8avratri o servance y, GG and possession, JJ 5JA protection of, "J relationship +ith $uldevi , A# , AA royal and aristocratic, 1A traditional 'otivation of, 1#J 5111 traditional role of 2a3p)tni, 2 traditions and life sta!es, "A 5%$ traditions of, "A 5%$ )se of 'eat and +ine y, 12A 512G virt)es of 2a3p)tni, 12# )ee also rideB pativrata< Rajputni< satimata< sati

Y
yo!i, s)rvival of, 1A"

7
2anana 4fe'ale ,)arters6: arrival of $uldevi to $ul thro)!h, 1#2 as cos'opolitan, 2# $uldevi pendants in, G$ $uldevi veneration in, GJ 59#, 1A# $uldevis linked to, A# 5A1 as loc)s of reli!io)s chan!e, 1#J 'an;s visit to, 1J9 'odern adaptations of, 22J 522A Pad'ini;s a andonin! of, 1GG protection of pativratas in, 1GA satimata +orship in, 1"A , 1A# in traditional ho)seholds, 1A traditions of, "A *ee also mardana Oie!ler, 8or'an, "1 , 121 on sat , 12$ 512J 7 2J1 7 Co'positor: Princeton University Press 0e(t: *a on 1#/1" -isplay: *a on Printer: Princeton University Press Binder: Princeton University Press
Preferred Citation: Harlan, Lindsey. Religion and Rajput Women: The Ethic of Protection in Contemporary Narratives. Berkeley: University of California Press, c1992 1992. http://ark.cdli .or!/ark:/1"#"#/ft2!$##%k!/