Key philosophical themes within early Vedic discourse from the cosmogonic hymns of the gveda and the

Atharvaveda through the early Upaniads (Bhadrayaka, Chandogya, Kautaki, Aitareya, Taittirya). Raymond Lam Introduction This essay identifies and discusses ey philosophical themes within early Vedic discourse and the early Upaniads.! These themes run through the "cosmogonic# or speculati$e hymns of the gveda (V)% and the Atharvaveda (&V)' and the thought of the Bhadrayaka Upaniad (()*)+ Chandogya Upaniad (,*)+ Kautaki Upaniad (K*)+ Aitareya Upaniad (&*)+ and Taittirya Upaniad (T*). This paper is di$ided into three sections+ each of which feature -road philosophical ru-rics in the rele$ant te.ts. They are not chronological+ since assigning specific "phases# to the history of early Indian thought is not easy. Rather+ these ru-rics progress from what seem to ha$e -egun as ideas situated in the Vedic conte.t of worship (yaja)/ cosmogony+ thought and -eing+ and finally+ soteriological nowledge. The three themes will encompass more specific ideas/ for e.ample+ cosmogony co$ers se$eral
1 The Upaniads are secret teachings that served as the final sections of the brhmaas (commentarial
literature on the Vedas public rites) before becoming an influential genre in their own right. See Witzel, Vedas and Upaniads, !, "rereton, #$panishads%, &''(, &&) * +. ,rauwallner writes simplthat the- are the philosophicall- valuable parts of the brhmaas, #separated from them and independentl- handed down% (,rauwallner, History of Indian Philosophy ., !().

/ 0V &(.+/, & * /, &(.'(, &(.&/&, &(.&/1, &(.&/', &(.&!(. The 0V is an ancient antholog- of spo2en
revelations in the form of poetic ritual h-mns. ,ritz Staal implicitl- criticizes the methodolog- of past efforts to anal-se the 0V when he insists that of the Vedas, it is #the earliest, the most venerable, obscure, distant and difficult for moderns to understand * hence is often misinterpreted or worse3 used as a peg on which to hang an idea or a theor-% (Staal, Discovering the Vedas, &(+). Wend- 4,lahert-s introduction to her abridged translation summarizes the st-le in which the supposedl- divinel- spo2en revelations were communicated to future generations3 #The h-mns are meant to puzzle, to surprise, to trouble the mind5 the gods love riddles, as the ancient sages 2new, and those who would converse with the gods must learn to live with and thrive upon parado6 and enigma5 the reader becomes aware of the inade7uac- of his certain 2nowledge% (4,lahert-, Rig Veda, &1 * )).

3 8V ).&, .' * &(, &(.+, &&.9, &&.+.

&

"theories# of creation in Vedic discourse+ while the soteriological nowledge of the early Upaniads will in$ol$e the notions of 0ea$en+ re1death (punarmtyu)+ and re-irth+ and the relationship -etween tman and brahman. The paper first gi$es an o$er$iew of speculati$e and cosmogonical thought in the V and &V. 2uch ideas -egan with the rituals centred on the idea of reciprocity in the sacrifice+ along with myths of origins that de$eloped according to the needs of their communities. 3hile no formal philosophy is glimpsed in the early discourses+ there is a percepti-le su-stratum of such thoughts emerging in the hymns a-out creator deities. 4$en as rituals continued to -e performed+ speculations of $arious powers in the su-stance of the e.changes -egan to surface.5 Related to this was the ontological 6uery of -eing itself+ and what it meant to "-e.# 7ne important idea was that thought or mind is directly connected to the uni$erse+ that "e.istence and consciousness are considered somehow to originate together+ in such a way that one presupposes the other.#8 &ccording to 9oel (rereton+ the apophatic V !:.!%; (Nsdyas kta) articulated e.actly this+ mar ing a milestone in later Vedic speculation. The compiled and edited< Upaniads -etray dissatisfaction or unease with the implications of the Vedic world$iew. The possi-ility of re1death (punarmtyu) in the afterlife (upon the e.haustion of the merit one attained through the ritual acts during life) is seen as a possi-ility within the te.ts. They e.pand on latent ideas a-out re-irth+ the afterlife+ and the nature of the self and its relationship with the &-solute. &mong the su-=ects of the early
4 This, and other 7uestions of m-stic and philosophical import, ma- have appeared in the later h-mns
of the Vedic te6ts, but the- certainl- preceded the $pani:ads and cannot be categorized in hard chronological periods. See ;oc2, An arly Upaniadic Reader, 1 * &(.

5 <ombrich, !hat the "#ddha $ho#ght, )&, "rereton, #=dif-ing >uzzlement3 %gveda &(.&/' and the
$ses of =nigma%, &'''.

6 "rereton, #$panishads%, &''(, &&1 * ).

Upaniads was the relationship -etween microcosm of the indi$idual and the macrocosm of the uni$erse.> ?enetrating into this nowledge and the possi-ility of transcending re-irth gradually gained precedence. The idea that ignorance of reality -inds humanity to the mundane world led to the -elief that this could -e countered through insight or soteriological nowledge. The search for this li-erating nowledge would come to en=oy primacy in Indian philosophy. !. ,osmogony The V is a collection of mythology+ supplications and praise -rought together as ritual hymns. (ut it also contains hymns of profound cosmogonical speculation@+ and in later hymns demonstrate a genuine curiosity a-out "the one -eing# (ekam sat) underlying all phenomena and the origins of life.; The ritual or reciprocity1-ased world$iew of the V does not seem to ha$e limited the di$ersity of the cosmogonical ideas within.!: The first phase of Vedic religion seemed to emphasise "sustenance and regulation of cosmic phenomena+# which would o-$iously pertain to the affairs of human life.!! In this sense+ philosophy was su-ordinated to the tas of learning a-out humanitys role in relation to the gods and acting in a ritualistically correct way.!% The term yaja denoted the acts that sustained the uni$erse within the cosmic order of ta. Aaintaining reciprocity -etween humanity and
7 The speculations within the Upaniads were 7uite diverse in their solutions. ?$ ) postulates a
radicall- different, materialist cosmogon- to the idealist conception provided b- "@$ &.9.

8 Witzel, Vedas and Upaniads, /((1, +&. 9 Aohant-, &lassical Indian Philosophy, &. 10 Stella Bramrisch, among others, has demonstrated that several structures of stor-telling can be
found in the 0V, all of which denote the separation of abstracts (Bramrisch, #The Triple Structure of ?reation in the 0g Veda%, &')/, &9( * /.).

11 Cande2ar, #Dethin2ing Vedic A-tholog-%, &''+, 9(.

di$inity through worship and ritual sacrifice and allowed one to gain entry into 0ea$en (svarga!oka). It also granted access to supernatural powers!'+ although this was emphasiBed and de$eloped to a much greater e.tent in the brhmaas and Upaniads (the ritual -ecame a mechanism for the manipulation of magic or powers+ and the gods -ecame secondary functionaries in the o$erall scheme of the ritual itself). &ccording to 3.C. (rown and 0arry Dal + the pre$ailing myth of creation in the V is that of Indras -attle against the "dragon# or "demon# Vta+ the "encloser# or "withholder.#!5 Dal -elie$es that there are naturalistic e.planations for its grammatical+ linguistic+ and literary style. It is characteristic of a mythology that centres on spring floods and its -ounty.!8 0e therefore agrees with &lfred $on 0ille-randt that this strain of Vedic legend was originally centred on spring.!< Dal also ma es note of the possi-le difference -etween Vta and Vala!>+ -oth of whom Indra -attles and ills to secure his ingship o$er creation. 0.?. 2chmidt theoriBes that the splitting of Vta is a creation myth of releasing waters+ whilst the clea$ing Vala re$eals light from dar ness.!@ These o-ser$ations
12 4livelle, $he arly Upaniads, &'. >atric2 4livelle notes generall- that people of the earl- Vedic
period believed in a threefold universe t-pical of .ndoE=uropeans3 the heavens, the earth, and the intermediate space between them. The s2- and its manifestations in the intermediate space embodied powerful gods, along with other natural phenomena ("hat, Vedic $hemes, ++). 8mong them were the overse6ed warrior god of storms, .ndra, Soma the hol- plant and drin2, 8gni the ,ire, VaruFa the regulator of 'ta, the Cawn, and others.

13 Beith, $he Religion and Philosophy of the Veda and Upanishads, !'!. 14 0V /.&&. See "rown, #Theories of ?reation in the Dig Veda%, &')1, /!, and ,al2, #The >urpose of
0g Vedic Ditual%, &''+, (.

15 ,al2, #The >urpose of 0g Vedic Ditual%, &''+, (. 16 ;illebrandt, Vedische (ythologie, &++. 17 0V /.&/.!. 18 Schmidt, "'haspati #nd Indra, /9!.

imply an emphasis on mundane rather than philosophical concerns+ such as in$o ing Indra to help his clans defeat those denying them economic or natural resources necessary for their sur$i$al.!; (rown reads far deeper into the Vta myth for his own interpretation and thin s it can -e read as a sym-olic representation of ?otentiality stri$ing with Inertia and o$ercoming Inertia with ?ower or 4nergy.%: 0e e6uates the e$ents of this hymn with a cosmogony featuring gods as principles or a-stracts.%! Vta is literally the en"!oser or that which encloses+ whilst Varuna is literally the prime$al force for e#pansion. The force of enclosure is greater than that of li-eration and growth+ and hence must -e forced apart -y Indra+ who filled "the space -etween them and -eing+ we may suppose+ the informing power of the atmosphere. 0e split the co$ering within which lay the 3aters+ so that they came forth. They were impregnated and ga$e -irth to the 2un+ and themsel$es flowed into the atmospheric ocean.#%% (y this deed Indra separated the sat (e.istent) from the asat (non1e.istent).%' &ccording to this interpretation+ V %.!! does indeed -etray comple. undercurrents of thought. Indeed+ the Vta myth has -een demonstrated to possess significance -eyond a creation legend+ running deep into the early political realm of India as a "functional di$ision of so$ereign roles in Vedic ingly culture.#%5 2ome -elie$e such comple.ity to ha$e escaped the reciters of the &V%8+ which
19 ,al2, #The >urpose of 0g Vedic Ditual%, &''+, (. 20 "rown, #Theories of ?reation in the Dig Veda%, &')1, /9. 21 "rown, #The ?reation A-th of the Dig Veda%, &'9/, '+ * . 22 ibid. 23 ibid. 24 >roferes, Vedic Ideals of )overeignty and the Poetics of Po*er, /( * &. 25 .t retains a considerable number of earl- h-mns, still written in verse form, that speculate on the
meaning of ritual (Witzel, #The Vedic ?anon and its >olitical Ailieu%, &''+, /+1).

,hhanda ,ha ra$arti -elie$es to -e "predominantly proletarian+ -reathing a ple-eian atmosphere.#%< (ut if it is unfair to assume that the Indra cosmogonies are simplistic+ as (rown has demonstrated+ then it is also premature to assume that the &Vs mantras possess no historical -ac ground within the (rahminical conte.t.%> The possi-ility that non1priests used its mantras -y no means e.cluded philosophical or esoteric meanings -eneath the ritual prescriptions. &V <.! contains a reference to "a source that creates e$erything+# which is a possi-le precursor to later Indian conceptions of Eod and creation.%@ E.K. (hat also notes that the &Vs in$ocation to Aedha descri-es it as "e6uipped with brahman# and "mastered -y those who mo$e with brahman.#%; &t this point+ the word only meant "prayer# or "utterance# in the conte.t of mantra+ and did not denote the Eod of the Upaniads. Durthermore+ from the $ery -eginning (namely+ its first s kta)+ the &V was already concerned with philosophical nowledge for the sa e of profound understanding.': This denoted esotericism or soteriological nowledge+ which in turn emerged asserti$ely in *paniadic literature'! following a -rea down of the old system of ritual thought.

26 ?ha2ravarti, &ommon +ife in the %gveda and Atharvaveda, /('. 27 .ndeed, Gohn "roc2ington points out that the 8V contains more speculative h-mns than the 0V, and
that within "rahman is speculated to be the origin of both the e6istent and nonEe6istent (8V 9.&.& * /), giving it a monistic flavour that is similar to the earl- Upaniads ("roc2ington, A History of Indian Philosophy, &(&). "roc2ington also notes that the spells and speculation in the 8V are evidence of the belief that 2nowledge of the origin and nature of things allow one to e6ercise power over others aside from being liberated and successful (ibid. &()).

28 8V ).&, in Cevi, $he Atharvaveda, /&!. 29 8V ).&( ./ * 9. See "hat, Vedic Themes, ). 30 8V.&.&./. 31 "hat, Vedic $hemes, +.

Ce$ertheless+ most of the speculations within the V and &V fail to penetrate the deeper 6uestion of what occurred -efore e.istence itself came to -e. Indra is not a ,reator in the sense of creating e# nihi!oF he remo$es that which hides what can -e percei$ed+ such as light and water. 7ther hymns posit $arious di$inities+ such as ViG$a armam (V !:.@!+ !:+ @%)+ (rahmaaspati (V !:.>%)+ ?urua (RV. !:/;:)'%+ and 0iranyagar-haH?rI=apati (V !:.!%!).'' These hymns assume there were two principle forces -efore the e$ent too place/ one of will+ such as an o$ergod or gods+ the other without will+ upon which the former acts as master and shaper. In (rowns words+ "each hymn merely tries to identify a more remote acti$e agent than any assumed in other theories.#'5 It is the Nsdyas kta'8 that supersedes e$en the notion of a creator god -y simply gi$ing no certain answer. (oth the will of a theistic deity and the power of sacrifice are ignored.'< Rather+ it implicitly suggests that the entire uni$erse and all its worlds e$ol$ed from a single principle. 7f course+ it is important at this stage to 6ualify that no interpretation of this hymn is definiti$e since its authors were intentionally am-iguous.'> (ut it does mar a stage in Vedic thought that is -eginning to see a relationship -etween thought and ,reation+ a connection that would preoccupy e$ery religious and philosophical tradition in India.
32 ;oc2, An arly Upaniadic Reader, )+. 33 The #golden womb% is another concept that is connected to the ideolog- of solar 2ingship and its
ph-sical embodiment through the Vedic 2ing, who after consecrations was supposed to unite all the tribes in opposition to an e6ternal threat (>roferes, Vedic Ideals of )overeignty and the Poetics of Po*er, &!+ * 9&).

34 "rown, #Theories of ?reation in the Dig Veda%, &')1, /+. 35 0V &.&)9.9) contains allusions to monistic thought as well. 36 "rown, #Theories of ?reation in the Dig Veda%, &')1, /+. 37 W-nn, $he ,rigin of "#ddhist (editation, )/.

%. Thought and (eing In the first $olume of his $ast wor $istory o% &ndian 'hi!osophy+ 4rich Drauwallner puts forward the uni6ue hypothesis that *paniadic thought progressed through three materialist (or natural science) doctrines/ that of water+ -reath+ and fire+ each of which represent life in all its aspects.'@ &ccording to Drauwallner+ these doctrines were -ased on Vedic antecedents and match the three natural phenomena with specific philosophical ideas+ progressing in scope and sophistication (with fire -eing the culmination). 0ence speculation during the *paniadic era was interested not only in cosmogony -ut also in natural processes (such as sleep+ -reath+ et cetera) and how they correlated with the human -ody.'; Drauwallner contends that the fire doctrine was what would gi$e rise to other concepts+ including soteriological nowledge. This naturalistic approach signaled a new "rationalist# method to grappling with old 6uestions+ which in$ol$ed connecting the functions of the human -ody and those of the cosmos.5: The a-straction of natural elements was crucial to de$eloping more comple. and formal philosophy.5! This esta-lishment of correlations -etween phenomena and ideas also helped Drauwallner to situate the ideas in the Upaniads according to an e$olutionary scheme/ one of progressing concepts that delineate periods of inno$ation. Indian thought is too di$erse and comple. to identify simply one stream of linear progression+ -ut it still
38 ,rauwallner, History of Indian Philosophy I, !) * 1/. 39 ibid. !1 * !). 40 "rereton provides an anal-sis of the $pani:adic idea of #correlation% in his chapter of #The
$pani:ads% in astern &anons- Approaches to the Asian &lassics, &&' * //. This is a techni7ue that runs throughout .ndian thought.

41 ,rauwallner, History of Indian Philosophy I, 1&.

seems that the Nsdyas kta5% can also mar a crucial phase since it must precede Drauwallners schema of the Upaniads. Jespite -eing a late addition to the g$edic corpus+ and is li ely to ha$e influenced and -een influenced -y an entire range of thought+ including mysticism+ meditation+ and yoga as well as philosophy. This would ha$e a far1reaching impact on later philosophers+ whether or not they agreed with the (rahmin ways. The Nsdyas kta does away with the anthropomorphic concept altogether+ a-andoning any notions that humans can relate completely to the great -eyond+ and recogniBed "genuine pro-lems of philosophy at a le$el most religious poetry does not e$en touch.#5' It addresses the philosophically deepest 6uestions of early Vedic discourse to an intentionally unsatisfactory degree. These 6uestions are framed in trou-ling parado.es that would seem to hum-le humanitys arrogance in attempting to sol$e the 6uestion of creation. Kuestions include "3hat stirredL#+ and "Drom where and in whose protectionL#55 The poems author continues to as + possi-ly rhetorically+ if anyone really nows and who can proclaim any such nowledge58+ since the gods are in the created order and hence cannot stand outside of it to gi$e a satisfactory answer.5< Dinally+ it proposes that the "o$erseer of this world in the highest hea$en# nows where ,reation came from+ and if it was produced or not.5> &s if to deepen the mystery+ the

42 Translation provided b- "rereton in #=dif-ing >uzzlement3 %gveda &(.&/' and the $ses of
=nigma%, &'''.

43 Staal, Discovering the Vedas, &(!. 44 0V &(.&/'.&c. 45 0V &(.&/'.)a. 46 0V &(.&/'.)c * d. 47 0V &(.&/'.+a * d.

'

closing is simply a 6uestion that suggests the possi-ility that this o$erseer might not ha$e the answer either.5@ 3ynn gi$es a good e$aluation of the hymns power when he writes/ "Drom mysterious -eginnings to an unresol$ed conclusion+ it almost seems to -e a riddle posed -y the ancient Vedic poets.#5; The 6uestions within the hymn ha$e some significant implications for cosmogony+ such as the idea that "the process of creation cannot -e formulated into an e.act temporal se6uence+#8: or the ironic hint that to search for the uni$erses origin is ultimately futile.8! The poem only re$eals its su-=ect+ ekam sat+ in the second $erse. 4$en then the 7ne can only -e descri-ed apophatically8%+ although 9urecwiB attri-utes to it the power of possi-ility+ a-ility+ and freedom.8' 9oel (rereton offers an original and inno$ati$e contention for the poems meaning. (ased on interconnected o-ser$ations a-out the 7ne+ as well as grammatical and linguistic structure of the poem+ he proposes that the poems point "is to -e found more in the path it follows than the place it arri$es.#85 Thought itself is what characteriBes the philosophical theme of the poem. 0e argues that the hymn was written to stimulate thought in the hearers a-out the process of thought as creation+ re1creating the timeless past in
48 0V &(.&/'.+d. 49 W-nn, $he ,rigin of "#ddhist (editation, 1 . 50 ibid. 51 0V &(.&/'.+. 52 0V &(.&/'./. 53 Gurecwiz, #The %gveda &(.&/' * an attempt of interpretation%, &''1, &9!. 54 "rereton, #=dif-ing >uzzlement3 %gveda &(.&/' and the $ses of =nigma%, &''', /1(.

&(

the present.88 The response of the audience+ "their acti$e mental engagement+ mirrors the original power of creation+ and their gradually de$eloping understanding recapitulates the process of creation.#8< Therefore+ creation or the uni$erses origin is intimately in$ol$ed with thought or mind (or possi-ly something related to them+ such as $olition+ self1cognition+ or a similar refle.i$e act). 9urewicBs attri-uting of possi-ility+ a-ility+ and freedom to the 7ne can now -e understood in the conte.t of thought/ that cognition or consciousness em-odies possi-ility+ a-ility and freedom. The Vedic thin ers still -elie$ed that "neither human nowledge+ nor speech+ e$en if they are refle.es of the primal creati$e power+# could capture ekam sat.#8> Inciting the hearers of the hymn into continued self1reflection is the closest thing that people can come to " nowing# the inconcei$a-le. 3ynn offers an additional component to (reretons ideas a-out !:.!%; when he writes a-out its relationship to (rahminic metaphysical thought/ If the poem points to the process of thin ing as an appro.imate answer to the unanswera-le riddle a-out the origin of things+ it seems ine$ita-le that the speculation of the Nsdyas kta e$entually produced+ or was indeed the product of early (rahminic mysticism. This is not to suggest that yogic or e$en proto1yogic practices were employedM (ut it is easy to see how the poem set the agenda for the metaphysical and yogic speculation of the early period.8@

55 ibid. /11 * +. W-nn provides a criti7ue of "reretons method and conclusions in the subEsection
#?osmolog- and meditation in earl- "rahminism% within ?hapter ! of his boo2 $he ,rigin of "#ddhist (editation (/((+).

56 ibid. /11. 57 ibid. /1 . 58 ibid. )! * 9.

&&

This is a $ery interesting o-ser$ation. It notes that cosmogonic speculation pro$ided the theoretical -ac ground to schemes of meditation+ -oth -efore and after the Nsdyas kta was composed. 3ynn stresses that the act of contemplation was present from Vedic times+ for the seers or poets (sis) who were responsi-le for the re$elation of the Vedas in$ented these $erses through inspired thin ing (man). The e$idence is found in $erse 5c1d+ which 3ynn argues states that the poem was the wor of contemplati$es8;. It would certainly seem li ely that contemplati$es attri-ute the highest importance to thought and self1cognition+ to the point that it is responsi-le for creation as well as continuity. 3ynns o-ser$ations ha$e important conse6uences -ecause this entails that the Nsdyas kta represents a period when early and later ideas intermingled+ finding e.pression in the Brhmaas and Upaniads as well as non1(rahmin schools. & component that gradually rose in importance as a result of the transition from con$entional cosmogony to the apophatic contemplation of the Nsdyas kta was soteriological nowledge+ although it had not yet reached its signature primacy in Indian thought. Ce$ertheless+ 3ynns o-ser$ation a-out V !:.!%;.5c1d seems to indicate that a new milestone was -eing reached in the philosophical themes of Vedic discourse. &long with this conception of soteriological nowledge came new insights and opinions a-out its contents+ importance+ and how it could -e attained. These di$erse ideas all appear in the early Upaniads and it is to these te.ts that this paper now turns. '. 2oteriological Knowledge It would seem that early Vedic cosmogony contri-uted to e$ol$ing philosophies of ontology+ epistemology+ and language. The old concepts of sacrifice and reciprocity were not a-andoned+ -ut they were challenged. The idea of -ondage would not satisfy later
59 ibid. )!.

&/

thin ers+ -ecause the implications of their forefathers world$iew led to distur-ing conclusions a-out 0ea$ens impermanence. (ecause of these deductions+ soteriological nowledge -ecame a ey component in speculation. ,osmogony and thought would still ha$e roles to play in crafting new ideas of the uni$erse+ -ut the primary o-=ecti$e within the early Upaniads was now li-eration. The notions of li-erating nowledge and reincarnation appear e.plicitly in the respecti$e segments of ()* <.%.!8<: and <.%.!<.<! This idea of a "fi$e fire doctrine# reappears in ,* 8.5 N ;. ()* <.%.!8 and <.%.!< seem to suggest that around this time+ the idea of a "world -eyond the worlds# was slowly forming+ and that world was the true state of permanence+ -liss+ and di$ine union/ the world of brahman. 2igne ,ohen contends that this is e$idence for the doctrines of re-irth appearing in ancient Indian literature for the first time<%+ and indeed re-irth is ac nowledged in ()* '.% as a secret few now of.<'
60 #The people who 2now this, and the people there in the wilderness who venerate truth as faith *
the- pass into the flame, from the flame into the da-, from the da- into the fortnight of the wa6ing moon, from the fortnight of the wa6ing moon into the si6 months when the sun moves north, from these months into the world of the gods, from the world of the gods into the sun, and from the sun into the region of lightning. 8 person consisting of mind comes to the regions of lightning and leads him to the worlds of brahman. These e6alted people live in those worlds of brahman for the longest time. The- do not return% (trans. 4livelle, $he arly Upaniads, &9').

61 #The people who win heavenl- worlds, on the other hands, b- offering sacrifices, b- giving gifts,
and b- performing austerities * the- pass into the smo2e, from the smo2e into the night, from the night into the fortnight of the waning moon, from the fortnight of the waning moon into the si6 months when the sun moves south, from these months into the world of the fathers, and from the world of the fathers into the moon. Deaching into the moon the- become food. There, the gods feed on them, as the- tell Bing Soma, the moon3 H.ncreaseI CecreaseI When that ends, the- pass into this ver- s2-, from the s2into the wind, from the wind into the rain, and from the rain into the earth. Deaching the earth, thebecome food. The- are again offered in the fire of man and then ta2e birth in the fire of woman. Dising up once again to the heavenl- worlds, the- circle around in the same wa-% (trans. 4livelle, $he arly Upaniads, &9').

62 ?ohen, $e.t and A#thority, 1. 63 "rereton, #The $pani:ads%, in astern &anons- Approaches to the Asian &lassics, &!/ * !.
"rereton also observes that the passage points to the classical formulation of /arma as action, which means not onl- action but also the effects of ones actions. Jater $pani:ads (li2e B$ !.+f) too2 rebirth and /arma for granted.

&!

,ohen is implying that there was no idea of re-irth in the Vedas and hence was not part of the Vedic world$iew. It is perhaps not so simple+ gi$en the difficulty of assigning chronological "phases# to early Indian philosophy. Richard Eom-rich points out that if the notion of re-irth was not present (or at least in a dormant form) in early Vedic discourse+ scholars are forced to ma e aw ward con=ectures as to how the teaching could ha$e suddenly appeared in the Upaniads+ a te.t that represents the final de$elopment of Vedic and (rahmin thought. 0e dou-ts that re-irth within ()* <.%.!8 and <.%.!< originated solely with either the aristocratic caste or the non1&ryan population. It seems peculiar that warriors and no-lemen transmitted a religious teaching<5 while hiding it from their own priests<8+ whilst the indigenous theory is e$en wea er since nothing is nown a-out their religion.<< Eom-rich argues alongside 9urewicB that a possi-le answer to this conundrum may -e found in V !:.!<.8+ a $erse within the "Duneral 0ymn# of V !:.!<. The Duneral 0ymn+ according to 9urewicB+ contains the earliest trace of -elief in re-irth.<> 7Dlaherty and many others interpret it as a send1off for a cremated man and as a re6uest for &gni+ Dire+ to -ring him to the ancestors in 0ea$en as smo e. This is a conception of the afterlife without anything -eyond the two
64 ,rauwallner ac2nowledges that some of te6ts ma- have been partl- authored b- members of the
noble or 2ingl- castes, but an- definite conclusion is problematic due to lac2 of evidence (,rauwallner, History of Indian Philosophy I, !9 * 1).

65 8lthough it is interesting to note that the ?$ mentions a 2ing, >ravKhaFa Gaivali, reluctantlteaching a priest about rebirth through the doctrine of the five fires3 #8s -ou have told me, <autama, before -ou this 2nowledge has never reached "rahmins. .n all the worlds, therefore, government has belonged e6clusivel- to ro-alt-% (?$ 1.!.)). 4livelle also cautions against assuming that the earlUpaniads were composed b- nobles Lust because their protagonists are affiliated with ruling clans or ro-alt-. .t is safer to ac2nowledge the comple6it- and fluidit- of political and intellectual interaction between the priests and warriors, who sought to reinforce as well as undermine each others authorit(4livelle, $he arly Upaniads, && * &/).

66 <ombrich, !hat the "#ddha $ho#ght, !(. 67 Gurewicz, #>raLKpati, the fire and the paMcKgniEvid-K%, /((9.

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worlds of here and hereafter. In contrast+ 9urewicB reinterprets it as prayer for &gni to -ring him -ac to re=oin his family<@+ further arguing that the form in which a deceased returns is rain. This+ Eom-rich thin s+ matches perfectly ?ra$Ihaa 9ai$alis fi$e fire doctrine in ()* <.%.; N !'.<; It seems to match the framewor of the destinies that 9ai$ali descri-es for those who "win hea$enly worlds -y offering sacrifices+ gi$ing gifts+ and performing austerities.#>: Therefore+ for 9urewicB+ V !:.!<.8 presents an early precursor to re-irth/ in other words+ re-irth is an orthogenetic idea. It is+ of course+ important to note that the poems author(s) wo$e severa! theories of the afterlife into the $erses.>! Ei$en the di$ersity and differences within the te.t of the V+ it is unli ely that its eepers had only one conception of the hereafter. Ce$ertheless+ if re-irth were a notion fathomed in Vedic discourse (al-eit only to a small e.tent)+ then se$eral concerns would ha$e gnawed away at the minds of the poets descendants+ the (rahmin priests who were eepers and transmitters of the tradition. These nagging worries came to the fore -y the time ()* <.%.!8 and <.%.!< were composed. 7ne dis6uieting alarm was that the relationship -etween celestials and humans was s ewed unfairly in the gods fa$our. It is reasona-ly clear that the early Vedic seers en$isaged their
68 4,lahert-s translation of 0V &(.&).1 is this3 Set him free to go to the fathers, 8gni, when he has
been offered as an oblation in -ou and wanders with the sacrificial drin2. Jet him reach his own descendants, dressing himself in a lifeEspan. Bnower of creatures, let him Loin with a bod-% (4,lahert-, Dig Veda, 9' * 1(). Gurewicz as2s wh- 8gni is as2ed in the h-mn to send the dead man #again% #to his ancestors.% She reEinterprets pit'bhyo as an ablative rather than a dative as previous translators have done. The result is a translation that has different implications to that of an older version3 #Delease him down, 8gni, from NhisO fathers, NhimO who, poured into -ou, wanders according to his will. Jet him who wears life come to his offspring. Jet him Loin his bod-, GKtaEvedasI% (Gurewicz, #>raLKpati, the fire and the paMcKgniEvid-K%, /((9, 1!).

69 <ombrich, !hat the "#ddha $ho#ght, !/ * !. 70 <ombrich notes that there are two basic differences between rebirth in 0V &(.&).1 and all later
ideas. .n the former an individual simpl- moved between two worlds (=arth and ;eaven), and the process has nothing to do with ones actions. 8nd, of most concern to later "rahmins, # no end to the process is envisaged% (<ombrich, !hat the "#ddha $a#ght, !!).

71 4,lahert-, Rig Veda, 9+ * '.

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relationship to the di$inities as one of e.alted "-ondage.#>% 3ithout the reciprocity of ritual and worship+ humans would lose their li$es and gods their power. (ut the reward that the gods -estowed after death was realiBed to -e inherently undesira-le+ for if one too V !:.!<.8 and ()* <.%.!< seriously+ there was no eternal life in 0ea$en (the world of the Dathers).>' 7ne could e$en suffer a re1death or punarmtyu at the hands of the gods -y -eing de$oured>5+ -efore -eing hurled -ac to 4arth in the form of natural phenomena.>8 The Vedic $ision of -ondage+ once cele-rated as yaja+ was now challenged -y some within the Upaniads as a prison that the wise needed to -rea free from. The important and de$eloping component of karma>< (mentioned in ,* 8.!:.!:) is part of this edifice of spiritual entrapment/ through the old Vedic world$iew of rituals+ one could accumulate good or -ad karma depending on the "6uality of wor s# or ritual prescriptions.>> (ut one could ne$er escape this+ and through the 6uality of his sacrifices would -e re-orn accordingly according to karma.>@
72 Cande2ar, #Dethin2ing Vedic A-tholog-,% &''+, 9(. 73 ,rauwallner, History of Indian Philosophy I, !) * +. 74 "@$ )./.&). 75 This is closel- related to the naturalistic doctrine of a #worldEbod- correspondence,% which was
pioneered b- ,rauwallner. The idea of the living persons sacrifice (which generated his merit) and his afterlife spirits parta2ing of food (which diminished his merit) as part of a natural c-cle naturall- led to the fear of an eventual e6haustion of merit, a fall from ;eaven and entrapment within a s-stem of continuous oscillation between this world and the other. See "rereton, #The $pani:ads%, in astern &anons- Approaches to the Asian &lassics, &!& * !.

76 #8 man who 2nows these five fires in this wa-5 is not tainted with evil even if he associates with
such people. 8n-one who 2nows this becomes pure and clean and attains a good world.%

77 <ombrich, Ho* "#ddhism "egan, !& * /. The Sans2rit term /arman (action) is still used for both
ritual and moral acts.

78 .n addition to Gurewiczs argument, Gonathan <reen provides an anal-sis of /arma as an

orthogenetic theor-, following on from ;erman Tulls obLection to earl- views of the Vedas and the $pani:ads as philosophicall- opposed (#Bnowledge of "rahman as a Solution to ,ear in the 0atapatha "rhmaa and "PhadKraF-a2a Upaniad%, /((+, +) * +).

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The age1old 6uestions of cosmogony and origins were therefore re$isited with fresh eyes. Jissimilar and di$erse answers to those in early Vedic discourse were offered+ and the (rahmins related this search for new nowledge to the possi-ility of defeating the cycle of death and re-irth.>; In fact+ cosmogony was $ital to pro$iding important presuppositions for the (rahmins soteriological nowledge. ,entral to this intellectual and spiritual endea$our were the notions of tman and brahman. (tman+ or the a-iding self+ plays a central role in (* !.5.!+ and seems to allude to the Nsdyas kta)s idea of the 7ne+ of self1cognition+ consciousness+ or thought as ey to creation or -eing/ 0e Othe single -ody of tmanP loo ed around and saw nothing -ut himself. The first thing he said was+ "0ere I amQ# and from that name "I# came into -eing. "Therefore+ e$en today when you call someone+ he first says+ "Its I+# and then states whate$er other name he may ha$e.#@: &side from this passage that indicates the tmans "self1 recognition+#@! T* %.8 connects thought with creation+ -ut more importantly with what pro$ides access to li-eration. This self+ seen as immuta-le and unchanging+ -ecame identified with the 2upreme (eing brahman. &ccording to the (rahmaaspati cosmogony+ this word brahman originally denoted the g$edic mantra and not Eod.@% I also noted that &V <.!:@.% and 5 also mention brahman as something inspired yet esoteric.@' The idea of a 2upreme (eing already had monistic antecedents in the 7ne of the
79 4livelle, $he arly Upaniads, /&. 80 "@$ &.9.&. 81 van "uitenen, #The Jarge @tman%, &')9, &('. 82 See 0V &(.+/ and 0V &(.&( .) ("hat, Vedic $hemes, 1 * )).

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Nsdyas kta+ and T* %.8 e.plicitly unites these philosophical su-strata in Vedic discourse with thought and brahman/ Its perception that conducts the sacrifice. Its perception that performs the rites. Its perception that all the gods Venerate as the foremost brahman. "Brahman is perception# N he who nows this+ and neglects this not+ Lea$ing the e$ils -ehind in his -ody 0e attains all his wishes.@5 T* %.8 shows that if one nows that his se!% is *od through and as thought+ the insight of li-eration will -e attained. ()* !.5.!! and &* !.% N !' unite this soteriological idea with differing cosmogonical e.planations/ that there was really only tmanHbrahman+ -ut it di$ided itself in a certain way until the current structure of the world e.isted as it is now. To $enerate the tman is therefore to now oneself as brahman+ which will not only -ring li-eration -ut unloc the power of creation itself+ a supernatural gift that was also a preoccupation of (rahmins/ "&nd if someone $enerates is self along as his world+ that rite of his will ne$er fade away+ -ecause from his $ery self he will produce whate$er he desires.#@8 Brahman as tman is also e.plained in ()* !.5.; N !8 and T* %.< as the highest truth+ and to now of this relationship helps one to surpass e$en the Vedic gods+ as seen in ()* !.5.!:/
83 "iardeau observes that brahman denotes several things3 in the neuter, it is the name of the ritual
formula, in the masculine, it is the name of one of the priests in the Vedic sacrificial ritual, who silentloversees the entire procedure. ;e further speculates that the difficult role of this priest would give the word brahman different connotations of total 2nowledge of the revelation or content of Vedas ("iardeau, Hind#ism, &').

84 T$ /.1. 85 "@$ &.9.&1.

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If a man nows "I am brahman in this way+ he -ecomes the whole world. Cot e$en the gods are a-le to pre$ent it+ for he -ecomes their $ery self (tman). 2o when a man $enerates another deity+ thin ing+ "0e is one+ and I am another+# he does not understand. &s li$estoc is for men+ so is he for the godsM the loss of e$en a single head of li$estoc is painfulM The gods+ therefore+ are not pleased at the prospect of men coming to understand this.@< This passage indicates that the unfair -ondage forced -y the gods upon human -eings is no longer inescapa-le. &ccording to the authors of the ()*+ this new challenge did not arise simply -ecause of wishful thin ing. Than s to soteriological nowledge+ people are finally in a position to literally -ecome Eod+ and this constitutes sal$ation -y uniting with the entire world+ and the celestial essence of the gods. 0owe$er+ the di$inities o-$iously wish to eep humans as "li$estoc # and attempt to eep this nowledge a secret. They selfishly perpetuate the lie that humans and Eod are one and another+ and that people must $enerate di$inities as separate entities. This lie may ha$e contri-uted to the idea of a single reality -eing "hidden -y the multiple forms of the world.#@> This conception of my (illusion) does not match with the classical description of sasra@@+ and while such a description cannot -e found in the ()*+ there is e$idence of the idea that humanity is somehow -eing decei$ed.

86 "@$ &.9.&(. 87 "rereton, #$panishads%, &''(, &&). 88 See <reen, #Bnowledge of "rahman as a Solution to ,ear in the 0atapatha "rhmaa and
"PhadKraF-a2a Upaniad%, /((+, ++ * '. .t must still be noted that in "@$ !.9./ and !.1.&, QKLMaval2-a argues that aside from 2nowing that the self of the individual is the self within all, #all else besides this is grief% * a clear reference to the .ndian idea that aside from 2nowing the truth, ever-thing else is illusor- and #grief.%

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The presuppositions that the primordial seers had left -ehind were -eing rethought+ at least in a general sense. (rereton e.presses it rather dramatically/ the speculations of Vedic religion were replaced with refined philosophical theories.@; The Vedas retained their ancient and ma=estic reputation+ howe$er+ and not for ar-itrary reasons. I agree with the authors who ha$e tried to demonstrate that philosophical undercurrents were present (in a $ague+ dormant form) in Vedic te.ts. It is possi-le to see ideas of sal$ific nowledge a-out correspondences -etween macrocosm and microcosm in the hymn V !:.!':.'.;: This was unli ely to -e undetected -y later priests. It is clear that there was an attempt in some *paniadic passages to harmoniBe the thought of the seers and the (rahmins.;! Therefore+ despite the Upaniads e.ercising greater influence on Indian philosophy than the Vedas+ the latter are still regarded as the fundamental scriptures of modern 0induism.;% The early Upaniads did not represent re$olution -ut transition+ during which primiti$e -eliefs were gi$en new meaning and pro-lems with the world$iew of the time were offered resolutions. ,onclusion This essay has offered a -rief o$er$iew of the philosophical role of cosmogony+ thought+ and soteriological nowledge in early Vedic discourse and the early Upaniads. There seems no reason to dou-t that antecedents within the hymns of the V and &V contri-uted to the ad$ent of "formal# philosophy on the su-continent. It is also possi-le to see from the early Upaniads that thought and its
89 "rereton, #$panishads%, &''(, &&). 90 8 nidna, according to Gurewicz, is #the ontological connection between different levels and forms
of beings% (Gurewicz, #>la-ing with fire3 the prat1tyasam#tpad from the perspective of Vedic thought%, /(((, &(().

91 B$ /.). 92 "rereton, #$panishads%, &''(, &&1, &&+.

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relationship to the uni$erse en=oyed a high priority in the Jharmic religions. These themes would also influence the concepts of re-irth and karma+ which appear $ery early on as latent ideas if not as widespread -eliefs. 2asIra came into the picture as a formal concept fairly later. &t centre stage was the possi-ility of transcending the entrapment highlighted in the early Upaniads through attaining li-eration or moka. &ttaining this li-eration was a matter of spiritual nowledge+ which had esoteric antecedents in the Vedas. The continued pursuit of this imperati$e soteriology would run u-i6uitously throughout Indian philosophy. 7ne common su-=ect of philosophy remains a-sent in this paper and that is ethics. Li e re-irth+ there were stirrings of ideas a-out tri-al =ustice within early Vedic discourse+ -ut (rahminism ne$er managed to disentangle the ritual from the ethical.;' This reframing occurred only when a former katriya+ in opposition to 9ainism;5+ declared karma to -e intention rather than action;8+ -ringing moral agency to thought+ cognition and consciousness.;< (y ethiciBing karma+ the (uddha -rought a new dimension of philosophy to the cosmos of the +edas and Upaniads.

93 <ombrich, !hat the "#ddha $ho#ght, &9, !9 * 1. 94 Gainism, while ethicizing and universalizing /arma, would retain the idea of the latter as action,
since all action was seen to create /arma (even the unintentional 2illing of invisible bugs in the air) and therefore to be avoided (<ombrich, !hat the "#ddha $ho#ght, !9, 1 * ').

95 Ang#ttara 2i/aya ..., 9&1. 96 See <ombrichs chapter #3amma as a Deaction to "rahminism% in Ho* "#ddhism "egan (&'')).

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