Preferred Citation: Valensi, Lucette, and Nathan Wachtel. Jewish Memories. Berkeley: University of California Press, c1991 1991.

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Jewish Memories
Lucette Valensi and Nathan Wachtel
UNIVERSITY OF !LIFORNI! "RESS

Berkeley Los Angeles Oxford

# $%%$ The Re&ents o' the Uni(ersit) o' ali'ornia

Preferred Citation: Valensi, Lucette, and Nathan Wachtel. Jewish Memories. Berkeley: University of California Press, c1991 1991. htt :!!ark.cdli".or#!ark:!1$%$%!ft&'(n")c1!

LISTEN * * *
*t the end of the 19&%s, the authors undertook to intervie+ and collect the life stories of ,e+s livin# in -rance "ut "orn in other distant lands. ./our history is i0 ortant,. +e told the0. .1he society you "elon#ed to no lon#er e2ists. 3t assed a+ay +ithout leavin# any archives and you +ere +itness to an eventful eriod. 1ell us a"out it.. 3n the follo+in# a#es +e +ill hear these voices. 1hey co0e to us fro0 Paris and its su"ur"s, fro0 4tras"our# or Cler0ont5-errand. 1hese are the voices of avera#e, ordinary eo le. 6ne +o0an +as a sea0stress, another a cleanin# lady, several si0 ly s ent their lives takin# care of their fa0ilies. 1here +ere "usiness0en7one +as also a oet and art collector7and hysicians, a "ookkee er, a +atch0aker, so0e leather+orkers, and several tailors. 4o0e +ere rich eo le +ho fre'uented casinos and s as, +ell5read eo le +ho s oke like "ooks, and so0e +ere oor eo le +ho never learned ho+ to read. 1hese voices co0e fro0 far a+ay,819 for all these eo le s ent their childhood, their youth, and so0eti0es 0ost of their adult life thousands of 0iles a+ay, in such cities as *le2andria in :#y t, Casa"lanca in ;orocco, <alis= in Poland, or Berlin in >er0any. 1+o thirds of the eo le +e intervie+ed +ere "orn "et+een the end of the nineteenth century and the "e#innin# of World War 3? 0ost of the re0ainin# +ere "orn in the inter5 819 Phili e ,outard, Ces voix qui viennent du pass @Paris: Aachette, 19B$C.

D(D +ar eriod. *ll are ,e+ish, each in his or her o+n +ay, and for that reason, had to leave their ho0eland. 1he fifty or so "io#ra hies re orted in this "ook do not for0 a statistical sa0 le of the ,e+ish o ulation livin# in -rance. ;ore than five hundred thousand eo le of various conditions constitute the ,e+ish co00unity in -rance today. 1hey co0e fro0 co00unities that +ere in turn diverse and counted several 0illion eo le "efore the second +ar. Needless to say, it +ould have "een i0 ossi"le to rovide any statistical sa0 le of such a o ulation. Nor do these fifty or so "io#ra hies constitute all the narrative +e recorded. -or +hen the ti0e ca0e to +rite do+n the stories +e +ere told, a kind of dialo#ue e0er#ed "et+een characters +ho had never 0et one another. Without kno+in# it, our interlocutors "roached su"Eects that another had raised, they res onded to one another, and echoed one another. *ll +e had to do +as to orchestrate that chorus, #ivin# u a nu0"er of "io#ra hies +e had collected, and cuttin# lar#e fra#0ents of those +e retained. While not statistically re resentative, these individual fates are nonetheless ty ical. :ach erson 0ade choices in his!her life +ithin a set of social and historical constraints. :ach one, retracin# his!her ast, used the +ords, the tones and shades of the culture he @or sheC "elon#ed to. :ach of the0, s eakin# of hi0 @herCself, s oke of .us. and .ours.. 1his 0i#ht "e artially "ecause of the +ay in +hich +e fra0ed our initial 'uestions. 1he stories +e +ere told s eak of e2 eriences that re0ained en#raved in 0e0ory, "ut not of all 0e0ora"le e2 eriences. 3f +e had called their attention to other as ects of their lives7 love, +ork, this or that revolution in :uro e or in the Near :ast7other 0e0ories +ould have e0er#ed and +ould have +oven different narratives. -ro0 the start, our 'uestion ut 0e0ory at the Eunction of individual and collective destiny. /et +hen 4u=anne 1., a +o0an "orn in *l#eria, +rote her life story "y herself, +ithout "ein# intervie+ed orally, she evoked the sa0e se'uences of the lar#er history and the sa0e crucial 0o0ents of her e2istence as other +o0en +ho0 +e interro#ated. 4i0ilarly, a #rou of +o0en 'uestioned a"out fa0ily ractices in D$D *l#eria in the ast, and in -rance today, referred to the sa0e e isodes in their o+n lives. 1hus individual 0e0ory 0ade itself 0ulti le, as if each rota#onist +as osted as a sentinel receivin# the ass+ords of for0er #enerations and trans0ittin# the0 to those +ho follo+.8(9 When +e started collectin# these life stories, +e thou#ht +e +ould there"y take art in the sha in# of a collective 0e0ory and +ould also lay the art of the sentinel trans0ittin# the ass+ords. 3ndeed, the -rench version of the "ook follo+ed aths si0ilar to those of the +anderin# eo le it resents, and "eca0e itself art of shared 0e0ories. Passin# fro0 hand to hand, it rovoked une2 ected reunions "et+een individuals and "et+een #enerations. We 0ust tell the story of one of these unlikely encounters. 3n the course of scholarly and friendly e2chan#es +ith our Polish collea#ues7then art of the o osition 0ove0ent and +orkin# under very adverse conditions7+e #ave a co y of our "ook to a ro0inent historian in Warsa+, +ho in turn loaned it to one of his collea#ues, *nna F. 4he then discovered +ith astonish0ent that one of the characters in the "ook, Charles A., +as "orn in Nysko, the shtetl +here her o+n arents had lived. Born after the +ar, *nna F. +as the dau#hter of one of the last survivors of this shtetl, a lace she had kno+n only in her earliest childhood. When she returned to the villa#e after her arentsG death, not a sin#le ,e+ re0ained, and no"ody could tell her +hat Nysko had "een like in the old days.

/et here it +as in the a#es of a s0all "ook. * fe+ 0onths later, *nna F. had an o ortunity to co0e to Paris for a "rief visit on a study #rant. 4he ca0e to us and asked, hesitantly, if she could 0eet Charles A. 4he did indeed 0eet hi0 on the very ne2t day. *nd this is ho+, on a +inter day in 19BB, Charles and *nna s ent hours to#ether, +ith tears in their eyes, evokin# the villa#e they had kno+n. What see0ed so unusual in their 0eetin#7so Charles A. later told us7+as that they o+ed it to a "ook? that +ithout it, they +ould have 0issed each other and +hat each of the0 #ave the other. What they shared in co00on 8(9 We "orro+ this 0eta hor fro0 Walter BenEa0in, Mythe et violence, trans. ;aurice de >andillac @Paris, 19&1C, . 9B. DHD +as the 0e0ory of the lace, of its landsca e, even thou#h they had kno+n it at different ti0es. Charles +as "orn in that shtetl forty years "efore *nna. Ae had left in 19(B, +ithout ever 0eetin# *nnaGs arents. /et they "oth re0e0"ered the river that had carried CharlesGs #randfatherGs +ooden rafts, the sa0e +ooden rafts *nna had conte0 lated as a child. What Charles "rou#ht to *nna +as a ast she had lost, and the 0e0ory of all the #enerations of ,e+s the shtetl had kno+n until the Shoah interru ted their flo+. -or years, *nna tried to recall the ti0e +hen the shtetl +as full of ,e+s "ut +as 0et +ith a silent a"sence of 0e0ory. 4he found it a#ain in Paris7#uided "y a fe+ lines of a s0all "ook7in the 0e0ories, the ictures, the +ords and e0otions of a 0an +ho had left so 0any years "efore. Aer tri to Paris had turned into a Eourney into the ast. 1he narratives that follo+ resent "oth fra#0ents of an oral history of the eriod their narrators lived throu#h and fra#0ents of an ethnolo#y of their co00unities. /et these fra#0ents have "een selected accordin# to a lo#ic that is neither that of the historian nor of the ethnolo#ist. 3n studyin# a articular eriod, the rofessional historian is no lon#er the chronicler of his rince, his church, or his nation. 1oday, addressin# a s ecific issue, the historian locates and or#ani=es facts in such a +ay as to ans+er the 'uestions he has raised. Ais #oal is to understand and to 0ake thin#s intelli#i"le. 1he ethnolo#ist, for his art, o"serves and orders social ractices that 0ake sense for the society that roduces the0, since culture, a sy0"olic construct of collective e2 erience, is a 0aEor condition of the e2istence and re roduction of any social unit. What distin#uishes their a roach fro0 that of eo le +ho recall their ast is that "oth the historian and the ethnolo#ist as ire 0ore or less e2 licitly to thorou#hness and o"Eectivity. 4ituated outside the #a0e they o"serve, they seek to sei=e it fro0 as 0any an#les as ossi"le. Perceivin# the0selves as a"ove the #a0e, they "elieve they can see it "etter even than the layers7althou#h they rely on the0 to su ly the 0aterial of their intellectual construct. 1o re0e0"er, ho+ever, re'uires a ersonal involve0ent in the dra0a. I is the necessary su"Eect of the action, the one +ho 0aintains and cultivates the sense of the ast. Ais su"5 D)D Eective narrative is nourished on e0otions, unlike the rational construct of the rofessional scholar. Certainly, like the construct of the historian or the ethnolo#ist, his is a narrative, that is, a fiction, and not the direct and i00ediate transcri tion of the lived e2 erience. But so0ethin# different is at stake in this construct. 1o dra+ your self5 ortrait is to e2 ose your identity. *nd in the sa0e +ay that childhood 0e0ories sha e the identity of the adult individual, so 0e0ory does +ith collective identity. Iecounted ."y heart,. as the sayin# #oes, the narratives +e have #athered are the vehicles of a collective 0e0ory for +hich #ood and "ad events of the ast have 0eanin# recisely "ecause they for0 art of a shared e2 erience.8$9

But it 0i#ht "e an illusion to i0a#ine the scholar in a osition of neutrality, outside and a"ove the o"Eect he constructs and the results he for0ulates. :ach sta#e of a 'uest #ri s the scholar to the core, and no one returns untouched after co0 letin# a roEect. *s for us, in any case, +e kne+ +e +ould not "e e2ternal and o"Eective. *s uno"trusive as +e tried to "e in the course of the intervie+s, inter-views they +ere, and it +as, "y our very first 'uestion, +e +ho set 0e0ory in 0otion. We +anted this co0 licity and e0 athy that "ound us to the narrators. 3ndeed, +hen +e failed to esta"lish this "ond, the discourse +as inevita"ly conventional and studied7it ran# false. * defensive 8$9 We have not atte0 ted to confront the narratives collected +ith history and ethnolo#y "ooks e2ce t, in rare cases, to facilitate the understandin# of the te2ts re orted here. Aence, the "i"lio#ra hy to "e found in so0e of the notes is deli"erately "rief. Nor have +e indicated the corres ondences "et+een the narratives #athered and other e2 ressions of collective 0e0ory. 3n ,e+ish societies that are only sli#htly seculari=ed, the reli#ious tradition takes the lace of collective 0e0ory to a lar#e e2tent. 1he seculari=ation of these societies has not #iven scientific history the advanta#e over holy history "ut has rather scaled collective 0e0ory +hich is e2 ressed today "y theater, fil0, novels, aintin#, 0usic, or so5called ,e+ish hu0or. Choosin# to re0ain +ithin a sin#le #enre, +e shall only note here and there the echoes our narratives find in other u"lished auto"io#ra hical te2ts @narratives or novelsC. -or a discussion of such auto"io#ra hies u"lished +ithin the last t+o decades, see Lucette Valensi, .-ro0 4acred Aistory to Aistorical ;e0ory and Back: 1he ,e+ish Past,. . (B$J$%) and Nathan Wachtel, .Ie0e0"er and Never -or#et,. . $%&J$$), in History and nthropolo!y, vol. (, art ( @19BKC. 6n the 0ore #eneral ro"le0 of the relations "et+een 0e0ory and history in the ,e+ish e2 erience, see /. A. /erushal0i, "a#hor, Jewish History and Jewish Memory @4eattle: University of Washin#ton Press, 19B(C. DKD and evasive 0ode "locked co00unication and su ressed the narrative. 3n introducin# ourselves, +ithout even sayin# so e2 licitly, +e ro osed, acce ted, and concluded a contract +ith our interlocutors, accordin# to +hich they e2 ected us to listen to their +ords in order to ut the0 into the a#es of a "ook, since it +as our rofession to +rite "ooks. We #enerally intervie+ed eo le in their o+n ho0es. 4o0eti0es, at their re'uest, 0eetin#s took lace in the "ustle of a cafL or in the resence of friends and relations invited for the occasion. ,ulien, +ho0 ;ar2 +ould have characteri=ed as a . rofessional cons irator. and +ho has "een knockin# around since he +as ei#hteen, never received us in his ho0e. 3nstead, he s ent 0any a lon# ni#ht +ith us in the Parisian streets around ;ont arnasse. :lie B., +ho +anted to e0 hasi=e his activities as a 0an of letters in his lon# 0ultifaceted career, invited us to a literary cafL in the Latin Muarter. Aence, fro0 the choice of the venue for our intervie+s, +e could #et a sense of the character they +anted to ut on sta#e or to +ill to osterity. ;ost often, ho+ever, +e +ere invited to enter into the inti0acy of their do0estic +orld. 3n these interiors, there +ere al0ost no visi"le si#ns of the lace of ori#in. 6ne hysician collected nineteenth5century illu0inated 0arria#e contracts @#etu$$ot C? another had "rou#ht o"Eects fro0 1unisia7so0e North *frican, so0e not7that could have "een "ou#ht in an anti'ue sho . But #enerally, o"Eects fro0 their ast +ere not to "e found. 1he first traces of the ast to resurface +ere +ords, the +ave of +ords that oured out once contact +as esta"lished. 1hen ca0e i0a#es, as the characters +ho o ulated the narratives no+ rea eared in fa0ily hotos. 1hey +ere i0a#es of Eoy, since it is the nature of such docu0ents to reserve only ha y events and leisure 0o0ents. 4o0eti0es, fro0 a life turned u side do+n "y the +ar, all that re0ained +ere one or t+o hotos, +hich then assu0ed the value of relics. 3n +hich case, it +as recisely as an act of iety that eo le +anted to talk: ./ou see,. says >eor#es -., +hose fa0ily +as e2ter0inated in

the ca0 s, .0y children donGt even kno+ 0y 0otherGs na0e.. Aer na0e +as :sther. By tellin# us a"out his childhood, then, D&D he +as atonin# for o"livion as one atones for a sin, and recallin# to life those he had lost. 1he ulti0ate re0inders ca0e in the for0 of s+eet5s0ellin# astries. *l0ost +ithout fail, i0 ortant rituals and note+orthy events +ere associated in the 0e0ory +ith a articular food +hose re aration +as descri"ed and +hose reci e +as #iven. 4oon enou#h, those 0e0ories +ould 0ateriali=e "efore our eyes, like ProustGs 0adeleines, in the for0 of cookies and cakes. Pre arin# to aste to#ether a#ain the ieces of their ast, our interlocutors had re0ade the for#otten #estures, and entrusted to the oven the task of e2halin# the lost erfu0es. By offerin# us these astries, they could "etter 0ake us share the associations of ideas and i0a#es their re aration had called forth and co00unicate directly to us the taste of yesterdayGs life. Words, i0a#es, and tastes have 0ade us artici ate in the destinies +hose history +e have #athered. 4ince the "e#innin# of our enter rise, several of the voices +e are #oin# to hear have died. 1o+ard those +ho are no+ #one +e assu0e the sa0e o"li#ation that they felt to+ard their o+n dead. Aere +e stand at our sentry osts #ivin# the ass+ord. %isten.8H9

! +NOWLE,-EMENTS
We +ant to thank Iay0onde *dda, Aenri Ben=akki, ,oNlle Bahloul, *rlette Chourna, Claudine >uittoneau, Claudine Aer=lich, *le2 <urc, Nine ;oatti, VLroni'ue Nahu05>ra e, >Lrard Na0er, 4u=y 4it"on, ,ean5Claude 4itruk, and ;onica 1iffen"er# for the intervie+s they conducted for us7 +ith or +ithout us7and +hich they have #iven us er0ission to use. :ven +hen +e have not re orted the0 in this "ook, these te2ts nourished our reflection and influenced the choice of those +e have ke t. We also rofited fro0 the co0 arison of our e2 eri5 8H9 1he rules of our rofession revent us fro0 u"lishin# the na0es of those +e intervie+ed. We have ke t their first na0e follo+ed "y the initial of the fa0ily na0e and their date and lace of "irth. 1he na0es of the ersons cited in their 0e0oirs have "een chan#ed e2ce t +hen they are fa0ous ersona#es. DBD ence +ith that of Ooris Bensi0on5Oonath and Oo0ini'ue 4chna er +ho +ere collectin# oral archives at the ti0e +e conducted our intervie+s. We also thank *"y Wie+orka +ho translated and transcri"ed a lon# intervie+ in /iddish as +ell as *le2andre Oerc=ansky +ho #enerously #ave us the "enefit of his erudition. -inally, +e "enefited fro0 the 0aterial su ort of the Centre de Iecherches Aistori'ues at the Pcole des Aautes Ptudes en 4ciences 4ociales and fro0 the ;inistry of Culture, Oirection du Patri0oine to +hich +e are also #rateful. D9D

!ST OF .!R! TERS/$0

laire !*
Born in 191K in Constantine, *l#eria, an attractive +o0an, she ca0e to -rance 0uch earlier than the rest of her fa0ily. 4ince 19HB, she has "een a +orker and see0s e0anci ated. Nevertheless, she feels a need to s eak *ra"ic every day: .3 think itGs the 0ost "eautiful lan#ua#e. . . . :very day, three or four +ords of *ra"ic co0e to 0e, 3 say the0, no 0atter +here 3 a0.. 1he intervie+ took lace in her ho0e, a0id the aro0a of coffee. 4he sho+ed a hoto#ra h of her father layin# the 0andolin @he +as "orn in 1BB) and had had a sho in ConstantineC. Claire *. is the first cousin of the ne2t t+o narrators. We +ill find her on . ($, ($), (B$.

!lice 1*
Born in 191$ in *Qn BeQda, *l#eria. Ie0ainin# sin#le, she lived +ith her 0other in *l#eria and in Paris. 4he fulfills the role of fa0ily chronicler and #enealo#ist? another e2a0 le of such a character +ill "e found later on. *lice B. +ill "e seen on . (H, 11&, (&9, (BB.

Manou 1*
Born in 19(K in *Qn BeQda, *l#eria, earned her livin# as a technician in Paris. 4ee (H1, (&B, (B$, (B), (BK. 1hese three intervie+s +ere done "y Iay0onde *dda. 819 By order of a earance. 6nly the 0aEor characters are introduced here. D 1% D . (), )9, K$, 11$,

Tita
Born in 1unis in 19%(, +as 'uestioned in her ho0e, in the Belleville 'uarter of Paris, "y her #randson, a youn# history teacher, +ho translated her lon# narrative fro0 *ra"ic. 1he dau#hter of a shoe0aker and a laundress, +ife of a travelin# eddler, a +ido+ at $K, illiterate, she +as e0 loyed successively as a servant, a cha0"er0aid in a hotel, and a factory +orker. Worn out "y a life of trials, her narrative is nevertheless full of hu0or and love. 4ee . (), )H, (19.

amilla N*
Born in 1ri oli, Li"ya, "efore 19%%. We intervie+ed her in her ho0e. 4he has a lovely 3talian accent and ele#ant 0anners. 4ervin# tea, she is re0inded of a 1urkish rince in e2ile in 1ri oli7he, too, reduced "y circu0stances, as she is no+, to 0akin# his o+n tea. *n i0a#e of fallen #randeur. Aer childhood 0e0ories in fact resent a series of vi#nettes illustratin# a fairy tale. 4ee . $%, H), )9, K%, 1)1, 1K$, ((H, ((&.

Laure !*
Born in 3stan"ul in a"out 191%, defines herself as a s oiled child. 4he receives us in her ho0e, in a ink housecoat? she +ears 0akeu , her hair is styled and dyed "lond. 4he tells us that the only thin# she has reserved of the 6rient is her taste for sofas, on +hich she s ends her days. 4o, stretched out on a sofa,

she #ives us an account of her #ilded youth. 4he has reserved a thick accent, inserts :n#lish, >er0an, or 3talian e2 ressions into her s eech, thus de0onstratin# the #ood education she received @one of the central the0es of her "io#ra hyC. Nothin# in the a art0ent is re0iniscent of 3stan"ul? there is not even a sin#le one of those recious ru#s her father dealt in. 4ee . $(, K$, 1H9, 1K%, (1K, ($%.

-a2riel ,*
Born in 4alonika in a"out 191%, ca0e to -rance after "ein# an in0ate in *usch+it= Concentration Ca0 and nursed "ack to health in 4+eden. 3n Paris, he +orked as a eddler. Ourin# the intervie+, done "y ;onica 1iffen"er#, he sho+s a hoto5 D 11 D #ra h fro0 his youth, .hi0self at 1&, his sisters, his cousins, all the kids, each one on his "ike,. dressed in the style of the 19(%s. ;onica 1iffen"er# co00ents: .Ao+ handso0e you +ereR. *nd he re lies: ./esR WeGre 4 aniardsR. 3"erian ride e0er#es in other 0e0ories of 4e hardi0 fro0 3stan"ul and 4alonika. 4ee . $$, K$, KK, 111, (((, (K$, (BK.

Ida O*
Born in 4alonika in 19%K, in -rance since the 19(%s. Wido+ of a te2tile 0erchant in the 4entier 'uarter of Paris, she has kno+n a certain co0fort. 4he receives us in her ho0e, offers tea +ith 4alonikan astries she has 0ade and "ou#ht for us: the only trace of the ho0e country. 1here are so0e o"Eects of :uro ean 0anufacture "ut "rou#ht fro0 4alonika and an a"undant collection of hoto#ra hs on +hich she co00ents +ith #reat liveliness, in tones and e2 ressions that are stron#ly 4alonikan. 4ee . $$, K), 11), ((1, (($, ((9, (&1.

-er&es 3*
Born in 1unis in 19%B, studied 0edicine in Paris, racticed in 1unisia, e0i#rated at the "e#innin# of the 19K%s. Ae receives us in his ho0e, surrounded "y the furniture and the rich li"rary he had in 1unisia. 4ee . $), 1H$, 1HB.

-ioia !*
Born in *le2andria in 19%9. 1he a ro riately na0ed >ioia receives us in her ho0e, derides everythin# she tells us, and is a0used "y everythin#. :ven the e2odus that led her, her hus"and, and her youn# dau#hter to the south of -rance, Portu#al, *frica, and finally Cairo is told in a Eokin# 0anner. 6f her life in :#y t, she ke t only hoto#ra hs, and she co00ents on the0 for us. But her 0e0ories are es ecially filled +ith the flavors of s+eets, that rea ear durin# the intervie+ in the for0 of :#y tian astries. 4ee . $), 1H$, 1HB.

Edmund .*
Conte0 orary of >ioia, "orn in Cairo, a "usiness0an. 1he reverses he suffered in :#y t feed a resent0ent that is still very D 1( D

keen. *#ain, nothin# in his a art0ent is re0iniscent of his lon# stay in :#y t, e2ce t for the astries he 0akes hi0self and serves at each of our 0eetin#s. 4ee . $K, 1)(, 1K1, (&$.

Su4anne T*
Born in 4Ltif in 191%. * roached "y A. Ben=akki, then a student of history, 4u=anne 1. referred to +rite the account of her life and #ive hi0 the various cha ters. Ourin# their 0eetin#s, she added co00entaries and docu0ents to the te2t she rovided. Ae descri"es her as livin# alone in a su"ur"an lo+5inco0e housin# roEect, s eakin# +ith a loud voice, a 0arked accent, and a #reat liveliness in s ite of hysical handica s. -ro0 her kitchen co0es .an odor of i0ento and oriental s ices,. .the rece tion is +ar0, s ontaneous, the "ottle of anisette is 'uickly out on the ta"le for the visitor.. Aer te2t is first an e ic of daily life, +ith the detailed account of fa0ily conflicts, the "irth of her ten children, the death of t+o of the0, the rofessional successes and reverses of the hus"and. 3t is also a testi0ony: 4u=anne is deli"erate in recountin# the olitical cli0ate and events, details of the 0aterial conditions of life @for e2a0 le, the introduction of do0estic electricity in Constantine in 19$%, and everythin# else that see0s to her to "e ty ical in the life she has lived. But, underlyin# the chronicle and the testi0ony, the auto"io#ra hy utters a rotest: a rotest a#ainst an unsatisfactory resent that lacks dear and de arted ersons, that lacks the o"Eects of love and hate that fill her 0e0ories, that lacks the re ay0ent "y her children for all the attention she #ave the0. 1he +ritin# of the account is al0ost "ereft of unctuation, and its s ellin# translates the sounds of the s oken rather than the +ritten lan#ua#e. Ie#retfully, +e have had to correct the s ellin# and introduce unctuation to 0ake this te2t intelli#i"le to a reader. 4ee . $B, )%, 1%K, ($1, ($K, (H%, (&K, (&9, (B1, (B).

-eor&ette ,*
Born in 1B99 in 1unis, converses +ith her hus"and, "orn "efore her, a ne he+ "orn in 19%K, and his +ife, +ho hardly D 1$ D intervenes. 1he conversation is lively, constantly interru ted. 3 +as taken to >eor#ette "ecause she is considered the re ository of the fa0ily 0e0ory. 3ndeed, on the "asis of tenuous clues7a first na0e, an address7she i00ediately reconstructs the "io#ra hy of an individual and his relatives. 1he na0es that o ulate her discourse ulti0ately #o +ell "eyond the li0its of fa0ily relationshi s. 1he ersona#e of the fa0ily chronicler is a +ides read social ty e. *0on# North *frican ,e+s he @or sheC kee s oral records of ersonal statistics +ith associations such as: .S had his "ar 0it=vah +hen F #ot 0arried and / +as livin# on such5and5such a street.. *nd eo le turn to this data "ank for every verification of identity.8(9 >eor#etteGs hus"and co0es fro0 a Livornese fa0ily and is thus hi#her in the local hierarchy. 1hat +ill "e recalled at len#th in the course of the conversation "ut is not re roduced here. 4ee . H1, 119.

Louise -*
*Qn BeQda, 19(1, is the first cousin of Claire *., *lice B., and ;anou B. 4ee . H$, 11K, (&B, (BH, (B).

"a5ou N*
Born in 4alonika in 1B9H, +as intervie+ed "y his #randdau#hter, +ho descri"es hi0 as tall, erect, fillin# the s ace. With his a"undant hair .thro+n "ack +ith a cra=y ele#ance,. he lau#hs. *nd +hen he sto s lau#hin#, .you can see the "lue of his eyes, very "lue. Pa ou rolls his rGs and talks +ith his hands, or rather, his hands also talk, in an ironic or earnest counter oint, +ith those #estures +hich co0e fro0 far a+ay, +hich no"ody else in that fa0ily still has. What re0ains on a er rese0"les Pa ou very little. 1he tone of his voice, his #estures, the e2 ressions of his face, everythin# is lost e2ce t for the 8(9 1his character is also found in 4alonika: .1he date of "irth, already a "i# deal. Let Cousin Iachel and *unt Binouta re0e0"er @thatGs all they had to doC the "irths of our t+enty cousins, that +as enou#h.. Aenriette *sseo, .Ou 0iel au2 cendres. . . . 6T sont assLs soi2ante5di2 0ille ,uifs de 4aloni'ueU. 8-ro0 Aoney to *shes . . . Where Oid the 4eventy 1housand ,e+s of 4alonika >oU9, %es &emps modernes, no. H%% @Nove0"er 19&9C: B(BJBH). D 1H D 0eanin#, a "lack skeleton on +hite a er..8$9 We +ill see hi0 on . HH, 1KH, (K).

.enri 6*
Born in Cairo in 191$. Like :d0ond A., Pa ou N., Laure *.Gs father, and so 0any other characters +ho +ill a ear in the course of this "ook, he is a dra#o0an ar e2cellence: an inter0ediary "et+een :ast and West, an i0 orter5e2 orter and 0aEor entre reneur "y rofession, and a 0aster of several lan#ua#es and cultures. 4ee . HK, KK.

Mathilde 1*
Born in Bi=erte in 1B9(, receives us at her ho0e in a studio she occu ies in 4arcelles. *ll that is left of her life in 1unis is the round ta"le at +hich her fa0ily used to eat its 0eals, the children did their school+ork, and friends layed cards. ;athilde ours out countless hoto#ra hs onto the ta"le and co00ents on the0. 4he sees her life as a love story she +ants to leave to osterity. @3ntervie+ done "y Lucette Valensi and Nine ;oatti.C 4ee . K%, K), 1%$.

harles .*
Born in 19%K in Nysko, a shtetl in >alicia. Ais father +as first a "ailiff in the court and then a "ank e0 loyee. Charles studied in the 4tate Polish hi#h school and then i00i#rated to -rance @NancyC in 19(H to study 0edicine. *fter 0arryin# ALlVne, he 0oved to a s0all city near Paris. Ourin# the 6ccu ation, he hid +ith his fa0ily in a villa#e of the Creuse. Ae s eaks a very ele#ant -rench, 0odulated "y a sli#ht accent. 4ee . $, &%, 9H, 1$$, (H&, (9).

-eor&es F*
Born in 191) in the Polish little to+n of 4kar=ysko5<a0iena @"et+een Iado0 and <ielceC. Childhood lived in overty, a .ha y overty.. 4tudied in heder and, at the a#e of 1$, "eca0e 8$9 4ince the u"lication of this "ook, Pa ou N. has "eco0e the su"Eect of a "ook +ritten "y his son, :d#ar ;orin, 'idal et les siens @Paris: Le 4euil, 19B9C.

D 1) D an a rentice tailor. Ae i00i#rated to -rance in 19$K @follo+in# his "rother +ho left in 19$$C. Went to Lyon after the roundu of 4e te0"er 19H1, follo+ed "y his +ife after the roundu of the VelG dGAiv of ,uly 19H(. Ieturned to Paris after the Li"eration. Ae has reserved a dee nostal#ia for the laces of his childhood and drea0s of one day crossin# the "rid#e of his villa#e a#ain. 4ee . K, &H, B(, B), B9, 9), 99, 1(H, 1(9, 1$%, 1$$, 1&&, (H), (H9, ()(, $%1, $$9.

.7l8ne .*
Born in 19%K in Bialystok, descendant of a line of fa0ous ra""is. Ourin# World War 3, she fled +ith her 0other to the Ukraine @to :katerinoslavC. 300i#rated to -rance @NancyC in 19(H to study 0edicine. ;arried Charles A. * erfect 0astery of -rench, +hich she s eaks +ithout any accent. 4ee . &), 1&H, (9).

La4are M*
Born in <alis= in 191%, studied in heder, then the ,e+ish @Ae"re+C hi#h school. * oor student in Warsa+, in a se0inary of the C./.4.A.6. @to "eco0e a teacherC. *ctive in the leftist PoGalei Fion 0ove0ent.8H9 Ca0e to -rance in 19$&, +here he continued his activis0. Volunteered for the ar0y in 19$9, +as assi#ned to a Polish re#i0ent that crossed the 4+iss "order in ,une 19H%? +as i0 risoned in various ca0 s and then +as a"le to resu0e his studies in education in 4+it=erland. Ieturned to -rance after the +ar and +orked as a teacher in the institutions that took in the children of de ortees. 4ee . &K, B%, 1(K, 1$), (H9.

Mathilde R*
Born in 19(B in the su"ur"s of Paris, her father +as fro0 Lod=, her 0other fro0 Brest5Litovsk. Aer assi0ilationist arents first raised her in i#norance of her ,e+ish ori#in and sent 8H9 C./.4.A.6.: Central 6r#ani=ation of /iddish 4chool. (o)alei "ion* a 0ove0ent that co0"ined Fionis0 and 4ocialis0, it "e#an in Iussia in the 1B9%s and then s read to other :uro ean countries. 1he leftist "ranch Eoined the 1hird 3nternational. D 1K D her to a Catholic school. 4he discovered her ,e+ish identity durin# a tri to Poland in 19$B +ith her 0other. Aid durin# the 6ccu ation, first in 1oulouse and then in a villa#e of the Cantal, she returned to Paris after the Li"eration and later "eca0e a sychoanalyst. 4he received us in an a art0ent in the chic nei#h"orhood of -au"our# 4aint5>er0ain and s oke +ith ele#ance, intensely relivin# the e0otions of the ast, acco0 anyin# her account +ith a runnin# analytical co00entary. 4ee . B1, 19&, ()$, ()B, (9(, $%$, $1&, $(%.

Louise M*
Born at the turn of the century in a little to+n in 4ilesia, she then lived in Berlin, +here she #ot 0arried. Oau#hter and #randdau#hter of an educated 0iddle5class fa0ily, she +as one of those .assi0ilated. >er0an ,e+s +ho +ere taken "y sur rise "y the onslau#ht of Na=is0. 300i#rated to ;orocco via Aolland in 19$K. 4ee . BB, 1&B, ()1, ()&.

!nna ,*
Born in Lod= in a"out 191B. * oor dress0aker, she s ent the +ar in Poland? +as de orted to the ca0 in 4kar=ysko. 300i#rated to -rance in 19HK. 1his intervie+ +as conducted "y Claudine >uittonneau. 4ee . $H, $(&.

Yaco29Jac:ues L*
Born at the end of the last century in a shtetl in the area of Lu"lin, /aco" is the son of a +atch0aker, and he studied in the heder? his readin# @ articularly round the +orld in ,i!hty -ays, translated into /iddishC led hi0 to 'uestion reli#ious "eliefs. Ae "eca0e a +atch0aker too and 0oved first to Warsa+ and then to ;osco+ @+here he e2 erienced trou"les durin# the Ievolution of 191&C. Ae i00i#rated to -rance in 19(% and +orked as a +atch0aker near ;ont"Lliard, then in BesanWon, and finally in Paris, +here he "eco0es ,ac'ues. 4 eaks -rench +ith a very thick accent. Ais s eech is constantly inters ersed +ith "i"lical allusions. Ais fa0ily havin# "een e2ter0inated durin# the +ar, he had al+ays ke t silent a"out that eriod. Ae D 1& D +elco0es us #ratefully, relieved to have a chance to tell his story at last. 4ee 1&(, 1B9, $(H. . 9H, 1%%, 1(B, 1$H,

Maurice N*
Born in 19(% in 6kouniev, near Warsa+. Ais father, first a hasid, later "eca0e a Co00unist. 4tudied in heder, then in Polish school. 1he father i00i#rated to Paris in 19(9, and +as follo+ed "y his fa0ily in 19$1. *t the a#e of thirteen, after one year of schoolin#, ;aurice +ent to +ork tannin# leather. ;e0"er of the /iddish *r"eiter 4 ortive <lu", then the Co00unist /outh and the Co00unist arty, he Eoined the Iesistance in Lyon @OLcinesC. *fter the +ar, he +ent into the leather+orkin# "usiness on his o+n. Left the Co00unist arty in 19)K and states his sy0 athy for 3srael. 3ntervie+ done "y *le2 <urc.8)9 4ee . 9B, 1$(, 1BB, (%%, (1%, (HK, $%9, $1H.

Ro2ert S*
Born in 19%& in Pr=e0ysl, in >alicia, to a fa0ily of 0odest 0eans @his father, a travelin# sales0an in rather oor healthC. 4tudied in the Polish hi#h school. Ca0e to Nancy, -rance, in 19(B. Ae led the life of a oor student @of dentistryC, forced to +ork to su ort hi0self +hile also re#ularly sendin# hel to his arents in Poland. 6"tained -rench citi=enshi in 19$). 1hen he "rou#ht his "rother and one sister to -rance. Orafted in 19$9, he +as taken risoner and then freed. Ae lived in a to+n in the center of -rance durin# the 6ccu ation and then hid in a villa#e of *uver#ne. Ae esta"lished his dental ractice only after the Li"eration, al0ost t+enty years after his arrival in -rance. * lon#ti0e fello+ traveler of the Co00unist arty, he finally returned to his for0er Fionist sy0 athies. 4 eaks erfect -rench +ith a sli#ht accent. 4ee . 1%1, 1&1, 191, (%&, (HK, ()%, ()$, (9B, $((. 8)9 1his character also ins ired the Eoint article of ;artine Cohen, ;ichVle -eld0ann, Colette >ui#ui, Claudine >uittonneau, *le2 <urc, ;onica 1iffen"er#, and 3nna We"er, .LGhistoire de ;aurice: essai dGanalyse dGun rLcit de vie. 81he 4tory of ;aurice: *nalysis of a Life *ccount9 .od. /evue des tudes h$ra0ques et 1uives modernes et contemporaines K:1 @first and second tri0esters 19B%C: &BJBK.

D 1B D

Vi(iane 1*
Born in Constantine in 19(9, in -rance since 19(K? rofession, secretary. 4he is the first cousin of Claire *., *lice B., ;anou B., Louise >., and a fe+ others. 4he is seen a#ain on . 11(, (&B.

Reine !*
* cousin of the revious characters, +as "orn in *Qn BeQda in 191&. 4he +as a sea0stress and .se+ed the trousseau. of several youn# ,e+ish #irls of Constantine. 4he is lo'uacious and vociferous, her -rench 0i2ed +ith *ra" +ords. 4ee . 11H.

1ernard "*
Born in 19(( in <alis=. Ais father +as a +orker s eciali=in# in lace. 4tudied in the ,e+ish @Ae"re+C hi#h school. 300i#rated to -rance @IoanneC +ith his fa0ily in 19$B. Ae +ent to +ork i00ediately in the hosiery trade and +as then a 0e0"er of Aasho0er AaFaGir, the Fionist54ocialist youth 0ove0ent. Ourin# the +ar, he Eoined the Iesistance in the U.,.,. 8Union de la ,eunesse ,uive9 in Ioanne and later in Lyon @OLcinesC. Left the Co00unist arty in 19)K and declares his su ort of the 4tate of 3srael. 3ntervie+ done "y *le2 <urc. 4ee . 1(&, 1$H, 19&, (HK, ()(, $%9, $1&.

Marc 1*
Born in 19%% in Warsa+ @Pra#aC, to a fa0ily of Aasidi0. *n a rentice leather+orker at thirteen, he +as active in the Bundist 0ove0ent at a very youn# a#e @he +as es ecially involved in the or#ani=ation of the lar#e Bund li"rary in Warsa+C.8K9 Ca0e to -rance in 19(), +here he +orked as a leather+orker. Continued to "e active in the Bund and +as one of the foundin# 0e0"ers of the ;ede0 Li"rary. *rrested in ;ay 19H1, he +as sent to the Beaune5la5Iolande ca0 , +here he s ent eleven 0onths and then 0ana#ed to esca e. Ae hid successively in 1oulouse, Lyon, and finally >reno"le. 3ntervie+ed "y Claudine >uittonneau. 4ee . 1$&, 199, $%K. 8K9 Bund: ,e+ish 4ocialist arty founded in Iussia in 1B9&, very active in Poland "et+een the t+o +orld +ars. D 19 D

Julien +*
Born a"out 191H in a villa#e in >alicia. Ais father +as rinci al of a /iddish school in Chel0, then editor of a ,e+ish Eournal in Craco+. ,ulien <. studied in the state Polish hi#h school in Craco+ and "eca0e a olitical activist at an early a#e. Ae follo+ed a rather tur"ulent ersonal itinerary, 0ovin# fro0 leftist Fionis0 to Co00unis0 and then to 1rotskyis0, later to Bundis0 and 4ocialis0, all the +hile reservin# his revolutionary faith intact. Conde0ned as a 1rotskyite in Warsa+, he esca ed "efore he +as sentenced and, after 0uch +anderin# a"out, arrived in -rance in ;ay 19$K. Partici ated in the 4 anish Civil War +ith the troo s of the P.6.U.;., the left5+in# anti54talinist arty. *rrested in Barcelona "y the 4talinists, he +as "ack in -rance in 19$B. ;ana#ed to esca e in 19H1 to 4+it=erland, +here he +as interned in various ca0 s. *fter the +ar, a Eournalist in the /iddish ress of Paris. 1he dra0atic vicissitudes of his life are a sur rise, co0in# fro0 one +ith such a +eak voice and such an

a arently sickly constitution. *n account that kee s us constantly char0ed "y its intelli#ence, its liveliness, and its 'uiet hu0or. 4ee . 1(B, 1$B, 1&9, (%%, ()(. ;ada0e <., *n ele#ant and lively +o0an, +ho has kno+n co0fort ever since her childhood in 1unis. 4he 0eets us in a lar#e cafL in the 6 Lra 'uarter of Paris. Love of 0usic fi#ures ro0inently in her 0e0ories, a si#n of the hi#h culture, #ood taste, and fine education +ith +hich she +as raised. Aer leasure in those 0e0ories does not revent her fro0 offerin# critical re0arks on the reEudices of her 0ilieu. 4ee . 1)K, (1B.

-olda R*
Born a"out 191% in Warsa+ @Pra#aC. Ca0e to Paris for the first ti0e at the a#e of thirteen "ut had to return to Poland. 300i#rated to -rance ten years later @ receded "y her arentsC. Worked first in a restaurant in Belleville, then as a sales#irl in a astry sho , and finally as an o erator in a te2tile +orksho . ;arried a construction +orker in 19$&. 3ntervie+ done in /iddish. 4ee . 1&(, (%(, $19, $$B. D (% D

L7on W*
Born in 19%) in <alis= @+here he lived in the sa0e "uildin# as La=are ;.C. *fter studyin# in heder, he "e#an to +ork as an a rentice tailor at the a#e of thirteen. 300i#rated to -rance, to ;et=, in 19($. :nlisted in the ar0y in 19$9. *fter the >er0an invasion, he hid +ith his fa0ily in Cler0ont5-errand in 19H%, then in Brioude in 19H(. Continued to live in *uver#ne after the +ar, racticin# the trade of tailor. 4ee . 1&&, (H), (H9.

!nnette 1*
Born in ;o#ador in the 19(%s, did not #o to school in ;orocco. 4he si0 ly learned leather+orkin#. 4he +as not yet t+enty +hen she 0arried a youn# #rain dealer. 4tartin# out +ith nothin#, he succeeded in a0assin# a co0forta"le fortune, sy0"oli=ed articularly "y the construction of a "i# house in Casa"lanca. ;ovin# to -rance +as acco0 anied "y a social decline and a reversal of roles: at the ti0e +e s eak to her, *nnette B. is a dress0aker and su orts the +hole fa0ily, her hus"and "ein# una"le to find +ork. But the rise "e#un in ;orocco is icked u a#ain "y the children. 4he encoura#es us to 0eet one of her dau#hters, +ho is 0arried to an *shkena=i intellectual in Paris. :2ile +as at the center of the 0otherGs talk. 3t re0ains at the center of the dau#hterGs, 4onia. *nnette B. received us in 4tras"our#, at the end of Passover. *ll the tastes of s rin# in ;orocco a eared on the ta"le for the ritual of Mimouna, in +hich +e +ere #enerously invited to artici ate. 4ee . (B%, (B1, (B&, (B9. D (1 D

"!RT ONE; T.E WORL, OF YESTER,!Y

D ($ D

$; From Saloni<a to Se'rou

Settin&= onstantine 2etween the Two World Wars
2,verythin! happened to!ether,2 2we were always in each other)s houses,2 2the !hetto, a3ter all, did us a 3avor2* all the women who descri$e the city $etween the two world wars recall a closed space which stopped, si!ni3icantly, at 24reach Street2 and where you were with your own people. 5ar 3rom complainin! a$out $ein! con3ined, they recall a rich world where social relations were intense and incessant. 5ar 3rom denouncin! the a$sence o3 privacy, they exalt the close acquaintance everyone had with everyone else, an entire population composed o3 only relatives, nei!h$ors, and 3riends. 4esides, those three cate!ories were superimposed on one another* nei!h$ors were li#e mem$ers o3 the 3amily, 3riends were our cousins, our cousins $ecame our spouses. In this homo!eneous space, 2private li3e2 was unthin#a$le6 on the contrary, today, deprived o3 these close relations, li3e loses its taste. Claire ., Constantine 7879* 3 +as "orn in Constantine? 3 a0 the last of fourteen children. We +ere "orn in a kind of house, .Oar ;ah0ud *li,. +hich +as very fa0ous, a little like the 0os'ue here: every"ody kno+s +here it is. 1here +ere thirty5three fa0ilies there and no fa0ily had fe+er than si2 children. *nd the houses, +hat +as s ecial a"out the0 is that they didnGt close. 1he houses +ere o en and you kne+ fa0ily S Eust as +ell as fa0ily /. /ou +ere +ith fa0ily and everythin# ha ened to#ether. /ou kne+ +hat your nei#h"or "ou#ht, you kne+ your nei#h"orGs overty as +ell as your nei#h"orGs +ealth. *nd any+ay, they +ere all D (H D ,e+s on Iue -errand. /ou see the hi#h school, the syna#o#ue, it +as on this street, do+n "y the hos ital, the "arracks. 4o i0a#ine thirty5three fa0ilies +ith those children +ho #re+ u , +ho had 0ore children, every"ody kne+ every$ody else. 1here +ere t+o stories. We ourselves had t+o roo0s and a kitchen. 6nce a +eek, ;a0a +ashed us, 0y father dried us, and then 0y oldest "rother dressed us. *nd +e had a ta"le, a round one, 0y father cut the "read, he thre+ ieces of "read like that, and +e stuffed it in the late to au#0ent the sou . 1hose are 0e0ories that stay +ith you for your +hole life. 6f course, there +as hardshi as +ell. We lost 0y father, he +as a shoe0aker, he did everythin#, oor 0an. Ae sold cloth, he #ave so 0uch credit that they didnGt ay hi0, he sold shoes, he +ent "ankru t. 1hen he did shoe0akin#. . . . Poor ;a0a, she had a tou#h ti0e. 1here +ere a lot of thin#s +e didnGt have, "ut not love. lice 4., 0n 4e0da, 787:*

1he fa0ily, +e +ere al+ays in each otherGs houses. -irst, it +asnGt far, not the kind of distances you have here. /ou +ent out of one house, you +ent "ack to another one "ecause everythin# +as close "y? you +ent to so0e"odyGs house, there +ere 0y aunts, 0y cousins, 0y cousin /vonne +ho lived on Iue 1hiers7sheGs in ;arseille no+7and you +ent out, you +ent to the 0ovies, you +ent to the casino, on 4aturday. 3n fact, they called us the illars of the casino, +e +ent there so 0uch. /ou visited the fa0ily al0ost every afternoon, visitin# "ack and forth. -irst you had your 0other /vonne and your aunt Nono, every day, every day they ca0e to our house, then it +as Vivi, then it +as. . . . When there +as so0e event, no 0atter +hat event, every"ody ran to see the0. 4o0e ca0e to our house, +e +ent to their house. -irst, ;a0a, if you re0e0"er, she +ent do+n to your 0other every 0ornin# to have coffee and your 0other, she ca0e in the afternoon. . . . 1hey +ere very close do+n there, very. Oaniel, ,acky, they donGt have any als any0ore. Oo+n there, every one had five, si2 als. Ioland he had 4ylvain, >uy, Vivi. .Were they not cousinsU. D () D /es "ut, even so, cousins "ut also als. . . . 1here +as >uy *., the hairdresser, ,ac'uesGs "rother, *delin, 3 tell you: at least seven or ei#ht. 1here +as Pros er, 0y cousin. 4ee, +e loved the fa0ily so 0uch that +e didnGt have any friends e2ce t for our cousins. Manou 4., 0n 4e0da, 78;9* 1he #hetto, after all, did us a favor. .Ao+U. Because you did +hat you +anted, you stayed in your o+n ele0ent. 1here +erenGt any stran#ers co0in# in, no 0i2ed 0arria#es, not all this stuff +e see today. 3, for e2a0 le, 3 kno+ that for <i ur, it +as 0arvelous "ecause +e had a lot of syna#o#ues ri#ht there in the #hetto. *cross fro0 the "oysG hi#h school, you see the Iue de -ranceU 1hereGs Iue 1hiers, Iue Oa0rL0ont, that +hole corner there, ri#ht u to the Place de la BrVche, there +ere only ,e+s livin# there. man, $orn in Constantine in 7879. <Says in an o$1ective tone o3 voice, without measurin! the e33ect o3 unwittin! humor=* 1he ,e+ish 'uarter has a articularity, it is ty ically ,e+ish. /ou canGt say itGs a #hetto, "ut a little ,erusale0 in *l#eria. woman, $orn in 0 4e0da in 78>?* 3t +as a little ,erusale0, *Qn BeQda, 3 s+ear. 1here +ere a lot of fa0ilies +ho +ere very reli#ious, very ious, you +ere hand in hand in that villa#e, eh, you loved each other a lot and you kne+ each other +ell.819

Tunis> at the 1e&innin& o' the entur)

misera$le childhood, ri!ht in the middle o3 the Jewish quarter, the Hara* &ita, $orn in 78>;, recalls the house where she !rew up 819 With a"out thirteen thousand ,e+s, Constantine +as one of the 0ost o ulous centers of ,e+ish life in *l#eria "et+een the t+o +orld +ars, after 6ran @t+enty to t+enty5five thousand ,e+s in the 19$%s and 19H%sC and *l#iers @t+enty5three to t+enty5si2 thousandC. *Qn BeQda nu0"ered one thousand in

19$1, and fe+er than five hundred ten years later. D (K D with her parents and two $rothers. +e have several descriptions o3 what she calls the 2 ra$ house.2 +hether this house was in l!eria or &unisia, it always evo#es the same ima!es, associated with the same impressions* the shorta!e o3 water and the drud!ery that imposed6 the lavatory which had to $e shared with the nei!h$ors, and the consequent immodesty and discom3ort6 the smallness and, at the same time, the neatness o3 the room occupied $y the entire 3amily6 the courtyard as a place 3or meetin!s and as a 3emale $astion6 the li3e that circulated amon! the cells o3 that or!anism and throu!h the courtyard. +hen the same persons indicate their su$sequent move into +esternstyle apartments, they 3eel no need to descri$e them, since they continue to live in a similar environment, whereas the ra$ house $elon!s to the past and is no lon!er 3amiliar. /ather than li3e in an apartment, people then recall, as in Constantine 1ust now, li3e amon! the apartments, li3e that circulated 3rom one house to another. .What +as your house likeU. ;y houseU 6ne roo0. .6nly oneU. 6ne roo0. 1here +ere toilets: not in our house, for every"ody. 1here +as the courtyard? there, every"ody had his o+n corner. .* sin#le roo0 . . . and a kitchenU. NoR * sin#le roo0R 1here +as one corner inside and thatGs +here you cooked. When it rained, you did the laundry? you did everythin# in that corner. 1here +as a 0at, a iece of shee skin. 3n +inter, +e sat on it, 0y 0other and 0e, ne2t to each other. We used the canoun 8a clay $ra@ier 9 to +ar0 u and 0y father sat on a chair ne2t to the ta"le to ray and read, and read, and read. . . . When 0y father finished the 0eal7he ate a little salad, a little "read, and +as content7he said the rayer and stayed like that until he finished di#estin#. 1hen he told us a story. ;a0a 0ade coffee. Ae drank and finished his story. *"out 1% or 1%:$%, he #ot into "ed and said Shema Israel donai . 8the pro3ession o3 3aith 9. .Ao+ did he readU Was there enou#h li#htU. Ao+R We had keroseneR No electricity, no? kerosene. /ou D (& D ut it in the roo0, on the ca"inet. 4o0eti0es, +hen you didnGt have enou#h, you used candles. *s for 0e, ever since 3 can re0e0"er, there +as +ater in the house. We +ere in the house of CaQd Nessi0, a "i# house. We had a +ell "ut that +ater +as salty. /ou cleaned the house +ith it, did the dishes and the laundry. But fresh +ater, the +ater seller "rou#ht us that. Ae had a +ater skin on his shoulder. .Aey +ater seller, "rin# +aterR. /ou took a little, you +ashed the laundry and soa ed it. 1hen you rinsed it in the +ell. 4o0eti0es, there +as s rin# +ater. -resh +ater. .Where did eo le +ashU. 3n the "asin, at ho0e. *l+ays.

.*nd the 1urkish "athsU. *h yesR 1he 1urkish "ath, there +as one. But every day at the 1urkish "athU NoR We didnGt have the 0oneyR 1he 1urkish "ath, you aid for it. Wo0en +ent there once a year, t+ice . . . three ti0es. -or 0arried +o0en, it +as an o"li#ationR But it +as e2 ensive. 1+o hundred fifty, that +as so0ethin#R Who could #o thereU &ita doesn)t cross the threshold o3 the house except sometimes on Saturday to !o to the port or the pu$lic !ardens. She spends her day playin! in the courtyard with her little nei!h$ors. When 3 +as little, 3 didnGt #o to school "ecause +e +ere oor. ;y 0other couldnGt outfit 0e or "uy 0e a "louse or shoes or school thin#s. +orld +ar I $rea#s out. &ita is thirteen or 3ourteen years old. Anly an event o3 such ma!nitude can send her rushin! out on an adventure* to leave the Hara to see the troops sail. She will never reach the port, $arely a mile away. 3 +as +ith 0y #irlfriend and 3 said to her: .Co0e on, +eGre #oin# to the ort to the arade of ,e+ish +orkers +ho are leavin#.. 4he said to 0e: .4hut u . Us, #o to the ortU. 3 insist, she says: .-ine, +hat else have +e #ot to do any+ayU. We +ent and +e ca0e to the church, the one of the >ate of -rance. When +e #et to the Iesidence Aouse 8the /sidence Bnrale, sym$ol D (B D and seat o3 the protectorate in the center o3 the ,uropean town 9, 3 said to her: .1hatGs enou#h. 3 +ant to #o "ack ho0e. 3G0 scared.. >oin# to the ort, +e could have "een follo+ed "y so0e "ad "oys. What did +e kno+U 1hey could "eat us u or . . . anyho+, +e +ent ho0e. Married to an old clothes dealer at seventeen, &ita moves into the sort o3 house she has lived in since childhood* 25rom one dump to another, that)s li3e.2 In the dou$le room she occupies, she will have seven children and two miscarria!es6 she will not leave the !hetto until 78C;, when she immi!rates to (aris. Her 1ealous hus$and #eeps her shut in and under close watch. &his seclusion le3t am$ivalent memories on &ita* on the one hand, a stron! resentment a!ainst her hus$and6 on the other, the memory o3 the modest 1oys o$tained $y the intense complicity $etween the women who shared the same courtyard. With *ouQda, everythin# +as fine, e2ce t that he +as Eealous. Ae +ould start u +ith 0e. 3 said to hi0: .But you really have nothin# to co0 lain a"outR 1he house is clean, dinner is ready, and 3 kee 'uiet.. ./es, "ut you +ant to #o outR. .3 donGt +ant to #o outR 3 donGtR. 3n s ite of everythin#, 3 +asnGt sad like here. Because it +as an *ra" house: hereGs one nei#h"or, here another, there, yet another. . . . Aere 4h0ina, here. . . . 1hey +ould stand at the +indo+ talkin#. *s for 0e, 3Gd "e at the +indo+ too, lookin# at the0. 1hat +ould a0use 0e a littleR 3t +asnGt as if there +as no one to talk to, like no+. Ae +as too Eealous. 4o0eti0es heGd co0e ho0e early? +ork hadnGt #one +ell. 3 didnGt kno+ +hen he +as #oin# to co0e "ack so early. AeGd find 0e standin# around, and chattin# +ith the nei#h"ors: .Why are you thereU >et into the houseR. What a "otherR 3Gd #o "ack to the roo0. .1heyGre all outside and 3G0 the only one to co0e inU *0 3 a rat or a snake for you to lock u U. .Look out the +indo+R. Oo you reali=e ho+ tou#h it +asU When *ouQda died, 3 +ent every+here: to <alaline, to Bahri. Whatever he didnGt let 0e do +hen he +as alive, 3 did after+ard. Ane day, the nei!h$ors enticed her into violatin! her hus$and)s prohi$ition and attendin! an ra$ weddin!. 5i3ty years later, the escapade is told with relish.8(9

D (9 D 6nce, there +as an *ra" +eddin#. . . . 1hat old +o0an 3 told you a"out +orked for the0. 4he 0ade mhamos 8a #ind o3 semolina 9 and other thin#s for the0. . . . 1hey said to her: ./ouGre co0in# to the +eddin#U. *s for 0e, 3 +as re#nant +ith the little one, in 0y seventh 0onth. 4he says to 0e: .4o, youGre co0in# +ith usU. 3 said to that old +o0an, ;einou: ./es, 3 really +ant to #oR. 3 had 0ade a $sal ou lou$ia 8a stew o3 $eans and onions 9 on the canoun, under the ta"le: everythin# +as neat. *ouQda +as slee in#. 4oftly . . . 3 took 0y shoes, 3 ut the0 on, and 3 +ent outR 4he asked 0e: ./ouGre readyU. .3G0 readyR. .Co0e out to the courtyard so *ouQda doesnGt see youR. *t three oGclock, +e left. 3n the 0eanti0e, the cat s ills the 0eal, the ste+ ot on the floorR *ouQda +akes u , #ets u , and sees that 0eal. . . . Ae co0es out and shouts: .Aey, 1itaR 1ita, 1itaR. *nd +here is 1itaU *t the +eddin#R /ou kno+ +hat ti0e 3 ca0e "ackU ;ay"e, no kiddin#, it +as in su00er, nine, ten oGclockR But there, not all alone, +ith the nei#h"orsR *h, that ni#htR Poor 0eR What he couldnGt doR .By >od, you +onGt co0e "ack, slutR 8%au!hs 9 /ou +onGt co0e "ack into the roo0 toni#htR /ou slee outsideR. 1here 3 +as ri#ht in the 0iddle of the house. 1he +o0an +ho +as +ith 0e: .3 "e# you, do a favor, for 0eR. Ae had locked hi0self in: .4he could die for all 3 care, sheGll slee no+here e2ce t in the street toni#htR 6r in the toilets.. 6ne of 0y dau#hters, Anina, +as cryin#. 4he +ent to #et OeQdou. 3t +as far a+ay, his house. 4he +as cryin# and callin# fro0 do+nstairs: .UncleR UncleR. .WhatGs the 0atter +ith youU. .Co0e do+nR Co0e do+nR -ather has locked ;a0a outR. Ae ca0e runnin#. Ae "e##ed, over and over a#ain. OeQdou +as res ected: .Aey, *ouQda, 8(9 1he sa0e sort of +o0an is found in the 0e0ories of *l"ert ;e00i, %a &erre Intrieure 81he 3nternal Land9 @Paris: >alli0ard, 19&KC, . (1, +ho recalls his 0other: .:ven no+ 3 a0 a0a=ed at the character of 0y 0other, an al0ost 0ysterious "lend of trickery and resi#nation, of sufferin# acce ted and revolt intact to the end, of su"0ission to the e2traordinary harshness of her fate and the liveliness and tenacity of a +eed, the confidence of a +ild ani0al, "orn, raised and havin# s ent al0ost all her life in the Aara, until that fa"ulous de arture for that +orld that +as unreal and cra=y to her, Paris.. 1he sa0e character a ears in >eor#es ;e00i, Dui se souvient du Ca3 /u$ensE 8Who Ie0e0"ers CafL Iu"ensU9 @Paris: ,.5Cl. Lattes, 19BHC. D $% D o en u R *ouQdaR. *t first, softly, nicely, then, finally: .4hit, *ouQdaR 6 en u R. Ae knocks on the door and finally *ouQda ca0e do+n: .Wait till your "rother #oes and youGll see +hat 3G0 #oin# to do to youR. 3 said to hi0: .What can you do to 0eU Beat 0eU >o ahead, "eat 0eR /ou +ant to slit 0y throat +ith a knifeU. -inally, OeQdou stayed a +hile and said to hi0: .Co0e on, eat so0e dinnerR. 1he other one ans+ered: .What dinnerU 1here it isR 1he cat ate itR. 1hen he asked 0e: .*nd youU. .3 ateR. 1hen +e stayed like that, on t+o "enches, one o osite the other: 1hen he started to talk and talk. . . . *nd he "eca0e coarse. . . . 3 let hi0 talk until heGd had his say. 1hen, +e stayed like that. 3 sle t standin# u . What could 3 do +ith hi0U Ae +as "orn that +ay. -inally, he sle t and 3 sle t too. . . . We didnGt slee to#ether, thou#h, in the sa0e "ed. Never. :ver since 3 had Aa"i"a, he sle t on the "ench and 3 sle t inside on the "ed +ith 0y children. .WhyU. Ae didnGt +ant to. Ae +as dis#usted. :ver since 3 had Aa"i"a . . .

Tri5oli 1etween $%?@ and $%A? ! Ma&ni'icent .ole

Camilla F.)s memory o3 &ripoli at the $e!innin! o3 the century is the memory o3 a world o3 plenty. Gnli#e the previous witnesses, Camilla !rew up in a rich 3amily, open to the outside world, mixed with non-Jews. 4ut the memories o3 !randeur arise mostly 3rom the $i! house in which all o3 li3e)s dramas were played out, 3rom the patio teemin! with noise and activity* a$undance prevailed, men and animals a$ounded, includin! an entire population o3 white and $lac# servants, clients, cra3tsmen, and artisans who wor#ed 3or the 3amily6 visitors and relatives $ustled a$out. 4eyond, the town was nothin! $ut a 2hole,2 $ut it is recalled as a place rich in human and natural resources and so important politically that the !reat powers sent only persona!es o3 the hi!hest quality. 1ri oli +as the ca ital. 3t +asnGt called 1ri oli, Li"ya? it +as called 1ri oli of Bar"ary. When +e +ere in school, it +as D $1 D 1ri oli of Bar"ary and 3 re0e0"er that there +ere only si2ty thousand inha"itants in that +hole ca ital: 3 had studied it in the scuola elementare 8lau!hs 9, thatGs +hy it stayed in 0y 0ind. 3t +as very s0all, insu"stantial, nothin# 0uch to s eak of. 6nly, it +as like le Isole %ipari, if you like, +here 4ultan *"dulha0id @3 donGt kno+ if youGre fa0iliar +ith the story of *"dulha0id, "ut you 0ust kno+ that he +as a 0ost terri"le tyrantC sent those +ho su orted freedo0. 1hat 0eant you +ere in contact +ith hi#h5class eo le in that hole. 3n that hole +hich +asnGt a hole, "ecause on one side +as an oasis +ith very tall al0 trees that +ere very i0 osin# and on the other side +as the sea, the o en sea. Without a ort, +ithout anythin# at all. 1here +as no ort, there +asnGt anythin#, in fact. What +as it thenU 3t +as a "each, +here a fe+ fa0ilies had settled. *nd the rest, a s0all to+n: there +as the #hetto, the *ra"s, the :uro eans. What 0ade it s ecial +as that 1ri oli had "een 1urkish, "ut it couldnGt re0ain 1urkish "ecause every"ody +as out coloni=in#. 1he >er0ans had colonies, the -rench had colonies, the :n#lish had coloni=ed :#y t, they had 4yria and all that. *nyho+, they had taken a lot of thin#s. *nd 3taly, +hich +as Eust "orn, +anted her share. 6nly there +as a lot of co0 etition "ecause the >er0ans +anted to occu y 1ri oli. 1hat 0eant it +as e2tre0ely i0 ortant olitically and thatGs +hy there had to "e oliticians. 1here +as even a consulate? there +as al0ost nothin#, "ut the 0en they sent there, fro0 the olitical oint of vie+, +ere very a"le 0en. Camilla)s 3ather occupies a central place in her childhood memories* 2I can)t remem$er anythin! a$out him that wasn)t extraordinary.2 Benerosity, !randeur, in!enuity <2He was ahead o3 his time2=, toleranceHall the qualities she reco!ni@es in him are illustrated in the li3e o3 the house and the caravanserai attached to it. 1here +as a house that looked out onto a caravanserai. 3n the 0iddle of that caravanserai, there +as a s0all #arden. *nd, all around, there +ere all sorts of ani0als. . . . 3n the 0ornin#, he 80y father9 +oke 0e u to #ive 0e a cu of +ar0 0ilk +hich had Eust "een dra+n. 8%ater, she will !ive details* 2In the dinin! D $( D room, there were all #inds o3 3ruits, all the earth)s seasonal $ounty ..9 1hen +e +ould #o out onto a little terrace, overlookin# the caravanserai, and +e sa+ the horses "ein# +ashed and co0"ed and

#roo0ed. We +ould +atch. -or e2a0 le, at that ti0e, there +erenGt any i es, there +asnGt any +ater. We had cisterns, yes, +e had cisterns in the courtyard. 1here +as rain+ater. 6kay, "ut to take a "ath, you had to have Ne#roes to "rin# the +ater u . 1here +ere a lot of servants "ecause do+n there it +as easier. But hi0 80y father9, +hat did he co0e u +ithU Ae had 0ade a "rid#e like this 8#estures9 and he ut a "i# contra tion on the terrace. *nd +hen he ca0e ho0e at noon and at ni#ht, he used to take a sho+er. 1he -e==anis, they #ave us a lot of #a=elles, arrots, 0ar0osets, s0all leo ards. 1he leo ards, 0y father #ave to the #overnor, they ut the0 in a =oo. *s for all the others, the caravanserai +as full of the0: eacocks, talkin# arrots, there +ere four or five of the0 in the house, canaries, do#s, everythin#. 3t +as i0 ressive, so i0 ressive.

Istan2ul> 1etween $%$? and $%B?

%i#e Camilla F. $etween &ripoli, &unis, and (aris, %aure . has always lived in com3ort, o3ten luxury. Feither o3 them su33ered a loss o3 status in movin! to 5rance. 4ut %aure . also recalls the splendor o3 her childhood home and the sense o3 $ein! superior to others comes throu!h in all the details o3 her story. 3 +as "orn in PLra. Bein# the youn#est, 3 +as the only one in the fa0ily to have had that rivile#e. 1he others +ere "orn in little villa#es, not very ele#ant. *ll the rich ,e+s +ere in Aaskeuy "ut 0e, 3 +as the s0allest, the 0ost advanced, 3 +as "orn in PLra. 3t +as a chic lace. When 3 say 3 +as "orn in PLra, eo le take 0e for a sno". But itGs "ecause 3 +as the youn#est. ;a0a +anted to 0ove. 4he thou#ht it +as co00on do+n there, so +e ca0e to PLra. 1hen +e ca0e to <heidar Pasha. 1hat +as another su"ur", like :n#hien, for e2a0 le, +here there +as fresh air. 3t +as very "our#eois, you kno+, +e +ere the aristocrats of the lace. D $$ D :veryone lived in his o+n house. 1hey +ere t+o5story houses. 4o you had a lot of servants, there +ould "e ten of us at the ta"le, and +e had ten servants in the house. Pa a and ;a0a, that 0akes t+o, and si2 children, that 0akes ei#ht, the #overness, +ho ate +ith us, that 0akes nine, and #rand0other "rin#s it to ten. Oo+nstairs in the kitchen, there +ere as 0any servants: there +as the cook, there +as another #overness, a 0aid +ho +as al0ost a #overness? there +as a cha0"er0aid? there +as a #irl +ho hel ed the cha0"er0aid? there +as the #irl +ho ironed, there +as the laundress. *ny+ay, there +ere a lot of eo le, 3 donGt kno+. 6h, there +as the servant +ith +hite #loves +ho +aited on us at the ta"le. 3t +as a different life in 1urkey, +e +ere free. We +ent to ;oda: like :n#hien, you 0i#ht say, only nicer. 1here +as the sea, there +ere "i# hotels? in su00er, +e vacationed there, +eGd take the s0all "oats and Eust #o. *nd there +as dancin#? +e used to dance +ith 1urks.

Saloni<a 1etween the Two Wars

Ba$riel -. $e!ins his tale with his date o3 $irth, 27877, the o33icial date6 the in3ormal date is 19%9,. then he lin#s up with 2Saloni#a at that period.2 He does not descri$e the city $ut, as with Constantine and &unis, the warmth o3 human relations . Well, eo le lived, eo le visited each other, every"ody, "ecause in 4alonika, itGs not like in :uro e. 1he fa0ily +as very close. We #ot to#ether all the ti0e, +e sa+ each other all the ti0e, +e +ould never 0iss "ein# to#ether on a reli#ious holiday, +e +ent to see each other and +ish each other ha y

holiday. Ida A., $orn in 78>9 into a rich milieu, has memories o3 a more di33erentiated society $ut also tal#s o3 lost happiness. A3 that country o3 which she #new only Saloni#a and its surroundin!s, and thens $arely, she repeats* 2Breece, it)s marvelousI2 1here +ere three cate#ories of eo le in 4alonika. 1here +ere the oor oor, the 0iddle class, and the u er class. We lived on one side, like Neuilly here? it +as on the sea, and there +ere D $H D "oats that ca0e to #et us. 3n the dayti0e, eo le didnGt #o out "ecause it +as so hot. -ro0 one oGclock to four oGclock, everythin# +as closed. *nd at ni#ht +e +ent to the sea. 1he house 3 kne+ +ith 0y arents +as on the sea. *nd even if you only had a hut, you still had the sea for yourself. &hese are the descriptions o3 the places where all these Jews !rew up* illuminations o3 circumscri$ed spaces, reduced to a house, a street, a quarter, while the rest o3 the city remained in a #ind o3 shadow and the rest o3 the country seemed almost not to exist. t a time when cars were rare and the means o3 communication $arely developed, many people did not really travel throu!h their own native land. t most, the name o3 a summer resort, a $each, a spa comes up in the memories o3 adolescence. It is not the ima!e o3 a picture postcard that we are !ivenHnot a landscape, not a view o3 ruins, not monuments, $ut the evocation o3 a social 3a$ric. For do people tal# a$out the climate and 3ra!rances o3 the Mediterranean. .et the 3amily environment and the savor o3 3ood that people prepared to!ether and shared recur in all the memories. Ima!es o3 wholeness come up repeatedlyH/eader, have you counted how o3ten the words 2every$ody2 and 2each other2 are usedE +hether one #new poverty or a33luence, human relations had a power3ul intensity.

! Societ) o' Mutual redit

&o $e amon! your own, to live to!ether, to visit one another, to marry with your own* amon! the Jews o3 Forth 3rica, more than amon! others, this is $oth memory and ideal. &his is happiness. However, tensions were not lac#in! and people do not hesitate to recall them. Crises were also the spice o3 li3e. &he 3riendliest words could $e a prelude to tra!edy and seem to provo#e it6 demonstrations o3 !enerosity were also demonstrations o3 power6 mutual exchan!es were not without social competition. ,ach anecdote reveals the rivalries, the threats, and, hence, the constant wariness they imposed. n ostensi$ly innocent social !ame, the visits and receptions* they illustrate the conviviality that prevailed in &unis, lexandria, or Cairo $etween the two world wars as well as the atmosphere o3 pryin!* everyone did it and everyone was the victim o3 it. D $) D Beor!es J., $orn in &unis in 78>K, recalls his paternal !randmother, 2tal#in! all the time, a #ind o3 easy, pleasant, witty speech2* 4he didnGt visit the other fa0ilies, not out of any disdain for the0, "ut "ecause she +as so attached to her o+n fa0ily that that +as enou#h for her. 4o, they ca0e to see her on 4aturday 0ornin#, you kno+U ;y #rand0other used to sit on a "ench, so either her old +o0en cousins or even cousins fro0 0y #randfatherGs side +ould co0e "y. *nd they al+ays ca0e +ith a handkerchief and a key. * handkerchief "ecause they had to have a handkerchief in their hand? and the key, the key to their house. *nd all the +o0en did this 8!estures 9 and there +as a constant Ei##lin# of keys around 0y

#rand0other. 1hat really 0ade an i0 ression on us kids, that. . . . *nd then ca0e the 0en, 0y #randfatherGs "rothers. Not all, so0e of the0. *nd that +ent on until noon, +ith conversations you can Eust i0a#ine: this one and that one, +hat she did, +hat she said. 3n short, a lot of s0all talk. 1hen at noon, every"ody left. *nd the li#ht +as incredi"leR /ou can only find that li#ht in 3taly. /ou kno+ that 4aturday li#ht. . . . 3n Io0e, you find that li#ht. . . . But here, never, never, never do you find that li#ht. Bioia ., lexandria, 78>8. &old with wit. /ou +ant 0e to tell you a"out the rece tionsU 1hey +ere 0a#nificent, those rece tionsR ;y 0other had tons of lady friends +ho received, one the first ;onday of the 0onth, another the third Wednesday, one the fourth 1hursday. . . . 4o the ladies ca0e. *nd, as far as 3 re0e0"er, 0y 0other +as very li"eral, she had 3talian and :#y tian friends? that is, she didnGt 0ake any distinction. *nd they served? on a silver tray there +ere en#raved silver Ea0 dishes and around, there +as a lace to ut the s oons. 1he Ea0 dish itself had a crystal "o+l inside +here you ut the Ea0. ;y 0other s ent her life 0akin# Ea0 fro0 dates. 3t +as so #oodR 4o the date Ea0, they +ere "i# yello+ dates. /ou cleaned the0, you itted the0, you re laced the it +ith an al0ond and you cooked the0 +ith cloves. No+, there +ere at least t+o Ea0s, 'uince Ea0 and another one. D $K D .*nd they let you co0e to these rece tionsU. /es. We ca0e ho0e fro0 school. 1he 0aid +ho ca0e to o en the door for us told us: .>o to your roo0 today, itGs the G$ul .G. 4ul, thereGs the sa0e +ord in Ae"re+ and *ra"ic, it 0eans rece tion. 4o 3Gd ut a "i# "o+ in 0y hair and ut on a dress and 3 #o to say hello to all those ladies, very hy ocritically. *nd they said: .Ao+ retty she is, ho+ she has #ro+nR. 3 +as short and fat +ith fat thi#hs. 8%au!hs 9 +ith ,dmond H., $orn in Cairo in 78>8, the memory o3 the receptions $ecomes 3ran#ly critical. Imitatin! the commentaries that would have 3ollowed the parties* .Why, +hat a rece tion, +hat a rece tionR What didnGt they haveR ,ust i0a#ine, 0y dear, that she ordered such and such a thin# fro0 >ro iGs. 4he ordered such and such a thin# fro0 Aildis. 8 nd i3 they were #osher 9, she ordered fro0 so5and5so. . . . But you kno+, three days she +orked. . . . *nd #rand0other and the cookR *nd ;ada0e 4o5and54o 0ade the #u$e$at, the other one the pastelles and the @am$u@e#, and the cakes and all that. . . . /ou kno+, 0y dear, she +as +earin# a coatR Aer hus"and, +hen he +as in :uro e last year, "rou#ht her a fur coat. *nd then, +hen her little #irl +as "orn, you sa+ the dia0ond he #ave herU. *nd thatGs ho+ it +as. Unfortunately, itGs #ossi . 6kay, "ut it didnGt sto there. ;ada0e 4o5and54o +as to #ive a rece tion in t+o +eeks. While she +as there 8at another reception 9, she told the others: .Co0e.. But she said to herself: the first one to entertain did thus and so "ut 3 have to do "etter. 1his +as the kind of sick 0entality that you found in ,e+ish fa0ilies. 1hatGs 0y o inion and 3G0 sure it +as the o inion of 0any others, es ecially 0any hus"ands. 1hey said to their +ives: .,ust "ecause ;ada0e 4o5and54o invited forty eo le, you have to invite si2tyU Where are you #oin# to ut the0U. .Why, thatGs not i0 ortant, there +ill al+ays "e roo0 for every"ody.. .But ho+ are you #oin# to 0ana#e the servin#U. .Why 0y sisterGs #oin# to send 0e her servant, and the nei#h"orGs servant +ill co0e hel 0e.. .*nd the dishesU. .Why 3 "orro+ed so0e dishes fro0 the nei#h"or.. *nd so on. 1hatGs ho+ it ha ened.

D $& D 4ehind these courteous exchan!es o3 visits, words, delicacies, there was calculation and 1ud!ment o3 the deeds, merits, and talents o3 every woman, one-upmanship, all the su$tle strate!ies o3 social classi3ication. /ich pastries, !estures, out3its were all pieces o3 in3ormation everyone could use in the !ame o3 social clim$in!. +as it a mine3ieldE &hat is not how people remem$er it, 3or, i3 you #new the rules o3 the !ame, you were sure to 3ind partners, 3riends, 3uture mates amon! the same actors. In 3act, people remem$er the community where they !rew up as an enterprise o3 mutual aid where it was not necessary to $e related to lend a hand. &he social cohesion that people emphasi@e with such pleasure was the sum o3 all these credits and de$its that $ound individuals to!ether. Moreover, i3 you were not 3rom the same 3amily, you could $ecome a part o3 it, and not only $y marria!e. Ane woman, Su@ette, $orn in &unis in 7877, reports the 3acts 3rom $e3ore +orld +ar I. <%ater, her hus$and 1oins her.= &hey $e!in $y tal#in! a$out 3irst cousins. She : 3 have to tell you that 0y cousins, if they +ere ado ted, there +as a reasons. 3t +as "ecause 0y aunt lost the "oys, so she sold the0. 4he sold *l"ert to Ba5Lalu. Ba5Lalu +as a clerk for her hus"and. But that, thatGs not ado ted, thatGs sy0"olic. <halu Bank 8i.e., the 2uncle o3 the $an#2 9 also, he sold his "oys: >eor#es, +asnGt he +ith the son of the shoe0aker ;eshGudU 4oR /es, "ut not ado ted, sold. Nani, he +as +ith U00i NeEeQ0a, he sle t in her house, he stayed +ith her. Loulou, he +as al0ost ado ted "y Corinna N. -rida 8another cousin 9, she +as ado ted, and :sther, and Lucie 0y sister, oor #irl. Lucie, she +as ado ted "y ;aQssa. 1hey +ere 0y arentsG nei#h"ors. When Lucie +as "orn, she +as real retty, she had very "eautiful eyes, all that. ;aQssa said: .No, the real "eauty is >il"erte, "ut Lucie has the eyes. 8%ucie was later to lose her si!ht 9. *nd since they didnGt have any children, Lucie +ent, she sle t in their house. 4he +asnGt ado ted, not really. 4o, itGs "ecause they didnGt have any children that they ado ted her. *nd the S.Gs too, they +ere friends and nei#h"ors of the 4.Gs, they took -rida. 1hey took her co0 letely. But +ithout a for0al contract or a ers or a civil status or nothin#. D $B D He : *nd ,udith, she +as taken a+ay, itGs terri"le. 4he took the na0es of her ado tive arents, she didnGt +ant to #o to her 0other any0ore, she didnGt +ant her father to #reet her in the street. .What +ord do you use for ado tionU. He* Mshte$nia, Shte$net. 3t 0ust "e fro0 the 1orah 83rom He$rew 9, in *ra"ic, they donGt say shte$net . 8$9 Sti3 at the end o3 the last century. Su@anne &., $orn in 787>, $e!ins the tale o3 her li3e $y recallin! the material hardships her 3ather #new in his childhood. In passin!, she !ives a 3irst example o3 how one mem$er o3 the 3amily too# care o3 others who had less. In the course o3 her auto$io!raphy, which ta#es us to Constantine, 4atna, and l!iers, this practice recurs several times* 3amily responsi$ility is one o3 the connectin! threads that weaves throu!h the whole o3 her memories. ;y #randfather +as in the +ar of G&%. Ae +as fro0 the :l"e= fa0ily, 0y #rand0other +as fro0 the >uedE fa0ily. ;y father ca0e fro0 4Ltif. Ae +as the seventh in a fa0ily of t+elve children, seven "oys and five #irls, t+o of the0 t+ins. Ais father +as a 0attress 0aker, he chan#ed the cloth on old 0attresses and 0ade ne+ ones too. Life +as very hard in those days. ;y #rand0other +ould cook for +eddin#s, co00unions, "a tis0s. 3t +as not easy for her to +ork and also take care of her fa0ily. 6ne

year, there +as a very "ad flu that took 0y #randfather. Later on, 0y #rand0other also died. 4he had children at an early a#e. 3n those days, #irls +ere 0arried off very youn#. 1he oldest #irl +as "arely si2teen. 4he +as already 0arried +hen her arents died. 4he couldnGt leave her "rothers and sisters alone. 3n 4Ltif, the houses had "i# courtyards, u er floors, and "alconies that +ent around the courtyard. ;y aunt had rented out all the roo0s. *round the courtyard, on one side, she had set u "edroo0s, and, on the other, she had set u a "i# kitchen 8$9 3t is indeed an *ra"ic +ord in its local ,e+ish ronunciation. Ista$na : tenth ver"al for0, .to 0ake so0eone oneGs son.. D $9 D and a "i# co00on roo0. 4he herself had her o+n children. 4he +orked for eo le as a servant. Aer hus"and +as a house5 ainter7in +hite+ash, of course? oil +as for doors and +indo+s7and he +as also a #la=ier. Ae had a hard ti0e earnin# a livin#. When her "rothers and sisters started #ro+in# u , she sent the "oys to learn a trade. *s for the #irls, there +ere no o tions. 1he #irls +ere sent out as servants. &hen the aunt marries o33 two o3 her sisters and one $rother and $e!ins to $reathe a $it more easily. &ime passes. In 78;K, Su@anne, who is ei!hteen, marries her cousin %eon, a carpenter. &hey are in Constantine, in a house with a central courtyard that is home to 3orty 3amilies. &he youn! couple occupies 2a lar!e, lon! room2 on the 3irst 3loor o3 the house. We +ere "arely 0arried a 0onth and a half and +e didnGt have anythin#, +e still had to "uy everythin#. . . . 6ne ni#ht, +e sa+ 0y father5in5la+ and 0other5in5la+ co0in#. We +ere sur rised to see the0. ;y father5in5la+ had lost his youn# sister in child"irth. 4he had t+o "oys. *nd a fe+ 0onths later, her hus"and follo+ed her. Ae +as very rich, he had +arehouses for hides and a sho +here he sold leather to the shoe0akers. No"ody +anted the children. 1hey had tried to take the0 for a little +hile, "ut it didnGt +ork. 1he youn# one +as very nice. But the older one, ,oNl, +as a daredevil. Ae +as ten years old, and his "rother +as ei#ht. *fter the funeral and the +eek of 0ournin#, 0y father5in5la+ and the +hole fa0ily #athered to see the estate left "y the "rother5in5la+ and sister. When they o ened the +arehouses, they +ere e0 ty and the leather sho +as also e0 ty. 1here +as nothin# left. 4o they found their sisterGs father5in5la+? he +as in the sa0e trade as his son. 1hey asked hi0 +hy he had taken +hat didnGt "elon# to hi0. 3t "elon#ed to the children. Ae ans+ered the0 that all his sonGs +ealth ca0e "ack to hi0, that he didnGt reco#ni=e the children, didnGt +ant to hear a"out the0. 1hey +ere alone and disinherited. No"ody +anted the0. 4o he ut the0 in the u"lic or hana#e, +hile he fi#ured out +hat they +ere #oin# to do. 1he ni#ht 0y father5in5la+ ca0e to see us he +anted his son to take in the older one to teach hi0 his trade. 1he youn#er one, the D H% D F. fa0ily ado ted hi0? they didnGt have any children, and he took their na0e. ;y father5in5la+ #ot a letter that if he didnGt take the child out in a +eek, he +ould "e ado ted "y the child +elfare eo le? that they +ould chan#e his na0e, that he shouldnGt try to see the "oy any0ore. 1he "oy +ould "e lost. 6f course, 3 didnGt +ant to take hi0 in and 0y hus"and didnGt either. 6ur house +as Eust "i# enou#h for us. 3 needed ti0e to have 0y o+n children. 1hey left and +e Eust didnGt kno+ +hat to do. 1he ne2t day at t+o oGclock, +e had to "e at the office of the child +elfare eo le. ;y

hus"and si#ned and so did 3. *nd that +as the start of 0y +oes. . . . *nd since then, no"ody ever ca0e to see +hat "eca0e of hi0. 1hey +ashed their hands of hi0. 3 +asnGt co0forta"le +ith hi0 around. Ae stayed until he +as t+enty5 five. Ae left the ni#ht "efore his 0arria#e. In 78:>, the couple, who have a child and are responsi$le 3or youn! JoLl, leave 3or 4atna, where the hus$and $ecomes an independent entrepreneur. &hey move into a little apartment. 3n Batna, you couldnGt find +orkers? you had to send for +orkers fro0 Constantine, #uarantee the0 a "ed and food, and ay the0? they didnGt +ant a hotel or a restaurant. 4ince he 8the hus$and 9 needed the0, +e took the0 into our house. We arran#ed t+o roo0s in our house, they ate +ith us, 3 +ashed their clothes. -our +orkers, ,oNl, and 0y hus"and: si2 0en. ;y dau#hter +as a fe+ 0onths old. 3 had to take care of everythin# all "y 0yself. *nd 3 +as re#nant. In 78:K, the 3amily is now in l!iers and num$ers 3our children plus JoLl. Fow, Su@anne)s youn!est sister, whose hus$and a$andoned her to 1oin the 5orei!n %e!ion, !ives $irth to a dau!hter. &he event ta#es place in Su@anne)s house. 6n ,anuary (), a 4unday 0ornin#, 0y hus"and +ent out to "uy his a er. *t that ti0e, there +as no a er seller, no #rocery, no "akery in the nei#h"orhood. Ae had to #o to to+n for that. 3 0yself +as u in the laundry roo0 doin# 0y +ash. ;y dau#hter ca0e runnin# u : .;a0a, co0e fast, *untie N. is sick.. 3 +ent do+n and she said to 0e: .3G0 havin# the "a"y.. D H1 D 3 +as alone +ith the children. 3 sent 0y dau#hter to call the nei#h"or, an old *ra" +o0an. 4eein# 0e in a anic, she said to 0e: .OonGt +orry, itGll "e fine.. * half hour later, she #ave "irth to a little #irl, ,osiane. But she +asnGt any "i##er than a "a"y cat. 8&hree months pass. 9 With every assin# day, she "eca0e a nor0al "a"y. We didnGt kno+ +here the father +as. 6ne day, +e #ot a letter and, fro0 the nu0"ers and letters on the envelo e, 0y hus"and #uessed +here he +as: in the -orei#n Le#ion, in 4idi Bel *""Vs. ;y hus"and +ent to see hi0, to see if he could do so0ethin#. Ae s oke +ith his co00ander "ut he had si#ned u for five years. ;y sister +ent "ack to 4Ltif +ith 0y 0other a 0onth after the "a"y +as "orn, leavin# 0e +ith the "a"y. 4he didnGt see her a#ain until she +as ei#hteen years old. &he 3amily tri$ulations continue. Su@anne will have nine children alto!ether, the $irths spread 3rom 78:> to 78M?. Ane o3 the photos that accompanies her auto$io!raphy shows eleven youn! people, lined up in a row, all o3 whom she raised to adulthood. In the 78C>s, when the oldest dau!hter !ot married, the marria!e soon 3ell apartHand it is a!ain Su@anne who too# her in with her son. Such memories o3 an intense, hectic li3e, devoted to ta#in! care o3 one another, 3eedin! children you didn)t $rin! into the world* many other women share them as well. Here is the tale o3 another trans3er o3 children in a 3amily 3rom &unis, $etween 78>9 and the end o3 +orld +ar I. 5irst, the maternal !rand3ather 2adopted2 his 3irst !randson at the time o3 his $irth* $lessed with six dau!hters, he had no son to say <addish8H9on his death$ed. &hen, the 3ather o3 that child died and the !rand3ather too# in the whole 3amilyHthree other children and their mother. 4etween the two events, his dau!hters were married o33, $ut the house wasn)t le3t empty since other mem$ers o3 the 3amily lived under the same roo3 .8)9 Oialo#ue "et+een >eor#ette, "orn in 1B99, and her ne he+ *ndrL, "orn in 19%K: Beor!ette : 3tGs *ndrL, the oldest. Ae had his "ed in our house.

8H9 Prayer for the dead. 8)9 * si0ilar 0e0ory o ens the auto"io#ra hical narrative of ,ules 1artour, Cartha!e @Paris: Pro0otion et Ldition, 19K9C. D H( D ndr 8interruptin! 9: 1hey ut 0e in 0y #randfatherGs house a +eek after 3 +as "orn. I : But +hy did the #randfather +ant a son so 0uchU Beor!ette : Because there +ere si2 dau#hters and thatGs all. Ae took the oldest "oy. I : But +as that a le#al ado tionU Beor!ette : No, he lived in our house. 3t +as ne2t door. I : 3n the end, +ho did live to#etherU Beor!ette : 3n our a art0ent . . . letGs see, there +as ;a0a, Pa a, us 8six dau!hters 9 and *ndrL, thatGs all. *hR 1here +as 0y aunt, 0y 0otherGs sister, >eiEa. 4he +as in our house "ecause she +as older than ;a0a, "ut she never #ot 0arried. 4he +as a 0id#et. ndr : Aunch"ack, hunch"ack. Beor!ette : 40all, and she had a hu0 , there. 4he stayed. ;a0a didnGt +ant to leave her. 4heGs the one +ho raised us. *nd she stayed in our house er0anently, thatGs all. ndr : 4he lived in the maqsura 8a closet in the apartment 9.8K9 8Nine years later, four sisters are 0arried off.9 Beor!ette : *fter+ard, his father died and then +e lived to#ether on *venue de -rance. 1here +as ;arie and her four children, Pa a, ;a0a, 6l#a, and 0e. . . . 1he aunt +as dead "y then. . . . 6h, no, they had also taken in ;a0aGs "rother, +ho +as divorced. Ae ca0e to slee in our house. ndr : Ae +as divorced, <ikiU 6h, 3 thou#ht he never #ot 0arried. 8K9 1his character of the oor relative, +ho is so 0uch a art of the furniture that a closet serves her as a "edroo0, recurs often in 0e0ories. -urther on, +e shall encounter .tsia 4er!ana ,. . K1. 1he character can also "e found in the features of Iachel, .an old a#eless ,e+ess,. in the auto"io#ra hical novel of Nine ;oatti, Mon en3ant, ma mNre 8;y Child, ;y ;other9 @Paris: 4tock, 19&HC. D H$ D -inally, here is a for0al ado tion. 3t takes so0e effort, "ut this ti0e the "oys take the na0e of the aunt +ho takes the0 in. %ouise B., 0n 4eida, 78;7 When 0y arents died, 3 +as ei#hteen years old and it +as 0y #randfather ;., 0y fatherGs father, +ho took us in, 0y three "rothers and 0e. We stayed +ith the0 till 3 #ot 0arried +hen 3 +as t+enty5one, and 3 left 0y oor "rothers all alone. .*lone +ith the #randfatherU. 4ure, "ut even so. . . . 1here +ere t+o of the0 +ho +ent to +ar. 1he +ar of G$9JGH%, that one. 1hen, once the +ar +as over, they ca0e "ack to *Qn BeQda and +ere ado ted there. 3tGs 0y aunt and uncle, 0y

fatherGs sister. 4he didnGt have any children and, seein# that 0y "rothers +ere alone, they took 0y oor "rother -. and, after the +ar, she took >. 1hey took the na0e of the ;. 8 s 3or the third $rother 9, he #ot 0arried to a cousin, 4i0one, a first cousin. ;y father and her 0other are "rother and sister. . . . *nd since the father of 4i0one, 0y cousin, +as in "ankin#, he also chose to take a Eo" +ith his father5in5la+.8&9

-ood and 1ad ,eals

&his su$1ect o3 pro3essional relations that intensi3y 3amily relations comes up in many memories, 3rom Saloni#a to Morocco. I3, in the women)s tales o3 their past li3e, we see solidarity or sel3ishness exhi$ited especially in the domestic space, 3or men, those values also intrude themselves into the economic area. 5amily networ#s !enerally provided a sprin!$oard 3or pro3essional activity. .ou !ot your trainin!, you !ot a 1o$, you 3ormed a partnership with a relative6 sometimes you $ro#e with them. +hen that 3amily networ# was missin!, the narratives insist on in!enuity, hard wor#, and initiative to explain economic success. &he ima!e o3 the sel3-made man 8&9 :0ile Ourkhei0, %e Suicide 81he 4uicide9 @Paris, 1B9&C, . 1)9, defines the ,e+s as .a s0all co0 act and coherent society havin# a very stron# sense of itself and its unity.. 6ther sociolo#ists after hi0 have characteri=ed that society "y endo#a0y, a less 0arked distance than in other #rou s "et+een different social strata and "et+een intellectual and econo0ic factions, o"servations that are all su"stantiated here. D HH D is often ro osed and hi#hly estee0ed. We +ill see that success is not universal. 1here are those +ho suffer fro0 e2tre0e overty until their dyin# day. (apou F., Saloni#a, 7K8M* 8Boin! $ac# to the middle o3 the nineteenth century, he recalls the activities o3 his !rand3ather. 9 Ae +orked as a artner in the flour 0ills of 4alonika, the *latanik 8U9 0ills they +ere called. 3t is fair to say that he kne+ his "usiness? he +as fa0iliar +ith #rains. When 0y #randfather died, 0y fatherGs oldest "rother took his lace, still in #rains. 6kay. 4o 0y father +as raised in his fa0ily. When he +as a"out t+enty, he took over so0e of his fatherGs trade, es ecially in #rains7his s ecialty +as duru0 +heat. 1he duru0 +heat of ;acedonia +as fa0ous all over :uro e and +as sold in -rance. 3n this +ay he started his +ork, that is, his relations, +ith -rance. Ae si#ned a contract +ith the -rench consul in 4alonika +ho, alon# +ith "ein# consul, did a little "it of "usiness on the side. 4o, 0y father e2 orted +heat to -rance. Ae +as attached to the consulate and he "eca0e his dra#o0an, as they call it, "ecause the consuls in 1urkey needed so0e"ody fro0 the country +ho s oke the lan#ua#e and to take the0 to the refectures, the city halls. . . . 1hat +ent on for al0ost five or si2 years? in the 0eanti0e, he 0et the Bel#ian consul in 4alonika, +ho 0ade the ro osal that he re resent Bel#ian 0etallur#ical factories in 1urkey. 4ince youGre so #ood in e2 orts, he said, you can certainly take care of i0 orts. *nd, in fact, 0y father started to do Eust that. 3n the 0eanti0e, since 0y oldest "rother finished school, he #ave hi0 the i0 ort "ranch? that is, he #ave the re resentation of Bel#ian 0etallur#ical factories, still in his 8the 3ather)s 9 na0e, Oavid N., to 0y oldest "rother. *nd heGs still at it today. ;ean+hile, he also 0et a roducer of Iussian oil. Because all the oil in :uro e ca0e fro0 Iussia, fro0 Batou0? thatGs the ort on the Black 4ea +here all the de osits +ere. Ae #ot an oil +arehouse

fro0 the ;entachok Co0 any, as itGs called, for all of :uro ean 1urkey, and he +as director of the +arehouse. 4o, on the one hand, he takes care of that, and, on the other, D H) D 0y oldest "rother takes care of the 0etallur#ical "ranch. *nd heGs still attached to the Bel#ian consulate as a dra#o0an and very roud of the fact. . . . ;y third "rother finished school in the 0eanti0e and +ent into "ankin# in 4alonika and, +ell, he ursued his career. 1hen co0es the Balkan +ar of 191(J1$. Crash, everythin# colla ses, includin# 1urkey. *s for the oil, the Iussians donGt +ant to send any 0ore to 4alonika since 4alonika isnGt 1urkish any0ore, itGs >reek. 1here are different la+s, different re#ulations, custo0s, etc. PoofR :verythin# falls a art, the 0etallur#ical deal too "ecause :uro ean 1urkey is divided u . 4o there +as all of :uro ean 1urkey, +ith all its su lies in 4alonika, and itGs cut into four: one art for the Bul#arians, one art for the 4er"s, one art, in short. . . . 4o +hat ha ensU ;y oldest "rother +ent to Constantino le, +here he still continued to re resent the Bel#ian 0etallur#ical factories. *nd 0y father in 4alonika continued +ith the oil, "ut on a very, very, very 0odest scale. Co0es the +orld +ar of G1H. No+, thatGs really the catastro he. -urin! the war, the F. 3amily will a!ain 3ind itsel3 in Marseille. In the meantime, let us return to another 3amily called F., one we have already seen in &ripoli. International ventures in $i! $usiness are also presented as a series o3 ris#s to $e exploited intelli!ently6 the 3ather doesn)t 2meet2 any ,uropean consul $ut he 23inds himsel3 there,2 at the ri!ht moment. Camilla F., &ripoli, $e3ore 78>>* 1he +hole hinterland of *frica at that ti0e, that is, the ostrich feathers, the finest skins they 0ade into "a#s, it all ca0e fro0 -e==an. *nd it +as the -e==anis73 donGt kno+, of course, 0ay"e you should kno+, a0on# the *r . . . 8She was !oin! to say 2 ra$s2 and catches hersel3 9, a0on# the "lacks, -e==anis +ere very advanced, they +ere the "est? at that ti0e, they had a 0atriarchy. 4o those eo le "rou#ht their #oods to the closest "each. 3t took the0 three years to #et there. Iidin# on ca0els. 4o they ca0e there, and 0y arents +ere there. D HK D 1here +ere enor0ous ossi"ilities +ith those caravans fro0 the interior, +ith e2traordinary riches, you kno+. *nd they needed a certain cloth, a s ecific ty e, a color. 4o, naturally7itGs really "ecause of 0y father, he had that kno+led#e7they 8the 3ather)s $rothers 9 left to sell the ostrich feathers that +ere "rou#ht there in such #reat 'uantities. 1hey left, one for 1unis, t+o for ;anchester? one stayed in 1ri oli, +hile his son +as in London. When the caravan ca0e, it +as so0ethin# e2traordinary, +ith all those -e==anis. 1he ca0els stayed outside the +alls. Because the ca0els that ca0e fro0 -e==an +ere racin# ca0els, for the tri , they couldnGt co0e in. 1hey "rou#ht #old, ele hant tusks. 3n :n#land, one of 0y uncles7alon# +ith 0y father7they set u a s0all factory in ;anchester. -or +hite cloth, of #ood 'uality. Because they +ere "uyin# ri#ht and left, they +ere a"le to find e2actly +hat they +anted, a +hite cotton called sso di (ique, thatGs the trade0ark. 1hen, they 0ade the0 "lue cloth and then cloth for +hen they died? then they "rou#ht the0 su#ar and tea, and +hat else 3 canGt even "e#in to kno+. Whatever they needed.

In Cairo in the 78:>s. Henri ". <$orn in 787:=, venturin! out 3rom the paternal protection, went into $usiness without either trainin! or capital. He was tremendously success3ul, however. Aur hero was close to the royal entoura!e, politicians, chie3s o3 police, the $i!!est $usinessmen. He tells a spirited tale, and even the epilo!ueHthe ruin 3ollowin! the n!lo-5rench-Israeli action o3 78C9His recounted with humor. 3n GH%, a friend ro osed that 3 charter a shi called the "am@am, an :#y tian shi "lockaded in ,a an. 3t had to do +ith deliverin# a letter of #uarantee to the ;isr Bank "ecause the shi "elon#ed to the ;isr #rou . . . . 3 +orked on 0y father little "y little until he finally a#reed. Well, +e 0ade the "am@am deal, +hich +as enor0ous at the ti0e. ;y father, scared as he +as. . . . ;y idea +as to fill the "am@am +ith 0erchandise on our o+n instead of takin# frei#ht fro0 this one and that. 1he other +ay around, 3Gve #ot a shi , D H& D letGs fill it u . When the docu0ents co0e, +ell, the "anks are there: 0erchandise that co0es to the docks, es ecially in +arti0e, thereGs no ro"le0. But 0y father didnGt +ant to. Ae +as erfectly ha y +ith the rofit fro0 the frei#ht. 3 had friends +ho "ou#ht tea. * case of tea ori#inally sold for ei#hty iastres, that is ei#ht francs 8a pound 9. When it #ot to the docks of *le2andria, they sold it for t+elve ounds a case? fro0 one ound to t+elveR 1hat story of the "am@am, that +as the 0e0ory of 0y life. 3n short, after that, 3 said: .No, 3 canGt follo+ in 0y fatherGs footste s. and 3 started 0y o+n construction "usiness. .But did you kno+ anythin# a"out "uildin#U. Very little, very little, ractically nothin#. 6"viously, 3 learned. Practice 0akes erfect. *nd +e "uilt a #ood art of Cairo, the ne+ "uildin#s, of course, in Fa0alek and in all of Cairo. Henri ". then $uilt the Shepheard)s, the Hilton, and other sym$ols o3 moderni@ation o3 that lar!e metropolis, one o3 which was 2a $uildin! twelve stories hi!h with a sur3ace o3 at least two thousand square meters, a luxury apartment $uildin!, one o3 the most $eauti3ul $uildin!s o3 "amale#, no dou$t a$out it, an a$solutely divine location on the File.2 He explains how he !ot into $i! pu$lic wor#s, won all the $ids, and, especially, how he conceived o3 his most !randiose plan to $rin! runnin! water to all the villa!es o3 ,!yptHa pro1ect he 3i!ured at 3i3teen or twenty million pounds sterlin!Hand how he su$mitted it to the ministry. %et us listen to that episode, 3or it indicates clearly the climate, the places, and the maneuvers that were necessary to $rin! o33 $i! deals. 1hat, itGs the roEect of "rin#in# +ater into all of :#y t. ;y idea, that +as on ,uly (( or ($, 19)H, the 0inistry +ould announce that it +as #ivin# +ater. Because ,uly (( +as 8the commemoration o3 9 the a"dication of -arouk. ;y idea +as to avoid a u"lic tender since 3 had created the roEect. *nd fearin# 7since +e +ere a ,e+ish "usiness. . . . 1hey certainly +erenGt anti54e0ites, "ut 3 did say to 0yself: .*ll the sa0e, in the resent situation, aside fro0 3srael, there are incidents all the ti0e.. 3 said to 0yself: .LetGs try to #et an *ra" involved in 0y deal.. 1here +as an *ra" en#ineer +ho +orked as an ad5 D HB D viser for 0e "ecause +e had to have 9% ercent ure :#y tians. 4o, 3 had this fello+, +ho +as a "usiness0an hi0self and 0y adviser. 3t +as a day durin# Ia0adan, his na0e +as 3s0ail. 3 said to hi0: .1oni#ht, co0e have dinner at the *uto0o"ile Clu" so 3 can tell you a"out a roEect thatGs #oin# to

knock you off your feet.. Ae ca0e. ;ean+hile 3 0yself had already seen the head of the ca"inet, +ho +ent nuts over the roEect and said to 0e: .Why, all thatGs very nice, "ut he +onGt understand, 3 have to e2 lain it to hi0 8he was spea#in! o3 the minister 9.. What 3 +anted +as for hi0 to #ive 0e the +ork and ut the +hole #overn0ent, the "ookkee ers, and the e2 erts "ehind the enter rise . . . so they +ould control all the rices and #ive us a ercenta#e of the total a0ount. 3 +ent to the *uto0o"ile Clu" that ni#ht and e2 lained the roEect to 3s0ail, +ho, yello+ as he +as, turned red. 1hat very ni#ht, 3 +as su00oned "y the head of the ca"inet, to +ho0 3 had already e2 lained the +hole roEect. 3n less than si2 +eeks, all :#y t kne+ a"out the roEect of the i elineR 1here +as a factory that 0ade the i es of as"estos and ce0ent, +hose resident5director #eneral +as ;. ;., and his en#ineer, B., a #raduate of the Central school,8B9 +as director of the factory. 1he head of the ca"inet called 0e in and said: .Aere are the letters youGre #oin# to #ive to all the "usinesses so theyGll su"0it "ids to you.. 3 +ent to ;. and told hi0: .Aere.. ;. looked at 0e and said: .1hat canGt "e ri#ht.. .What do you 0ean, thatGs not soU 3G0 not tellin# you that 3G0 invitin# "ids, 3G0 tellin# you youGre #oin# to have an order of four 0illion sterlin# on condition that you offer #ood rices.. Ae tried to sa"ota#e the thin# "ecause his factory couldnGt roduce so 0uch. -our 0illion sterlin# in t+o yearsR . . . *s 3 sa+ it, 3 didnGt need ;. any+ay. 3 could set u a factory in three +eeks? 3 had all the contacts in 3taly. 3t +as 3talian i es that +ould have co0e set u the factory for 0e, and 3 didnGt even have to ay for the factory. 3 e2 lained all that to B.: .Ae doesnGt +ant toR Let hi0 #o.. *nd +e set u a factory. . . . 1hen this #uy N., +ho +orked for so0e "usiness in :#y t, left the country and +ent to +ork for :d0ond de Iothschild. 8B9 6ne of the 0ost resti#ious -rench schools of en#ineerin#. D H9 D Ii#ht a+ay he sent a re resentative to finance the o eration. 1his re resentative ca0e to 0e and 3 told hi0: .No"ody asked for financin#.. 3 +as afraid they +ould cut 0e out of the deal, and, in fact, thatGs Eust +hat they did. 1he Lyonnaise des :au2 +as interested in the deal. 1+enty 0illion sterlin#, thatGs not s0all otatoesR *nd they talked to 3s0ail, +ho +as 0y artner. We should have 0ade t+o offers, one in his na0e and one in ours, in e2chan#e for sharin# the o eration. 1he Lyonnaise des :au2 insisted and +ent into artnershi +ith 3s0ail. 4o, they +ere forced to 0ake a u"lic, even international, a+ardin# of the contract. 3 kne+ in advance that 3s0ail and +e +ould have at least a third of the contract. 4o, instead of dealin# in 19)H, +e ne#otiated on Oece0"er ((, 19)). 3t re'uired letters of #uarantee fro0 the "ank "ecause the #overn0ent de0anded a "ank #uarantee of H%%,%%% sterlin#. What "ank +as #oin# to #o alon# +ith usU 3 had so0e 0oney in 4+it=erland, +hich 3 declared confidentially at the "ank. . . . We #et the letter of #uarantee. 3n -e"ruary 19)K, so0eone fro0 the 0inistry said to 0e: .Listen, youGd "etter resi#n fro0 all your "usiness interests ri#ht a+ay.. 3 had created a s ecial co0 any for the i es, and then there +as the re#ular co0 any 3 +orked in. .* oint so0e"ody, "ut resi#n, itGs in your o+n interest, "elieve 0e.. 3 did ut in a stra+ 0an and 3 resi#ned fro0 all 0y "usiness dealin#s. 4o 3 left in -e"ruary or ;arch 19)K? a fe+ 0onths later, itGs the infa0ous +ar of G)K. ;y father +as interned? everythin# +as confiscated. 3 +as a"out to si#n a contract +ith Pont5X5;ousson for four 0illion sterlin# +ith at least 1% ercent . . . in artnershi +ith the *ra" +ho had refused to si#n the contract7"ecause he +as an :#y tian. 3 had set u the +hole o eration fro0 * to F, they finished all the +ork, and 3 didnGt even #et to see it "e#in . . . and 3 +as out H%%,%%% dollars. 3G0 lau#hin# today, "ut . . . .*nd you already had "ases here in -ranceU. Bases 3 had, "ut 3 had to "rin# the 0oney "ack to #et a contract in sterlin#. *t that ti0e 3 +as "uildin# the Ailton Aotel, the city hall . . . 3 had five 0illion in civil revenues . . . five 0illion oundsR 1hatGs not

eanutsR *nd a 0illion sterlin# . . . .3 think you really have 'uite a sense of hu0or . . .. D )% D WhatGs ast is ast. /ou have to for#et a"out it, and thatGs all. Here is the account o3 the di33icult social rise o3 Su@anne &. o3 Sti3. s 3ar $ac# as her 3amily memories !oHto a$out 7K?>Htheir material circumstances were hard* they wor#ed and lived in poverty, and they died youn!. Her maternal !rand3ather was a tinsmith. Her paternal !rand3ather, we recall <p. :K=, was a mattress ma#er, her paternal !randmother, a coo#. Arphaned youn!, Su@anne &.)s 3ather was raised $y an aunt, servant to a pharmacist and wi3e o3 a house painter. He le3t them to do his military service and !ot married ri!ht away. 4ut the war o3 787M $ro#e out6 he wound up at the 3ront, was wounded and disa$led. Ae didnGt have any toes left? he had shell fra#0ents in his head? very often he didnGt see anythin# out of his eye. Ae cou#hed all the ti0e? his face +as al+ays s+ollen fro0 cou#hin# so 0uch. Ae had s ent seven years a+ay fro0 ho0e and had #otten into the ha"it of drinkin# 0ore than he should have. When he ca0e "ack fro0 the +ar, he +asnGt the sa0e 0an? of course, he +as sick. Ae received a 0isera"le little ension. Ae didnGt kno+ ho+ to +rite? you had to "e intelli#ent to fi#ht and #et a #ood ension. :very ti0e he asked the0 to increase his ension, they refused. *nd the little "it he did #et every three 0onths had to #o for so0ethin# or other. Ae needed t+o acks of ci#arettes every day and a liter of +ine every day, not countin# +hat he drank outside. Ae didnGt do anythin# at ho0e. ;y 0other +as forced to ay hi0 for all the thin#s 3 0entioned, and 0any ti0es she #ave hi0 the 0oney she earned ainfully. Ae +as never ha y. ;y 0other +as 0isera"le +ith hi0. 4he +orked fro0 0ornin# to ni#ht, nonsto . 4he did laundry. 4he had re#ular custo0ers: rich eo le had their laundry done only t+ice a year? it took her at least t+o or three +eeks to finish. 4he +ent to +ash at the school of the nuns. 3 +as little, so she took 0e +ith her. Su@anne had to earn her livin! 3rom a very youn! a!e* she was hired as a children)s nursemaid and then as a maid. *t t+elve, 3 #ot 0y certificate fro0 school? the e2a0 lasted three days. 3t +as in ,uly? in *u#ust 3 started +orkin#. 3 took D )1 D care of a child, fro0 0ornin# to ni#ht. 1he arents +ere 4 aniards? they had a sandal factory. 1here +as a +o0an +ho took care of the household, and 3 took care of the child. 3 #ot fifteen ennies a day for t+o years. *fter+ard, 3 +anted to learn another trade, dress0akin#, "ut to learn a trade, you had to ay. 3 +ent to +ork for a so5called dress0aker, to learn a trade. 4he had four children. 3 had to tend to the house, take care of the children, run errands. *fter+ard, if she had ti0e, she +ould teach 0e to se+R With 0e she had a 0aid she didnGt ay. -or t+o 0onths, 3 +as atient, then 3 #ot fed u and 3 left. 3 +ent "ack to +ork for so0e eo le fro0 -rance? he +as an en#ineer of roads and "rid#es. 3 re ared the food, 3 took care of the house, the errands, +ashin#, ironin#, 0endin#. 3 arrived at si2 in the 0ornin# and 3 left at (:$%, "ut three or four ti0es a 0onth, 3 stayed until nine oGclock, so0eti0es even until 1% oGclock. 3 #ot only t+o francs a 0onth. 3 didnGt 'uit 0y Eo" until a 0onth "efore 0y +eddin#. /i!ht a3ter the weddin!, the youn! couple tried their luc# in l!iers $ut stayed there only a month <2I couldn)t !et used to the $i! city, I had never traveled2= and then returned to Constantine, where we saw

them ta#in! in their youn! cousin JoLl <p. :8=. &he hus$and wor#ed as a carpenter in a wor#shop six days a wee#. Septem$er 78:> mar#s a turnin! point in their lives* he set up his own $usiness, and the 3amily moved to 4atna. 3ter one o3 his wor#ers su33ered an accident at wor#, the hus$and was the victim o3 a shady insurance a!ent and was $lac#mailed $y the wounded wor#er. 1he insurance a#ent +as indicted, "ut +e had everythin# else on our "acks. <. 8the wor#er 9 +as la=y and found a source of inco0e: he started "lack0ailin# 0y hus"and. :very ti0e he ca0e "ack, he asked for "i##er and "i##er su0s. Ae kne+ he couldnGt "e unished, and he took advanta#e of it. ;y hus"and couldnGt ay his "ills any0ore, for +ood, hard+are, everythin# he needed to run the +orksho . Ae +asnGt 0akin# ends 0eet any0ore. 1here +ere t+o "ailiffs in Batna +ho shared an office. 6ne +as -rench, ;r. >., and the other a ,e+, ;r. <. 8who was related to the wor#er involved in the liti!ation 9. When 3 +ould see hi0, he never +anted to hel us, and +hen it +as ;r. >., he D )( D did all he could. 3n the end, +e Eust couldnGt 0ana#e any0ore. We sold everythin# for +hatever +e could #et, and +e aid all our de"ts. We had nothin# left. 6ne 0ornin#, 0y hus"and insisted that 3 do the errands? +hen 3 ca0e "ack, 3 understood +hy. 3 returned fro0 the 0arket to find the house e0 ty? there +as nothin# 0ore than the clothes in the suitcases and the dishes in "o2es. 1he children +ere dressed, ready to leave. 1he ni#ht "efore, he had 0ade the arran#e0ents. *t noon, +e took the train for Constantine, t+o children, 0e re#nant, and a sick hus"and 8he will $e hospitali@ed and will recover slowly 3rom a stomach ulcer 9. /eturn to the previous situation* in Constantine, the hus$and was employed as a 3oreman, one child died, another $orn. t the end o3 78:C, the 3amily tried its luc# once a!ain in l!iers, where the hus$and was 3irst employed as a simple apprentice. Ance a!ain, a 5renchman helps them out. Ae had to find +ork. * car enter had ut a notice on his door that he +as lookin# for an a rentice7he didnGt +ant a +orker. *fter "oth of us thou#ht it over, he +ent "ack to +ork as an a rentice at seven francs a day. *t least 3 could feed 0y children and ay the rent . . . 6ne day a candy0aker na0ed <. +anted to redo the front of his sho . Ae called 0y hus"andGs "oss. Ae took 0y hus"and +ith hi0, and he started +orkin# ri#ht a+ay. 3t +as ur#ent, he finished the front and the +indo+s in the sho . Ae +as very ha y +ith 0y hus"andGs +ork? he asked hi0 to redo his a art0ent. 8 lon! narrative 3ollows* the candyma#er discovers that the 2apprentice2 is underpaid, summons the $oss and concludes a3ter a lon! discussion 9: ./ou dare to 0ake 0e ay a hundred francs a day for the +orker7you even told 0e he +as #reedy and cost you a lot7+hen youGre not even ayin# hi0 for a +eek half of +hat 3 ay you for a dayR No+ 3 understood and youGre #oin# to ay hi0 everythin# 3 aid you for hi0 and 3 never +ant to hear fro0 you a#ain.. Ae said to hi0: .*nd the +orkU. Ae ans+ered: .*s for the +ork, heGll finish it, and heGll "e aid at the nor0al rice.. D )$ D Not only did he 8the hus$and 9 "rin# 0e a lar#e su0 of 0oney that day "ut he finished the +ork for the candy0aker. 1he other sho s ne2t door7+hen they sa+ the ne+ sho front, they +anted to chan#e their fronts too. 1here +as an old tailorGs sho , a #love 0aker, a shirt0aker. When all these sho fronts +ere finished, you couldnGt reco#ni=e Iue dG3sly any0ore. *nd ever since then, thank >od, +e never +anted for anythin#. Ae +orked hard, of course, "ut he +as ha y. 78:8* In Su@anne &.)s tale, the 3amily chronicle once a!ain encounters world history.

3n ,une 19$9, 3 #ave "irth to a dau#hter, Aer0ine. 3 na0ed her Aer0ine "ecause 0y hus"and had a 4 anish +orker +ho +orked +ith hi0. Ae +as called Aenri and his +ife +as Aer0ine. We +ere very close to the0, so if it had "een a "oy, +e +ould have called hi0 Aenri. 4ince it +as a #irl, +e called her Aer0ine. Ae +as the caretaker of a "i# villa that "elon#ed to a la+yer? the o+ners ca0e once or t+ice a year, durin# the fruit season. 6n 4aturday ni#ht, +e +ent u to that house. We ca0e "ack on 4unday ni#ht +ith ve#eta"les, fruit, flo+ers. :very 0ornin#, he assed "y our house on his +ay to +ork, so heGd "rin# 0e +hat his +ife icked for herself and for us. 4o 0any flo+ers, 3 didnGt kno+ +here to ut the0. *nd on 4e te0"er 1st 0y hus"and #ot a tele hone call fro0 the city hall of Bou=areah that he had to #o to city hall +ith the leaders of the nei#h"orhood. 1hey all +ent "y truck to the city hall, +hich +as five 0iles a+ay. 1he 0ayor and his de uties +ere +aitin# for the0. 1he 0ayor announced the declaration of +ar. 1here +ere olice there too. 1he chief of olice #ave each one of the0 a travel order and said they had to take the train at ei#ht oGclock the ne2t 0ornin#. 1he 0ayor #ave the0 osters to ut u in all the nei#h"orhoods. When they ca0e "ack, 3 understood ri#ht a+ay that so0ethin# +as +ron#. ;y hus"and filled 0e in and every"ody #athered in our house. ;en and +o0en +ere cryin#. We kne+ that everythin# +as #oin# to "e terri"le. 6n 4e te0"er (, it +as a -riday 0ornin#, +e had only (% D )H D ennies in the house. Ae left 0e 1%, and he took the rest. Ae didnGt +ant 0e to #o to the station +ith hi0. Later on, 3 +ondered a"out ho+ 3 +as #oin# to feed 0y children. Su@anne !oes to wor# in a clothin! 3actory. t the end o3 the war, the 3amily num$ers ei!ht children <a last son will $e $orn in 78M?=, and the hus$and resumes his activities. 5amily happiness is at an alltime hi!h* they $uild a $i! house, the $ar mit@vah899 of one of the sons is cele"rated +ith a #reat sho+ of +ealth, the fa0ily is a"le to entertain youn# ,e+ish soldiers every -riday ni#ht, the hus"and "eco0es one of the leaders of the ,e+ish co00unity. Ae is even aid a visit "y a -rench ad0iral: the hoto#ra h de ictin# this event sho+s the0 in a salon +hose +ide "ay +indo+s are sha ed like the 4tar of Oavid. 1he house really is the house of the >ood Lord. s 3or &ita, whom we saw escapin! the surveillance o3 her 1ealous hus$and in &unis, she $e!an her li3e in poverty and continued in poverty. ;y fatherU * shoe0aker. Ae had a little sho , in the Aara, in front of the 3talian +o0an +ho 0ade chairs for children. * little sho . But his heart +as a little cold, he didnGt like +ork. >od rest his soul. Leila, she +orked? 0y oor 0other, she +orked. 4he +orked in a hundred +ays. 4he +ashed the +o0en, she took the0 to the 1urkish "ath. 4he +orked +ashin# the dead. 4he +ashed clothes. 4he +orked +ith all colors. >od rest her soul. . . . When 3 +as little, +e ate chicken only t+ice a year. *t Puri0 and . . . +hen elseU81%9 *t <i ur. 1hatGs all. Aere, you thro+ the chicken 8she swears 9, over 0y fatherGs head, you thro+ itR . . . Before, 0y 0other +ent to the "utcher and said: .>ive 0e a fe+ ieces of tri e and a little so0ethin# for -ridayGs couscous.. 4he only +ent there on -riday. 6ther days she didnGt #o there or he Eust #ave her so0e skin. *t ho0e, she "roiled it, she took off the hair, 0ade it +hite as a lily, and then 899 Ieli#ious ritual of a "oyGs co0in# of a#e. 81%9 1he holiday of Puri0 cele"rates the victory of the ,e+s, su"Eects of <in# *haseurus, over the 0inister Aa0an +ho lotted to destroy the0. 1he ,e+s +ere saved "y the intervention of :sther and

her uncle ;ordechai. D )) D you +ould serve that skin +ith chick eas and cu0in or +ith "eans and cu0in. .Ao+ 0uch did she "uy, t+o oundsU. *re you kiddin#R ;ay"e a half a ound, he #ave her, a ound. Listen: +ith that, she 0ade the couscous "roth, 0eat "alls, t3ina 8a dish slowly $raised 3or Saturday 9, and ste+. &he 3ather wor#ed listlessly. &he mother washed the livin! and the dead and did laundry. t this level o3 poverty, the dau!hter very soon had to contri$ute to the 3amily resources* she too# over the mother)s domestic tas#s and too# in trimmin! wor# at home. 3 +orked at ho0e. *ra"ic +ork, *ra"ic "uttons, tassels. 4o0ethin# else: 3 did +eavin#. 3 +orked on the floor, one "all of yarn on one side, one "all of yarn on the other side. *nd 3 +orked in the house, 3 +as res onsi"le for the house. 3 +ashed the clothes, 3 cooked, 3 re ared 4ha""at 8Saturday, the day o3 rest 9 . . . 3 +ent to "rin# +ater +ith the nei#h"ors, every"ody took a turn. 3n short, 3 +orked, 3 +orked, so 0uch 8si!h 9. &he hus$and her mother made her marry $ecause he was a hard wor#er was only a peddler o3 secondhand !oods. In 78:9 he rises to $ecome an apartment a!ent $ut he dies $e3ore he can en1oy the 3ruits. %i#e her mother $e3ore her, &ita has to !o to wor# 3or other people. Ae +orked hard. :very day. Could he stand not +orkin#U Ae +ould have died of it. Whenever he ca0e ho0e +ithout earnin# any 0oney, he +as 0ad. Ii#ht a+ay 3 understood. 6h "oy, 3 +as scared. Ae turned the +hole house u side do+n if he didnGt earn anythin#. .What did he sellU. /o$a vecchia . 8&a#in! up the cry uttered $y that type o3 merchant 9: /o$a vecchiaI Scar$i vecchiaI8119 Bottle dealer. 1hen he sto ed. Ae used to dress like an *ra", you kno+U Ae +ore a chechia, a s+eater, and a sar+al81(9 that could hold four eo le 8lau!hs 9. Later on, he +as artners +ith A. 4o A. told hi0: .*ouQdaR. .What.. ./ou kno+, +e have to #o to fancy houses, on *venue 8119 3talian +ords in the local 1unisian s ellin#: used thin#s, used shoes. 81(9 1ranslatorGs note: Chechia is the red ca , and sarwal the +ide trousers traditionally +orn "y natives in North *frica. D )K D de Paris, in the arcade. /ou have to dress like an 3talian. Because +hen you visit a house7houses for sale +ere +ritten in ne+s a er ads7 eo le are #oin# to say: GAeGs a ;osle0.G. Ae ans+ered: .-ine.. 1hatGs ho+ it ha ened. Ii#ht a+ay, he +ent to the tailor, 0ade a suit, one or t+o airs of ants. *nd he chan#ed over to a shirt and tie. 3 said to hi0: .*ouQda, look at youR. .What can 3 doU 1hey lau#h at 0e and 3 shouldnGt chan#eU. 1he oor 0an, that year, he died +ith it all. Ae left his thin#s han#in# in the +ardro"e. Ne+ suit, under ants, shirts, ties, shoes, socks: Lalou his son took the0 for his "ar 0itsvah. 1hatGs >odGs +ill? +hat can 3 doU 8 3ter his death. 9 4o0e"ody #ave 0e this, so0e"ody else #ave 0e that, 0y "rothers5in5la+ hel ed. 1hen they all sto ed. 4o 3 +ent to ;chiGad. >od rest his soul, ;chiGad. Ae said: .1itaR. ./esR. ./ou +ant 0e to take you to +orkU. .3Gd like it very 0uch, ;chiGad, 3G0 in such "ad sha e.. 4o, he took 0e

to +ork for a articular lady. 3 didnGt earn a cent +ithout tears runnin# do+n 0y face as 0uch as the +ater 3 +as +ashin# +ith. 3 had a very hard ti0e. +henever li3e in the Hara comes into people)s memories, several themes recur o$sessively* small houses, crowded courtyards6 small incomes6 the luxury represented $y the purchase o3 meat or poultry. &hese ima!es are colored with contrastin! tones. &hose who have always lived in the !hetto tal# a$out the cleanliness o3 2well-ordered2 rooms6 they recall an orderly world. &he courtyard illustrates a socia$ility mar#ed at times $y $oisterous lau!hter. Meals are tri$ute to the in!enuity o3 the maternal cuisine. &hose who escaped 3rom the !hetto or who never lived there, however, denounce the poverty, the crowdin!, the un3air disparity $etween rich and poor. mon! many other memories, that o3 ndr ., $orn in &unis in 78;9* 3 +as "orn ri#ht in the 0iddle of the Aara. We lived there until +e +ere co00union a#e, t+elve, in 19$B.81$9 1hen +e lived on Iue Pierre Curie, ne2t to *venue de Londres, do+n "elo+. 3tGs a 0ore 0iddle5class nei#h"orhood: the "us +ent "y, the streetcar, all that. 1here +ere cars . . . 81$9 1he narrator "orro+s the +ord communion fro0 the colonial Christian o ulation to evoke his "ar 0it=vah. D )& D ;y #randfather, he never +ent to school. -or forty years, he +orked as a hairdresser? +hen he died he had never left 1unis, e2ce t once. Ae traveled forty 0iles to 1estour, on a il#ri0a#e to Ia""i -raEi. 1hatGs the only ti0e he left. 1hereGs a 0an +ho lived seventy years in overty, in +hadycallit. Ae never left. :2ce t for La >oulette 8a resort su$ur$ o3 &unis 9. *nd La >oulette, he +ent there 0ay"e once a year, once every t+o years, "ecause he didnGt have any 0oney. 3t +as a "i# deal. 1hat +as the kind of life it +as. ;eat, you ate it once a +eek, on -riday ni#ht. *nd m)alaq, not even l-mar1ou)a8 1H9 "ecause itGs less e2 ensive. *nd 3 +as the one +ho +ent to "uy it at the "utcher, +ith all those flies around. .vette ., cousin and sister-in-law o3 ndr .* S. tells that his 0other, in order to encoura#e hi0 +hen he +ent to school, told hi0: .3f youGre the "est, 3Gll 0ake you a hard5"oiled e## on 4aturday in the tfina.. 6kay, the first 0onth that +orked, he +as the "est, she 0ade hi0 his hard5"oiled e##. 1he second 0onth too. 1hen she said to hi0: .1his +onGt do.. :ven one hard5"oiled e## a 0onth strained the "ud#et.

The Reli&ion o' Our Fathers> The oo<in& o' Our Mothers
/eli!ious rituals stand out vividly in memory. Summonin! up memories, everyone sees Sha$$at, (urim, (assover, .om Oippur, and other important dates. ,veryone emphasi@es the consistency o3 practices, their expected repetition. &hey descri$e not one cele$ration, dated and unique, $ut a holiday that is the sum total o3 all holidays, a Saturday that encompasses all Saturdays. ,veryone also emphasi@es the 3ullness o3 the cele$rations* 2everyone2 participated in them, 2all2 the laws were o$served, 2everythin!2 had to $e done 1ust ri!ht.81)9 81H9 M)alaq, to ri"s, mar1ou)a, "eef shank. 81)9 1he se'uences of "io#ra hy also follo+ the cycle of reli#ious holidays, and individual life takes its rhyth0 fro0 ritual in Ca0ille :l Ba=, Sarah, ou moeurs et coutumes des Jui3s de Constantine 84arah, or the Ways and Custo0s ofthe ,e+s of Constantine9 @Nice, 19&1C? and in :d0ond FeQtoun, %es

Cadeaux de (ourim 8Puri0 Presents9 @Paris: La PensLe universelle, 19&)C. D )B D Ane man, recallin! Se3rou $e3ore the emi!ration o3 the Jews 3rom Morocco* 6hR 1he holidaysR /ou had to live there. 1here Eust arenGt enou#h +ords to descri"e the holidays in 4efrou for you. /ou felt the holidays in the house, you felt the holidays on the street. 4ha""at, letGs "e#in +ith 4ha""atR 1here +asnGt a sin#le ,e+ish sho , a sin#le store that +as o en. *ll the ,e+s +ere #athered in the mellah81K9 and +ere in the shuls .81&9 1here +ere seventeen lus three, t+enty shuls in that to+n. 4o you can i0a#ineR. . . . /ou +onGt find it there any0ore. 1hose +ho didnGt live there canGt ever e2 erience the holiday the +ay +e did. *nd every holiday had its o+n color, its o+n traditions. Passover,81B9 that +as the re aration of the +afers ri#ht after Puri0 "ecause you didnGt #et the +afers ready50ade in acka#es, like no+. :very fa0ily, they had to "uy their o+n +heat, select it, "rin# it to the 0ill7a 0ill that +as koshered8199 70ade sure everythin# +as kosher. 6hR 1he feelin# on those occasions +as really so0ethin# indescri"a"le. 4o Passover ca0e, all the houses +ere #lea0in#, shinin#, cleaned u , +hite+ashed, ainted. 4o0e houses +ere ainted althou#h each fa0ily had only one roo0. ;ost fa0ilies +ere "i#, +hen 3 say "i#, there +ere ten children. 1hey all lived in one roo0 and it +asnGt 81K9 Mellah desi#nates the ,e+ish nei#h"orhood in ;oroccan cities. 81&9 Shul : 4yna#o#ue. 1he +ord is "orro+ed fro0 /iddish, +hich indicates that, for the narrator, the *shkena=i ,e+s re resent a stricter 6rthodo2y than the one he clai0s for his o+n co00unity. 3t si#nals the hierarchies revailin# in -rance or at least the +ay they are erceived. 81B9 Passover, co00e0oratin# the :2odus fro0 :#y t. 1he follo+in# holidays are then recalled: 1. Puri0, see . )H. 1he Book of :sther is called a me!illah, +hich +ill "e used later @ . K%C? (. 4ukkot, the -east of the 1a"ernacles, +hich takes lace in autu0n? $. Aanukkah, +hich cele"rates the reconsecration of the 1e0 le "y the Aas0oneans in the second century B.C.:. 1he hanu#ia @also see . )9C is the candela"ra used durin# the ei#ht5day holiday, +ith one additional "ranch lit each ni#ht. 8199 Oashrut, the co0"ination of rules of dietary urity. Oosher, fit for consu0 tion. &o #osher, to 0ake so0ethin# fit for consu0 tion. D )9 D al+ays lar#e. 3 ask 0yself . . . Ao+ did those eo le 0ana#eU *nd yet they lived, they +ere ha y, thatGs ho+ it +as. 6n 4ukkoth you sa+ huts every+here. 1here +asnGt a street that didnGt have huts? there +asnGt a house, if it had a courtyard, that didnGt have a hut. Weeks "efore Aanukkah, they +ere already "e#innin# to re are olive oil to li#ht the hanu#iya . -or each holiday, and 3 tell you that in ractice they couldnGt even i0a#ine +hat assi0ilation +as or ho+ there could "e a ,e+ +ho didnGt kee the 4ha""at. 3 donGt 0ean all ,e+s +ere ious and o"servant. 1here +ere so0e in the ,e+ish o ulation of 4efrou +ho +erenGt very ious, very o"servant. But +hat does it 0ean to say very o"servantU 3t 0eans so0e"ody +ho doesnGt o"serve to the letter +hat he is told. But you couldnGt i0a#ine a ,e+ +ho didnGt #o to shul three ti0es, for shaharit, minhah, and

maariv,8(%9 that Eust didnGt e2ist. 6r an artisan, a hairdresser +ho o ened his sho on 4ha""at7that Eust didnGt co0e into our heads. 6r a "usiness0an te0 ted "y rofit and o enin# his sho on 4aturday 7that Eust couldnGt "e. Manou 4., 0n 4e0da, 78;9, spea#in! o3 Constantine in the 78:>s* -or the holidays, it +as 0arvelous, for our o+n holidays, "ecause +e felt the0. 4aturday, +e felt it "ecause +e lived in the #hetto and 4aturday, every"ody 0ade 4aturday. -or holidays, every"ody +as dressed for the holiday. 1hat +as the +ay it +as. 1hatGs +hat +e donGt have here any0ore. Camilla F., &ripoli, a$out 78>>* ;y father +as a real "eliever. Ae rayed every 0ornin# and on the holidays. When it +as a holiday, for instance, it +as a holiday, it +as a reli#ious thin#, it +as a holiday. -or instance, on -riday ni#ht, 3 canGt tell you ho+ that ta"le +as: the flo+ers, the candlesticks, the rayers. . . . Not so 0uch the rayers, it +as everythin#. Ae said the rayer, the "lessin# over all the children, +e kissed his hand, there, thatGs ho+ it +as. 8(%9 1he three daily rayers that 0ust "e said, res ectively, at da+n, at sunset, and in the evenin#. D K% D *nd the 0aidsR 3n the 0ornin#, there +as a "ath for us u stairs. 1hen, do+nstairs, on the #round floor, that +as +here they +ashed the clothes, a kind of laundry +here the 0aids +ent +hen they had 0ade the couscous and everythin# else. *nd all of the0 dressed u s ecial +ith henna and everythin#. *nd then they ut on silk, they +ere dressed, all of the0. *nd then, until 4aturday ni#ht, they didnGt touch anythin#. ,ach cele$ration had a correspondin! act, !esture, a li$retto in which everyone had a role to play. Children, 3or example* (urim in 4i@erte at the end o3 the last century* 4o, +hat did 0y "rother :rnest doU We #ot the catalo# fro0 the 4a0aritan de art0ent store and there +ere +o0en and 0en in the catalo#. Ae unfolded the0, ut the0 on a card"oard and +hen 0y #randfather read the 0e#illah to us, "ecause he had to read it to us aloud, +hen the na0e of Aa0an +as uttered, +e san# and hit the ictures +ith little rattles they sold for the occasion. 3t +as very ictures'ueR 8Mathilde 4., 4i@erte, 1B9(.9 &ripoli at the $e!innin! o3 the century. &he destruction o3 the &emple was commemorated on the ninth o3 $. In the $oo# o3 ,@e#iel, the prophecies a!ainst the people o3 Israel and on the ruin o3 Jerusalem are 3ollowed $y the 2resurrection o3 the people o3 Bod2 and the re$uildin! o3 the City. &hen there is the vision o3 the dry $ones restored to li3e* 2&he hand o3 the %ord was upon me and carried me out in the spirit o3 the %ord and set me down in the midst o3 the valley which was 3ull o3 $ones. . . . &hen He said unto me* Son o3 man, these $ones are the whole house o3 Israel.2 Camilla never studied this $oo# $ecause !irls only learnt practical thin!s and not traditional texts. 4ut she unwittin!ly acted out ,@e#iel)s vision. She recalls her childhood !estures, and somethin! o3 their meanin! has remained en!raved in her memory* to collect the pearls was to reassem$le the $odies o3 the Jews. She had acted out the re$uildin! o3 the 2house o3 Israel,2 prepared 3or Bod)s return to His people. ll that is le3t o3 the awesome $i$lical prophecy are these little pearls* ;any "eliefs +ere attractive "ecause they +erenGt fanatical. -or e2a0 le, one of the thin#s that +as very 0ovin# +as +hen there +as7+hat do they call itU7the destruction of the 1e05

D K1 D le. !ain,8(19 thatGs it. -or a!ain, for e2a0 le, every"ody fasted and for the children they "ou#ht us a lot of little earls, you kno+, tiny little earls. With those little earls, 3 could 0ake a little fish. 3t +as to collect the "ones of all the ,e+s +ho +ere killed and scattered. 1hat +as for that holiday. &he 3estival, the toilette, the clothin! trans3orm even the hum$lest persons. In &ripoli a!ain, 2the maids2 put henna on their hair and dressed in sil# !owns 3or Sha$$at. Here is unt 4er!ana, a servant durin! the wee#, in the !lory o3 5riday ni!ht. 6n -riday ni#ht, +e had an old aunt of 0y fatherGs +ho +as a sort of household drud#e and +ho +as al+ays at ho0e. *ll +eek lon#, she +as in the kitchen, you kno+, like all ,e+ish +o0en, like all +o0en. 4he took care of this one and that one, and, naturally, every"ody loved her a lot, "ut she +as like a iece of furniture, an old iece of furniture. 4o +hat +as s ecial is that this aunt that you al0ost didnGt see, +ho ca0e to the ta"le, +ho sat in a corner7on -riday ni#ht, she ut kohl8((9 on her eyes out to here, she ut on her nicest $arracano,8($9 she 0ade herself all "eautiful. *nd +hen they said the rayer, she stood u for the rayer. *nd 3 al+ays re0e0"er 0y cousins co0in# fro0 :n#land, Cairo, London? they +ere very rich and so very advanced in their +ays, very sno""ish and everythin#. 1here +as one cousin +ho +as there one -riday ni#ht, as they +ere sayin# the rayer. *nd he sees tsia Ber#ana. .&sia Ber#ana, tsia Ber#ana, look, +hat ha ened to herU 4heGs so tallR. Ae had al+ays seen her sittin# do+n. *nd here +as a +o0an +ho +as tall, +ith "i# "lack eyes, +ho +as standin# u . 5or the end o3 Sha$$at, which mar#s the return to secular li3e and produces a #ind o3 pan! o3 anxiety, 2a $ad mood,2 the 3ather o33iciated. He recited the havdalah prayer,8(H9 and +ith that the old aunt resu0ed her hu0"le osition: 8(19 !ain : the ninth of *"7*" is a 0onth in the ,e+ish calendar that corres onds a ro2i0ately to the 0onth of *u#ust7is the annual co00e0oration of the destruction of the 1e0 le. 8((9 <ohl, eye 0akeu . 8($9 4arracano, a +oolen #ar0ent in +hich +o0en +ra ed the0selves. 8(H9 Aavdalah: rayer of se aration that ends the 4a""ath re ose and ushers in ordinary life a#ain. D K( D 4o, on 4aturday ni#ht, it +as funny, you kno+n, on 4aturday ni#ht, a a said the rayer and 4aturday +as over and so you sa+ that +o0an start lau#hin# #iddily, hee5hee5hee, hee5hee5hee, until the +hole fa0ily cau#ht that conta#ious lau#hter. WhyU Because they said that if you start lau#hin# on 4aturday ni#ht and youGre ha y, the +hole +eek is ha y, so in fa0ilies thereGs al+ays a little "it of a "ad 0ood, a little . . . so0ethin#7itGs like that in every fa0ily. *nd that +o0an, as soon as she sa+ there +as a "ad 0ood, she started her ridiculous lau#hin#, like a clo+n. 4he kne+ she +ould set the0 all off . . . Foises, sounds, voices also return to memory. &ripoli a!ain, at the $e!innin! o3 the century* Camilla F. recalls the holiday o3 Shavuot, which commemorates the !ivin! o3 the &a$lets o3 the %aw to Moses on Mount Sinai. 4ut this is not what her tale is a$out. +hat remains is rather a ni!ht o3 vi!il and the whisperin! o3 the ra$$is who 2talmodi@e.2 1hen the &omotoura8()9 ca0e to the house, and it +as a real +onder, "ecause all ni#ht lon# there +as the ra""is and the children +ho ca0e to ray and es ecially to ar#ue, they ar#ued the +hole 1al0ud, they ar#ued all ni#ht, they ar#ued and they ar#ued. But, "y five oGclock in the 0ornin#, +e +ent to "ed, +e +ere youn# and it +as so nice, those kidsG voices, you kno+. *nd so, all ni#ht lon#, there +ere 0aids servin# coffee, "rin#in# the0 cakes, "rin#in# the0 thin#s, co0in# and #oin#. We stayed

do+nstairs a little "it and then +e #ot "ored hearin# the0 tal0odi=in#,8(K9 ar#uin# and everythin#. But at five oGclock in the 0ornin#, they had s ecial son#s and there, thatGs Eust the +ay it +as. 3t +as really a strict for0 of reli#ion "ut it +asnGt o ressive "ecause it ca0e in that +ay7there +asnGt any fanaticis0 at all, not at all. &o spea# o3 reli!ion, then, is not to recall a 3aith, $elie3s, or study $ut rather to evo#e shared acts, 3orms o3 3ellowship and o3 socia$ility. 8()9 &amotoura 81al0ud 1orah9: children studyin# the 1orah. 1he locution is condensed into one +ord and indicates children +ho only attended ra""inic school, i.e., the oor. 8(K9 1he narrator invents the +ord tal0odi=e, sha ed on sal0odi=e. D K$ D +hen 3aith disappeared, !estures remained. t its extreme, reli!ion $ecame practice without #nowled!e, an orthopraxis without orthodoxy. /epeated, one seemin! 1ust li#e the next, the holidays are ultimately con3used in memory $ecause their meanin! has $een lost or never was really !rasped in the 3irst place. Ba$riel -. <Saloni#a, a$out 787>= is unsure o3 the order o3 the holidays and then resumes* 6nce Shavuot is over, then ca0e Ne+ /earGs Oay . . . Ne+ /earGs Oay "efore <i ur . . . -irst +as /o0 <i ur, then it +as Ne+ /earGs Oay, 3 think. 6r first it +as Ne+ /earGs Oay and then /o0 <i ur, 3 think so, yes. %aure . a!ain, a$out her 3ather* 3n syna#o#ue, for e2a0 le, on <i ur and on the Oay of *tone0ent, 0y #rand0other said to hi0: .,ac'ues, every"ody has already co0e out of church 8sic 9.. .3G0 +aitin# for the0 to #o. Because they havenGt eaten, their "reath, 3 canGt stand it.. .4o, co0e on, itGs already late.. Ae +ent, un+illin#ly. 1hen, on the Oay of *tone0ent, he +ent. .1he Oay of *tone0ent is <i ur, isnGt itU. .No, the Oay of *tone0ent isnGt <i urR <i ur is the fast. 1he Oay of *tone0ent co0es a +eek later.. It ta#es a lon! discussion, interspersed with lau!hter and exclamations to 3inally esta$lish the order o3 the holidays. +omen)s participation in rituals was exercised primarily in the #itchen. &he ima!e o3 the ritual $lends with that o3 the ta$le, a masterpiece created $y the mother and o33ered to her #in, a center around which the 3amily circle was lin#ed, and an altar o3 the 3amily)s reli!ion. Manou 4., 0n 4e0da, 78;9* ;y hus"and +as strict. 6n -riday, it +as s ecial, holidays +ere s ecial, and 3 kee it u here. 3 can #uarantee you that on -riday ni#ht in 0y house, thereGs a ta"le, a "eautiful -riday ni#ht ta"le. -riday ni#ht in 0y house is very "eautiful. /ou see here, itGs all full. 3tGs a "eautiful 4ha""at ta"le. D KH D &he women recall less what they did than what they had to do* prepare a meal. I3 you thin# a$out it, that)s what they devoted themselves to every sin!le day. +hy did the preparation o3 holiday meals leave

such a stron! impressionE Fo dou$t $ecause these occasions !athered the 2whole2 3amily and demanded more e33ort, more dishes, more utensils. Some cele$rations were also accompanied $y unusual acts laden with si!ni3icance* the preparation o3 the (assover dishes, the sacri3ice o3 the (assover lam$, the sacri3ice o3 the chic#ens on .om Oippur. 4ut those meals, more than the daily routine, had particularly to con3orm to the norms. Fo initiative, no improvisation, no delay was permitted. .ou had to $end to the rules, prove that you had internali@ed them. Coo#in! was $asically the 3emale expression o3 orthodoxy since women did not !o to the syna!o!ueHand when they did it was as spectators. Hence, the preparation o3 3ood constituted the 3eminine part o3 each holiday and the 3irst act o3 the li$retto that the whole 3amily was !oin! to per3orm. Men came on sta!e only a3ter the ovens were cold. &he paradox, then, is that .om Oippur, a day o3 contrition, o3 withdrawal, remains in memories as a moment o3 culinary 3ever.8(&9.om Oippur is associated with tastes* o3 stu33ed chic#en, lemonade, and coo#ies 3or the Jews o3 &unis6 o3 chic#en with tomato sauce in Saloni#a. &he association o3 3ood and ritual is so close in memory that a woman $orn in l!eria, wantin! to tal# a$out her estran!ement 3rom reli!ion, recalls her 3ears when she stopped eatin# on .om Oippur 3or the 3irst time . 1he first year 3 didnGt eat on <i ur, 3 said to 0yself: .3s it true that so0ethin# "ad is #oin# to ha en to 0e ne2t yearU. 3n *l#eria, the "oys had to #o to Ae"re+ reli#ious school, +hile +e didnGt have any. . . . /ou +erenGt #ood for anythin# "ut 0akin# 0eat"alls 8to !o with the Sha$$at couscous 9 and kno+in# +hat dish to 0ake for +hat holiday. 8(aule S., &lemcen, $orn in 78M>. 9 &he thousand and one ways o3 ma#in! chic#en 3or .om Oippur 3inally casts dou$t on the reli!ious practice* that is the experience o3 8(&9 * literary echo of this fever of re aration for the fast is in <atia Iu"instein, Mmoire illettre d)une 3illette d) 3rique du Ford P l)poque coloniale 83lliterate ;e0oir of a North *frican >irl Ourin# the Colonial Period9 @Paris: 4tock, 19&9C. D K) D Ida A., who sees in the diversity o3 Jewish 3ood practices the proo3 that it is people who ma#e the laws. Surely Bod would not have wasted His time inventin! such prescriptions. 6n the Oay of *tone0ent, 3 donGt eat. 3 do +hat 3 can "ut 3 donGt +ant it to #o any further "ecause 3 think . . . 3 donGt kno+ . . . 3G0 #oin# to e2 lain these ideas of 0ine to you: 3 0yself used to lay a +hole lot of oker, 3 visited a +hole lot of eo le, and one of 0y friends +as an *lsatian +o0an, fro0 *lsace. 4he +as "orn in China, "ut she +as really -rench. 1hen 3 had a certain ;ada0e C., a hi#h5 class ;oroccan, if you lease, surely no pied-noir .8(B9 We layed a +hole lot of oker, +e +ere at the ta"le, layin#. 6kay, ne2t +eek +as the Oay of *tone0ent. 4o +e asked +hat do you lan to doU 6ur custo07and this 3 still o"serve7+as first that +e fasted and all that. ;y father +ent to the syna#o#ue. *nd at ni#ht, +e started +ith a s oonful of Ea0 +ith coffee, and so0e sou . ;y arents al+ays 0ade chicken, chicken cooked in to0ato sauce. 1hat +as the custo0 of 4alonika. /ou 0ade "roth, you left it in to 0ake a sou +ith noodles. *nd the rest of the chicken you cooked in to0ato sauce. 1hat stayed +ith 0e, that ha"it. 4o 0y friends asked: .What are you 0akin# to eat for <i urU. 3 say: .We 0ake sou and then chicken.. .Ao+ a+fulR We 0ake couscousR. 1he other one +ho +as Polish: .3 do this.. 8She :9 .Oo you think that the >ood Lord had ti0e to tell you GOo thisG if youGre Polish? Gyou ied5noirs, you do this,G /ou "elieve thatU 3tGs eo le +ho 0ake the la+s in every country. 1he >ood Lord didnGt have ti0e to do that. 3n every country, the 4hkena=is have one +ay of doin# thin#s and +e 4e hardi0 have another +ay.. *nd 0ay"e thatGs +hy 0y father ke t a certain distance, you kno+, +hile "elievin#, +hile "ein# a ,e+.

mon! women, the memory o3 the tension $rou!ht on $y the holidays sometimes leaves a $itter taste and leads them to critici@e reli!ious prescriptions and ta$oos. In Istan$ul, %aure .)s mother 3ell ill at (assover. Mathilde <4i@erte, 7K8;=, spea#in! o3 her $rother-in-law, a 2very reli!ious2 man, !oes on* 8(B9 (ied-noir : the :uro ean settlers in colonial *l#eria and their descendants. D KK D /ou see, he sa+ only one thin#, his reli#ion. 4o there +as no +ay to talk to hi0, you couldnGt #et hi0 to the theater. Ae rayed. 6n 4aturday, he rayed all day lon# and it +as ure a#ony. /ou kno+ ho+ it +as, on -riday, you had to run to do the cookin# "ecause at four oGclock, the candles +ere lit and all the rest. 3t +as 0urderR ;oses, he +as very ious, very . . . .*nd you did that yourselfU. ;e, no. ;y sister, yes. ;y sister suffered that a#ony. 3tGs an a#ony, eh, "ecause youGve #ot to rush so. -ortunately, she had hel ? there +ere al+ays servants +ho hel ed her +ith the heavy +ork, and she did the cookin#. *nd she took her "ath every 0onth. When she had her eriod, she sle t in another "ed. 4o, it 0eant fifteen days +ith the hus"and and fourteen days +ithout co0in# close to hi0. 3t +as her 0other5in5la+ +ho ke t countR /es, she +ould say to her: .1oni#ht, 3 calculated, today, you #o to the 1urkish "ath.. *nd that day, she had to #o to the 1urkish "ath in order to slee +ith her hus"and. 4o, for the first fourteen days, she sle t +ith her hus"and, then it sto ed. I3 reli!ious practice is located $etween the #itchen and the holiday ta$le 3or women, men more o3ten recall the syna!o!ue. &he memories o3 Henri "., $orn in Cairo in 787:, show clearly that this di33erence corresponds to a real division o3 tas#s* We did Passover, <i ur, of course . . . Passover and <i ur . . . Naturally, 0y 0other had an o en ta"le. But that +as every ni#ht. *nd on the holidays, there +ere naturally t+enty, thirty, forty eo le. :s ecially durin# the +ar, the +ar of GH%, every day at lunch or dinner, she had fifteen or t+enty soldiers or officers. .6<. 1hatGs the 0eal. But the ritual as such, +ho did thatU. 1hat +as 0y father, thou#h 0y 0other also kne+ the0. ;y father read Ae"re+. Badly, "ut he read it, 0ay"e in his o+n +ay. &he mother shared her ta$le6 the 3ather read He$rew. 5or Ba$riel -. <Saloni#a, a$out 787>=, ritual meant !oin! to the syna!o!ue* D K& D 6n /o0 <i ur, every"ody +ent to the syna#o#ue "ecause, in 4alonika at that ti0e, there +ere al0ost seventy or ei#hty thousand, so . . .8(99 1here +ere a #ood 0any syna#o#ues. 3 canGt list the0 all for you. When 3 +as little and 0y father took 0e to syna#o#ue, that syna#o#ue +as in the central 0arket lace of 4alonika. 3 +ent there . . . and then to another one they "uilt later, in so0e street. What +as the na0e of that syna#o#ueU *nd then there +as the "i# syna#o#ue of Beth 4haul, 3 donGt kno+ if youGve heard of it. 1hat syna#o#ue of Beth 4haul e2isted durin# the ti0e of ,esus ChristR 3 +as 0arried in that syna#o#ue in 19$&. /eli!ion is also a questionin!, sometimes a dou$t. M. M. <Sousse, 78>>= was $ar mit@vah, he learned

to read He$rew, $ut he doesn)t understand it. Spea#in! o3 Jews <a3ter indicatin! his 3amily ori!ins=, he !oes on* 1hat race +hich has lasted for five thousand years, there 0ust "e a reason for it. . . . 3f 3 +ere to tell you 0y vie+s, you +ouldnGt "elieve 0e 8lau!hs 9. .1ell 0e any+ay.. 8(99 4alonika nu0"ered 1(%,%%% inha"itants at the turn of the century. With a"out )%,%%% individuals in 19%1, 9%,%%% in 19%B, the ,e+ish co00unity +as the 0ost i0 ortant in the city, +hich also included co00unities of ;osle0s, >reeks, Bul#arians, and a fe+ thousand eo le of other nationalities. 4ee Paul Ou0ont, .La structure sociale de la co00unautL Euive de 4aloni'ue X la fin du S3S siVcle. 81he 4ocial 4tructure of the ,e+ish Co00unity of 4alonika at the :nd of the Nineteenth Century9 /evue historique (K$:( @19B%C: $)1J$9$. 6nly the ,e+s of 4alonika recall the nu0erical7hence social7i0 ortance of their co00unity as a clai0 to #lory. Note that the ,e+ish o ulation of 1urkey +as esti0ated at a"out $%%,%%% inha"itants at the turn of the century, "efore the dis0e0"er0ent of the 6tto0an :0 ire and the "e#inin# of ,e+ish e0i#ration. ;. -ranco, ,ssai sur l)histoire des Isralites de l),mpire ottoman depuis les ori!ines 1usqu)P nos 1ours 8:ssay on the Aistory of the 3sraelites of the 6tto0an :0 ire fro0 the 6ri#ins to 6ur 6+n Oay9 @Paris, 1B9&C. 3n :#y t, there +ere a"out K),%%% ,e+s in 19)% of a total o ulation of (% 0illion? in 1unisia, 0ore than 1%%,%%% at the end of the Protectorate, 0ost of the0 livin# in 1unis. 3n ;orocco, the ,e+ish co00unity nu0"ered a"out ()%,%%% individuals at the end of the Protectorate, that is, (.$ ercent of the total o ulation. 1heir ro ortion +as less in *l#eria @a"out 11%,%%% ,e+s in the 19H%s and 19)%sC. 4ee O. Bensi0on5Oonath, ,volution du 1uda0sme marocain sous le protectorat 3ranQais, 787;R78C9 8:volution of ;oroccan ,udais0 Under the -rench Protectorate, 191(J19)K9 @Paris: La Aaye, ;outon, 19KBC. D KB D ;ay"e ,esus really was the ro het sent "y >od. 3tGs to unish us for "urnin# hi0, for killin# hi0, that +e are . . . 8he doesn)t 3inish his sentence $ut he wants to evo#e the mis3ortune o3 the Jews 9. Because, "ecause, you surely read: the Oead 4ea 4crolls, the :ssenes, 0y "oy, they +ere Christians. We refused to ad0it it, "ut you kno+, +eGve aid dearly for itR 8&hen, a3ter a di!ression 9: /ou kno+, aside fro0 a fe+ fanatics, there arenGt 0any 8Jews 9 any0ore. 1he reli#ion of our 0ilieuGs is e2tre0ely si0 lified. 1here isnGt that fanaticis0 any0ore, that ride in sayin#: .3G0 a ,e+.. .Were you o"servant in 1unisiaU. When 3 +as youn#, yes, "ecause 3 ca0e fro0 a very reli#ious fa0ily. No+, on <i ur, Passover, 0ore out of tradition than anythin# else. No+, 3 'uestion. *s soon as you 'uestion, youGre not a "eliever any0ore. Sometimes the testimony !oes o33 into a criticism o3 reli!ious ta$oos, sometimes it expresses a dou$t a$out the divine presence, sometimes it questions the meanin! and validity o3 tradition. 5inally, some people, o$1ectin! to 3anaticism, indiscriminately re1ect the whole constellation o3 practices. Contrary to what mi!ht have $een expected, it is not $y virtue o3 adherence to the letter o3 reli!ion that all these individuals assume their Jewish identity $ut much more throu!h the sense o3 $elon!in! to a local community and to a local tradition and throu!h the experience o3 a com$ination o3 social practices that are recalled as havin! $een shared only with Jews.

D K9 D

A; 1etween the Order and the ,nie5r

/iddishland, o3 so many lost worlds, is di33erent 3rom all the others. It was not the inexora$le course o3 time that carried it o33Hit was murdered, victim o3 a !enocide unparalleled in history. &hus, a world lost several times over 3or Jews o3 eastern ,urope* 3irst, when they emi!rated, 3or the most part, with no idea o3 !oin! $ac#6 then, when it disappeared totally, millions o3 human $ein!s !one up in smo#e. &his is why the nostal!ia 3or childhood in the voices o3 the witnesses we are !oin! to hear is not the nostal!ia 3or any childhood* restrospectively, their memories $ear the imprint o3 that tra!ic end. &hey 3eel not only a re!ret 3or a $y!one past that 3ormed their identities, $ut their memories are also mixed with complex, sometimes contradictory, 3eelin!s and reactions* tenderness, o3 course, at a return to their most private selves $ut also lucidity, even a critical spirit, as well as a sense o3 moral o$li!ation. 5or i3 they #now that they have lived an experience that cannot practically $e transmitted, they also 3eel, as survivors, a mani3est duty to ma#e their testimony #nown . Spea#in! o3 themselves, they also spea# 3or the others, 3or those who cannot spea# anymore. Memories intersect, echo, correct one another. +hat we hear are shared, multiple memories and memories o3 memories* people tell what was told $y parents and !randparents, everyone they #new and loved, those who made them what they are. %on! di!ressions and parentheses within parentheses 3ollow the sometimes stran!e windin!s o3 recall* one must remem$er such and such a character, an episode, a scene, a dialo!ue, simply 3or themselves, 3or the simple reason that they existed. &he expansion o3 memory responds to a concern 3or exhaustiveness, an e33ort to achieve a total reconstruction o3 D &% D the past, analo!ous to the collective enterprise o3 the /isker5"iher <the 2$oo#s o3 memory2=, whose many pa!es $ear rows o3 quotes, lists, inventories, so as not to lose anythin! o3 what once was. duty o3 piety and loyalty, an o$sessive concern not to 3or!et anythin!* individual memories, li#e the 2$oo#s o3 memory,2 are so many tom$stones 3or the world o3 yesterday. In spea#in! o3 himsel3 or hersel3, the individual erects a livin! memorial to those who are !one.

The Shtetl
&he shtetl, the Jewish or predominantly Jewish villa!e, was the space where people lived, amon! their own and 3elt at home. More important, in literature and 3ol#lore the shtetl meant a way o3 li3e, a com$ination o3 values that !ave 2its mar# to sh#ena@i Jewry.2819&he reality o3 the shtetl, however, was more complex, less idyllic than is pro1ected $y the somewhat su$limated ima!e. Its representations in memories are not without nuances* the warmth o3 human relations, the outstandin! moral qualities, com$ined with reli!ious or political contradictions and extreme poverty. Charles H., $orn in 19%K in Fys#o, in western Balicia, comes 3rom 3amilies that illustrate the diversity o3 the shtetlach* on his 3ather)s side, the rationalist tradition o3 the Has#alah,8(9alon! with an openin! onto the wide spaces <with the ra3ts o3 wood that went 3loatin! down the San and the 'istula to the -anu$e=6 on his mother)s side, a li3e o3 peasants o3 Hasidic stoc# who nevertheless har$ored a certain 3ascination with the presti!e o3 the (olish no$ility . ;y aternal #randfather died youn#, a"out forty, "efore 3 +as "orn. Ae had a very s ecial trade: he +as

a -an@i!er soyher,8$9 that is, he cut do+n forests @there +ere i00ense forests in the re#ionC. 1hey took the +ood to the river, the 4an, and 0ade +ooden rafts, Eust as they do every+here in that flat country. Aavin# 0ade his raft, he +ent do+n the 4an, then the Vistula, 819 Iachel :rtel, %e Shtetl. %a $our!ade 1uive de (olo!ne 81he 4htetl. 1he ,e+ish Villa#e of Poland9 @Paris: Payot, 19B(C, 1KJ1&. 8(9 :nli#hten0ent 0ove0ent, an o enin# u to the 0odern +orld, +hich e0er#ed in >er0any in the second half of the ei#hteenth century and s read to eastern :uro e durin# the nineteenth century. 8$9 Soyher 70erchant @fro0 the Ae"re+ so#her C. D &1 D to Oan=i#. Ae "uilt a ca"in on that raft and it served as a house for hi0 to live in. 3n Oan=i#, the +ood +as sold for use in the 0ines of :n#land @they +ere ine forestsC. 1he e2 edition took lace in ;arch or * ril, as soon as the sno+ 0elted and the +ater +as risin#. 3t +as i0 ortant to calculate the date carefully, it +ent very fast. 3t all had to "e done "efore the river overflo+ed. :ither he returned rich after an e2 edition like that @he returned "y trainC, or he returned oor, if the +ooden raft ran a#round on the "anks. -ro0 ti0e to ti0e, he had to ask the ,e+ish co00unity in +hich he found hi0self to hel hi0 #et "ack, and he returned destitute, a"solutely destitute. 8 . . .9 3 kne+ 0y 0aternal #randfather very +ell. Ae +as another ty e. ;y 0other ca0e fro0 a little villa#e, a real villa#e, +here there +ere a half do=en ,e+s, a classic villa#e. 4o, 0y #randfather +as a easant, a rarity a0on# >alician ,e+s. 3 still re0e0"er 0y #randfather "ehind the lo+. Ae +as the o+ner of a little far0, 0ay"e fifteen mor!en, +hich corres onds rou#hly to three5fourths of a hectare. 3t +as rather stran#e "ecause 0y 0otherGs villa#e "elon#ed to a count. 3t +as still very feudal: 3 sa+ 0y #randfather #o to Hra$ia8H9 AorodEinski to kiss his hand. :verythin# "elon#ed to hi0. 1he easants and 0y #randfather had little atches of #round. ;y #randfatherGs far0 +asnGt his o+n ro erty either? it "elon# to AorodEinski. Ae cultivated five or si2 hectares that he rented fro0 the count @aside fro0 his atch of landC. But the horses, the co+s, etc., +ere his. 1here +as a lar#e "uildin#, a huntin# lod#e, +hich 0y #randfather rented and 0ana#ed? he had re ared so0e roo0s and he also 0ade a restaurant and tavern. 3 think the count could sell alcohol. 1hey accused the ,e+s of causin# drunkenness7they ran the taverns after all7"ut the actual o+ners +ere the count or the riest. ;y #randfather +asnGt rich, he +orked as a 0ana#er. :ven today, 3 still see #randfather +earin# a lon# frock coat and that frock coat floatin# in the +ind and hi0 "ehind the horse that ulled the lo+. But he +as influenced "y the count, "y the life of the no"ility. 8H9 Count. D &( D 4o 0y #randfather layed his AorodEinski. Ae had a "eard in the style of -ran= ,osef. 1all, stron#, +ith "road shoulders, a #ood a etite. -or several 0onths, in a"out 191%, an artisan had co0e to live in 0y #randfatherGs house to 0ake hi0 his retty little carria#e, his $ryc@#a @+ith t+o +heelsC. 3 still re0e0"er 0y #randfather drivin# us in autu0n "efore the holidays of Iosh Aashanah and /o0 <i ur, to a "ranch of the 4an. Ae rented that "ranch of the river for fishin#. We +ent "y "oat fro0 the other side and held lon# lines. We +ent out fishin# at four in the 0ornin#. We +ould fill cases, "arrels full of fish, ut the0 in the "ryc=ka, and then #o to sell the0 in to+n, in Io=+ado+, so0e si2 0iles

a+ay. 6n the eve of the ,e+ish holidays, +e al+ays did a #ood "usiness. We also "rou#ht fish "ack ho0e for #rand0other to fry on the stove. 4he "readed the0 +ith flour and then salted the0, and +e filled "arrels +ith the0. 1hey used the0 in the inn and +e ate the0 in the +inter? it +as #ood to crunch the0. 4o, #randfather layed a "it of the count? he i0itated hi0. 3n his "uildin#, at ho0e, he had set u one roo0 like a kind of syna#o#ue. 1hat is, he "ou#ht a 1orah8)9 7that +as e2 ensive7+ith a little closet. 1here +ere a fe+ ,e+s in the area, easants like hi0, in the little villa#es around the castle. *nd on 4aturday, since there +as no syna#o#ue in the little villa#es and since you need ten 0en to say rayers, they ca0e fro0 all the villa#es to ray in #randfatherGs house. Ae +as the host. *fter rayers, he offered everyone a #lass of vodka. 1hereGs the character. Ieli#iously s eakin#, he +asnGt very +ell versed in 1al0ud. But for the holidays, he also layed the Aasid, he had his tsaddi#, a so0e+hat 0iraculous ra""i. * "i# court +ith a lot of eo le. *nd, since he layed the count, he "rou#ht a lot of 0oney. When he ca0e, they #reeted hi0: .Ie""e AerschelR. and they sat hi0 on the ri#ht of the tsaddik, he had the rivile#e of receivin# the first iece of 0eat +hen the tsaddik distri"uted it, and he +as very roud of that. Ae ro"a"ly +ent there for the holiday of 4ukkot "ecause, for 8)9 1his e2 ression already a ears very seculari=ed, for the traditional for0ula +as: .had a 1orah inscri"ed.. D &$ D Iosh Aashanah and /o0 <i ur, 3 think he stayed ho0e. But 3 kno+ that it 0ust have "een e2 ensive. 4ince he had a lot of dau#hters, +hen there +as a #irl to 0arry off, #rand0other ca0e to ask 0y father @her son5in5la+C, +ho had influence over hi0, to find a +ay to kee hi0 fro0 #oin# to the tsaddik that year "ecause they had to have enou#h for their dau#hterGs do+ryR ;y #randfather had a lot of res ect for 0y father "ecause 0y father +as a learned 0an? he #ave hi0 a #ift of an edition of the Ba"ylonian 1al0ud in at least t+enty volu0es, "ound in leather. Here is another vision o3 the shtetl, 3leetin! $ut da@@lin!. Isaac (. was $orn in Oiev at the end o3 the last century. He spent his early childhood in the $i! city, which he le3t in 78>M, at the a!e o3 seven, a3ter the po!rom o3 Oishinev, to hide with his mother in the villa!e where his !randparents lived. *t the ti0e of the o#ro0, 0y father #ot the idea of sendin# us to his shtetl. Ae sent 0y 0other, the children, all +e could carry? +e 0ade the tri "y "oat on the Onie r, to B. 8 . . .9 1he villa#e +as divided into t+o co0 letely distinct arts, se arated "y a little river. 6n one side +ere the ,e+s and on the other, the #oys? on one side the syna#o#ue all "lack, on the other a church all +hite. 1o #o fro0 one art to the other, there +as a foot"rid#e. But no"ody @at least not the childrenC ever crossed the foot"rid#e. 3n the shtetl, it +as ,e+ish life ar e2cellence. 3n <iev, even in the ,e+ish schools, you learned Iussian. 3n the shtetl, you s oke only /iddish and everythin# +as ,e+ish: lan#ua#e, clothes, custo0s, +ay of life. /ou reco#ni=ed a ,e+ a hundred feet a+ay, +ith his "lack hat, his lon# frock coat, usually "lack, all "uttoned u . 3n the shtetl, it +as a total ,e+ish life, +ith 4ha""at and the holidays, a ,e+ish life as it +as conceived at that ti0e, in that lace, "ut total. /ou couldnGt "e anythin# else. 3t +asnGt thinka"le. When there +as a holiday, there +as a holiday all over. * fast, every"ody fasted. 3t +as the <in#do0 of >od, in its +ay.

D &H D 1he shtetlach lasted for centuries and centuries "y reservin# a s irit. 3n a different for0, 3 find that s irit inside 0e, attenuated, "ut very dee . 1hose shtetlach +ere se arate little kin#do0s, +hich had esta"lished a s iritual er0anence in the 0idst of recariousness. 1hey +ere so 0any little ,erusale0s. :very one of those shtetlach +as a little ,erusale0. An the contrary, the tale o3 Beor!es 5. <$orn in 787C= lin!ers on the desolation, the archaic aspects, and the poverty o3 the Jewish town. &he town is S#ar@ys#o, $etween /adom and Oielce* 3tGs a villa#e that +as truly ri0itive. *t the a#e of si2 or seven, 3 sa+ that they +alked like it +as still t+o hundred years a#o. No+, +ith hindsi#ht, 3 see that it really +as a ri0itive state. 1hey +alked "arefoot. 1here +erenGt any side+alks, nor a aved road in the 0iddle. Naturally, there +asnGt 0uch traffic 8lau!hs 9. /ou +ere al0ost 0i2ed u +ith the ani0als. 3t +asnGt or#ani=ed, thatGs ho+ it +as, sava#e. 3 al+ays +ent "arefoot in su00er. Ourin# the +ar of G1H, +hen the Iussians chased the >er0ans, they ut tree trunks across the aths to "e a"le to 0ove their vehicles. 1hatGs +hat allo+ed us to cross fro0 one house to another avoidin# the 0ud. *fter+ard, it i0 roved. 1hey "eca0e a+are that life isnGt e2actly like that, and they started to ut in side+alks, roads. When 3 +as little, there +as real overty. 1he ,e+s +ere the trades0en. /ou lived on nothin#. 1his one sold a les he "ou#ht fro0 the easants? that one sold otatoes. ;y 0other sold oultry. 4he used to #et t+o or three chickens to sell to eo le +ho +ere a little "etter off. 1hatGs ho+ she +as a"le to feed her children. We lived in a house "uilt of lo#s. 1here +erenGt any roof tiles, nothin# at all? the roof +as also 0ade of +ooden "oards. We didnGt have electricity either. 3t did e2ist in the villa#e a little farther a+ay, "ut +e didnGt #et it until 3 +as si2teen or ei#hteen years old. Until then, 3 didnGt see a li#ht? +e al+ays used kerosene la0 s, like in the old days. 3t +as still archaic, a little ri0itive. 1here +ere +ells. We +ent to #et +ater +ith "uckets. D &) D

The it)
&he shtetl wasn)t the only place where the Jews o3 eastern ,urope 3elt at home amon! themselves. Statistically spea#in!, in (oland $etween the wars the Jewish minority represented 7> percent o3 the population <:.; million out o3 :; million inha$itants, accordin! to the statistics o3 78:7=. However, its distri$ution was !eo!raphically im$alanced. third o3 the population in cities li#e +arsaw <:C;,>>> out o3 7,7?7,>>>=, %od@ <;>;,>>> out o3 9>M,>>>=, %vov <88, >>> out o3 :7;,>>>=, or %u$lin <:K,>>> out o3 77;,>>>= was Jewish.8K9In those areas o3 heavy concentration, the Jewish community, despite its extreme diversity, imposed its structure and rhythm on daily li3e. +hile the city did not include a !hetto in the narrow 1uridical sense o3 the term, the Jews !enerally lived in nei!h$orhoods where, as in the shtetl, they were amon! themselves. 5ollowin! a su!!estive 3ormula o3 one o3 our in3ormers* 2&here was no wall6 the wall was only spiritual.2 Ane could spend years, even a whole li3etime, without venturin! into non-Jewish nei!h$orhoods, without mixin! with 2the others2 <except throu!h the concier!e or, in the rarer case o3 well-o33 3amilies, throu!h servants=. &hus, the num$er o3 Jews, the relative homo!eneity, and the we$ o3 relations result, in the memory o3 the city as in the shtetl, in the same ima!e o3 completeness, o3 a world that was totally Jewish. HlNne H., $orn in 78>9 in 4ialysto#, descendant o3 a line o3 3amous ra$$is, emphasi@es the contrast $etween the two parts o3 the city. t the $e!innin! o3 the century, the city num$ered M;,>>> inha$itants, ;K,>>> o3 them Jews <i.e., 99 percent=*8&9the (olish quarter stretched over vast spaces, residential and empty, where one never dared to !o6 whereas commercial activities, movement, and $ustle were

concentrated in the central Jewish streets, teemin! with li3e. 8K9 Pa+el <or=ec, Jui3s en (olo!ne* %a question 1uive pendent l)entre-deux-!uerres 8,e+s in Poland: 1he ,e+ish Muestion Bet+een the Wars9 @Paris: Presses de la -ondation Nationale des 4ciences Politi'ues, 19B%C, 1KH? %a Situation des Jui3s dans le monde 81he 4ituation of the ,e+s in the World9, u"lished "y the World ,e+ish Con#ress, Vol. 3, Part 1 @Paris, 19$BC, (%BJ(1&. 8&9 &he 4ialysto#er Memorial 4oo#, ed. 1he Bialystoker Center @Ne+ /ork: 19B(C, H. 1he fi#ures 0entioned "y ALlVne A. re resent those of the 19$%s. D &K D 3 +as "orn in Bialystok, one of the "i##est cities of Poland. 1he ,e+s +ere t+o5thirds of the o ulation? seventy thousand ,e+s out of a hundred thousand inha"itants. 1here +as a 0ain street, Linden 4treet, +hich +ent fro0 the station to the s acious 'uarter do+n "elo+, +here there +as a u"lic ark. *l0ost in the 0iddle, the street +idened, you kno+, like in Craco+. 1here +as a kind of s'uare +ith a little clock. 6n every side you had er endicular streets and +e lived there, a street that +asnGt very +ide @hardly +ider than Iue de 1ol"iacC, "ut very co00ercial. *ll the trade +as concentrated in the 0ain art, and it +as all ,e+ish trade. /ou could #o in and s eak /iddish in all the sho s? that +as co0 letely nor0al. 3 donGt re0e0"er seein# any Polish sho s there @e2ce t later on, +hen 3 returned for vacation in the G(%s and G$%sC. 1hen, a little farther on, the 0ain street +as cut "y a street that +as a little +ider, 0ore residential and less co00ercial. 1here +ere "i##er, 0ay"e richer houses. ;y #randfather @the ra""iC lived on that 0ore s acious street. 1here, that +as the ,e+ish city, all that. Beyond, in the e2tension of Linden 4treet, if you like, you ca0e to a 0ore s acious nei#h"orhood, +here there +as the u"lic ark, the ad0inistration "uildin#s, the state hi#h school, and 0ay"e the theater. 1hat +as the Christian art. *nd +e ractically never +ent there. We lived in the 0ain art of the city, the ,e+ish art. 3 tell you, the Christian art, that +asnGt our city. 8 . . .9 1hat +asnGt e2actly Poland, it +as the art of Poland that +as Iussian5Lithuanian. 3 really didnGt kno+ anythin# a"out the Polish e2ce t that +e had a 0aid na0ed Foche, +ho +as Polish. 1hatGs all. -or 0e, the Poles +ere the 0aid. No"ody in our house s oke Polish until the G(%s. .But in the Polish art of the cityU. 3 donGt kno+ +hat +as there. We never +ent thereR Here is the description o3 a house in Oalis@, a city o3 a$out sixty thousand inha$itants, almost hal3 o3 whom were Jews.8B9%a@are M.)s 8B9 &he Oalish 4oo#, ed. 3. ;. Lask @1el *viv: 1he 4ocieties of -or0er Iesidents of <alish and the Vicinity in 3srael and the U.4.*., 19KBC, 1%. D && D memories revive 3rom inside <3rom attic to cellar= the nei!h$orly, 3riendly, and 3amily relations amon! those who lived there. 1he ,e+ish 'uarter +asnGt a co0 ulsory #hetto. 1here +as no +all? the +all +as only s iritual. :very"ody s oke /iddish, even the concier#es. 3n the ,e+ish streets, in the ,e+ish nei#h"orhoods, it +as rare to find a non5,e+ish resident or tenant, e2ce t for the concier#es. /ou needed a non5,e+ish

concier#e for 4aturdays, to li#ht the la0 or, in +inter, for the fire. Ae +ould co0e on 4undays, and you #ave hi0 ten !roschen and a iece of challah .899 3t +as art of his salary. Because the concier#e +as even oorer than the oorest ones in the "uildin#. 3 re0e0"er, 3 can tell you, every"ody +ho lived in our house. 3t +as like this. 1here +as a +ooden #ate and then a courtyard and the house. With 0ost of the houses in the oor nei#h"orhoods, you entered, and there +as the courtyard and then the house. 1here +ere also houses that fronted onto the street, +ith another house in "ack. 3n the "i# cities, in Warsa+, there +ere three or four courtyards, and then you ca0e out into another street. 6ur house had three stories, and +ith the cellar and the #round floor, that 0akes five floors of d+ellin#s. 1here +ere three a art0ents er floor on four stories. 6ne a art0ent of t+o roo0s and kitchen and t+o a art0ents of one roo0 and kitchen, the kitchen +ithout a +indo+, +ithout li#ht, and the roo0 "ein# the e2tension of the kitchen, t+enty5five s'uare 0eters in all. Under#round, letGs say the cellar, "ecause the +indo+s +ere a"ove, at #round level, thatGs ho+ it +as. 6n the left, in the a art0ent +ith t+o roo0s and kitchen, lived a shoe0aker. 3 still see hi0, +ith his one son and si2 dau#hters. 1he son +as the oldest. 6n the ri#ht, in the a art0ent +ith one roo0 and kitchen, it +as your #rand0other, ;ada0e W., +ith five or si2 children, 3 donGt re0e0"er. /our #randfather +asnGt there any0ore. 1he children +ere still little, three "oys and t+o #irls, 3 think. 1he oldest sons didnGt live there any0ore and your 899 Braided e## "read eaten on the 4a""ath and holidays. D &B D #rand0other +orked 0akin# shirts. *ll that in a roo0 fifteen "y fifteen feet lar#e, as in our house. Ne2t to the W.Gs +as so0eone +ho racticed a trade that doesnGt e2ist any0ore, +ith ans: a tins0ith. 4o, that +as on the "otto0. 6n the #round floor, that is, on the 0e==anine, there +as so0e"ody +ho had a sho , a little sho . * ha"erdasher, a +orker +ho 0ade hats, +ith t+o dau#hters. Ae +orked at ho0e for a "oss. *nd another one +as a eddler. * eddler, that doesnGt 0ean like here? there, they s read it out on the #round, on a iece of cloth, or they "rou#ht t+o or three chairs and ut the 0erchandise on a chair. Ae did "usiness in the little to+ns around <alis=. Ae used to leave at 0idni#ht +ith a cart and horse to 0ake his rounds. 6n the first floor, 0y uncle +as the one +ho lived in the t+o roo0s and kitchen. Ae +as a melamed, you kno+, a teacher? one roo0 in his a art0ent +as for his heder.81%9 We lived ne2t door, in one roo0, 0y father, 0y 0other, and three children, that is, 0y "rother, 0y sister, and 0e. ;y father +as a lace +orker? itGs the local industry of <alis=. ;ost of the 0anufacturers and +orkers in lace +ere ,e+s. 1hey sold it every+here, in all of Iussia, even in 4i"eria. Ne2t door to us, in the other roo0 and kitchen, lived the Oia0ents. 6ne of the children +as 0y friend. Ais older "rother +as a #reat hero in the Warsa+ >hetto: *"raha0 Oia0ent. Ae had "een a nonco00issioned officer in the Polish ar0y in 19(%, a ser#eant or, rather, a cor oral "ecause they called hi0 .the cor oral.. *nd since he kne+ ho+ to handle +ea ons, he had a rifle in the #hetto. Who had +ea ons in the #hettoU /ou kno+ it +asnGt every"ody +ho had the0. *nd he fell +ith a rifle in his hand, he fell fro0 a roof of a "urnin# house. 3 +rote an article a"out hi0, itGs called Bestalten, .-aces of the >hetto.? it hasnGt "een u"lished yet. Ae lived ri#ht ne2t door to 0e. Ais father +orked in the city 0ill, at ni#ht, a ni#ht +atch0an? thatGs not a ,e+ish trade. *nd his 0other +as a teacher. 4he tau#ht #irls to read and +rite, /iddish and Polish7 "ecause the #irls didnGt #o to heder. 4he tau#ht t+o or three #irls, every day another class, all that in 81%9 1raditional ,e+ish ele0entary school.

D &9 D the one roo0. 1he roo0 +as s0aller than this one and not so li#ht. 1here +as no "athroo0 either, Eust a #ar"a#e can and the kitchen +ithout a +indo+. 6n the second floor, ohR 6n the second floor, the t+o a art0ents of one roo0 and kitchen +ere Eoined into one. 3t +asnGt actually an a art0ent. 3Gll tell you in Ae"re+: it is called ha#nasat orhim ?8119 it +as to take in the oor to slee . * ni#htGs shelter. 3 kno+ it +ell "ecause 3 +ent there often. *t one ti0e, it +as 0y father +ho took care of it. 3t +as an association, 0ay"e the ,e+ish co00unity, that aid 0y father a little so0ethin# to o en it at ni#ht. /ou had to re#ister in a "ook "ecause the olice checked. 1he oor ca0e there to slee . 3t +as dirty, "ecause +ho +as it +ho ca0eU Be##ars, ,e+ish "e##ars, schnorrers R But not the "e##ars of <alis=. Because "e##in# is a trade, not Eust a trade, a caste. 1he ones +ho ca0e +ere the "e##ars +ho 0ade the rounds fro0 one city to another, fro0 one villa#e to another. LetGs say, one ni#ht, so0e"ody co0es that ni#ht and after+ard he does t+enty or thirty villa#es "efore he co0es "ack to <alis=. 1hat +as in G(%, G((. 3 +as ten, t+elve years old. 3 +as already so0e+hat a+are of these thin#s. 3 re0e0"er sayin#: .Pa a, youGll see, ne2t +eek, so5and5so +ill co0e.. *nd, in the city every"ody had his o+n do0ain7it +as like the side+alk here in Paris. 6ne erson didnGt have the ri#ht to tres ass on so0e"ody elseGs side+alk. :very"ody had his o+n hundred yards, t+o hundred yards. Like the +hores here. /ou see "e##ars here too. But the tra0 s of Paris are rich co0 ared to the0R Because really, +hat did you #ive the0U *nd the schnorrers, there +ere a lot of the0 in Poland. 1hey didnGt all #o fro0 city to city. 4o0e had their o+n lace7in front of the syna#o#ue, say, like in front of a church. 1hose laces +ere the "est ones. 1heyGd sit in front of the syna#o#ue, not on 4aturday, not on holidays, "ut all +eek lon#: .Bit a !roshen, !it a !roshen, . #ive a ennyR But letGs #o "ack to the house. We +ere on the second floor, and the shelter +as the t+o a art0ents. Ne2t door lived so0e"ody +ho +as already old, already retired. Ae had a dau#hter, 8119 .Welco0in# #uests,. shelter. D B% D and +hen she #ot 0arried, she lived there +ith the son5in5la+, in the t+o roo0s and kitchen. 1he son5 in5la+ +as a roofer, a trade that +as 'uite co00on a0on# the ,e+s. No+ the third floor. 1here +as only one a art0ent. 6n the other side +as the attic for dryin# clothes. 1he tenants of the house follo+ed a schedule? so0eti0es they ar#ued. *nd on the other side lived so0e"ody called -ran=u=. Ae had a tiny little #rocery. 1he #rocery +as a 'uarter of his roo0. Ae +ould sell a herrin# or a liter of oil, a fe+ a les, a fe+ e##s, thatGs all. 6hR 3 re0e0"er so0ethin# that +ill interest you. 3f so0e"ody died in the house, +hen there +as a death, you had to e0 ty all the "uckets, all the +ater. /ou kno+ +hyU Because the Malhemuves,81(9 the *n#el of Oeath, +hen he co0es, he kills a 0an +ith his s+ord. *nd after+ard, he cleans it, he rinses it in the +ater of the +hole house. 4o you have to thro+ out the +ater. ;y 0other did that. 1hose are su erstitions. /ou thre+ the +ater in the sink outside, in the staircase. 3t +ent do+n to the courtyard.

"o(ert)
Childhood memories are set a!ainst a $ac#!round o3 poverty, as in the description o3 the house we

have 1ust heard. It is one o3 the su$1ects that recurs most 3requently, whether in the shtetl or in the city* hun!er, the cramped dwellin!s, $are 3eet in the snowHit all provo#es a retrospective pity that does not preclude lucid re3lection . &he episode o3 the hidden $read, told $y %a@are M., is a sort o3 memory once removed since the narrator himsel3 was not present at the scene. He reconstructs it, sixty years later, assumin! his $rother)s su$sequent con3ession. &his is an example o3 a concatenation o3 memory* the individual here acts as a relay 3or his 3amily, the spo#esman 3or the !roup, while inte!ratin! the memories o3 others into his own experience. Individual memories, thus intersectin! and reassumed, $lend to constitute a collective memory* 1he first ti0e 3 sa+ 0y "rother a#ain after 3 left Poland +as in 19)), in 3srael. Because he had "een in a concentration ca0 81(9 .Malhemuves .7Ae"re+ Mala#h ha-mavet 7the *n#el of Oeath. D B1 D and after+ard, he +ent to 3srael. 3 sa+ hi0 a#ain for the first ti0e in Ia0at >an, in 3srael. *nd he told 0e this story, he said: ./ou re0e0"er +hen you +ent to the Oia0entGs house to listen to the 0e#illah of :stherU 3 had stayed ho0e alone. 1here +as a loaf of "read? it +asnGt +hole? it +as already sliced. Without ;a0a kno+in#, +ithout any"ody kno+in#, 3 cut a iece of "read and ate it. *nd until no+, youGre the only one 3Gve ever told the story to.. 1hat #ives you an idea of ho+ +ell5off +e +ere. 3n 191&, 3 +as si2 and a half years old. ;y "rother +as "orn in G%K? he +as ten. Ao+ you ate, like that, a iece of dry "read. *nd the "read, in G1&, that +as "lack "read. 1here +as 0ore "ran than "read in it and 0ore otato, you kno+, otato starch. 3t +asnGt a "a#uette like today. *nd 3G0 tellin# you this story today for the first ti0e7to you, for the first ti0e since 0y "rother told it to 0e. -ro0 G1& to G)), thatGs thirty5ei#ht years. *fter thirty5ei#ht years, he told it to 0e, thirty5ei#ht years later. *nd 3G0 tellin# it in GB%. -ro0 G1&, thatGs si2ty5three years. 3 +as si2 years old. 3 +anted to tell that story so 0uch. &here are also memories o3 memories in Mathilde /.)s account <$orn in 5rance in 78;K=. 4e3ore !ettin! to her own story, she !oes 3ar $ac#, to a time she #new only 3rom the 3amily tradition her parents passed on to her* ;y aternal #rand arents lived in a shtetl near Lod=, in a little villa#e called >lo+no+ 8 . . .9 6ften the children didnGt have enou#h to eat, "ut 0y #rand0other could +ork +onders. -or e2a0 le, one thin# really struck 0e +hen they told 0e a"out it. 4he +ent to a street +here there +as a #uy +ith a little cart of otatoes. 4he "ou#ht otatoes fro0 hi0 and said: .3G0 #oin# to take the cart ho0e? 3Gll #et 0oney and "rin# the cart "ack to you +ith the 0oney.. 1hen she +ent to the ne2t street and sold the otatoes for a little 0ore than +hat she had aid for the0. 4he "rou#ht the cart "ack, #ave hi0 the 0oney, and ke t the difference. *nd for that she could "uy a fe+ kilos of otatoes for her children. D B( D Beor!es 5. 1here +as a very retty field, like a ark, on the "anks of the river that +ent throu#h the city. :very 4aturday, +hen the +eather +as nice, fro0 ;ay on, +e ut u little huts of "ranches and +e sle t

there. 1hat +ould free our arents of four or five children. We s ent the ni#ht and the ne2t 0ornin# +ent "ack ho0e to eat. 1hat +as overty. We ca0e to slee , to clear out the roo0 +e lived in. 6ur roo0 +as 0ay"e t+elve or thirteen 0eters? +e +ere seven children and our arents. We "uilt a house there out of lo#s, +ith trees, and thatGs ho+ +e lived, on the flattened #round. 3 re0e0"er that the house had t+o +indo+s. 1here +ere three "eds, a ca"inet, a ta"le, and chairs. 1hatGs +hat 0ade us #o outside in the 0ornin#, as soon as it +as li#ht. :very no+ and then, to clean u , the ractice +as for 0y sisters to #et +hite sand and ut it on the #round. 1hat 0akes the roo0 cleaner. 1hatGs ho+ +e lived. Pieces of "read +ere rationed? children couldnGt Eust eat +hatever they +anted. 1he easants +e kne+ "efore @"efore the arrival of the +ea ons factoryC hel ed us. 3 re0e0"er 3 had to #o #et 0ilk in a Eu#, in +inter, +ith a "rother +ho +as t+o years older than 0e. 1hen +e sold the 0ilk to ,e+s +ho +anted to "uy it. WeGd "rin# it to their house. 6nce 3 ha ened to sli in the sno+ and s ill the Eu# of 0ilk? so 0y "rother said: .WeGll add +ater? no"ody +ill notice.. 1hey did notice, "ut +e said that the co+ +asnGt as #ood as "efore for #ivin# ure 0ilk. We did really ri0itive thin#s, even after civili=ation ca0e. We carried 0ilk and, every no+ and then, so0e"ody #ave us a iece of "read as ay0ent and once a +eek they #ave 0y 0other a fe+ ennies to ay for the 0ilk. 1here +ere also +ater carriers, 0en +ho carried +ater, in e2chan#e for food, +ith a device on "oth shoulders, like you see in the histories of old cities, 3 donGt kno+ if that still e2ists in -rance. We too, +e children, +e also carried +ater? thatGs ho+ +e 0ana#ed to #et the "asic necessities. *nd in our house, in front of the roo0, they "uilt a little hut for a ,e+ish 0erchant. Ae ayed us "y the 0onth, a s0all rent. Ae ut in a #rocery. * #rocery, it +asnGt like today. When you D B$ D "ou#ht a ickled herrin#, it +as "y the iece. Ci#arettes you "ou#ht one "y one. When you had a iece of "read on one side, you +ent to #et a iece of herrin#. 3t +asnGt a +hole herrin# you "ou#ht, they cut it u into 0ay"e t+enty ieces. 1hatGs ho+ you ate. /ou 0ana#ed to #et throu#h the day. *nd 0ost of the ti0e, you lived outside. /ou +ent "arefoot, even in +inter. /ou +ra ed your feet in otato sacks, thatGs ho+ you +alked. 6nce, the *0ericans arran#ed a social +elfare setu , a kitchen for the oor, for the children. 4o0eti0es 3 +ould carry 0y "rother on 0y "ack "ecause 3 had sacks on 0y feet +hile he +as "arefoot. 3 carried hi0 all the +ay do+n there to #et food. 3 +as 0ay"e seven years old. 1hatGs ho+ +e hel ed each other in the 0iddle of +inter. 1here +ere eo le +hose feet fro=e? that +as really overty. It was Beor!es 5.)s mother who supplied the needs o3 the 3amily with an inde3ati!a$le in!enuity $ecause the 3atherHa classical cultural 3eature, recalled here with some $itternessHspent his time prayin!. s 3or the children, still very youn!, they were 3orced to 3ind ways o3 helpin! the mother. ;y father could have +orked, "ut he didnGt +ant to "ecause he +as a reli#ious fanatic. We +erenGt allo+ed to touch anythin# at all on 4aturday. Ae +ent to ray every day, to study the Bi"le. 3t +asnGt so 0uch for the rayers, "ecause you say rayers three ti0es a day, in the 0ornin#, at noon, and at ni#ht. But he stayed in the house of rayer all day lon#. 3 donGt kno+ if it +as to avoid eatin# or to study reli#ion. 1here +ere a lot of 0en +ho did that. 1he syna#o#ue +as al0ost full. 3t didnGt start out as a syna#o#ue. 3t +as "uilt "y the villa#ers. Little "y little, it develo ed, and that house eventually "eca0e a real syna#o#ue. 1he oor even ca0e to s end the ni#ht and slee there. 1hose +ho +andered around on the roads had their 0eetin# lace in that house? they ca0e to tell each other stories a"out their day, and they sle t on the +ooden "enches.

3 loved 0y 0other very 0uch7she +as a really terrific +o0an. 1o "e a"le to take care of seven children, #o out in the 0ornin#, at four oGclock in the 0ornin#, +inter and su05 D BH D 0er alike, to #et thin#s. 4he +ent to #et oultry. 4he had to #o all over the countryside to find a easant +ho +anted to sell a chicken or a #oose. 4he "rou#ht it "ack and had it killed "y the shoihet ?81$9 then sheGd sell the #oose in ieces, "y 'uarters. When she left in the 0ornin#, at four, five oGclock, sheGd co0e "ack "y one, t+o oGclock in the afternoon. *nd +e fasted +hile +aitin# for her to co0e. 4he had to +alk: five 0iles for a +o0an, #oin# and co0in#, naturally that took al0ost the +hole day. 4he +ent on foot, since she didnGt have 0oney to take the train. 4he left us children to 0ana#e on our o+n. ;y father, he al0ost +asnGt interested at all? he e2 ected, Eust like us, that sheGd "e the one to "rin# ho0e the "read. 3tGs really a terri"le 0e0ory that +onGt #o a+ay even no+. Poverty, itGs the sa0e every+here, "ut in Poland it +as very co00on. -ro0 seven to t+enty5one, 3 re0e0"er the Eo"s 3 did. 3 +onder ho+ 3 could have done all that in fourteen years. 3 donGt even kno+ ho+ 3 learned to read and +rite. *ll 3 did, you canGt i0a#ine. 1here +as lots of +illin#ness, to see, to do . . . mon! other thin!s, Beor!es 5. helped porters unload merchandise. 1hose orters, +ith their +a#ons, ca0e fro0 our to+n, fro0 4kar=ysko, to <ielce or 4chidlovsk, "ecause that +as the railroad center, carryin# sacks of flour, su#ar, "eans, food. 3 +ent +ith the0, it took the +hole day, to #o and co0e "ack. 1he orter +as +ell aid, and 0e, +hat did 3 earnU *l0ost nothin#. 1here +ere three of the0, those orters in the villa#e, +ho +ent fro0 one villa#e to another +ith their +a#on. 6nce, the 0erchant ca0e to see one of those horse o+ners and said to hi0: .Listen, on 1uesday, thereGs a 0arket in Vorot=k, you have to co0e. WeGll #o to the 0arket, +eGll s end the day, and then +eGll co0e "ack. 3Gll ay you.. .3 really +ant to, "ut you have to #ive 0e the 0oney in advance to feed 0y horses and #et the0 ready.. Aorses +ere usually fed hay, "ut +hen you +anted the0 to do an es ecially "i# Eo", you had to #ive the0 oats, stra+. 1hat 81$9 Iitual slau#hterer. D B) D 0eant ayin# in advance. *nd the ne2t 0ornin#, there +as a terri"le stor0, they couldnGt leave. 1he 0erchant co0es to see the orter: .>ive 0e "ack the 0oney, since 3 #ave you a de osit.. .Aere, 3G0 #oin# to sho+ you +hat 3 did +ith your 0oney.. *nd he takes hi0 +here the horses +ere? it +asnGt even a sta"le: .Pick u the dro .*re you cra=yU. in#s, you see, thatGs your 0oney thereR.

.What do you +ant fro0 0eU 3 #ot 0y horses ready7they ate. 3f it rains, itGs not 0y faultR Ao+ +ould you like 0e to #ive "ack the 0oneyR. 4o he #ave hi0 the "i##est horse dro in#s. *nd thatGs the +ay it ha ened. &hat horse droppin!, proposed as payment 3or a de$t, seems to stir up a repertoire o3 1o#es <3rom a 3ol#lore perhaps more peasant than Jewish=. 4ut it is remar#a$le that Beor!es 5. insists on the authenticity o3 the anecdote, and that he piles up a wealth o3 details which ma#e the episode unique and real. Here the individualHwith unquestioned sincerityHta#es the collective memory 3or his own and inscri$es it in his personal memory.

!55renticeshi5
3ter these early activities, recalled in a 1o#in! tone <these were mere child)s play=, one soon went on to serious thin!s* in these lar!e, poor 3amilies, children started wor#in! very youn!, 3rom the a!e o3 twelve or thirteen. 5or Beor!es 5., memories o3 apprenticeship $lend with those o3 his passa!e to adulthood* as he learned his trade as a tailor, he also learned the harshness o3 exploitative relationships. * day of 0y a renticeshi in the sho : it 0eant co0in# in at five, si2 oGclock in the 0ornin# in +inter. 1hen 0akin# the fire. 1hat +as the first thin#. ;akin# the fire, "rin#in# coal, it +asnGt all that easy to carry the coal. 3t 0eant "rin#in# forty5four ounds on 0y "ack fro0 the coal0an. We used coal for the fire. We used a cookstove, like they used to have here at one ti0e. 1hen you had D BK D to heat the ressin# iron. 1hat +as the first thin#. 1he irons +erenGt the sa0e ones 3 have here either. 1he iron +as 0ade of iron. /ou ut it in the fire, on hard coal. Not charcoal. Charcoal ca0e later, that +as already an advance. We heated u the iron on the coal? you oked inside +ith a sharei@en .81H9 1he iron +ei#hed a"out ten or t+elve ounds. When the +orkers ca0e and started settin# u , 3 had to take the irons out of the fire to ut the0 "y the "i# ta"le. 1hey +erenGt anythin# like the irons +e used after the +ar. Later, the iron +as a +ood iron, heated "y charcoal. 1he +ork +as even harder +hen they invented that "usiness. /ou had to #o outside and s+in# it +ith your hand like that 8!esture 9 so the coal +ould 0ove to the front of the iron. 1here +ere three 0en and t+o +o0en +ho +orked in the sho . *s for the #irls7one of the0 assed a+ay in Paris? the other one +as de orted. 1hey used to talk a"out all sorts of thin#s, #ossi . 1his one told ho+ he +ent out +ith a #irl? that one told a"out his +orries7thin#s 3 didnGt kno+, coarse thin#s. 3t shocked 0e terri"ly. 1hen, after+ard, at noon, +e didnGt 0ake a hot lunch. :very"ody +ent out to "uy "read and sausa#e, and then +e +ent "ack to +ork. 3t +as very hard on an a rentice. ,ust learnin# to do the +ork, to learn to hold the needle on the thi0"le, that took at least three 0onths. /es, "ecause that fin#er had to "e "ent like that 8!esture 9. Because 0en, they se+ +ith a thi0"le that doesnGt have a "otto0, they donGt rick like that, "ut here. 4o, to have that fin#er "ent ri#ht, you tied it do+n and you sle t that +ay so the fin#er stayed "ent the ri#ht +ay and you could hold the needle to #o throu#h there. Bendin# the fin#ers that +ay +as hard. *nd +hen 3 took the irons out of the fire for the #uys +ho +ere #oin# to iron, that +as a very i0 ortant

thin#. 3t +as a "i# deal to iron a iece? it took all day. When the iece +as ironed, the +orker sho+ed it to the "oss and he said: .4ee, that #ar0ent is alive? 3 ut 0y soul in it.. 1he +orker +ho had a iece to iron, you "etter not talk 81H9 * oker. D B& D to hi0R 4o 0uch so that 3 once #ot s0acked "ecause the iron +asnGt hot enou#h +hen 3 took it out of the oven. 3t +as a real scandal. 1he #uy +ho s0acked 0e, he lives in Paris no+. We see each other every no+ and then. AeGs a little older than 0e, 0ay"e ten years older. *nd +hen the iron +as too hot, it "urned. Ae sho+ed the iece to the "oss. 1he "oss +ould say: .3tGs not +orked enou#h.. *nd he +ould e2 lain ho+ it should "e done: ./ou have to ut your vest on the ironR. .our vest 0eant ut your chest on the iron, lean on the iron, to 0ake it even heavier than the ten ounds. * +orker could +ork on the sa0e fe+ inches for an hour ushin# the iron like that. *nd the day +ent on like that till ni#ht. 4o0eti0es you sle t in the sho , es ecially the 0en. 3f there +as a #ar0ent that had to "e finished for the ne2t day, you had no choice. 1hatGs ho+ it +as: you sle t on the "i# ta"le a fe+ hours, and then you +ent "ack to +ork. *l0ost all the +ork +as done "y hand. 1here +as a 0achine, "ut, for a #ar0ent that took thirty5si2 hours, it +as used 0ay"e three hours, not even that, to 0ake the "i# sea0s. *ll the rest +as done "y hand? thatGs +hy it took so lon#. But a #ar0ent, it +asnGt like no+: +hen you 0ade one, it lasted fro0 0arria#e to #randchildren. 1here +as even a ti0e +hen you turned it inside out? +e also did that in the Li"eration.81)9 When you turned it inside out, itGs the a rentice +ho had to undo it and take out all that dust that had iled u : you ca0e out of that +ith your hands "lack as a coal 0iner. *nd that all ha ened in one roo0. 1he "oss had a roo0, and the "ossGs +ife had a roo0 on the side. Because, in #eneral, at that ti0e the "ossGs +ife +asnGt in the "usiness. /ou +ould see her +hen she "rou#ht her hus"and so0ethin# to eat. But she +asnGt really involved +ith the "usiness. When you took on a thin#, you did it fro0 "e#innin# to end. No"ody s eciali=ed, e2ce t for one finisher +ho did the detail +ork. 1he +orker +as aid "y the iece? +hen he took on a iece, he had to finish it. 1hatGs ho+ the +ork +ent. Ourin# 81)9 3n -rance after World War 33. D BB D the +eek, you 0ade . . . 6f course, you canGt co0 are +ith no+. Aere, 0y +ife and 3, to#ether, ho+ 0any did +e 0akeU 1hree ti0es si2, ei#hteen to t+enty ieces a +eek. But "ack +hen 3 +as an a rentice, a +orker, a #ood +orker, if he did t+o ieces a +eek, he +as already so0e"ody, a fine +orker. No+ itGs not the sa0e at all. *t the ti0e +e used the iron +ith the charcoal, that oisoned the sho "ecause, in +inter, the doors and +indo+s +ere closed, and it #ave off a to2ic #as. 6ne ti0e, +hile re arin# the irons for the others, 3 "eca0e sick, oisoned, and 3 assed out. 1he "oss and his +ife ca0e. 1hey +ere scared? 3 had assed out on the floor. 3t +as +inter and they took 0e out on the sno+. 3t +as the only +ay to 0ake 0e co0e to, to lay 0e do+n in the sno+. 1hat +asnGt the first such accident. /ou kne+ that +hen so0e"ody +as oisoned "y charcoal, you had to #et hi0 out to the sno+.

3 ca0e to, returned to the sho , and +ent "ack to +ork. 8 . . .9 When 3 left, +hen 3 left ho0e, 0y 0other cried like a child. 3 +as the only one +ho rovided so0e relief to her overty. 1he other children also +orked, "ut they didnGt earn as 0uch as 3 did. ;ay"e 3 +as 0ore res onsi"le than the others: everythin# 3 earned 3 #ave to the fa0ily.

Jewish In&enuit)
&he social conditions o3 the Jews o3 central and eastern ,urope were actually more diverse than the precedin! ima!es or scenes would su!!est. I3 most o3 them did indeed $elon! to the lower and poorer classes, some came 3rom an educated or economic elite. +ere they privile!ed peopleE Fot always. &hey proudly recall that some ancestor or some relative owed his success only to his intelli!ence, his inventiveness, and his hard wor#. Memories o3 poverty 3ind their counterpoint in praise o3 Jewish in!enuity. %ouise M. <$orn at the turn o3 this century=* ;y #randfather +as fro0 another re#ion of 4ilesia. Ae had the idea, the al0ost a"surd idea, of startin# u a factory there. 1here +asnGt anythin#7no coal, no +ater7there +as very little D B9 D +ater. 1here +as only one thin# in that re#ion, ra e, a lot of ra e, that yello+ lant +ith a ca tivatin# s0ell. Ae had this idea "ecause they +ere already e2 ortin# it? that is, 0erchants fro0 other re#ions +ere "uyin# it to e2tract the oil fro0 it. 1hen they sold the oil "ecause it +as the only 0eans of li#htin#. 4o, he said to hi0self: Why not e2tract the oil on the s otU Ae +as very youn#? he didnGt have any 0oney. Ae looked and looked and it +as very hard "ecause you needed a stea0 en#ine, a "i# 0achine. Naturally, there +as no such thin#, "ut he, +ith all his ideas, said to hi0self: Certainly, in other arts of >er0any, you still find 0achines for scra that arenGt very 0odern and that donGt +ork very +ell, "ut that do the Eo" all the sa0e. *nd he found e2actly that in a for0er 0onastery, and there he set u that factory, +ith that old 0achine. 3 even have a hoto of that 0achine7itGs 'uite so0ethin#7+ith 0y father and 0y #randfather ne2t to it.

.a55iness> Nostal&ia
2In spite o3 poverty, we were happy.2 Is this 1ust retrospective illusionE It is certainly a sense o3 happiness, however, that dwells in the heart o3 memory. &he 3ullness experienced durin! childhood has at least three dimensions* 3amiliarity with nature, solidarity with mem$ers <near and 3ar= o3 the Jewish community, and especially the warmth o3 the 3amily nucleus. &his environment, composed o3 concentric circles, 3ormed a totality in which individuals, as they remem$er it, were harmoniously inte!rated. &his is how Beor!es 5., the apprentice tailor who descri$ed himsel3 as a #ind o3 2street urchin2 o3 the shtetl, sees the 1oys o3 his childhood, as rural scenes un3old $e3ore his eyes. 1hatGs 0y youth. 3 donGt kno+ if children no+ are ha ier than +e +ere then. We +ere ha y all the sa0e. 3t really +as so0ethin#. 3n +inter, +e +ere cold, "ut +e had fun. What +ere our toysU We could have fun +ith anythin#: on the sno+ +ith +ooden "oards, that +as one of the leasures. :s ecially the thin#s +e 0ade ourselves. We 0ade shoes out of otato sacks, D 9% D

"ut +e +ere ha y. *nd sleds, skates: a iece of iron +ire and you 0ade a skate and you learned. 1hatGs ho+ +e had fun. 3t +as really . . . 3 think +e +ere ha ier. 3 donGt +ant to Eud#e? 0ay"e itGs "ecause 3 didnGt kno+ anythin# else. 3t +as nice? it +as nature. 1here +as the river. 3n the su00er, you learned ho+ to s+i0. We lived like sava#es, outside, and it +as #ood. We ate +hat +e could. 6ur arents #ave us ieces of "read and "utter to #o to the "each, and +e shared 7there +asnGt any selfishness. We rotected the other children, +atched over the0. We "anded to#ether? thatGs ho+ +e 0ana#ed to survive, to feed ourselves. 1hatGs ho+ +e lived, s endin# +hole days in the fields, on the 0oors @the lon#e C. &his solidarity $etween !roups o3 children extends to all mem$ers o3 the Jewish community and is accompanied $y the simple happiness o3 $ein! to!ether. (eople ta#e pleasure, 3or example, in recallin! the !atherin!s o3 men, women, and children who assem$led in the house o3 prayer to listen to the storytellers who went 3rom villa!e to villa!e. &he pleasure o3 the tales and the conviviality it sustained are certainly not speci3ically Jewish, $ut, in his narrative, Beor!es 5. emphasi@es the role o3 oral transmission and his concern 3or preservin! a livin! memory* 6ral trans0ission is really so0ethin# terrific. 3 +as talkin# +ith so0e friends the other day: .Ao+ can you re0e0"er all thatU. 3n 0y o inion, +hat is trans0itted "y s eech is as solid as "y +ritin#. /ou sa+ the trans0ission fro0 arents and #rand arents to children. *ll you have to do is ress a certain s ot, a "utton, and eo le start talkin# to you. 3 could s end t+enty5four hours tellin# you stories that have re0ained en#raved on 0y 0e0ory and that co0e "ack. 6f course, in a "ook, +hen youGre readin#, you can #o "ack. 6ral trans0ission +ill disa ear +ith 0y #eneration. ;y children, of course, learned "y readin#, not "y listenin# to stories. We +ere in contact +ith the erson +ho told the stories, +e sat there, +e listened to hi0. When the #uy ca0e, they called hi0 a $al)-darshan .81K9 3t +as so0ethin# terrific. Ae stayed for 81K9 1eller of "i"lical stories. D 91 D t+enty5four hours talkin# to us. We #ot to#ether in the shil .81&9 AeGd co0e on -riday a"out noon and stay for 4aturday. Ae talked to hand do+n certain thin#s, Bi"le stories, Iachel, ,ose h? he told stories fro0 his o+n life too. :very"ody +as there to listen to hi0. 6n -riday ni#ht, theyGd invite hi0 for dinner. 1he richest fa0ily or so0e"ody +ho +anted to hear hi0 so0e 0ore +ould take hi0 ho0e. AeGd invite hi0 +ithout tellin# his +ife, and sheGd "e so sur rised she +ouldnGt +ant to #ive hi0 anythin# to eat. 4heGd cut a little iece of "read for hi0 +ith a little "it of sou . AeGd "e hun#ry +hen he ca0e "ack to slee on the "ench of the house of rayer. 1he ne2t day, heGd start tellin# a#ain, after noon, "ecause, until noon there +ere rayers. When it +as a fa0ous storyteller, the shil +as full. 1here +asnGt any roo0 to co0e near. :very"ody ca0e: children, adults, 0en and +o0en se arately. 4o0e eo le ca0e to learn and follo+ed his stories in the holy "ooks, like so0e"ody +ho kno+s a iece of o era and +ho follo+s the score. 3t +as all the Eoy and life that returned. 3t +as a satisfaction like +e have no+ +hen +e see a lay +e like a lot. -or half a day you listen and for#et all of lifeGs +oes. 1hat lasted fro0 -riday noon to 4aturday ni#ht. 1hen he left a#ain. AeGd 0ake a tour of the villa#es. *ll +eek lon#, heGd +alk. 3t +as only on 4aturday that he could #ather such a cro+d. Ae fed hi0self ho+ever he could? so0eti0es they "arely #ave hi0 enou#h to survive. But he didnGt #et discoura#ed. Ae +ent on all the sa0e, to trans0it +hat he had to say. *ll +eek lon# he +as on the road, and on 4aturday he started a#ain . . .

t the center o3 all childhood happiness is that which one has lived with one)s parents. ,ven more than in the shtetl or in the Jewish quarter, it was within the 3amily that one 3elt at home, sheltered 3rom surroundin! hostility. &he 3amily circle !enerally meant 3ather, mother, $rothers and sisters, sometimes an aunt or an uncle. Memory here rarely !oes $eyond !randparents. It is this early re3u!e o3 peace and a33ection that appears in memory as the ideal o3 all 1oy. &he rest o3 li3e will preserve a lon!in! 3or it. %ater on, in the course o3 returns, encounters, 81&9 4hul, syna#o#ue. D 9( D or dreams, the trace o3 paradise lost looms, stirrin! up the most intense emotion* one has a sense o3 3indin! onesel3 a!ain. Beor!es 5. But to tell the truth, #oin# "ack fifty years, it +asnGt as "ad as all that. /ou see, 3 still have nostal#ia for 0y villa#e, it +as #ood. 8 . . .9 1hat villa#e, 0y 0e0ories co0e "ack to 0e no+. 3 0iss it so0eho+, even thou#h 3 live in -rance. 3tGs an a0a=in# thin#. 3 canGt e2 lain ho+ a hu0an "ein#, after fifty years, can feel such nostal#ia: to see that villa#e a#ain, in s ite of all the hardshi he had #one throu#h there. 3 tell you, 3 0iss it7even thou#h 3Gve "een in -rance for so lon# already73 0iss that courtyard, that life. What cookin# do you love "estU /our 0otherGs. 3n s ite of the overty, +e 0ana#ed to live. 3 ate dry "read all +eek. 3 +as solid as a 1urk. 6f the seven children, no one had a sickness. No vaccinations a#ainst s0all o2, di htheria, nothin#. We lived like ani0als, "ut +e +ere sturdy. 3 see 0y #randson, at eleven? you ush hi0 +ith a "ree=e and he falls over. ;e, at seven, 3 +as dra##in# "ulls and co+s that could have carried 0e off like a fly, "ut 3 "roke the0. 3 +as very sturdy. Martha 5. : *ll in all, in s ite of the overty, you have "etter 0e0ories than 0e, childhood 0e0ories. Beor!es 5. : Because you, you didnGt #ro+ u in that environ0ent. What +as your e2 erienceU Martha 5. : 3 +as in Paris. Beor!es 5. : 3n ParisR 1hat +as so0ethin# else alto#ether. /ou didnGt kno+ . . . Martha 5. : 3 had a different for0 of overty. /ou had a ha y overtyR Beor!es 5. : * ha y overtyR ;e, 3 Eust had overtyR 8%au!hs, then explains 9 3 had a ha y overty "ecause +e lived to#ether. But you had a lonely overty, +ithout any fa0ily. We, in our overty, +ere surrounded "y every"ody7cousins, aunts, o+5 D 9$ D erful thin#s. 3 had an aunt. *t the ti0e she +as, 3 donGt kno+, she +as "orn "efore the t+entieth century. 4he +as a 0id+ife? she delivered all the children in the ,e+ish villa#e. 4he never kne+ +hat it +as to read and +rite. *nd she used to tell us stories? +eGd #ather in that courtyard. We for#ot overty, +e had other Eoys. *nd the cousin +ho took a tour of :uro e7he also ca0e to tell stories. 3t took your 0ind off eatin#. *nd others ca0e to tell us. 1here +as really a fa0ily life in that courtyard that Eust doesnGt e2ist any0ore. 1he fa0ily cell is "roken. 3tGs over. 1hat story is over. Martha 5. : /ou donGt have any hotos of your 0other . . .

Beor!es 5. : 3 had a +hole suitcase of hotos, and the >er0ans took the0 a+ay, on Iue du Che0in5 Vert. 1he only hoto 3 had on 0e, of 0y father, that re0ained. 6ther+ise, they took everythin# fro0 0e. 1hey e0 tied the a art0ent. /es, there +as a +hole suitcase of hotosR What +ould you see on those hotosU /ouGd see old eo le, like in that "ook.81B9 1hey all look alike, like t+o dro s of +ater. 3t +as only the soul that chan#ed, the +ay they #ave the0selves to the children, the +ay they took care of the house. 6ther+ise, the eo le didnGt chan#e. /ou can look at your #rand0other and a erson +hoGs in there7itGs al0ost the sa0e.

Traditions
In the city, as in the shtetl, to live with your own meant to respect those norms theoretically accepted $y all the mem$ers o3 the Jewish community. &here were certainly dissonant voices <as we shall see in the next chapter=, $ut they could not escape the constraints o3 the ever-present tradition. &his tradition was composed o3 various elements <lan!ua!e, dietary rules, coo#in!, reli!ious practices and $elie3s= that coalesced in Jewish memory as a speci3ic and coherent whole. It is there where collective identity san# its roots. ,ven amon! those whose 3amilies were hardly devout and who called themselves atheists, nos81B9 &he Ald Country* &he %ost +orld o3 ,uropean Jews, ed. *"raha0 4hul0an, reface "y 3saac Bashevis 4in#er @Ne+ /ork: Charles 4cri"nerGs 4ons, 19&HC. D 9H D tal#ia for the lost +orld included a reli#ious di0ension. :ither they evoke 4ha""at @often "lended +ith the i0a#e of ha iness +ithin the fa0ily circleC or cele"rations of 0aEor holidays, +hich +ere inscri"ed in the lar#er ,e+ish environ0ent. nna -. <o3 %od@, $orn around 787K=* 6n 4ha""es, no"ody +orked. *ll the sho s +ere closed. 6n 1hursday 0ornin#, you "ou#ht +hat you needed to re are "y -riday afternoon. 1hen you lit the candles. /ou ate a #ood 0eal, on 4aturday too. 4o as not to cook on 4aturday, to kee for a lon# ti0e, you 0ade cholent .8199 3t had 0eat +ith #rated otatoes and you left it +ith the "aker until 4aturday noon +hen eo le +ould #o to ick it u . /ou canGt i0a#ine ho+ #ood that +as. 1here +as also stuffed fish. 1hat +as very #ood, "elieve 0e, it +as "etter than here. No+, after the +ar, all thatGs over. 1he 0eat +as "etter than here, like all the food. /ou canGt i0a#ine the "readR 1here +erenGt "a#uettes? "read ca0e "y the kilo. Cholent, #efilte fish,8(%9 ste+s, strudels. . . . Aere they donGt kno+ anythin# at all. 3t +as very #ood, every"ody +as ha y7until the +ar, that is. .aco$-Jacques, %. <$orn at the end o3 the nineteenth century in a shtetl in the area o3 %u$lin=* 6n 4ha""es even the oor did so0ethin# s ecial. 1hey didnGt have 0oney to "uy "i# fish so they "ou#ht little fish. 1hey ate a "it of a s0all chicken, sou +ith noodles, +ith "eans. Aave you ever eaten itU 6n -riday ni#ht eo le +ent all out. 1heyGd s+ee the house, ut a clean cloth on the ta"le7and the rolls, the challah, +ith little cloths. ;y 0other 0ade the challah herself. *nd she lit candles "efore 0y father +ent to shil. Charles H.* 3 re0e0"er the at0os here that revailed in a syna#o#ue on /o0 <i ur. 3t +as so0ethin# e2traordinary, that at0os here.

8199 * ste+ of 0eat or oultry, otatoes or dried "eans, cooked on a slo+ fire fro0 -riday afternoon on and served as the 0ain 0eal on 4aturday. 8(%9 4tuffed car . D 9) D 3 donGt kno+, 3Gve never #one to a syna#o#ue for the holidays in -rance73 should do it "efore 3 die7 "ut 3 did #o in the United 4tates. 3 +ent +ith 0y "rother5in5la+ to a syna#o#ue, in Brid#e ort, +here thereGs a "i# ,e+ish co00unity. Well, ersonally, 3 +as retty shocked "ecause the at0os here Eust +asnGt there. -irst the s0ell, the s0ell of a hundred candles lit since the ni#ht "efore @after+ard, you 0ustnGt li#ht the0C. 1hey are candles like in church, "i# candles that last a lon# ti0e, 0ore than t+enty5four hours. :very fa0ily "rin#s at least one, or even several, that they li#ht "ecause itGs also in art in 0e0ory of the dead. 1hen, that s0ell all evenin#, all ni#ht. ;ore than that, to #et throu#h the fast, they "reathed s0ellin# salts so as not to "e sick. *t ho0e, +e had a real tallit of linen, +ith "lack stri es. *nd, on /o0 <i ur, the adults, the heads of fa0ilies, all +ore a #ittel over their clothes, a kind of +hite cloth tunic, as a si#n of 0ournin#, enitence. 1hatGs the clothin# of the dead? theyGre "uried nude in that shroud. Back then, in that little to+n, the ,e+s +ere "uried nude in a shroud. 1hatGs the shroud they +ore on /o0 <i ur. 4o, i0a#ine that +hite color, +ith the tallit s read over their head. 1he rayers +ere chanted "y a ha@an8(19 and re eated aloud "y everyone, all day lon# in that fashion. Beor!es 5.* *t Pesah, the father +as the kin# and the 0other +as the 'ueen. 1o re are that holiday, once a year, they cleaned the house "y takin# everythin# out to the courtyard: the ca"inets, the "eds, the chairs. :verythin# +as taken out and cleaned so there +ouldnGt "e even a trace of the food fro0 the year. 3t +as all rene+ed. We +aited for that holiday like for the ;essiah. 1he children +aited for that holiday like for the ;essiah "ecause they took out everythin#, they cleaned, they s+e t. 1hey even took out the 0attress to chan#e the stra+. Bread +as for"idden, so +hatever "read they collected they "urned in the courtyard. *ll the nei#h"ors to#ether lit a fire and "urned it. 8(19 Cantor. D 9K D 1hen everyone set u for Passover. Believe 0e, it +as a fantastic holiday. Peo le "ou#ht food for ei#ht days7unleavened "read, otatoes, e##s. 1here +ere t+o sets of dishes. /ou kno+, that "read, the unleavened "read, could only "e 0ade "y ,e+s. 1hey 0ade it in a s ecial oven, ei#ht days in advance, and re ared it "y hand, nothin# "ut +ater and flour, no salt, nothin#. No+ they 0anufacture it in factories and it co0es in s'uares. Before, "ack ho0e, they 0ade it round. 1hen there +as a 0o0ent of rayer +ith a #lass of +ine. 1hat +ine +as 0ade +ith dry #ra es a year in advance7every year7and it +as used for the ne2t year. 3t +asnGt only the ei#ht days: all year you +orked for that holiday. 1hey 0ade #oose fat in advance too, in the +inter, and since Passover co0es in s rin#, they re ared those thin#s for the holiday si2 0onths in advance. Martha 5. : Where did your 0other #et 0oney for all thatU Beor!es 5.*

1here +as a fund. We all had to "uy food for ei#ht days thou#h not every"ody could 0ana#e. 4o they 0ade a fund. 1he rich hel ed the oor, es ecially for unleavened "read. 3t +as distri"uted al0ost free. 6n that holiday every"ody +as e'ual? eo le +ere on the sa0e level. 1he richest and the oorest +ere on the sa0e level. 1he rich 0an couldnGt eat anythin# different fro0 the oor 0an. ;ay"e he ate 0ore 0eat, 0ore unleavened "read. But it +as the sa0e, he didnGt eat anythin# different. *nd then, on the ni#ht of the 4eder, at ho0e, that rayer, it +as terrific. 1here +ere five of us left at ho0e, father, 0other, the five children around the ta"le. 1he ta"le +as set +ith unleavened "read, the ieces of unleavened "read +ere ut on to of one another, se arated "y a clean na kin so they +ouldnGt touch each other. 1here +as horseradish, hard5"oiled e##s. 1he 4eder "e#an at a"out ei#ht oGclock at ni#ht and lasted until one in the 0ornin#. -ather said the rayer, he told the +hole history of the e2odus fro0 :#y t, and the youn#est child asked nine 'uestions: +hy do +e eat unleavened "read, +hy do +e eat nine kinds of ra+ ve#eta"les, "itter her"s. /ou had to D 9& D taste nine kinds of food that ni#ht, nine, al+ays that uneven nu0"er: +hy, 3 donGt kno+. *t one articular 0o0ent in the rayer, father icked u a iece of unleavened "read. Ae #ave it to the children and 0other to taste, he took so0e hi0self, and they ate around the ta"le. 1he iece in the 0iddle stayed all year, until the ne2t year. 1hen, there +as a 0o0ent of rayer for +hich the #lass of +ine +as re ared. 3t +as reserved for the ;essiah. 3 donGt kno+ if it +as the ;essiah. 1hey called it ,le Fuve .8((9,le Fuve, itGs not really the ;essiah, itGs a chosen soul, 3 donGt kno+ e2actly, a chosen soul fro0 the fa0ily, +ho ca0e to taste the +ine at the ta"le. 4o that +as the 0ost sole0n 0o0ent, the 0ost a+eso0e 0o0ent of the ni#ht. -ather +ould #et u . :very"ody stood u , and they o ened the door and "e#an the rayer to 0ake that soul enter, that holy soul that ca0e do+n fro0 heaven to taste +ine +ith us. 3t +as really the 0ost a+eso0e 0o0ent, +e tre0"led +ith fear. 1hen, 3 donGt kno+ ho+ itGs done, +e looked at the +ine and the +ine 0oved. 3tGs un"elieva"le. ;y father re0arked: ./ou see that so0e"ody ca0e to drinkR. 1hatGs ho+ it ha ened. 3tGs an unfor#etta"le 0e0ory. 3Gve "een to 4eders in Paris, "ut they +ere i0itations. What ha ened in 0y youth, 3 +as si2, seven years old, it +asnGt that at all. In recallin! the episode o3 the wine that moved, Beor!es 5. has almost relived in the present the emotion he 3elt on those Seder ni!hts. 4ut at the same time, he distances it $y in1ectin! it with humor, which modi3ies the tone o3 the tale. &he scene he !oes on to descri$e is 3ound in the memories o3 others and seems to $elon! <li#e the history o3 the horse droppin!s a$ove= to a certain 3ol#loric and rather irreverent traditionI Here, too, individual memory wor#s as a relay o3 the collective memory. 6ne day7it +as +hen 3 +as #ro+n u 73 re0e0"er that so0e"ody layed a trick on the nei#h"ors. *s soon as they 8((9 ,liyahu Hanavi, the Pro het :liEah. *ccordin# to ,e+ish tradition, the co0in# of the ;essiah is announced "y the return of the Pro het :liEah? this is +hy one a+aits the latter on Passover. D 9B D o ened the door to let that holy soul co0e in, so0e"ody ushed a #oat into the house. 1hey +ere terri"ly scared. 3t +as 'uite a scandal. 5rom irreverent humor, one !radually slips into the critical spirit. Gntil he was eleven, Maurice F. lived in a small town near +arsaw. His 3ather went 3rom $ein! a 3ervent Hasid to a 2total atheist2* his

adherence to Communism even contri$uted to convincin! him to emi!rate. Maurice F. received a traditional education in (oland, $ut the memories he has preserved o3 it are inevita$ly in3lected $y his 3ather)s su$sequent development and $y his own convictions. Fevertheless, he levels his criticism with a $it o3 a smile6 his anecdote sounds li#e a #ind o3 para$le. Prohi"itions7there +ere a lot of the0. 1hatGs all there +as. /ou didnGt have the ri#ht to eat this, you didnGt have the ri#ht to #o here, you didnGt have the ri#ht. . . . 1here +ere a lot of thin#s. . . . /ou 0ustnGt do that "ecause a ,e+ish "oy doesnGt do that. -or e2a0 le, runnin#, you 0ustnGt run? skatin#, you 0ustnGt skate. /ou 0ustnGt do s ort. /ou have to #o to heder. /ou 0ustnGt do the sa0e thin# as the #oys. Prohi"itions, fro0 all sides. 3 re0e0"er, +hen 3 +as little, one day, 3 +as 0ay"e five, si2 years old. 3 +as at 0y uncleGs house. 3t +as cherry season and 3 +ent outside +ith a handful of cherries. 1here +as a little #irl +ho +anted 0y cherries and 3 didnGt +ant to #ive the0 to her. 4o she Eu0 ed u to catch the cherries. *nd this little #irl +as a #oy. 3 thre+ a+ay every cherry she touched, "ecause it +asnGt kosher any0ore. 1hatGs ho+ she ate u all 0y cherries.

!55aritions> Miracles
&he world o3 !hosts, dy$$u#s,8 ($9devils, o3 visions, apparitions, miraclesHthat world ma!ni3ied in Isaac 4ashevis Sin!er $y the ma!ic o3 writin!Hdoes exist in memory. ,arlier, in the description o3 the house, we noted the theme o3 the n!el o3 -eath, who passes throu!h and washes his sword in the water #ept in the containers $elon!in! to the 8($9 Oy""uk: an evil s irit that enters into a livin# erson. D 99 D house. &hat supernatural universe appears in snatches, in certain detours o3 the tale, surprisin! the narrator himsel3, who then $rea#s o33 his recollection with a smile. Sometimes he tal#s spontaneously o3 2superstitions2 and proposes his own, thorou!hly rational interpretation. -y$$u#s, !hostsE .es, those are the stories he was told. He even witnessed them, $ut he certainly doesn)t $elieve in them. nd yet, he recalls with a mixture o3 unease and a33ection that his parents and his !randparents did $elieve in them* a received memory that he $oth repeats and 3rom which he distances himsel3. +e are not surprised to 3ind a certain 3ol#loric vein in1ected into Beor!es 5.)s personal story. 3n the sho , +e +orked at ni#ht, as 3 told you. 6nce, you kno+, the fello+s +ere Eokin#, and so0e"ody said: .Aey, 3G0 #oin# to #o to the ce0etery and, to rove it to you, 3Gll lant a stick thereR. 1he ,e+ish ce0etery +as outside the to+n and +e +ere scared. . . . : crossin# the ce0etery at ni#ht +as so0ethin# uni0a#ina"le. When 3 ca0e to Paris, 3 lived ri#ht ne2t door to PVre5Lachaise, on Iue Pierre5Bayle, "ut 3 +ouldnGt have drea0t of #oin# to the +indo+ and lookin# at the to0"s of the dead . . . 4o he says to us: .3G0 #oin# to #o to the ce0etery at 0idni#ht, youGll seeR. 3t +as an idiotic "et, "ut he +ent Eust the sa0e. 1hey #ave hi0 a stick, and he said: .3G0 #oin# to ut it on such and such a #rave, and to0orro+ you can #o see if itGs true.. 4o he +ent. *nd since +e +ore lon# clothes7you kno+ the lon# coats the ,e+s +ear, he had a lon# coat like that, +hich #ot stuck +ith that stick? it +ent across it. *nd +hen he +anted to leave he felt so0ethin# holdin# hi0 "ack. 1he ne2t day, he +as found dead. 3tGs terri"le, "ut thatGs +hat ha ened. 1hey +ent to see the ne2t day "ecause they +ere +orried, "ut they didnGt dare #o there at one oGclock in the 0ornin#. *nd they found hi0 dead. Ae died of fear . . . 8 . . .9

3 re0e0"er the ra""i +ho ca0e, the 0ost illustrious ra""i +ho used to co0e to us, for a stay. Because they also +ent fro0 one villa#e to another, to su ervise +hat +as #oin# on, ho+ ,udais0 +as develo in#. Ae ca0e and the ,e+s ca0e to tell D 1%% D hi0. /ou had to "rin# hi0 resents, food. -or e2a0 le, +hen he s ent a 4aturday in a villa#e, all the rich ,e+s "rou#ht hi0 food. 1hey ca0e to tell hi0, theyGd co0e to say: .3 have three dau#hters, 3 +ant to 0arry the0 off, #ive us advice.. 4o heGd say to those eo le: .>o "ack ho0e, youGre #oin# to see, youGre #oin# to 0arry off such and such a dau#hter this year, there +ill "e a 0iracle,. and all that. 4o0eti0es it did ha en. But ious ,e+s "elieved. .aco$-Jacques %.* 4o hereGs the 0iracle. ;y father 0et his father, +ho +as +alkin# do+n the road. 1hey 0et at the crossin#. 1he ni#ht "efore, 0y #randfather had "een called to sell so0e rin#s or so0ethin#. 4o, +hen he found 0y father on the +ay, he said to hi0: .;ichael, +here are you #oin#U. .Oo+n to the villa#e, to N., to fi2 +atches.. .1hatGs Eust +here 3G0 #oin#? itGs not +orth it for you to #o.. .6f course, if youGre #oin# there, 3 +onGt #o.. ;y father returned ho0e. ;y #randfather +as a+ay? he didnGt return. 1hat +ent on for ei#ht days, ten days, he +asnGt there. *nd all of a sudden, they "rin# hi0 "ack7dead, killed. Ae +as killed on the road. *nd 0y 0other says to 0e: ./ou see +hat that 0eans. >od didnGt +ant your father to die.. But 3 thou#ht other+ise. 1hey +ouldnGt have killed 0y father "ecause he didnGt have anythin# on hi0. 1hey killed 0y #randfather "ecause he +as carryin# a lot of Ee+els, very valua"le ones. But if 0y father had #one there, they +ouldnGt have killed hi0. 3 didnGt dare tell 0y 0other that. 4he "elieved, fine. Listen, there +as another 0iracle. 1hey +ere re arin# for the funeral and sent eo le to the ce0etery to di# a #rave. 3t +as +inter, and the #round +as so fro=en that they couldnGt di#. 1hey +orked for t+o hours, three hours, they Eust couldnGt do it. 3t +as already noon on -riday. What +ere they #oin# to doU /ou see the ro"le0U What +ere they #oin# to doU :very"ody +as cryin#. D 1%1 D 1hen, all of a sudden, they sa+ a soldier ri#ht ne2t to the0, and this soldier asks: .What are you doin# thereU. ;y father and his "rother e2 lained +hat +as ha enin#. .>ive 0e the thin# for di##in#.. Ae took the shovel and, in five 0inutes, the #rave +as done. 1hen they "uried 0y #randfather. *fter+ard, 0y father said to 0e: .3 +anted to thank the soldier or to ay hi0. When 3 looked, 3 didnGt find hi0? he +asnGt there

any0ore.. -or the0, +hat +as thatU * 0iracle. But 3G0 #oin# to tell you +hat it +as. 3t +as a soldier on leave assin# "y +ho sa+ eo le cryin#. 3 donGt kno+ +hat7he +as a easant +ho kne+ ho+ to di# a #rave. 3 didnGt tell 0y 0other that, "ut thatGs ho+ 3 understood it, seeU 1he0, they al+ays lived +ith 0iracles. *l+ays 0iracles, they "elieved in the0.

Yiddish<eit
/iddishland has disappeared6 /iddishkeit remains. &he term cannot $e reduced simply to lin!uistic or reli!ious elements* it includes much $roader connotations, indicatin! an entire way o3 li3e $ased on a mix o3 rules, customs, $ehaviors, tastes, and $onds o3 solidarity. It encompasses as well a totality in which individuals 3ind not only a place $ut also meanin!, to the extent that they preserve its indeli$le imprint in the most private part o3 their $ein!. ,ven in those who admit their indi33erence to reli!ion and proclaim their hostility to ra$$inic teachin!, there survives an attachment, sometimes unconscious, to values they themselves de3ine as 2Jewish.2 &he reli!ious tradition is transposed onto the secular world and hence3orth seen ma!ni3ied as moral law. &hese ever-present values in3orm thou!ht, sensi$ility, all o3 li3e. lon!time 23ellow traveler2 o3 the Communist party, /o$ert S. <$orn in 78>?=, contrasts the education he received at home, within the 3amily, with the lavish instruction in school, in this case, a (olish school. 3ter immi!ratin! to 5rance in the late 78;>s, he mastered the 5rench lan!ua!e, than#s to strenuous e33orts, and achieved a certain D 1%( D social success, o3 which he is proud. 4ut 3i3ty years later, he still resorts to .iddish to express his deepest 3eelin!s. 1his ,e+ish culture +as #iven to 0e "y 0y father. Ae handed do+n to 0e +hat he had received fro0 the tradition. When 3 co0 are +hat 3 learned at ho0e and +hat 3 learned in the Polish school @a"out either Polish or >er0an or 4candinavian or so0e other literatureC, 3G0 all confused. WhyU No+here do 3 find anythin# that corres onds to +hat 3 learned at ho0e, to +hat the ,e+ish tradition tau#ht 0e. * ri0arily ,e+ish education is the sense of solidarity and that love of livin# in a fa0ily5ty e co00unity. .iddish#eit 73 kno+ 3 +as there, 0y +hole life7all the everyday thin#s +ere 0ade of it. 1he other culture 3 received, Polish culture, +as in addition? -rench culture too. What 0akes 0e a ,e+ is +hat e2ists inside 0e. 3 feel it. 3 feel it every ti0e 3 have to 0ake a decision. When 3 ca0e to -rance, in 19(B, 3 s oke Polish and 3 sou#ht the +ords 3 needed to e2 ress 0yself in -rench? 3 translated into -rench. No+, after 0ore than fifty years, 3 still live in -rance and itGs the other +ay around: 3 think in -rench and 3 translate into another lan#ua#e if 3 have to. Basically, +hen 3 +ant to say so0ethin# closest to +hat 3 feel, the only +ord 3 can find that fits is the /iddish +ord. D 1%$ D

B; .a55) .olida)s> Famil) Feuds

+hile the Jews o3 ,urope re!ularly recall reli!ious rituals even when they are not $elievers, they do

not willin!ly report those ma1or rites o3 passa!e that may have mar#ed their own lives or those o3 their close 3riends and relatives. +as this perhaps modest silenceE Ar rather a si!n o3 the erosion o3 rituals, the seculari@ation o3 ha$its that has turned marria!e or $irth into ordinary eventsE mon! the Jews o3 the Mediterranean $asin, more anchored in a traditional society where values and !estures were handed down 3rom !eneration to !eneration, those moments have preserved a stron! !low in memory. &he arrival o3 the 3irst son, the $ar mit@vah, marria!e all occupy a lar!e place in memories.

C! Ver) Nice Lo(e Stor)C

Marria!e, as reported $y women, is the drama most especially rich in emotions, 3ears, and expectations. Sometimes they tell a$out it with lau!hter, li#e Beor!ette ., who, in spite o3 her calculations, 3ound that she had her period on the day o3 the ceremony and so could not consummate her marria!e. Sometimes it is with heavy heart $ecause one has su$mitted to a 3orced marria!e, had hoped 3or a $etter o33er, or at least a nice weddin!. Happy or not, marria!e always merits a story. Sometimes it is a love story, the idyllHin the literary senseHo3 an encounter, o3 trials one must 3ace, o3 happiness that comes in 3ul3illment o3 the hopes one had nurtured. Mathilde 4., $orn in 4i@erte in 7K8;, sees her whole li3e as 2a very nice love story.2 D 1%H D 3 0ust +rite 0y 0e0oirs "ecause 3 have a very nice love story. 3t sho+s ho+ 0any disa oint0ents eo le "ear, ho+ 0uch atience they have +hen they love each other. 3tGs very "eautiful and thatGs 0y life. 3t all rests on that. Ae +as a 0arvelous 0an. Ao+ #ood that 0an +asR *nd handso0e7+hat "eautyR Ae +as very handso0e, "lond. *nd he really 0ust have had erseverance, "ecause 3 0et hi0 +hen 3 +as fifteen and 3 couldnGt #et 0arried until 3 +as t+enty5sevenR 6ur arents didnGt +ant to let us, they didnGt +ant to. Because +hen 3 ca0e into the +orld. . . . -irst, let 0e tell you: our 0others are sisters, +eGre first cousins. :u#Lnie is 0y 0otherGs sister. ;y 0otherGs na0e +as Clara, and 0y aunt +as called :u#Lnie. 4o, +hen the oldest son +as "orn, they intended hi0 for the future dau#hter the other sister +ould have. 1he future dau#hter +as 0e. 1hey intended us for one another, the +ay they used to do. *s for us, +e +ere children. We didnGt understand anythin#. Ae lived in BLEX, and 3 lived in Bi=erte. We didnGt kno+ each other at all. *nd once, they sent the oldest one to us there, the one they intended for 0e, 4ansonnet. *nd he +as ha y: .1hatGs 0y +ife, thatGs 0y +ife, thatGs 0y +ife.. *s for 0e, 3 didnGt like that at all. 3 didnGt reali=e the si#nificance of the thin#. 1hen he left? +e didnGt 0eet any0ore. *nd >aston, +ho "eca0e 0y hus"and, 3 had not yet 0et hi0. Because you didnGt travel like no+adays. 3t +as a "i# deal to co0e fro0 BLEX to Bi=erte, a "i# e2cursion. :ven 0ore so since 0y 0other5in5la+ had had a lot of children and didnGt 0ove around easily. 4o one fine day, around Passover, they decided to take 0e to their house in BLEX. *nd +ho +as to acco0 any 0eU >aston, +ho +as studyin# in 1unis. Ae +as at the LycLe Carnot in 1unis and heGs the one +ho +as to take 0e to BLEX. By the +ay, *unt 3rVne told hi0: .>aston, ay attention, youGre #oin# to take ;athilde, you kno+ that sheGs retty. Careful not to fall in love +ith herR. 4he sensed it all, ehR 3 0yself didnGt kno+ anythin# a"out it. Ae ca0e? 3 didnGt kno+ hi0. .6h,. 3 say, .0y >od, ho+ handso0e you areR. 8%au!hter 9 .Ao+ handso0e you are, +hat a retty "londR. >ray suit, ele#ant, 0a#nificent. 4ince 3 +as very direct, 3 said everythin# 3 thou#ht, you kno+. *nd 3 +ent on: ./ou are a handso0e #uyR. We had a #ood ti0e D 1%) D

in a cousinly fashion. 3t Eust ha ened. We 0ade the tri to#ether. *nd +hen +e #ot do+n there and they started sayin# .1his is 4ansonnetGs +ife, this is 4ansonnetGs +ife,. >aston, oor "oy, he thou#ht 3 +as his fiancLe. Ae had fallen in love +ith 0e and started cryin# and carryin# on. 4ince he +as still very youn#, he had "eco0e surly. 1he t+o of the0 fou#ht over 0e. 3 0yself didnGt understand anythin# at all. *nd one fine day, the fa0ily +as "ehavin# in an odd 0anner. WhatGs #oin# onU ;y >od, 0y >od, 3 felt like a stran#er in that +orld "ecause 3 had never "een to their house. *nd +hat +as it all a"outU 3t +as "ecause >aston, on leavin# BLEX to #o "ack to school, had sent 0e a ostcard on +hich he had +ritten: .-ro0 the one +ho #new how to love you.. But he sent it to his fatherGs house, and they didnGt tell 0e. 1he father +as "eside hi0self and the 0other too: .What, he took his "rotherGs "etrothed. 1hat canGt "e.. Poor 0e, 3 hadnGt kno+n. Later on they told 0e. *nd naturally 3 +as very hurt "y the +hole thin#. .Because you already loved hi0U. Certainly. . . . 3t +as love at first si#ht. >aston, 3 loved hi0. . . . 1hatGs nor0al +hen you see a 0an +ho kisses your hands, +ho +ee s to kiss your hand and to take a "urnin# kiss fro0 you in secret . . . es ecially +hen youGre fifteen. . . . 6h, really, itGs a nice story to tell, even thou#h 3 did suffer fro0 it. We +ere "oth fifteen? he +as t+o 0onths youn#er than 0e. 3n short, 3 +ent "ack ho0e, and 3 +as roundly scolded. .What have you doneR /ou did so0ethin# "adR. 4o 0y father5in5la+, +ho +as so +rou#ht u , said: .Well, too "ad for her, she +onGt take either one of the0. 4heGll re0ain an old 0aid like her sister.. @/es, 0y sister +asnGt yet 0arried.C 4o 0y arents had their ride +ounded. 1hey insisted that 3 0ake a rich 0arria#e. *unt Aenriette +as there +ith ;a0a, >rand0other 1aita, and all of the0. 1here +as a rich youn# 0an, and they +anted to stick 0e +ith hi0. But that +ouldnGt do at all. 3 refused. 3 +as lucky enou#h to "e a"le to refuse, "ecause, there, in those days, you didnGt 0arry the youn#er dau#hter "efore the older one. D 1%K D 1he +ar "roke out and affairs of the heart +ere so0eho+ sorted out. 4ansonnet ca0e on leave. *nd he told his arents that he +asnGt interested in 0e. Ae +as very nice a"out it. Ae said to the0: .4ince >aston is so 0uch in love +ith her, fine, let >aston have her.. *nd thatGs ho+, at the end of the +ar of G1H, +e +ere en#a#ed. 8&he weddin! was 3inally cele$rated. 9 No+, that, 3 have to tell you. 1here +e +ere, 0y +eddin# ni#ht, it +as terri"le. 1here +asnGt any +ay of havin# ersonal satisfaction. 3t hurt 0e very 0uch, and the "lood, and the ain +as e2cruciatin#. 6.<., 3 ut that do+n to . . . any+ay. But the ne2t day, +hen +e +ent to 4ousse 83or a honeymoon 9 and, like every"ody else, 3 +anted to have relations, it hurt 0e so 0uch and 3 +as "leedin# so 0uch that he had to #o #et a doctor. When +e ca0e "ack fro0 the honey0oon, no relations, nothin# at all. 3 still had ains in 0y lo+er sto0ach, itGs scary. We didnGt tell any"ody "ecause it +as sha0eful. /ou think 3Gd tell that to 0y 0other and 0y 0other5in5la+U ;y >odR -or a year, +e stayed like that. -oes Mathilde thin# o3 the story o3 Jaco$ and /achel when she tells her own tale, o3 Jaco$)s love 3or his youn!er cousin and the waitin! twice imposed $e3ore he could ta#e her as his wi3eE Fo, she hasn)t read the 4i$le and doesn)t re3er to it. For does she re3er to 4athshe$a when, recallin! the dan!ers o3 +orld +ar II, she tells how she had a scar3 $rou!ht to her dau!hter, an adolescent in the 3ull 3lower o3 her $eauty, to cover her hair, the si!ht o3 which mi!ht have stirred the passion o3 the Berman soldiers . Su@anne &. still has a pain3ul memory o3 her marria!e. 2&he $lush o3 shame2 crosses her 3ace when she tells o3 it, 3or her hus$and)s parents had 3ostered other am$itions 3or their son and had mounted a vain $ut cruel resistance to that union. Here is the story, now come to li3e and rich in details, o3 the course

o3 the weddin!. +e are in Sti3, in 78;K. ;y 0otherGs sister, the older one, lived in Constantine. 4he had nine children, si2 #irls and three "oys. Aer hus"and +as a secondhand dealer. 3n 19(&, her oldest child, LLon, ca0e to do a year of 0ilitary service in 4Ltif. Naturally, he ca0e to our house every ni#ht. 6ne ni#ht a fe+ 0onths later, 0y father D 1%& D ca0e ho0e and said to 0y 0other: .1o0orro+, 0y uncle and aunt are co0in# to ask for our dau#hter in 0arria#e to their son.. We +ere eatin# su er, and 0y cousin #ot u and said to 0y 0other: .*unt, 3 +ant to 0arry 4u=anne.. ;y father ans+ered: ./ou kno+ very +ell that your 0other +ill never +ant this 0arria#e. /ou heard her last +eek +hen she +as here. What did she sayU 1hat she had found a #irl fro0 a #ood fa0ily +ho +ill "rin# you furniture to fill an a art0ent, a trousseau, Ee+els, and fifty thousand.. 3n those days, fifty thousand +as a fortune. .4o ho+ do you e2 ect her to acce t 0y dau#hter, +ho doesnGt have either Ee+els or a trousseau or an a art0ent or 0oneyU OonGt lan on 0y dau#hter "ecause your arents +ill never a#ree.. 1he 0an +ho +as to "eco0e 0y hus"and ans+ered 0y 0other and father: .3G0 the one +hoGs #ettin# 0arried73 donGt need furniture or a trousseau.. 6n -riday, he asked for a t+enty5four5hour leave to #o to his arents. Ae infor0ed the0. 4o his father and 0other said to hi0: ./ouGll never 0arry her.. Ae told the0 he +ould #et 0arried in s ite of the0, that he +as old enou#h to decide his o+n fate. 1+o +eeks "efore the +eddin#, the dress0aker ca0e to the house to se+ the #o+ns and the housecoats. 3n those days, you didnGt #o to the dress0aker? you had her co0e to your house. 4he 0ade the +eddin# #o+n of satin and lace? and a satin #o+n for the henna ni#ht,819 a dress of ink5"ei#e #eor#ette cre e for the day after the +eddin#, a "lue dress of ;oroccan cre e, a +hite dressin# #o+n, a ink one, a yello+ one, and a "lue one. 3t +as already a cele"ration, t+o +eeks in advance. * +eek "efore the +eddin#, in s ite of everythin#, 0y 0other +ent to Constantine to see her sister and "rother5in5la+. ;a0a told the0 to co0e, that that +asnGt done. Peo le +ould talk if they didnGt co0e. Aer hus"and ans+ered: ./es, +eGll co0e.. But she didnGt +ant to hear of it. ;y 0other +ent in the 0ornin#, and she ca0e "ack at ni#ht. 6f course, +e +aited for her at the station. We had understood that they +ouldnGt co0e. 819 Henna ni#ht: a se'uence of the +eddin# ritual in +hich the "rideGs hands are s0eared +ith the reddish5oran#e dye of the leaves of the lant henna @%awsonia inermis C. D 1%B D 4ince she couldnGt 0ana#e "oth the cookin# and the +eddin#, she 8the mother 9 had arran#ed for a cook. ;y cousins and 0y aunts +ere there to 0ake the 0eals for the henna ni#ht and for the ni#ht of the +eddin#. *nd the +hole fa0ily +as there to serve the eo le at the ta"les and take care of everythin#. 1he dress0aker had finished se+in#. 4he herself +as 0y 0aid of honor. 1he +eek of the +eddin#, that is, on ;onday, they acco0 anied 0e to the "ath all "y 0yself. 6n 1uesday, it +as the day of the #irls +ho acco0 anied 0e. We +ere all dressed in "lue. 6n Wednesday, the ni#ht of the henna and the mi#vah 8ritual $ath 9, the 0arried +o0en acco0 anied 0e, "ut none of the #irls. 3t +as 0y oldest aunt +ho 0ade 0e enter the 0ikvah and +ho said the re#ular rayer. 4he 0ade 0e ut 0y head in the +ater seven ti0es, and then she hel ed 0e out. 1hey +ere dressed in ink, like 0e. 1here +ere youyous 8ululatin! 9 every+here. Ourin# the day, 0y 0other had 0ade the "read and 0eat that +ere served to every"ody. 1hen ca0e the cakes, the Ea0s, and the su#ared al0onds. @3 for#ot to say that on ;onday and 1uesday there +ere also Ea0s and su#ared al0onds.C 3n those days,

that +as the custo0. *fter the food, 0y aunt7the sa0e one7 ut a ink veil over 0y head so no 0an +ould see 0e and so 3 +ouldnGt look at the0. 3 +as all in ink? even 0y sli ers +ere ink. * +o0an on each side held 0y ar0s. Behind, there +ere 0usicians. 1he ta"les +ere set u in the courtyard, all around the house, +ith car ets in front of the entrance door. 1hey sat us do+n, 0y fiancL and 0e, ne2t to the 0usicians. 1hey ut a lot of 0attresses on the #round, a ru#, a lo+ ta"le? t+o candela"ras +ith "i# ink candles, a lar#e yello+ co er late in the 0iddle of the ta"le, a candela"ra on each side, flo+ers. 1he 0iddle of the courtyard +as e0 ty. We #ot to the house. 3t +as &:$%. 1he 0usicians +ere at their ta"le and started layin#. *ra"ic5style, of course. 1here +ere already a lot of eo le. *ll around the "alcony, the nei#h"ors and every"ody +ere cele"ratin#. 1he 0en started servin# drinks at the ta"les. We had everythin#. Later, they cleared it D 1%9 D a+ay and started servin# su er. 1hat +ent on until after eleven oGclock. 1here +ere a lot of the0 to 0ake sure the eo le had everythin# they +anted. 1hey served the0 drinks, the +o0en "rou#ht food, the 0en and the +o0en ran around to see to it that everyone +as satisfied. 1here +ere 0ore than t+o hundred eo le and the ne2t day, even 0ore. 1hey left the 0iddle of the courtyard free so there +ould "e roo0 for eo le to dance. 1he 0usicians started sin#in# the "rideGs son#. 1he older +o0an ca0e to ut henna on the al0s of 0y hands +ith a #old coin and on the soles of 0y feet, +hich +ere tied +ith a red ri""on. ;y hus"and didnGt +ant the0 to ut it on hi0. Later on, it +as the turn of the #irls, the youn# 0en, and the 0arried +o0en. 1hen they "rou#ht fruit, cakes, Ea0, and li'ueurs. 1he +o0en danced, and the 0en #ave the0 0oney to ut on the 0usiciansG late. 6ne 0an +as standin# u and shoutin#: .1+enty francs for the "ride, fifteen francs for the #roo0,. and every"ody +as sin#in# and every"ody +as dancin#. *s for the 0usicians, if they #ot a lot of 0oney, they +ere ha y, and that +as fine? if not, you #ave the0 0ore 0oney. But they collected "eyond their +ildest drea0s. 1hey ans+ered yes +hen +e asked the0 if they +ere satisfied. *t t+o oGclock in the 0ornin#, the 0usicians left and so did the eo le. 1hen, +e had to s+ee the courtyard, ick u the dirty linen and +ash the dishes, and re are to 0ake the "read for the +eddin# ni#ht. 1he o+ner of the house had lent 0y 0other a "i# roo0 and a "i# kitchen in the courtyard. 4o it +as 0uch easier. *fter that ni#ht, +e +ere very tired. Before #oin# to "ed, 0y 0other asked 0y future hus"and to stay a+hile. Ae ans+ered: .1o0orro+ sheGll "e 0y +ife, 3Gll have ti0e.. ;y father shouted: .4heGs still 0y dau#hter and 3G0 still in char#e,. and he thre+ hi0 out. 3 have to say that you ca0e of a#e at t+enty5 one and 3 +as "arely ei#hteen. &hursday mornin!, a dramatic turn o3 events* the 3ianc)s 3amily 3inally a!reed to 1oin the cele$ration. In the a3ternoon, the civil marria!e was cele$rated at city hall, and then the reli!ious weddin! in the syna!o!ue. 4oth $uildin!s were on the same street, $ut a corte!e o3 D 11% D several cars was nonetheless or!ani@ed. 5rom the syna!o!ue, they went to the photo!rapher. In the evenin!, they went $ac# to the house, where another ni!ht o3 cele$ration too# place. ;y father5in5la+ +as very ha y, he +as lau#hin#. /ou could tell he +as ha y. But his +ife 0ade a lon# face. When +e ca0e "ack to the house, the 0usicians and every"ody else ca0e to us sin#in# the

son# of the ne+ly+eds, in *ra"ic, of course. 1hey escorted us to our ta"le. 1hen the eo le sat do+n around us. 1he ni#ht started out fine, +ith every"ody ha y. 1hey started servin# drinks, and there +ere 0ore eo le than the ni#ht "efore. ;y father5in5la+ started drinkin# and thatGs nor0al, it +as his sonGs +eddin#. ;y father5in5la+ +as the nicest 0an, "ut +hen he drank, you had "etter not #et in his +ay. *nd thatGs Eust +hat his +ife did, she started #ettin# on his nerves in front of every"ody. 4he ulled his +allet out of his hands so he +ouldnGt ut any 0oney in the 0usiciansG late. Ae +anted to 0ake u for the ni#ht "efore, he adored *ra"ic 0usic. But you shouldnGt #et on his nerves, and his +ife kne+ that very +ell. Ae ke t on drinkin#, +hich didnGt hel thin#s. Ourin# this ti0e, they started servin# su er. When 0y father sa+ +hat +as ha enin#, he sat do+n on a chair. Ae didnGt "ud#e. ;y father5in5la+ ke t on drinkin#, and she ke t on insultin# hi0 in front of every"ody. 1hen he started "reakin# everythin# he found. Ae started hittin# eo le. :very"ody +as shoutin# and +as scared. 4o0e ne+ly+eds took us to our roo0 on the first floor +hile the "ra+l continued do+nstairs. 6ne 0usician #ot a s rained +rist? another one s rained his ankle? a third #ot a "lack eye. 3t +as five oGclock in the 0ornin#, you kno+. *t that 0o0ent, 0y 0other had had enou#h. 4he didnGt +ant to interfere, thinkin# it +as #oin# to cal0 do+n. But +hen she sa+ that all the #uests had "een "eaten u , she thre+ the0 out at si2 oGclock in the 0ornin#. 1hey took the train to Constantine. 3t +as -riday. Ae had the nerve to co0e u and knock on our door? he +asnGt asha0ed at all. Peo le +anted to kill hi0. 3t +as -riday. No"ody could slee , +e +ere all so sick +ith sha0e. We didnGt dare look eo le in the eye. 1he +hole fa0ily +as there, and +e had to re are for 4ha""at. D 111 D 1he ne2t day, 4aturday, 0y hus"and, acco0 anied "y 0y cousins and 0y uncles, +ent to the syna#o#ue. *fter rayers, the eo le in the syna#o#ue and the ra""i ca0e for the 4ha""at rayer. 3 had ut on the +hite #o+n a#ain. 1he 0usicians, outside, called out to kno+ if he 8the 3ather-in-law 9 +as still there. :very"ody had so0e "ruises. 6f course, youGll tell 0e they +ere 0en, that they could have su"dued hi0. But they didnGt +ant to raise a hand a#ainst 0y hus"andGs father, and everyone a#reed on that. We aid all the costs of the +eddin# "efore +e left, e2ce t for the drinks. ;y t+o cousins had a cafL, and they "ou#ht the drinks +holesale, alto#ether nine hundred francs in those days. We +anted to ay, "ut 0y cousins said: .<ee your 0oney. When you start +orkin#, youGll send it to us.. 1hatGs +hat +e did. :ven no+, +hen 3 think of 0y +eddin#, 3 "lush +ith sha0e.

Shrewd 1ar&ainin&
side 3rom romance, these narratives demonstrate that marria!e was a complex intri!ue with multiple sta#es that could produce an intense crisis. &his crisis $uilt and developed $e3ore the $etrothal, culminated and was resolved durin! the 3inal ceremonies. &he $ride and !room were not the only characters in the action. (arents intervened and so did other mem$ers o3 the 3amily, relatives, matchma#ersHa whole cast amon! whom the various roles were distri$uted. nd the whole thin! too# place under the attentive, even pryin!, eye o3 the milieu to which the couple $elon!ed. &hus, to tal# a$out one)s marria!e is to pull a myriad o3 strin!s that were #notted to!ether when it was concluded. It is to tal# o3 love and happiness $ut even more o3 the su$tle transactions that were underta#en $etween the 3amilies. Ba$riel -., Saloni#a*

;y father and 0other #ot 0arried throu#h a fa0ily connection. Ao+ did they 0eetU 3t +as throu#h a 0atri0onial a#ency, they called it a #o5"et+een. . . . 3G0 lookin# for the D 11( D other +ord. . . . AereGs the +ord in 4 anish: i@viterdi!e .8(9 1he #o5"et+een had ac'uaintances a0on# "usiness0en, +orkers7every"ody. AeGd #o to see a fa0ily: .Aere, 3Gve #ot an offer for your dau#hter.. 1he #o5"et+een 0i#ht "e a full5ti0e 0atch0aker, "ut there +ere others, +ho +ere rental a#ents +ho didnGt have a rich clientele, and sou#ht e2tra "usiness. 1hey #ot a ercenta#e, accordin# to the fa0ily they a roached. 1hen ca0e the 0atter of the do+ry. 3f the "oy had a #ood Eo", the do+ry +as hi#her "ecause, since the +ife +ouldnGt +ork any0ore and 0ay"e +asnGt even +orkin# then, the "oyGs arents de0anded a do+ry a little "it hi#her than they +ould have de0anded for a clerk or so0e"ody oorer. 1hen there +as the 0atter of the trousseau. 1hat, 3 +ould say, +as essential. 1he trousseau +as essential. 1he #irl "rou#ht a trousseau accordin# to the econo0ic status of her fa0ily, a "i# trousseau or a little trousseau. :i#ht days "efore the +eddin#, the t+o fa0ilies 0ade a arty. -a0ily and friends +ere invited to this arty "ecause the #irl had to e2hi"it the trousseau. * #irl started 0akin# her trousseau "efore she #re+ u ? once she +as 0arried, she started 0akin# the layette for the "a"y +ho +as to co0e. &ales o3 $ro#ers and their clientele, o3 the commissions they earned 3rom the deals they handled, o3 3ierce ne!otiations over dowries and trousseaus <whose value varied with the 2status2 o3 the !room= clearly show that matrimonial transactions assumed an economic dimension. &he su$1ect o3 the investment represented $y the dowry and the trousseauHthe ni!htmare parents lived throu!h when they had several dau!hters to marry o33Hrecurs as a leitmotiv in many narratives. 'iviane 4., Constantine, 78;8* 3tGs 0y 0other5in5la+ +ho ca0e to ask for 0e in 0arria#e. 4he kne+ that +e +ere of 0odest 0eans, since there +as no father. ;y 0other +orked? so did 3. 4he +asnGt de0andin#. But in those days, at the ti0e 3 #ot 0arried, certain fa0ilies de0anded do+ries. -or 0e, there +as no do+ry. But 0y 0other had already "een 0akin# a trousseau for 0e since 3 +as t+elve years old. 4o +hen 3 did #et 0arried, 3 already had a 8(9 * +ord +e cannot identify. D 11$ D retty co0 lete trousseau, and, to this day, 3Gve "ou#ht al0ost no linens, sheets. *ll the linen in the house, the silver+are, the dishes7everythin# +as e0"ellished +ith 0y initials. 3t +as su er". But she did it +ith #reat difficulty. :ver since 3 +as t+elve, she had "een collectin# all that. Manou 4. < 0n 4e0da, 78;9= su!!ests an interpretation o3 those practices and emphasi@es the chan!e in pro!ress at the time she hersel3 was married* in Constantine, in the 78M>s, the salary o3 the youn! wor#in! wi3e replaced the dowry. ;y 0other, it +as never the +o0an +ho had ro"le0s "ecause she had dau#hters. While at that ti0e, it +as a catastro he for a +o0an +ho had dau#hters, "ecause you had to have a do+ry. WhyU Because 'uite si0 ly the "oys didnGt all have 0eans do+n there. Not 0uch +ork, lots of une0 loy0ent. -irst of all, +hat could +e do do+n there, us ,e+sU * ,e+ couldnGt #et a Eo" in the ad0inistration as easily as he can today. * ,e+ +as either a tailor or a "ar"er or a shoe0aker. *nd since they +ere "i# fa0ilies, a shoe0aker +ho needed an a rentice or a +orker took his ne he+ or his son. 4o there Eust +asnGt very

0uch +ork. ;y "rothers had to "eco0e "ar"ers. But +here could you +orkU 1here +asnGt al+ays +ork. 1hatGs +hy for a "oy #ettin# 0arried, the only chance of #ettin# ahead +as to have a do+ry and, +ith that do+ry, to o en a little sho . -or those +o0en +ho had dau#hters, oor souls, it +as a catastro he "ecause they had to co0e u +ith a trousseau and a do+ry. 1hat +asnGt so in 0y case. Because 0y hus"and +anted 0e7not the trousseau and not the do+ry. Ae +as doin# +ell. Ae +as a #rain dealer . . . and 3 +as earnin# a #ood livin#. 3 +as 0akin# ei#ht thousand francs a 0onth, in GH), thatGs seven or ei#ht hundred thousand francs today 8a$out one thousand dollars in 78KC 9. &he economic sta#es were not the only ones. &here were social concerns as well. In 3act, the successive sta!es o3 a marria!e presented each o3 the two sides with a chance to evaluate its material and sym$olic resources, to display them in pu$lic to one)s 3riends and #ins3ol#* 3or the amount o3 the dowry was #nown, the trousseau was displayed, and D 11H D the scope o3 the weddin! cele$ration !ave a measure o3 one)s discretionary income. &he quality o3 the $ride)s education and her up$rin!in! would $e read in her !estures, her words, her dress, the em$roidery with which she hersel3 perhaps had trimmed her trousseau. &his !ave 3riends and relatives the opportunity to assess the capital thus displayed, $ut they were also expected to participate in the event* to contri$ute their services durin! the preparation and the course o3 the cele$ration, to $e an active presence at the various moments o3 the ritual, to o33er payments to the musicians and !i3ts to the newlyweds, etc. Marria!e thus en!endered an exhi$ition and mo$ili@ation o3 the 3amily)s economic and sym$olic capital. Su@anne &. could pride hersel3 on havin! set 2more than two hundred persons2 in motion when she !ot married, despite the resistance o3 her in-laws, who, she emphasi@es, did not contri$ute to the expenses. ,veryone aimed at maintainin! or improvin! a status, con3irmin! or acceleratin! a social clim$, and rein3orcin! a networ# o3 relations. Marria!e was thus an expression o3 these social strate!ies, and, at the same time, it allowed their e33icacy to $e !au!ed. Ane o3 the components o3 the sym$olic capital was 3amily 2honor,2 which also had to $e preserved. /emainin! sin!le 3or a lon! time $rou!ht more discredit to !irls than to $oys $ut it also a33ected the whole 3amily6 $ein! sin!le was considered a si!n o3 imper3ection, a taint perhaps, physical or otherwise. So the 3amily had to arran!e 3or its children while they were quite youn!. Ance an alliance $etween two 3amilies was concludedHindeed, until the weddin!H3amily honor could still $e 1eopardi@ed $y acts o3 impropriety on the part o3 the youn! people. 6<, +e 0et each other, "ut hey, +e +erenGt allo+ed to talk to each other. Ae 0ade that clear, *lfred, 0y uncleR 1hat 3G0 not ready to for#et7the lickin#s he #ave 0e. Ae could never7he +ouldnGt let us talk to youn# 0en. 4o +e +ould have to sneak around? +e +ent to the Petite Vitesse7thatGs a nei#h"orhood7to talk to each other a little "it. *nd youGd think it +as lanned, so0e"ody fro0 the fa0ily +ould al+ays catch 0e. 3t +as so0ethin#R *t ni#ht, it never failed, 3 #ot a lickin#. /ou kno+ +ho sa+ 0eU 3t +as Iica, 0y aunt. 6h, sheGd #o #allivantin# around all the ti0e +ith *lice. 8/eine ., 191&, D 11) D *Qn BeQda. 4he thus had to +ait ei#ht years to #et 0arried, her fiancLGs oldest sister not havin# found a hus"and.9

Famil) Order
Marria!e aimed at reproducin! the social order and, 3irst o3 all, the 3amily cell. ,ach union was to !uarantee the continuation o3 the !enerations $y the transmission, not only o3 the 3amily name $ut also o3 3irst names and, with them, the renown attached to the line, or more precisely, to two lines, since each union sealed an alliance $etween two 3amilies. &his is why in the chronicles o3 marria!es it is the parents who spea# 3irst rather than the 3uture spouses* parents 2as# 3or2 or 2!ive2 a dau!hter in marria!e6 they 2want2 and 2ta#e2 a !irl 3or their son. (arents have the 3irst word, i3 not the last, in matrimonial ne!otiations. &he desires and 3eelin!s o3 the 3uture couple are asserted only i3 they suit the arran!ements made $y the parents. nd what o3 the personal inclinations o3 the coupleE &hat was to 3ollow 3rom 2$ein! 3rom a !ood 3amily.2 4eyond the two 3amily lines, a matrimonial transaction also concerned the community, a community with 3luid outlines $ut 3or which every weddin! !uaranteed the continuity o3 Jewish li3e. Hence, that insistence on the endo!amy o3 3amily or place that recurs in so many memories. Mathilde 4. <4i@erte, 7K8;= and Su@anne &. <Sti3, 787>=8$9 $oth married 3irst cousins. M. "., $orn in Istan$ul at the turn o3 the century, had lived in (aris since his early youth6 $ut it is a 3irst cousin 3rom Istan$ul whom he married in 78;9. His contemporary, M., who came 3rom Saloni#a to (aris in 78;;, married his cousin, whom he $rou!ht 3rom Saloni#a a 3ew years later. Ida A., $orn in the same city in 78>9, married a Saloni#an Jew there6 her older sister came to (aris $e3ore her $ut she married. a 4alonikan, yes. 1hat is, a 4alonikan "ut one +ho lived in -rance, here. Ae had co0e very youn#. Ae had lost his arents, 8$9 1he case of 4u=anne 1. sho+s that endo#a0y 0ay not "e a sufficient condition for arents: althou#h she +as her hus"andGs first cousin, the latter risked losin# or at least not #ainin# anythin# in social and sy0"olic status if he 0arried a artner of 0odest 0eans. Aence, the arentsG o"stinacy in fi#htin# a#ainst that 0arria#e. 4ee . 1%K ff. D 11K D "ut his uncles +ere very rich. 1hey had hi0 "rou#ht here and raised hi0. 1hey ut hi0 in a school run "y 0onks. Ais na0e +as ;enahe0. 4he 0arried hi0. 1he other sister 0arried a 4ulla0, fro0 4alonika. 1he other one, the one +ho +as de orted, she 0arried a Nefusi, also fro0 4alonika. %ouise B., 0n 4e0da, 78;7* 3 had a youn# 0an fro0 1L"essa. Ae +as a relative of one of 0y aunts, fro0 *Qn BeQda also. Ae +as an or han too. Ae lived in 1L"essa. 1hey sent hi0 to *Qn BeQda to "e introduced. *nd itGs the truth, in that case it +orked out +ell. 3 sa+ he +as an or han? 3 +as an or han 0yself. Ae +as fro0 1L"essa? 3 +as fro0 *Qn BeQda. We +ere distantly related, not very very 0uch +ith hi07on 0y auntGs side, the +ife of 0y uncle, 0y fatherGs "rother. 4o it +as al0ost done. 3 +as at 0y *unt CLcileGs. 4he +as sick, in "ed, and 3 +as at her house. 3 #ot alon# +ith 0y *unt CLcile. 3 had re ared for 4aturday, 4ha""at, and all of a sudden, +e heard a knock at the door. 3 +ent to o en it, and there +as Uncle *., ;.Gs 0other, ;other /., and, if 3G0 not 0istaken, *untie *. 4u osedly they ca0e to see their sister. *s far as 3 +as concerned, it +as erfectly nor0al since she +as sick. ;ean+hile, he sho+ed u , that youn# 0an. Ae ca0e on 4aturday and on 4unday. *untie CLcile said to 0e: .1his afternoon, donGt "other #oin# out, youGre #oin# to stay here. /our uncle needs you.. 8&he !irl insists on !oin! out. In vain. 9 ;y Uncle *. took 0e "y the hand like a little "a"y and +alked 0e around *Qn BeQda, e2 lainin# to 0e: .1hatGs +hy +e ca0e, for your 0arria#e. We donGt +ant you to

0arry a stran#er. /ouGre the only dau#hter of our sister Baya. We donGt +ant you to #o a+ay. /ou have to stay +ith us, a0on# us. 1hereGs 0y sisterGs son. AeGs very #ood, heGs this, heGs that.. 3n short, all that nonsense. Listen, itGs not +orth it to try to understand. 1he *. fa0ily found out 3 +as #oin# to 0arry that #uy fro0 1L"essa, and they didnGt +ant it. 3 said: .Uncle, itGs not nice +hat youGre doin# no+. 3Gve #ot that youn# 0an. Ae +as +aitin# the #uardian7since heGs an or han7to co0e ask for 0e in 0arria#e. 1he youn# 0an, heGs there.. *nd uncle says, .OonGt D 11& D "other tryin# to understand. Aere +e are. We donGt +ant you to #o to 1L"essa. We donGt kno+ +hat 0i#ht ha en.. .Was it far a+ay, 1L"essaU. ;ay"e t+o and a half, three hours, thatGs all, "y car. *nd itGs nice, itGs not like the "uses fro0 here to Paris. 1hey +orked on 0e so 0uch that 3 thou#ht to 0yself: after all, they ca0e for 0e, itGs true7and 3 said yes. We +ere very 0odest. Aere in Paris 3 donGt think they +ould have done the sa0e thin#, itGs not the sa0e thin# at all. lice 4., 0n 4e0da, 787:, remained sin!le* ;y 0other +anted to kee 0e +ith her. But 3 had offers fro0 every+here, even fro0 Canada. * Canadian and an *0erican. 3Gd "e an aunt fro0 *0erica no+ or a Canadian aunt. ,e+s. When there +ere :n#lish, *0ericans, every+here, in GH(JGH$, there +ere those t+o. 6ne, +ho +as called Oaniel, the *0erican, ca0e every 4aturday. ,ust thinkR 4he didnGt #ive 0e in BYne or *l#iers and +eGre talkin# a"out her sendin# 0e to Canada or even *0ericaR In a world and at a time when these Jewish communities were on the ver!e o3 rupturin! and disappearin!, their 3rontiers were still sharply de3ended.

Reli&ion and Tradition

+hen Ba$riel -. spontaneously approached the su$1ect o3 his parents) marria!e <p. 777=, he immediately $rou!ht in the character o3 the !o-$etween. &hus he moved impercepti$ly 3rom the narrative o3 a unique adventure to the recountin! o3 the customs o3 his community. In the same way, the women o3 0n 4e0da, Constantine, and &unis ta#e care to descri$e the rules o3 the !ame with a wealth o3 details, even when they didn)t 3ollow them. So, 2I2 illustrates what is done $y 2+e,2 the community $ac# home. &his insistence on the norm no dou$t stems 3rom the importance o3 the event in their own lives. /aised 3rom childhood in the expectation o3 its reali@ation and the terror that it mi!ht not happen, marria!e 3or them was the ma1or rite de assa#e, perhaps the only one. 5or men, D 11B D $y contrast, $irth was mar#ed $y circumcision and entry into adulthood $y $ar mit@vah.8H94esides, they could show their stu33 outside the 3amily milieu, in wor#, study, or even, 3rom what we hear, in

sport, the arts, andHwhy notEHadventure. Fo such opportunities existed 3or women. So their tales o3 the weddin! and their marria!e is li#e the proo3 that they have passed the test* that)s what had to $e done, that)s what I did. t that crucial moment when they had to con3orm to tradition and there$y demonstrate their adherence to the community consensus, they 3ul3illed their role. I3 women ta#e so much pleasure in descri$in! the weddin!, it is also $ecause it lends itsel3 to a lon!, dramatic presentation, with costumes, music, and sets correspondin! to each one o3 the acts o3 the drama. 4ut as they recall the $eauty o3 that show, these women indicate a distance with re!ard to practices 3allen into disuse and now alien. +hen the li!hts o3 the party are extin!uished and the noises disappear, the impression o3 excess remainsHin the preparation o3 the trousseau, the requirement o3 the dowry, and the cost o3 the copper o$1ects necessary 3or the ritual $ath $ut useless once the marria!e is cele$rated. .es, the memory o3 the excessive constraints imposed $y the environment remains. (recisely $ecause 2that isn)t done anymore2 and 2that mi!ht not $e done anymore2 are people so !iven to protracted descriptions. +hat had to $e done constituted the tradition. In the collected narratives, it was $lended with reli!ion. Ane)s e33orts to con3orm to the norms indicated one)s respect 3or reli!ious prescriptions. (eople don)t seem to reali@e that the tradition was in 3act a tradition, a version o3 local custom, which had no dou$t chan!ed over time and was devoid o3 meanin! once it crossed the $oundaries o3 the community. Duite to the contrary, local customs are presented as havin! an authentic and universal Jewish, and hence prescriptive, value. &he descriptions o3 the whole weddin!, lavish in their detailin! o3 the social aspects o3 the cele$ration, ultimately say almost nothin! a$out those elements in 3act required $y Jewish orthodoxy. &he ketu""ah8)9is $arely indicated, i3 at all6 the kiddushin8K9is completely a$sent. Anly the ritual $ath and the $lessin! 8H9 3n the collected 0e0ories, +e do not find any 0ention of cele"rations for the "irth of a dau#hter. 1here +ere no "irthdays, no cere0onies for iercin# ears, and none 0arkin# u"erty. 8)9 ;arria#e contract. 8K9 Oelivery "y the future hus"and of a led#e acco0 anied "y a for0ula +hich "inds the #irl. D 119 D o3 the ra$$i are inscri$ed here and there in the series o3 scenes we are shown. In most cases, people don)t seem to reali@e either that the practices they descri$e $ear stron! resem$lances to those o3 Muslim 3amilies. &his assimilation o3 the Jewish reli!ion to the most narrowly locali@ed practice, already expressed in coo#in! or rituals, is 3ound here with re!ard to other social practices. mon! other memories, that o3 Beor!ette -. <&unis, 7K88=, which $e!ins with a particular episode, slips into a !eneral and prescriptive discourse and soon turns to a questionin! o3 customs that have $ecome exotic. 8Spea#in! o3 persons in her 3amily 9: Aer 0other and father +ere nei#h"ors. 3 +as si2 years old +hen her arents #ot 0arried. 3t ha ened Eust like +eddin#s in those days, eh. 1here +as +hat they call the hammam ushe#h, +here the "ride +as dressed in the local costu0e, +ith the te!uia 8headdress 9, the "olero, everythin#. *nd all the #irls +ere dressed like that. 1hen there +as an oriental concert and a "i# arty. 1hen there +as the henna. -or ha00a0 ushekh, you didnGt #o to the 1urkish "ath. 1hen, after+ard, there +as a 1urkish "ath for the #irls: the ni#ht "efore the +eddin#, the "ride +ent into the ool there, and they #ave her the t$ila 8ritual $ath 9. 1hey ut su#ared al0onds in her 0outh and t$ar#allah .8&9 1hey used to #ive those su#ared al0onds to #irls so theyGd #et 0arried fast. Oid you kno+ thatU

Here the order o3 the events is con3used6 the strin! o3 memories is $ro#en. She insists only on what seems anachronistic to her. 1he "rideGs last shirt, they #ave it to the #irl they +anted to 0arry off ne2t7the last shirt "efore #ettin# dressed to #et 0arried, on the +eddin# day. 1here +as a sho+in# of the trousseau on the last 4aturday. 4o0e"ody, a child that is, fro0 the #roo0Gs fa0ily +ent .to take. the hen fro0 the "rideGs fa0ilyGs house. 1hen, they #ave 8&9 .>od "lessR. used here ironically. 1he fact that her descri tion is addressed to so0eone +ho +as not fa0iliar +ith these ractices contri"utes to distancin# her fro0 the tradition. D 1(% D "ack half the hen. *nd the #irls had the ri#ht to the +in#, to "oth +in#s, yes. /ou +onder +hy it +as a youn# child, +ho +as al+ays acco0 anied "y an adult. /es, "ut thereGs so0ethin# else that +e didnGt do for any"ody e2ce t Aenriette, "ecause ;ada0e 4. 8the !room)s mother 9 +as a little . . . old5fashioned. Before "e#innin# all the 0arria#e cele"rations, they sent a +o0an to the 0other5in5la+ to tell her: .1here, +e decided to 0ake the +eddin#. *nd the ha00a0 ushekh +ill "e on such and such a date, the henna on such and such a date, etc.. 4o it +as that +o0an herself +ho re ared the she$!ha 8dye and ma#eup 9 for the henna. 1hey said in *ra"ic: .We can o en the +eddin#.. /ou see, the translation is .to o en the +eddin#.. *s if they +erenGt in a#ree0entR 8%au!hter 9 &he hus$and then ta#es up the tale, emphasi@in! a!ain the stran!eness o3 the practices. 6h, you kno+ +hat there +as that +as s ecial, that 0ade 0e lau#h, it +as takin# the hairs off the face, the do+n. 1hey did that, termertina . 3tGs a +a273 donGt kno+7itGs sticky. 3t "urns so0eti0es. *nd the erson +ho did it s0eared her fin#ers +ith the stuff and ut it on the face and then she ulled it off. *nd youGd see the "ride #ri0acin#. 3t +as done at ho0e, "efore she +ent to the 1urkish "ath. Speech $rea#s o336 memory is disconnected. +hile !ivin! a description o3 customs they thou!ht immemorial and immuta$le, inscri$ed in the slow move o3 tradition, they tellHand $ecome awareHo3 a $rea#. &radition has lost its meanin!. D 1(1 D

"!RT TWO; "!SSEN-ERS IN TR!NSIT

D 1($ D

D; Internal Mi&rations
Mi!ration 3or most was 3irst internal, that is, cultural, and preceded the physical departure. An the

whole, the Jewish communities o3 (oland and /ussia were $eyond the reach o3 the ,mancipation, which, 3rom the second hal3 o3 the ei!hteenth century, determined pro3ound trans3ormations in western ,urope <includin! Bermany=. Fevertheless, even they were not immune to the chan!es that a33ected the surroundin! societies. 5rom the mid-nineteenth century on, demo!raphic !rowth, the development o3 industrial activity, and ur$ani@ation modi3ied the socioeconomic structures o3 the Jewish world. Gntil then composed essentially o3 artisans and small tradesmen, the Jewish population contri$uted $roadly to the constitution o3 new classes, includin! the wor#in! class, the li$eral pro3essions, and the industrialists. Moreover, i3 the Has#alah movement, a product o3 ,nli!htenment philosophy, spread $elatedly into (oland and /ussia, it assumed speci3ic 3orms there. Its adherents < 0askili0= were aware that the di33usion o3 their ideas in He$rew or /ussian remained con3ined within narrow limits. &he use o3 the vernacular .iddish and the criticism o3 the conservatism o3 the communities, as well as the a33irmation o3 a certain conception o3 Jewish identity, !ave their movement a very di33erent character 3rom the emancipation o3 the 5rench or Berman Jews* con3essionalism in the west opposed seculari@ation in the east.819&his was the context 3or a remar#a$le phenomenon, the 3lourishin! o3 an ori!inal culture, yiddishkeit, which would $e so $rutally severed $y !enocide . &hese chan!es occurred very unevenly, however, varyin! with the 819 Iachel :rtel, %e Shtetl, . 1)1. D 1(H D !roups and the places. &hus the eastern ,uropean Jewish world $etween the two world wars presented an extraordinary diversity* orthodox $elievers, Hasidim, more or less devout traditionalists, atheists, militants o3 several political movements <"ionists, Marxists, etc.=. Fot all o3 these upheavals are echoed in the memories we have collected, $ut certain critical moments resur3ace, and we can discern traces o3 them in the narratives.

Education
Memories relatin! to the heder are most o3ten accompanied $y a harsh 1ud!ment o3 the education !iven there. &his is the traditional type o3 school where children 3rom the most modest homes studied 3rom the a!e o3 3our or 3ive* they learned to read and write and received an introduction to He$rew as well as to $i$lical texts. SchoolE &hat)s a very !rand word* the teacher < 0ela0ed= tau!ht in one room, even a corner, o3 his small dwellin!. (ortraits o3 him are hardly 3latterin!. &hey emphasi@e his 2primitive2 methods, his $rutality, and his i!norance, and !ladly dwell on his more ridiculous characteristics. Just as our school$oys li#e to recall memora$le escapades, 3ormer heder students still lau!h a$out the tric#s they played on their teachers. Ane o3 the 1o#es mentioned several times <another quasi-3ol#loric su$1ect=* those rascals attac# the un3ortunate melamed)s $eard, which they paste or cut or scorchI Beor!es 5.* /ou ca0e to heder if you +anted to learn. 3t +asnGt co0 ulsory. 3n the roo0 there +as a "i# ta"le and t+o "enches, #irls on one side, "oys on the other. *"out ten fa0ilies sent their children. 3t +as the only +ay to learn to +rite "ecause +e didnGt have the ri#ht to #o to school. 3ndeed, there +asnGt any. 3 donGt re0e0"er seein# a school "uilt in 0y villa#e durin# 0y childhood. * #eneration later, yes? that is, seven or ei#ht years later, they "uilt a school. ;e, 3 had a ra""i, a oor #uy. Ae +as nasty as a rash and "eat the children like devils. 1hat ra""i had a dau#hter and t+o "oys. 6ne "oy +as sick, +ith tu"erculosis. Ae +as there, lyin#

D 1() D there all the ti0e, a youn# 0an of a"out t+enty. Ae +ould s it. 1o "rin# children to that lace, in the sa0e roo0, +ith that #uy +ith tu"erculosis, you +onder ho+ +e didnGt #et it . . . 1hat ra""i +as araly=ed on one side. Ae used to #et so nervous and 0ad. With kids +ho +ere al0ost sava#es, he had #ood reason to #et nervous. Ae stood "ehind the kids +ith his stick, and every no+ and then, +ith his #ood hand, he #ave us a +hack on the "ack "ecause +e didnGt ans+er +ell. 1hat +asnGt so "ad co0 ared +ith others +ho had "oth their hands. But there +ere kids +ho #ot their ears ulled off, yes, he ulled an ear so hard he ulled it off. 1hatGs ho+ he 0istreated the0. 6nce +e decided to revolt. /ou kno+ +hat +e did to hi0U Ae had a "i# "eard. 6ne day, he fell aslee on the ta"le, like this. 8Beor!es imitates him. 9 We #lued his "eard to the ta"le and set fire to it. *ll the kids, not Eust 0e. 1he #uy +ork u s0ellin# his "eard "urnin#. &he scene chan!es, however, with the Jewish school networ#s that developed in (oland $etween the two world wars. &he diversity o3 their orientations re3lected the hetero!eneity o3 the population. &he *#udat 3srael networ# <C9K esta$lishments 3or $oys, in 78:?, and ?7,>>> students= remained loyal to orthodoxy6 that o3 1ar"ut <;9? esta$lishments in 78:C and M;,>>> students= was devoted to the teachin! o3 He$rew, in a "ionist spirit6 while that o3 C...S.H.A.8(9<7?> esta$lishments in 78:C and 7C,>>> students= was inspired with a .iddishist and socialist ideal <which, in itsel3, had several political variants in the 4und and the le3tist la$or "ionists=.8$9In the 1ar"ut schools, as in those o3 the C...S.H.A., the curriculum included 2modern2 su$1ects <secular lan!ua!es and literatures, the sciences, etc.=, the use o3 (olish $ein! limited to su$1ects li#e (olish history and literature. (ioneerin! peda!o!ical methods were practiced there <particularly in the .iddishist schools=, and our in3ormers remem$er them with !ratitude . 8(9 !udat Israel, a cultural and olitical 0ove0ent that develo ed a0on# *shkena=i ,e+s and sou#ht to reserve 6rthodo2y a#ainst secularist and Fionist trends. &ar$ut, Ae"re+ educational and cultural or#ani=ation that develo ed in eastern :uro ean countries "et+een the t+o +orld +ars. Centrale .idishe Shul Ar!anisatsie, Central 6r#ani=ation of ,e+ish 4chools. 8$9 I. :rtel, %e Shtetl, ()$J(KH. D 1(K D %a@are M.* 3 +ent to heder 0ay"e for a fe+ +eeks, until 3 learned the ale3 $et, "ein# very s0all. /ou started heder +hen you +ere four, "ut the 0ethods +erenGt. . . . 1he teacher, the ra""i, kne+ nothin# of sycholo#y or eda#o#y. Until the a#e of ten, 3 +ent to a 0odern school that +as only 0oderately reli#ious. /ou learned to read and +rite ,e+ish su"Eects. 3t +as a rivate school, overseen "y an association. 1hen, in 19(%, +hen 3 +as ten, they o ened a ,e+ish hi#h school. ;y uncle, 0y fatherGs "rother, +as a teacher in that hi#h school. .3s he the one +ho ran the hederU. No, that one +as 0y 0otherGs sisterGs hus"and. Ae +as an old 0an, +ith a "eard, +ho "arely kne+ ho+ to +rite, "ut he did have a head for 1al0ud. 1he other one +as a hi#h school teacher +ho had hi0self finished school. 4o he said to 0y father: .Listen, #ive 0e your "oy.. *nd he took 0e into the hi#h school, +here 3 stayed until 19(9.

,e+ish su"Eects +ere in Ae"re+? the others +ere in Polish. 1he first de#ree in Ae"re+ +as #ranted in 19(9. 1hat +as 0y class. Until the fourth year, the "oys and #irls +ere se arate, and then it +as 0i2ed. 1hey called it a coeducational hi#h school. 3 still re0e0"er +hat 3 +rote for 0y 0atriculation in Ae"re+. ;y su"Eect +as ;endele and 4hole0 *leiche0. ;endele is satire? 4hole0 *leiche0 is hu0or. 4atire and hu0or arenGt the sa0e thin#. Au0or is #entle? satire is "itter. 1hatGs +hat 3 develo ed. ;y e2a0iner "eca0e a very i0 ortant 0an in 3srael, Or. 1artakover. AeGs a ,e+ish historian, a rofessor of history in ,erusale0 or 1el *viv. AeGs ei#hty years old no+. Ae ca0e to Paris three years a#o. 3 have a friend here +ho kno+s 1artakover. 3 said to hi0: .Listen, 3 have to see 1artakover. 3 +ant to sho+ hi0 so0ethin#.. 3tGs 0y Ae"re+ di lo0a. 3 still have the ori#inal. /ou had to ay to #o to that hi#h school. 1he students +ere rich. 3 think 3 +as the only oor one there, "ecause of 0y uncle. 1here +erenGt any scholarshi s, "ut there +as so0ethin# called D 1(& D 3raternal aid. *ll the students contri"uted every 0onth. * little later on, 3 started tutorin#. When 3 +as in the si2th class, 3 could hel the "oys in the fifth and earn a little 0oney. 1o #et a de#ree +as hard for a oor kid in Poland. 1his year, on * ril $, 19B%, there +as a reunion of the for0er students of the ,e+ish hi#h schools of <alis=. 1+o hundred eo le ca0e. -ro0 *r#entina, the United 4tates, 4+eden. -ro0 -rance, there +as one erson? 3 +ould have "een the second. But at the last 0o0ent, 3 couldnGt #o. 3t still hurts 0e. 3 didnGt #o. :very"ody +as +aitin# for 0e. ;y class0ates +ere there, or one class ne2t to 0ine, a year 0ore or less. *nd 3 didnGt #o. 4ernard (.* 3 +ent to the Ae"re+ hi#h school of <alis=. Unlike the &ar$ut hi#h schools, the lan#ua#e +as Polish "ut there +ere courses in Ae"re+ and even instruction in the Bi"le. *side fro0 that, it +as a hi#h school that confor0ed to all the sa0e rules as at the state hi#h schools in Poland. 3n hi#h school, 3 s oke Polish? +ith 0y friends 3 s oke Polish? 3 read Polish "ooks. *t ho0e, 3 s oke Polish. ;y father #enerally ans+ered 0e in /iddish. But 3 didnGt s eak /iddish. 3 s oke and read only Polish. 3tGs not that 3 didnGt +ant to s eak /iddish, "ut letGs say that, in the #eneration of 0y friends, +e all s oke Polish. ;y 0other s oke Polish +ell, 'uite +ell, +hereas 0y father had so0e difficulty s eakin# it. Ae referred to e2 ress hi0self in /iddish. Helena B.* When 3 think of the education 3 #ot in our school, 3 havenGt yet seen a school that #ives such an education. 1hatGs so even no+, after forty years have assed. Back ho0e, the teachers +ith the children, it +as . . . you Eust donGt see that today. No+, after all the years, +hen +e see so0eone fro0 our school, +eGre like "rothers. We are "rothers. We had a s ecial education in our school. ;ay"e not every"ody "eca0e a +riter, "ut their "ehavior, their 0anner of "ein#, +as different. 1hey al+ays felt self5 confident. -irst of all at our school, they freed us fro0 our D 1(B D inferiority co0 le2. 3f +e didnGt like so0ethin#, +e could say so aloud. 1hey talked to us of hy#iene, se2ual 'uestions7at that ti0eR

In the (olish hi!h schools, the num$er o3 Jewish students was limited in practice $y a quota. &he Jews o3ten 3ound themselves in a hostile environment. 4ut there too the education seems to have $een incompara$ly more interestin! than that o3 the heder. Indeed, those hi!h schools appealed to those who aspired to modernity. Many parents, ea!er 3or their children to clim$ the social ladder, made not only material sacri3ices $ut also serious concessions with re!ard to reli!ious principles <!oin! to school on Saturday= in order to allow them to study within the state system. typical example is youn! Julien O., whose 3ather was director o3 a .iddishist school in Chelm. He did not study in the latter $ut rather in the (olish hi!h school.

! "assion 'or Readin&

&he thirst 3or learnin! is a su$1ect that recurs in several memories. It appears 3requently in the narratives o3 those who, $ein! too poor, were 3orced to wor# 3rom the a!e o3 twelve or thirteen, thou!h they would have pre3erred to continue their studies. &raditionally, study represented one o3 the most hi!hly valued activities in the Jewish world. 4ut, hence3orth, the thirst 3or learnin! went 3ar $eyond #nowled!e o3 the sacred texts and turned to secular su$1ects. It provided a vast audience 3or the 3ruits o3 .iddish culture, $roadly disseminated $y newspapers, networ#s o3 li$raries, and theatrical per3ormances. &he example o3 Julien O. seems si!ni3icant here too. 3ter studyin! in the (olish hi!h school, he $ecame a 3ull-time radical and then learned to read .iddish in order to study the wor#s o3 4oro#hov <who attempted to wor# out a synthesis $etween Marxist analyses and the "ionist ideal=. &hat)s not all. Several translations into .iddish made #nown the !reat authors o3 3orei!n literature, nota$ly such 5rench writers as 4al@ac, 'ictor Hu!o, "ola, and Jules 'erne. &his is how the adventures o3 (hileas 5o!! came to play a determinin! role in the intellectual development o3 .aco$-Jaques %., whose conception o3 the world was suddenly turned topsy-turvy. D 1(9 D 3 +ent to heder at the a#e of four. -irst +e learned the al ha"et. 3 stayed there a year and a half, 3 think, and then they took 0e to another re""e, +ho +as already teachin# a little "it of Bi"le. 1hen, +hen 3 learned al0ost the +hole Bi"le, they took 0e to a third one, +ho started teachin# 1al0ud. 3 +as the last of eleven children, and 0y 0other +anted 0e to "eco0e a ra""i. 6<, 3Gll "e a ra""i. 3t +ent on like that until the a#e of fourteen. 1hen, 3 donGt kno+ ho+, so0e"ody 0ade 0e read ,ules VerneGs "ook round the +orld in ,i!hty -ays in /iddish translation. /ou kno+, at the end, he says that Phileas -o## +as +ron# a"out the day "ecause he had traveled in the direction the earth turned. What kind of story is thisU 1he earth doesnGt turn7itGs the sun that turns around the earth. /ou re0e0"er, +hen the Ae"re+s had to enter ,ericho "efore sunset: itGs +ritten in the te2t. ;oses sto ed the sun. 4o 3 asked 0yself: .WhoGs tellin# the truthU. 3 kne+ that ,ules Verne +as a very #ood +riter, a #reat +riter. 3 said to 0yself: .3t canGt "e, "ecause ;oses sto ed the sun? he didnGt sto the earth.. 1+o or three years "efore, they had esta"lished a 0odern school in our villa#e. 1here +as a teacher there, a youn# 0an of t+enty5five. 6ne day, 3 +ent to see hi0 and 3 said: .Listen, this is drivin# 0e cra=y. Ael 0e. 3 +ant to kno+ +ho lied to 0e. 3s it 0y arents and all the ,e+s of the to+n +ho lied to 0eU 6r is it ,ules Verne +hoGs lyin# to 0eU. Ae lau#hed: ./our arents and the others didnGt lie to you, they didnGt kno+ the0selves.. *nd he e2 lained the solar syste0 to 0e: the lanet :arth is only the third. Ae told 0e ho+ it turns around the sun? he talked to 0e of ;ars. 1hen he lent 0e an astrono0y "ook in /iddish. 3 didnGt understand everythin#, "ut 3 read it. Beor!es 5.* 1hey s routed like 0ushroo0s? they +ere incredi"le. 3f they had had the o ortunities +e have no+,

#eniuses +ould have co0e out of Poland. 1here +ere +riters in our villa#e. 1hey sent for artists, #reat artists, fro0 Warsa+. 1here +as 4ch+art=, ;aurice La0 . 1here +ere #reat artists fro0 Warsa+, the summum of the ,e+ish theater. 1hey ca0e to us and #ave sho+s. D 1$% D With the +ill to learn that the youn# eo le had, culture develo ed very fast. But in s ite of all that, they really didnGt have any o ortunities. 3f they had "een #iven #reater o ortunities, you +ould have had e2traordinary children, #eniuses.

Moderni4ation> Seculari4ation
&his thirst 3or secular #nowled!e, then, led to dou$ts a$out the received wisdom handed down $y tradition. 5rom then on, the lost world assumed a more am$i!uous aspect in memory. Fostal!ia 3or childhood does not preclude a clear, even severe 1ud!ment o3 the poverty rampant in the shtetl as well as in the $i! city. Memories are re!istered within a !lo$al interpretation o3 society and history in which the notion o3 archaism, even primitivism, is lo!ically opposed to modernity. &he latter ta#es the 3orm, 3irst o3 all, o3 material pro!ress, which 3or Beor!es 5. corresponds to movin! 3rom the country to the city. &he trans3ormations o3 his childhood villa!e illustrate the pro!ress o3 civili@ation. 1hen the villa#e started to e2 and. 1here +as a factory that 0oved in, a foundry, for stoves, +hich did very +ell. 1hat attracted a lot of +orkers, and thin#s i0 roved. 1hey started "uildin# a "rid#e to rovide access to the railroad station. 1hat +as already technolo#y startin# to advance. 1he villa#e +as #ro+in# and even "eca0e a Eunction on the Polish railroad. Little "y little, a fe+ 0ore ,e+s ca0e. ;ay"e ei#hty or a hundred fa0ilies 0oved in, in all the trades: tailors, 0erchants, etc. *nd since the streets +ere "e#innin# to "e aved +ith side+alks, they set u sho s, little +ooden huts. * "aker +ent into "usiness. Ae +as a ,e+ and +as already "e#innin# to sell on credit. 1he villa#e #re+ so fast that it al0ost "eca0e a center. 1hen a factory, a very "i# +ea ons factory, 0oved in and attracted a lot of eo le. But ,e+s didnGt have access? ,e+s +erenGt allo+ed to +ork there. 1he factory +as al0ost clandestine, +ith cellars. 3t "rou#ht a sense of +ell5"ein# to the villa#e. Little "y little, it "eca0e a to+n like all the others in Poland. 1he tree trunks in the 0iddle of the street disa eared? +e had side+alks, "rick houses. 8 . . .9 6ne could find all kinds a0on# those +ho ca0e +ith D 1$1 D the e2 ansion of the villa#e. *ll those +ho had kno+n us fro0 the "e#innin# +ere friendly to us. 1hey lived in har0ony +ith the old5ti0ers. But all those +ho ca0e. . . . 1hat factory "rou#ht so0e +ealth and also the Polish intelli#entsia. 4ince there +ere nice +oods and 0a#nificent strea0s in the +oods, they 0oved into villas. 1heyGre the ones res onsi"le for anti54e0itis0. 6ther+ise, +e lived very +ell. 3 donGt kno+ if itGs +ealth that "rin#s anti54e0itis0 or so0ethin# else. 1he +orkers +ere 4ocialists "ut, in s ite of that, they didnGt like ,e+s very 0uch. *t the "e#innin#, +hen socialis0 a eared, everyone +as to#ether. 1hen there +as the Bund. /ou kno+ +hat the Bund isU 1hey +ere ,e+ish 4ocialists. 1hat led to tension, se aration "et+een the socialists. 3t +as the sa0e idea "ut t+o or#ani=ations. :very"ody +as ulled to his o+n side. 1hey didnGt even let us de0onstrate +ith the0. 1here had to "e a se arate ,e+ish #rou , +ith the red fla#, and the Catholics, the Catholic +orkers, on the other side, +ith the sa0e fla# and the sa0e slo#an. But it +as no lon#er the sa0e.

&he notion o3 $ac#wardness, however, is not limited to economic $ac#wardness and poverty. It tends to include the whole o3 the traditional way o3 li3e, which 3orces Jews to distin!uish themselves 3rom the rest o3 the population $y their lan!ua!e, their 3ood, their appearance <ca3tan, s#ullcap, $eard, sidecurls=. Inte!ration into modern society seemed incompati$le with customs that were considered outdated. &he next step was the questionin! o3 reli!ious practices and $elie3s. &he world o3 childhood thus appeared as a world le3t $ehind even $e3ore it was lost. ll variants and de!rees are represented in this strivin! 3or modernity, 3rom simple lin!uistic and sartorial acculturation to assimilation that is more or less complete. &he evolution itsel3 varies as a 3unction o3 social status and !eo!raphical context. &he Jewish communities o3 (oland and /ussia, enclosed in their own particularities and composed o3 the lower classes, can indeed seem 2$ac#ward,2 accordin! to the criteria o3 acculturation evidenced $y the 5rench or Berman Jews, so proud o3 their inte!ration into their respective nations.8H9-o these repre8H9 Cf. ,aco" <at=, Aut o3 the Bhetto* &he Social 4ac#!round o3 Jewish ,mancipation <7??>R7K?>= @Ca0"rid#e, ;ass.: Aarvard UP, 19&$C? ;ichael I. ;ar5rus, &he (olitics o3 ssimilation* Study o3 the 5rench Jewish Community at the &ime o3 the -rey3us 33air @62ford: Clarendon Press, 19&1C? Patrick >irard, %es Jui3s de 5rance de 7?K8 P 7K9>* -e l)emancipation P l)!alit 81he ,e+s of -rance fro0 1&B9 to 1BK%: -ro0 :0anci ation to :'uality9 @Paris: Cal0ann5Levy, 19&KC. D 1$( D sentations re3lect a la$or o3 memory, a retrospective 1ud!ment $y people who have reinterpreted their past with the cate!ories they assimilated a3ter their emi!rationE &his is only partially true, since these cate!ories already con3licted with traditional values in the countries o3 ori!in. &he memories collected reveal di33erences within 3amilies, cleava!es $etween !enerations, even personal dramas. &hese di33erences, however, did not always ta#e the 3orm o3 sharp con3licts* some parents, in3luenced $y their children, accepted hal3 measures and compromises6 sometimes they let themselves slip into the new ha$its. Maurice F.* ;y father dressed as a Aasid, +ith a caftan and a "eard. Ae +ore the ,e+ish skullca . . . ;e, 3 already dressed like every"ody else. But since 3 +as at the yeshiva8)9 in Warsa+ for t+o years, 0y #randfather "ou#ht 0e a ,e+ish skullca . 3t +as round +ith a little "order. 3 +ore it, "ut 3 didnGt like it. 3 didnGt like to set 0yself a art +ith sidecurls. 3 didnGt +ear it for lon#, only for a year, 3 think. 1hen 3 took it off. 3 didnGt +ant it. 3 didnGt like it. 8 . . .9 ;y father +as a total atheist. 1hat started in Poland. But since he had a #reat res ect for his arents @his arents had a terri"ly stron# influence on hi0C, he couldnGt sho+ it in Poland. Ae started "y #ettin# active in Fionist or#ani=ations, in ;i=rahi,8K9 and then in the Co00unist arty. Ae had literature hidden all over the >e0ore.8&9 1hatGs +hat led hi0 to leave Poland and co0e here. /ou kno+, +hen a Aasid chan#es, he chan#es co0 letely. 3t +as so0ethin# over+hel0in#, a revolution that took lace, "rutal, fro0 one e2tre0e to the other. But in s ite of everythin#, until his death he stayed +ithin the tradition. Ae often 'uoted +hat he had learned. Ae +as really a 8)9 4e0inary of tal0udic study. 8K9 Mi@rahi : reli#ious Fionist 0ove0ent founded in 19%(. 8&9 6r >e0ara, .co0 letion. co00entary on the ;ishnah, the code of the oral la+ @"oth to#ether for0 the 1al0udC.

D 1$$ D scholar, a learned 0an. 1here +erenGt 0any eo le in -rance +ho kne+ as 0uch as he did a"out those issues. Charles H. ;y 0other even had her hair cut off "efore her +eddin#. 3t +as trau0atic for "oth of the0. 3t see0s that 0y 0other had "eautiful hair, and 0y father +asnGt ha y that they cut it off. But they did it. *nd 3 still re0e0"er 0y 0other +ith a +i# @+hat they call the .iddish sheitl C. 3tGs a 0e0ory u to 191H, u to the +ar, "ecause then, +hen 0y father +as a soldier, 0y 0other let her hair #ro+ "ack and +ore only a scarf. When 0y father ca0e "ack ho0e in 191B, after the colla se of *ustria, cuttin# off her hair a#ain +as no lon#er an issue. 4o 0y 0other #ot her hair "ack, "ut "y then it had turned a "it +hite. *fter the +ar, 0y father hi0self took off the shtraimel, the hat they +ear on 4aturday, a sort of velvet or silk hat, +ith "orders of either fur or fur tails, de endin# on +here a erson is fro0, that #o all the +ay around. 3n our villa#e, it +as fur tails, you see. Oe endin# on ho+ +ealthy you +ere, it +as otter or 0ink, a 0aroon5colored fur. 3t took the +ar to do a+ay +ith the +i# and the shtrai0elR 6nly on 4aturday did 0y father #o to syna#o#ue in the #ar0ent they call in /iddish the 1e$et@e,8 B9 +hich co0es fro0 the Polish +ord 1upan 7a lon# #ar0ent, a sort of li#ht overcoat of silk. 3tGs rather stran#e "ecause the ious ,e+s of that little to+n +erenGt a+are that they +ere dressin# like the Polish no"les of the seventeenth and ei#hteenth centuries. ;y father +ore it on 4aturday @in su00er? in the +inter, of course, he +ore a fur coat over itC. Beor!es 5.* 1here +ere so0e +ho +ere already startin# to o en their sho s on 4aturday. Naturally, the fin#er of scorn +as ointed at hi0. *nd no ,e+ +ent into his sho , only the Catholics. Ae o ened his sho ? he +orked on 4aturday. 3t +as an incredi"le develo 0ent. When +e assed "y, 0y father crossed the street 8B9 1he 1e$et@e and the shtraimel +ere Aasidic #ar0ents. D 1$H D to avoid seein# it. 4aturdays +ere really so0ethin#7you couldnGt even carry a handkerchief in your ocket. /ou had to han# it around your neck. 1hat +as o"served in our house until 3 +as t+enty. But there +as already a chan#e in the villa#e and a ne+ s irit "rou#ht +ith it freedo0 of thou#ht. By no+ at ho0e, 0y 0other +as also startin# to understand, 3 donGt kno+ "y +hat holy s irit, that it +asnGt fair that there should "e such overty. 6thers +ere rich. 1here +as no e'uality. .aco$-Jacques %.* /es, 3 +as dressed like 0y father at that ti0e. 3 didnGt dare do other+ise. ;y 0other couldnGt have stood it if 3 had dressed like the others, the #oys. 6h, +hen 3 +ent to Warsa+, 3 dressed like the0, +ith a vest and a hat, like here, yes, yes. But +hen 3 ca0e ho0e for the holidays, t+ice a year, for Passover and 4ukkot, then 3 dressed like the0, like the ,e+s, so as not to hurt 0y 0other. 3 had a "rother in Warsa+. Ae had a +atch0akerGs sho . When 3 ca0e to his house in a vest and a hat like every"ody else, he said to 0e: .What do you kno+R 3 never +ould have e2 ected itR 1here you are, dressed Eust like the #oys. Who +ould have "elieved itU. When 3 sto ed +earin# a "eard, 0y 0other

cried +hen she sa+ 0e. 4he cried for the "eard. /ou 0ade a #hetto for yourself. -or e2a0 le, 3 have Christian friends here, and 3Gll tell you so0ethin#, Eust "et+een us, it see0s to 0e thereGs a kind of +all "et+een the0 and 0e. 3G0 +ron#, 0ay"e. ;ay"e 3G0 +ron#. 4o, you see, +hen you ca0e to intervie+ 0e, itGs not 0e +hoGs doin# you a favor, itGs you +ho are doin# 0e a favor. 4ernard (.* 3 #ot throu#h 0y "ar 0it=vah, "ut 3 donGt think 3 rayed after+ard. 3 retended t+o or three ti0es, "ut 3 never really rayed. 3 +asnGt a "eliever, and thatGs stayed +ith 0e. 3 a0 dee ly atheistic, althou#h today 3G0 a little 0ore tolerant to+ard reli#ion. *t the a#e of fourteen, influenced "y 0y father, 3 Eoined D 1$) D Aasho0er AaFaGir.899 ;y father had "een a 0ilitant Fionist ever since his reli#ious e0anci ation, "ecause he hi0self ca0e fro0 a fa0ily of orthodo2 ,e+s. 1here +ere seven "rothers. 1hree of the0 a"andoned traditional clothes and +ere e0anci ated in a reli#ious sense. ,ncoura!ed $y his own aunt, %a@are M. ate non-#osher 3ood 3or the 3irst time <not without an inner revulsion=. %ater on, his political involvement was aided $y his mother)s hal3-resi!ned, hal3-proud attitude. His trip alon! the path to modernity necessitated his 3irst departureH3rom Oalis@ to +arsawH in order to study at the university. /ou kno+, in Poland, in G(%, G(), that +as the ti0e +hen thin#s +ere startin# to chan#e. 1here +ere ne+ ideas, Fionis0, co00unis0. 3n the hi#h school in our to+n, +hich +asnGt a reli#ious hi#h school, +e ate +ithout a hat, +ithout a skullca . But the food they #ave us +as kosher all the sa0e. 3t didnGt e2ist, the 'uestion of kosher, non5kosher. 3f you +anted to eat non5kosher, you had to #o to the #oyi0 on /o0 <i ur. With us, everythin# +as kosher. 3f 3 +anted, 3 ate ha0, "ut not at ho0e "ecause 3 had to take 0y 0other and father into account. -or that 3 had to #o to another nei#h"orhood "ecause, in our nei#h"orhood, everythin# +as ,e+ish, the 0eat +as kosher, "utter and 0ilk +ere kosher. Non5kosher didnGt e2ist for ,e+s. But there +ere eo le, you kno+, +ho, +hen they started to chan#e, +ere contentious, horri"ly contentious. 1hey +ere very rovocative. 6n -riday ni#ht, +hen eo le +ere co0in# out of the syna#o#ue, they +ould s0oke ci#arettes ri#ht in front of the0. WhatGs the ointU 6r on /o0 <i ur, theyGd take a iece of "read and eat. 1here +ere eo le like that. 3n 0y house, +e res ected the holidays, +e +ere o"servant. But 3 0yself didnGt fast on /o0 <i ur. 3 +ent to 0y uncleGs to eat. ;y uncle and aunt +erenGt o"servant. But 0y #rand0other or 0y 0other, if they had heard that 3 ate on /o0 <i ur, they +ould have said: .3tGs not true.. 3G0 #oin# to tell you ho+ 3 ate ha@er 8por# 9 the first ti0e. ;y uncle said to 0e: .3G0 takin# the train to Colo#ne. /ou 899 ./oun# >uard,. a leftist, Fionist youth 0ove0ent. D 1$K D and your aunt are co0in# +ith 0e. LetGs say, a"out t+enty 0iles. 3G0 #oin# to "uy you a round5tri ticket.. 3 +as his et. *nd as for 0e takin# the train, it +as the second ti0e. 1hat +as in G((, 3 "elieve. 3

+as t+elve. We +ent to+ard the >er0an "order, to+ard Po=nan. Oo+n there, everythin# had "een >er0an for t+o hundred years. 3t +as alto#ether different. 3 +as fascinated. ;y uncle +ent on to Berlin and +e #ot off, 0y aunt and 3, in a little to+n called 6sto+. But +e had to +ait a fe+ hours "efore #oin# "ack. We visited the to+n and +e +ent to #et so0ethin# to eat. ;y aunt took 0e into a restaurant and ordered so0ethin# +ith ort cutlets. 4he kne+, she said to 0e: .3tGs ork ri", you have to eat itR. 3 +as so scared. 3 ate, 3 ate, "ut 3 said to 0yself: .Ao+ can you eat thatU. 3 ate it all the sa0e. *nd 3 assure you, for a fe+ days, 3 +as sick. Not hysically sick. But 0entally, it hurt 0e. 8 . . .9 3 +as in the leftist la"or Fionists. 3t turned out that ;ay 1 once fell on the last day of (esah . We had the 0eetin# in a la=a "ehind the syna#o#ue. 3t +as city hall, letGs say, that had authori=ed it. ;y 0other kne+ 3 +as to "e the s eaker on "ehalf of our youth 0ove0ent. 4he +asnGt ha y that 3 +as s eakin#, "ut she ca0e to listen all the sa0e, "ecause it +as her son +ho +as s eakin#. ;y 0other +asnGt ha y that 3 "elon#ed to that 0ove0ent "ut +hen they voted for arlia0ent, she al+ays voted as 3 told her. Because there +as a ,e+ish vote, ,e+ish slates. .;a0a, 3 voted for the leftist la"or FionistsR. 4o she said to 0e: .But theyGre not reli#iousR. .But, ;a0a, itGs 0y artyR. 4he al+ays voted like her son. 8 . . .9 3 +ent to Warsa+ in G$1. 3 stayed there three years. 3 +as a leader of the youth 0ove0ent and 3 studied, not at the university "ut in +hat +as called a se0inary, a ,e+ish teachers colle#e. /ou canGt i0a#ine ho+ a oor student 0ana#ed to #et "y in Poland. 1o earn a little "it, 3 +orked as a teacher in a ,e+ish school. Not full ti0e. 3 had a fe+ hours in a school +here the lan#ua#e of instruction +as /iddish. 3t +as fro0 the C./.4.A.6.V., .Central 6r#ani=ation of ,e+ish 4chools.. *ll the schools of that or#ani=ation had a leftist orientation. 3n Warsa+, there +ere four of the0 of the Bund and four of the leftist la"or Fionists. D 1$& D

Radicalism
+e shall not trace here the multiplicity o3 political movements that stirred the Jewish world o3 eastern ,urope $etween the two world wars. %et us recall, however, that with their schools, li$raries, youth !roups, and sport clu$s they constituted vast social networ#s o3 a totally new character, compared to those o3 the traditional reli!ious currents <themselves very diverse=. lthou!h these narratives o3 activists sometimes seem stereotyped inso3ar as they endeavor to 1usti3y a past and a loyalty, they nevertheless re-create all the richness and vitality o3 the intellectual de$ates amon! the Jews o3 (oland in the 78:>s. In the case o3 Marc 4., political involvement sustained his thirst 3or learnin!. 3 +as "orn to a fa0ily of Aasidi0. 3n 0y early youth, 3 +anted very 0uch to read. ;y older "rothers already had ne+s a ers and "ooks, and 3 al+ays tried to read +hat they "rou#ht ho0e. 3 +ent to school until the a#e of thirteen, and then 3 "eca0e an a rentice @leather +orkerC. :ven at that ti0e, 3 had such a desire for readin# that every day 3 "ou#ht a ne+s a er that 3 sided +ith. 3 used to "uy 0y ne+s a er on the +ay to +ork. 1here +as also a li"rary in Warsa+, a fa0ous one, the only lendin# li"rary. 3t +as called Bressler. 3 enrolled. 3t +as the +ar of G1H that forced 0e to interru t 0y a renticeshi , and 3 had to #o +ithout readin# "ecause 0y fa0ily +as oor, and 3 couldnGt afford to continue. But after the >er0ans occu ied Warsa+, a canteen +as o ened. 3t +as the union s onsored "y the Bund that o ened that canteen to #ive oor eo le so0ethin# to eat. *t the sa0e ti0e, they o ened a readin# roo0. 1here +ere ne+s a ers, 0a#a=ines, "ooks. When 3 found out there +as a readin# roo0, 3 +ent there ri#ht a+ay. 3 stayed do+n there. 4everal #rou s +ere for0ed. We ar#ued. We discussed +hat +e had read. We talked

a"out events. 3 +as youn# @3 +as fifteenC at that ti0e, "ut 3 already had a fe+ ideas. 3 +ent there every day for ne+s a ers and readin#. 3 didnGt #o to eat73 ate at ho0e7"ut 3 +ent there "ecause of the s ecial readin# roo0. 1hey also started #ivin# lectures. 6nce they invited ;ede0, D 1$B D +ho +as a founder of the Bund.81%9 Ae had "een arrested in Warsa+, "ut they couldnGt de ort hi0 to Iussia. 4o he +as freed "y the >er0ans and he stayed in Warsa+. *t that ti0e, the leaders sa+ that it +as in their interest to 0ake us Eoin +hat +as called "u#un3t, the ,e+ish youth or#ani=ation. "u#un3t, that 0eans the future. 4o 3 "elon#ed to that Bundist youth or#ani=ation. :very +eek the leaders ca0e to teach us a"out sociolo#y and econo0ic life. 3t +as or#ani=ed in little #rou s, each of +hich had a na0e. 3 "elon#ed to the <autsky #rou . 1he #oal +as also cultural. 1hey started a little li"rary. 3t +as durin# the +ar, and they didnGt have 0uch 0oney. But this #rou +ent to #et "ooks in rivate houses, fro0 those +ho had the0. 3t lasted al0ost t+o years. 3n 191&, instead of that canteen, they rented a "i# "uildin# +e na0ed Bronisla+ >rosser. Ae +as one of the leaders of the Bund? he had assed a+ay in 191(. Later on, they founded clu"s in his na0e in various to+ns of Poland. Ii#ht a+ay, +hen they sa+ 3 had a certain interest, 3 +as one of those +ho hel ed out +ith runnin# that li"rary. 3t +ent on like that until the +ar. Life "e#an a#ain. 3t +as all to sy5turvy. 4o they +anted to e2 and. 1hey rented a "i##er "uildin# and started "uyin# a lot of "ooks. *t the sa0e ti0e, 3 +as active not only in the youth #rou "ut also in the Bund arty. 3G0 not sayin# 3 +as a leader, Eust an active 0e0"er of that 0ove0ent in Pra#a. 3 +as active in the Bund, "ut 0ainly for li"raries. Julien O. 3ollowed a more restless yet typical itinerary, !oin! 3rom le3tist "ionism to communism, then to &rots#yism and later to 4undism. In each instance he $ased his choices on lucid analyses, while preservin! intact the intense revolutionary 3aith that !ave meanin! to his li3e. 3 started 0y olitical activity +hen 3 +as in hi#h school. 3 +as al+ays interested in the events that +ere takin# lace in the country, the +orld. 3 even re0e0"er the Pilsudski cou dGLtat. 3 +as a very youn# "oy? 3 +as fourteen. Ae +as su orted "y 81%9 Vladi0ir ;ede0, @1B&9J19($C +as a ro0inent leader @not founderC of the Bund in Poland and Iussia. D 1$9 D all the leftists, includin# the Co00unist arty, +hich +as clandestine. 3 re0e0"er the a#itation in Craco+. Later on, letGs say +hen 3 +as seventeen, one of 0y als, a little "it older than 0e, introduced 0e to Aasho0er AaFaGir, a leftist Fionist or#ani=ation, +here 3 fit in ri#ht a+ay. 1he #oal +as liyah , i00i#ration to :ret= 3srael, to Palestine. *t that ti0e, 3 +as a hi#h school student? they said: 6<, +e can acce t the hi#h school di lo0a "ut, in rinci le, one 0ustnGt study, e2ce t in s ecial cases. WeGre #oin# to +ork as si0 le +orkers in a ki""ut=. *t that ti0e, yes, 3 lanned to #o to Palestine. 3n that or#ani=ation, there +as a very friendly at0os here, a #reat ca0araderie. 1hey or#ani=ed arties, evenin# #atherin#s, cele"rations, #a0es. Peo le had friends of "oth se2es "ecause there +ere #irls too. 3t had a very s ecial s irit and you took to it ri#ht a+ay. 1here +as a "i# controversy +ith ;ordechai 6renstein, +ho u"lished a very controversial article. 3n

his ro5Co00unist =eal, he +ent so far as to Eustify the ersecutions of the Fionists in the 4oviet Union. Ae said that, until 19(&, the leftist la"or Fionists +ere le#al there, +hich +as true, and that all the Fionists +ho had "een arrested hadnGt "een arrested as Fionists "ut as anti54oviets. Ae also develo ed the theory that in the "reak in the la"or 0ove0ent the Co00unists +ere ri#ht, that their line +as revolutionary and that the line of the refor0ist 4ocialists +as false. 4o this en#endered a #reat controversy. 3 stayed in Aasho0er AaFaGir until 0any of 0y friends left it to Eoin the Polish /oun# Co00unist ;ove0ent. 3n that or#ani=ation, in Craco+, at least B% ercent of the 0e0"ers +ere ,e+s. *side fro0 a fe+ 0inin# areas +here the Polish Co00unist arty had a certain influence, it really didnGt have 0uch of a "ase a0on# the Polish o ulation. 3 think that co0es in art @3 see it no+, "ut 3 donGt kno+ if 3 analy=ed it in this +ay at the ti0eC fro0 the +ar of 19(% "et+een Poland and 4oviet Iussia. Iussia invaded Poland. 1here +ere stron# anti5Iussian traditions a0on# the Poles. 1hey +ere very assionate a"out their inde endence, and they thou#ht the Co00unists +ere actin# a#ainst their nation. *nd the ,e+s, in 0y o inion no+7"ecause that certainly +asnGt 0y analysis at the ti0e7 D 1H% D a0on# the ,e+s, there +as a kind of 0essianis0. 1he ,e+s didnGt find any lace for the0selves in society. ,e+ish +orkers +ere dou"ly ersecuted, the intellectuals didnGt see any o ortunities "efore the0, there +as the numerus clausus. /ou felt that ersecution. 1here +ere several tendencies +ithin ,e+ish life. 6ne +as to e0i#rate, to #o to a state that +ould "e ,e+ish? the other +as to fi#ht +here you +ere, to fi#ht to 0ake the revolution that +ould save the ,e+ish eo le. *t one ti0e, 3 +as te0 ted "y the leftist la"or Fionists. But there +ere also the Co00unists. We thou#ht that +as the radical solution. *t that ti0e, /iddish literature +as flourishin# in the 4oviet Union. 1he /iddish lan#ua#e +as reco#ni=ed as an official lan#ua#e? you could s eak in that lan#ua#e in the courts in the Ukraine. 4o, you said to yourself, there it is7li"eration co0es fro0 there. 6ne day 3 decided to 0ake the lea and 3 #ot in touch +ith the Co00unist /ouths. 3 +ent to a 0eetin# of Aasho0er and 0ade a declaration to e2 lain +hy 3 +as leavin# the or#ani=ation. But 0y co0rades in the Co00unist 0ove0ent didnGt a reciate that at all. 1hey +ere for the 1roEan horse tactic: you had to try to stay inside Aasho0er, to +ork to under0ine it and +in eo le for the Co00unist arty. /ou had to lay a role for a certain ti0e and follo+ the instructions they #ave you. But havin# 0ade that s eech and "roken it off, 3 couldnGt follo+ that tactic. 8 . . .9 3 re0e0"er that 3 +as already in o osition in the arty. 6nce so0e"ody ca0e to our house, to 0y father, "ecause he kne+ hi0. 3t +as the fa0ous historian 3saac Oeutscher.8119 No+ heGs +ell kno+n. Ae +as a fe+ years older than 0e and he +as already one of the 0e0"ers of the 1rotskyite or#ani=ation that had Eust "een created in Poland. Ae had "een the editor of a Co00unist ne+s a er in /iddish, &he %iterary &ri$une. Ae had 0ana#ed to ut out a 1rotskyite issue +ith so0e articles on >er0any, on the #reatest dan#er threatenin# the +orkin# class? all de0ocratic forces should unite in a o u5 8119 3saac Oeutscher, @19%&J19K&C +as a ;ar2ist historian and olitical scientist, "orn in Poland, internationally kno+n for his +orks on 4talin, 1rotsky, and the 4oviet Union. D 1H1 D lar front a#ainst fascis0. Ae +as thro+n out. Ii#ht then, 3 started readin# 1rotskyGs a0 hlets on >er0any. 3 found very #ood thin#s, es ecially on that issue of the -ascist dan#er and the o ular front.

Ae roved that the theory of social fascis0 +as a"solutely stu id: you canGt call all non5Co00unists fascists. 1here are differences. :ven if so0eone critici=es social de0ocracy as "ein# o ortunistic, it really canGt "e ut in the sa0e cate#ory as fascis0. -or 0e, all those +ere 'uite convincin# ar#u0ents. *t that ti0e, a 0e0"er of the Central Co00ittee +ho had co0e to Craco+ +as stayin# in 0y house. * ,e+, he read /iddish. 3t +as after the infa0ous ;arch ), 19$$. Aitler had already co0e to o+er. 1hen, all of a sudden, there +as an a eal of the Oomintern to all 4ocialist arties to for0 a o ular front. 1his #uy fro0 the Central Co00ittee didnGt kno+ that yet "ut 3 did, "ecause 0y father "rou#ht ho0e the ;osco+ ne+s a er ,mes . *nd that ne+s a er #ave the te2t of that <o0intern a eal. 3 +as sly. 3 started "y sayin# to hi0: .Co0rade, donGt you think +e should a eal to all the 4ocialist arties in Poland to 0ake a o ular frontU ;ay"e they +onGt a#ree, "ut then +eGll "e a"le to un0ask their leaders.. Ae ans+ered 0e: .Why, not at allR /ouGre really on a dan#erous course. 1hat +ould "e to reco#ni=e the0 as artners, #ive the0 resti#e. 3tGs a"solutely i0 ossi"le. 1o address the0 0eans +e "eco0e social -ascists ourselves. No, no +ay, +e 0ust never address the leaders of those arties. We +ant to 0ake the o ular front fro0 the #round u .. 4o, +ithout sayin# anythin#, 3 icked u the co y of ,mes and #ave it to hi0. Ae read it three ti0es. Ae could read /iddish. Ae read the te2t three ti0es. 1hen he looked to 0ake sure 3 didnGt #ive hi0 an issue that +as ten years old, the date and all that. *nd +hen he sa+ that it +as a recent issue of a Co00unist 4oviet ne+s a er, that it +as a #enuine a eal of the <o0intern7then, in a sin#le stroke, "ut really +ithout thinkin#, he said e2actly the o osite of +hat he had said "efore: .Why, thatGs co0 letely ri#htR 1o un0ask the social -ascists, you have to 0ake the a eal.. 3t really shocked 0e to see that 0entality. 3 +as already under the influence of the 1rotskyites +hen 3 D 1H( D +as arrested. 3 stayed in rison for a fe+ +eeks, thatGs +hy 3 didnGt reach all the conclusions concernin# +hat ha ened. But later 3 #ot in touch +ith the 1rotskyite or#ani=ation, +hich already e2isted in Warsa+. 1here +as another s0all o osition #rou that +ent alon# +ith the o ular front,81(9 and later +e united. 3 +as one of the founders, so to s eak, of the 1rotskyite or#ani=ation +e created in Craco+. 4o 3 "roke +ith the official Co00unist arty. Naturally, all those +ho re0ained Co00unists didnGt +ant to talk to 0e any0ore. 3 had #one over to the ene0y ca0 . 3 had "eco0e a 0ilitant 1rotskyite "ut it +as true that there +ere certain thin#s 3 didnGt understand very +ell in 1rotskyis0 "ecause 3 really didnGt kno+ +hat +as #oin# on in the 4oviet Union. *ll those ro"le0s of the stru##le a#ainst the leftists, the ultra5leftists. But 3 did understand the o ular front very +ell. 6nce Aitler had sei=ed o+er, the Co00unistsG osition "eca0e a"solutely a"surd. 1hey told us that there had "een no defeat of the +orkin# class in >er0any. We asked: .WhyU. .Because there +as no stru##leR. .Precisely, defeat +ithout stru##le, itGs even +orseR. .6f course not, Aitler overthre+ social de0ocracy. *fter that +eGre the ones +ho +ill co0e. 1here +ill "e a Ied 6cto"er after Aitler.. Well, history sho+ed +hat reality +as. 81(9 1he threat of fascis0 in -rance in 19$H led to the for0ation of a o ular front "et+een the factions on the left, +hich +on the elections and ca0e to o+er in 19$K. 4ee . 1B1. D 1H$ D

E; Metamor5hoses
I3 all the narrators $orn around the Mediterranean express a stron! sense o3 $elon!in! to the local community, i3 the local community was the center o3 !ravity o3 their lives, they nevertheless also remem$er $ein! at the 1unction o3 several cultures. &he tale o3 their childhood and youth is !enerally the tale o3 a transition $etween an indi!enous culture, natural as the mother ton!ue, and yet already a composite, and a culture acquired in their own environment or inculcated $y school. &hey perceive that passa!e as a social clim$, an escape, sometimes li$eration. 4ut, simultaneously, the impression pops up here and there o3 their havin! $een a pawn in a !ame !oin! on somewhere else* $etween the western powers, which were competin! 3or new supporters <throu!h the school, the press, the Church, music, etc.=6 $etween those powers and the indi!enous states, which were not happy to see their su$1ects ta#en out o3 traditional 3ramewor#s and drawn irresisti$ly toward other hori@ons.819

C!t the rossroads o' Three ulturesC

Beor!es J., $orn in &unis in 78>K AereGs ho+ it ha ened. 1hose +ho +ant e2act infor0ation on the ,udeo5*ra" environ0ent of 1unisia, articularly of 819 6n the eriod and the rocesses recalled in this cha ter "y the ,e+s of North *frica, see *ndrL Choura'ui, 4etween ,ast and +est* History o3 the Jews o3 Forth 3rica @Philadel hia: ,e+ish Pu"lication 4ociety of *0erica, 19KBC. -or :#y t, see ,ac'ues Aassoun et al., Jui3s du Fil 8,e+s of the Nile9 @Paris: 4yca0ore, 19B1C. D 1HH D 1unis, 0ust kno+ that, for those of 0y #eneration, there +as *ra", or ,udeo5*ra", culture? there +as -rench, or -ranco5*ra", culture? and there +as 3talian culture. No+, "ecause of 0y fa0ily, 3 0yself +as at the crossroads of these three cultures "ecause 0y father +as fro0 3talian culture. ;y aternal #rand0other, +ho lived in our house, only s oke 3talian. 4he s oke only 3talian or *ra"ic. 4he kne+ -rench, "ut she refused to s eak it. 3t +as a kind of 0adness a"out 3taly. 4o, 0y father and 3, +e s oke to her only in 3talian. *nd 0y 0other, +ho +as "e#innin# to "e e0anci ated7this +as the first #eneration that +as e0anci ated7she +ent to the 3talian school and #ot a de#ree and it +as only after+ard that she +ent to the lycLe.8(9 *t ho0e, then, until the a#e of ten, 3talian do0inated. 3talian do0inated even 0ore so since 0y father +as the corres ondent of so0e sons of his cousins +ho +ere fro0 ;ahdia and +ere civil servants in 1unis. 1hey stayed at our house on 4aturdays and 4undays. *nd durin# World War 3, they +ere 3talian soldiers, +ith the 3talian cloak. . . . 1+o of the0 died in the +ar, on the 3talian front. 1hey had . . . not a +orshi e2actly "ut a kind of 3talian i0 re#nation that didnGt #o so far as +orshi . But, for 0e, it held a kind of fascination. -ro0 a culinary oint of vie+, for e2a0 le, there +as s a#hetti and cheese in 0y house. *nd 0y father sent 0e to "uy cheese at CassarGs foodstore. /ou donGt kno+ itU Cassar, theyGre ;altese. *t the "e#innin# of Iue de lGP#lise, there +as a kind of courtyard and, there, there +as a char0in# little foodstore, Eust like the ones you find in so0e arts of the 1rastevere in Io0e. 3t +as e2actly the sa0e kind. *nd, of course, it +asnGt kosher. ;y father +asnGt reli#ious. 3 used to #o "uy cheese there and then 3Gd co0e "ack to "uy +ine in a sort of +retched little 3talian restaurant on the Iue des ;altais. ;y

#randfather +as connected to the 3talian fa0ilies "y 0arria#e, etc. But 0y father 0arried a 1unisian, 4arfati, +ho +as co0 letely 1unisian. 4o +hen +e +ent to 0y 0aternal #randfather, +e chan#ed +orldsR 1hatGs true? +e Eust had to #o thirty feet and +e +ere in another 8(9 1he -rench lycLe, that is. ,mancipation is the +ord used at the ti0e. 1he 0other 0ust have "een "orn in the 1BB%s. D 1H) D +orld. *t 0y 0aternal #rand0otherGs house, +e ate #amounia 8cumin stew 9 and +e ate mlou#hia 8stew o3 Jewish mallow 9. We ate all those +hatch0acallits that +e didnGt have in 0y fatherGs house. *nd there +as the hu""u" of 1unisian fa0ilies7every"ody talked loud. 1here +as this kind of hustle, and even if the houses +ere clean, they s0elled of onions. -ro0 1hursday on, they s0elled of onions.8$9 ;y 0aternal #randfather +as reli#ious +ithout "ein# reli#ious. Ae had already taken a tiny ste to+ard e0anci ation, "ut he couldnGt s eak -rench. Ae only s oke ,udeo5*ra"ic. Ae could +rite ,udeo5 *ra"ic. Ae +as a #rain dealer and, every ni#ht, +hen he ca0e ho0e, he did his accounts, standin# u in front of a "lack ca"inet. 3 can still see hi0. . . . Little ieces of a er, no led#ers, eh, little ieces of a er he stacked u like that. *nd 3 +as al+ays a0a=ed at that +ritin# 3 didnGt kno+. 3 kne+ -rench. 3 had a va#ue notion of Ae"re+ letters "ecause of the "ar 0it=vah? 3 had a va#ue notion of *ra"ic letters "ecause of 0y *ra" friends? "ut those letters73 didnGt kno+ +hat they +ere. Ae +rote ,udeo5*ra"ic. 1he letters arenGt the sa0e as classical Ae"re+. 3t looks a little "it like +hatGs called IashiGs +ritin#? it looks a little "it like that. 4o he had a ,udeo5*ra"ic culture. Ae didnGt ray on -riday ni#ht any0ore. 1he aunts told 0e he used to say #iddush 8$lessin! on the wine 9, "ut 3 never sa+ hi0 do it. Ae did do the +hole 4ha""at, that is, he had the 4ha""at la0 s lit? it +as all 'uite ro er. Ae didnGt #o to syna#o#ue, and he didnGt do the Aavdalah either. 3 didnGt learn the Aavdalah until later. Ae had taken a s0all ste to+ard e0anci ation. But he +as dee ly ,e+ish, ,udeo5*ra"ic. Because on Iosh Aashanah 8Few .ear 9, he +ent to syna#o#ue? on <i ur, he +ent to syna#o#ue. Not only did he #o there, "ut +e +ent +ith hi0 all the ti0e. 3 re0e0"er erfectly hearin# hi0 chant all the rayers. 3t +as a little syna#o#ue ne2t door, a fa0ily syna#o#ue, rivate, +hich "elon#ed to the Bessis. 1here +ere fa0ilies like that 8meanin! stu33y ones 9, +ho +ere ad0itted to that syna#o#ue of the Bessis. 8$9 1he re aration of the 4a""ath couscous "e#an on 1hursday. 1he t+o ste+s 0entioned a"ove also have a stron# odor. D 1HK D *nd 3 re0e0"er hearin# hi0 chant there every year in a very "eautiful voice, a "it 0uffled, "ut very 0ovin#. 1hat 0eans that he had a dee ,e+ish culture. *nd for 0e, that +as the ,udeo5*ra"ic side. *t that ti0e, +e +ere introduced into -rench culture, ste "y ste . We learned -rench, "ut +e didnGt ru" el"o+s +ith the0. We +ould #o to the "est one in the class to co y the Latin translation. *s +e ca0e into a house, it s0elled "ad 8with a wrin#lin! o3 his nose, he recalls the smell o3 coo#in! with $utter 9. WhatGs true is that +e didnGt ru" el"o+s +ith the0. We didnGt ru" el"o+s +ith the0 "ecause they didnGt +ant to, "ecause +e +ere ,e+s. Besides, +e didnGt really ush it "ecause +e didnGt have the sa0e #a0es or the sa0e +ays of thinkin#. 4o +e forced our +ay into -rench culture. We ac'uired the literary and scientific culture, "ut it +ouldnGt "e true to say that +e +ere assi0ilated at that ti0e. We +ere a"le to take a fe+ ste s to+ard assi0ilation only here, in Paris. 3 lived in Lyon for a year. 3t +as

the sa0e thin#: 3 never sa+ the inside of one of 0y friendGs houses. 1hat "e#an only in Paris. ;y ro"le0 is very s ecial, in fact, "ecause 3 0arried a -rench+o0an. 4he +as a -rench+o0an fro0 the rovinces, and there 3 really +as ad0itted. 1hatGs +hat encoura#ed 0y e0anci ation. 4o did 0y olitical orientation, +hich 0eant that a +hole "unch of eo le +ere 0y friends. *nd of course, +hen 3 entered the fa0ilies, 3 felt al0ost forced to "e assi0ilated into the0. 1he fact is that 3 ca0e out of there reassured, +hich didnGt ha en to 0e +ith the ,e+s. *s for that -rench culture, +e ac'uired it. 3t ca0e later, +hereas 3talian culture and ,udeo5*ra"ic culture are native to 0e. 1hatGs the difference. 1he others are native. 1he o ulation of 1unis ran the #a0ut: there +ere those +ho +ere 0ore consistently ,udeo5*ra"ic in character, those +ho +ere 0ore 3talian, etc., a kind of 0eltin# ot. *nd thatGs ho+ +e lived those 0arvelous years, rich years. 3t +as a #reat e2 erience "ecause there +asnGt any o"stacle in the 0idst of the culture that +as ours. We assi0ilated other ele0ents co0in# fro0 else+here, "ut they didnGt assi0ilate us. A3 the component o3 his culture desi!nated 2Judeo- ra$ic,2 Beor!es J. retains more than the stron! odor o3 onion that prevailed D 1H& D in the house and the cryptic lan!ua!e o3 his !rand3ather)s accounts. In other sequences o3 his $io!raphy, he also recalls two Jewish reli!ious 3i!ures. Ane is ne!ative* the i!norant ra$$i who prepared him 3or the $ar mit@vah without understandin! anythin! o3 what he said or explainin! anythin! he mi!ht have #nown. &he other ima!e that comes up, $eamin! in the twili!ht o3 a lonely room, is that o3 an old relativeHan uncle or !reat !rand3atherE +ho #nowsEHto whom the child $rou!ht his daily dinner, 2an e!! and an ei!hth o3 "oukha. S fi# "randyT . Characteri@ed $y asceticism, solitude, and mystery, the man was steeped in the study o3 the "ohar, &he 4oo# o3 Splendor, and it is this memory, a luminous point o3 childhood, that now seems to have led his descendant $ac# to the study o3 &orah. 2 t the 1unction o3 three cultures,2 he tells us. %oo#in! at his statement more closely, the 3irst culture corresponds to reli!ious practices, to a scripture and to dietary ha$its. &he second, connected with the memory o3 a lan!ua!e, Italian, and a diet o3 cheese, is also evo#ed $y the newspaper an uncle reads and comments on in the evenin!. &his culture is already part o3 the process o3 2emancipation2 descri$ed $y Beor!es J. 4ut ra$ic cultureE &hou!h it was the culture o3 the ma1ority in the country, it is a$sent 3rom the picture painted 3or us. 'ery present instead throu!h schools, newspaper stands, and $oo#stores was 5rench culture, dominant thou!h the culture o3 a minority. (aradoxically, the livin# lan!ua!es spo#en since childhood seem to $elon! to a dyin! culture, whereas the printed lan!ua!e, la$oriously learned, is the one that allows the narrator to pull himsel3 up to modernity. 1unction, yes, $ut all o3 its roads are not o3 equal value. Some seem hence3orth to $e dead ends while others are avenues o3 escape and social mo$ility. ndr ., $orn in &unis in 78;9, echoes him* 1he ,e+s had the sa0e ha"its, the sa0e custo0s as the ;usli0s, yesR 3tGs +ith colonialis0 that they layed the -rench card. 1hey tried to #et out of their #hetto "y ado tin# -rench culture7thatGs +hat it is. Previous #enerations had ke t ;usli0 ha"its7the su eriority of the 0an over the +o0an, etc.7 and there +as an inevita"le develo 0ent, a +orld+ide develo 0ent, to+ard e'uality. But there +as also the 0ove, in 1unisia, of the ,e+s to+ard -rench culture, +hich ha ened "ecause of colonialis0. We are the roducts of colonialis0. *nd finally, there +ere so0e of us +ho considered ourselves -rench. Like

D 1HB D us: +eGre closer to the ;artins than to the ;uha00ads. 3n 1unisia, 3 never read a sin#le ;usli0 +riter, a sin#le ;usli0 oet. 3 read >er0an hiloso hers? 3 read -rench oets . . . Beor!es J. also descri$es this lin!uistic and cultural mi!ration, which he calls 2emancipation,2 as emi!ration. His early childhood was spent in a poor nei!h$orhood outside the !hetto, $ut it is still presented as 2a whole world,2 where all the components o3 the local society were represented* all, except one, 3or the narrative reveals that there was no 5rench component. -urin! his adolescence, the 3amily movesHand the name o3 the street is indicativeHto venue de 5rance. &his distance, less than hal3 a mile, is remem$ered as a radical $rea#. &he !rand3ather will no lon!er return to /ue des &anneurs except 3or .om Oippur. 5or the !randmother, 2there was no lon!er anythin! to loo# 3orward to, there was nothin!.2 5or the adolescent and his $rothers, venue de 5rance mar#s the comin! o3 2culture.2 %ater on, another move mar#s a new $rea#. Beor!es J. leaves 3or 5rance to study. He is 2accepted2 into 5rench society and 3inally 3eels a sense o3 com3ort he no lon!er shared with Jews. 1he Iue des 1anneurs +as an e2traordinary street "ecause it +as an enclave. 3t +as self5sufficient? there +as no need to #o outside the street for anythin# at all. 1here +ere "utchers, ve#eta"le 0erchants, doctors, restaurants, a rintsho , a "lacks0ith, a car enter, a "aker. /ou Eust canGt i0a#ine all that +as on the Iue des 1anneurs7a +hole +orld. *nd that +orld had its eculiarities, "ecause there +as its o+n s0ell, and that is still in 0y nostrils. &he narrator then descri$es the tanners 2at the end o3 the alleys,2 3rom which 2a yellowish water 3lowed all day lon!.2 He discovered the innards o3 the earth one day when he had lost a $all, which wound up in the vat o3 a tannery* 3 +ent to #et the "all . . . and there 3 sa+ a si#ht 3 0i#ht descri"e today as infernal. Under a vaulted house, a rather lo+ house, "uried, half5"uried, there +as a tanner +ho had strun# u so0e sort of thick leather a rons, sla in# +ilth a kind of +ood shovel. 3 didnGt see the0. 1hey 0ust have "een sla in# on the hides . . . and 3 +as scared. 3 ran a+ay and left the "all. D 1H9 D But that +asnGt all there +as to the street7the street +as +here +e lived. We +ere street children? the street "elon#ed to us. 1here +ere #rocers, +ho +ere *ra"s. 1he "aker7there +as an *ra" one and a ,e+ish one. 1he "utchers +ere all kosher? eo le ca0e fro0 all over to+n to "uy kosher 0eat on the Iue des 1anneurs. . . . 3n the alleys there lived 0any 3talian fa0ilies and 0any ;altese fa0ilies. 1he *ra"s +ere the tanners and so0e s0all trades0en +ho +ere there. We lived in a co00unity of 3talians, ;altese, ,e+s, and *ra"s, +ithout any difference. 1he children layed to#ether +ithout any difference. 3t +as really a +onderful +orld. &hen, a3ter the move to venue de 5rance* 1hat +as really another life. We 0oved on to hi#h school. -ro0 the a0use0ent of the street, +e 0oved on to the a0use0ent of the ne+s a ers. 1he ne+s a er stands +ere closer. We thre+ ourselves into readin#, culture. We +ent, 0y "rother and 3, to su"scri"e to the readin# li"raries. We had a co0 letely different orientation. ;y #randfather didnGt see any"ody fro0 Iue des 1anneurs any0ore e2ce t on <i ur, +hen +e +ent to the syna#o#ue. . . . *nd that is +here +e lived until 3 left for school. *nd +hen 3 ca0e "ack for vacations, 0y #randfather +as dead and 0y 0other had #one to live7takin# her 0other and one of her sisters, the youn#est7on *venue de Paris . . . m$ivalent ima!es com$ine here* the lost world was an in3ernal, archaic, visceral world, a world o3 dar# alleys, dirty water, meats, entrails, and hides. 4ut it was 2whole,2 central <people came 3rom all

over the city to $uy meat6 the narrator also says that his street was 2the industrial center2 o3 the city=. It 3ormed a sel3-su33icient microcosm, rich in immediate and intense human relations* 2&he street $elon!ed to us.2 4y contrast, entrance throu!h the 3ront doorH venue de (aris, the 5rench lyceHto 5rench culture leads to $oth emancipation and alienation* in 5rance 2I 3elt almost 3orced to $e assimilated to them.2 5or %aure ., who was $orn and !rew up in Istan$ul at the $e!innin! o3 the century, 5rench culture was not only the culture o3 school and emancipation $ut also the culture o3 distinction, which placed people D 1)% D hi!her up on the social ladder. &he westerni@ation o3 the 3amily had $e!un in the !eneration o3 her 3ather, who was $orn in the last quarter o3 the nineteenth century* *t the a#e of t+elve, 0y father s oke -rench as +ell as 3 do. *t t+elve, he +rote +ithout any 0istakes. Ae had learned -rench in a ,e+ish -rench school. Pa a stayed at school until t+elve or thirteen. 1hen his father died, and he had his four "rothers to feed. Ae +as the oldest? then there +as Uncle ;oses, Uncle 4olo0on, Uncle Ia hael. . . . ;y father +as the shre+dest, the 0ost intelli#ent. Ae +as called ,ac'ues. 1he other one, Uncle ;oses, he +as a real :n#lish0an, +ith a i e, 0usic. . . . 1he uncle fro0 Berlin, Ia hael, al+ays had a 0onocle and a cane . . . Characteristically, %aure . !ives her uncles) 3irst names in the He$rew version, $ut she 3renchi3ies her 3ather)s name, which was Isaac. &his !ame continues in the 3ollowin! sequence where, tellin! o3 the schoolin! o3 the !irls o3 her !eneration, she persists in callin! the schools o3 the lliance Isralite the 2 lliance 5ranQaise,2 a name that serves here as a cachet o3 social distinction* 3n 0y #eneration, there +ere schools in 1urkey that +erenGt #ood? they had eo le +ho +erenGt fro0 our social circle. . . . 4o 0y t+o oldest sisters +ent to convent schools7Christian, Catholic. 4ince there +ere a lot of us, ;a0a ut the0 in "oardin# school. 4he +as very ha y +ith the education, +ith everythin#. 1hen a ,e+ish student there converted. 1hat +as a disaster for all the ,e+s7not only converted, "ut they 0ade her a nun. 4he "eca0e 4ister 4o0ethin#5or56ther. 1hat she converted, that +as nothin#, "ut she "eca0e a nun. . . . *n#ela, 3 think. 1he ,e+ish co00unity didnGt acce t that. ;y t+o sisters ;. and I. +ere in the -rench ,e+ish school. 1eachers fro0 the *lliance -rancaise of Paris. 1hey +ere ,e+s, "ut they had #one to school in Paris. .4o it +as the *lliance 3sraLliteU. /es, the *lliance 3sraLlite -ranWaise, 3 think, in -rench. 1he lliance 5ranQaise Isralite R But later, that school +as closed. 1he schools, they had children of "utchers, of easants. . . . /ouGre D 1)1 D #oin# to tell 0e . . . Aere . . . here, itGs not like that. ;ilk0en are very res ected. 1here, they +ere oor eo le7the "aker, the one +ho sold 0eat, fish, all that7they +ere oor eo le. 4o to "e in the sa0e schools +ith the0 +as to lo+er yourself a "it. &he three sisters then went to the Berman school, then the merican Colle!e, and they spo#e 3luent Spanish, Berman, 5rench, and ,n!lish $ut not a word o3 &ur#ish.

CThe EFtra MurosC

%aunched into ,uropean culture, its lan!ua!es, its music, its styles, one had already !one without even leavin! the !round on which he or she !rew up. In &ripoli at the $e!innin! o3 the century the school apparatus $ein! yet em$ryonic, there were other strate!ies o3 social distinction than those recalled $y %aure . </ather than !oin! to school you had the headmistress come to your house 3or private lessons.= 4ut 1ust as inevita$ly, you $ecame a 3orei!nerHsi!ni3icantly, Camilla F. descri$es her 3amily)s move 3rom the center o3 the city to an 2extra muros2 nei!h$orhoodHand you were transported to other shores* Constantinople, where Camilla F.)s 3ather went several timesE Fo, that is a dream lon! cherished $ut never reali@ed. &he 3ather also had re!ular commercial relations with 5e@@an and distant 3rica. His dau!hter was 3ascinated $y that. I as# her i3 she went there* 2 re you #iddin!E Fever, it was too 3arI2 Instead the 3amily went on vacation each summer, sometimes in &unisia, sometimes in Italy. nd once she !ot married, Camilla F. 3inally moved to (aris. We s oke al0ost all lan#ua#es, you kno+. 1hat is, +e s oke *ra"ic, "ut our friends +ere 4yrians. 1here +ere state officials, functionaries of 1urkey. 1hey ca0e fro0 4yria, fro0 Le"anon? they s oke *ra"ic, they s oke 1urkish. Pa a s oke 1urkish very +ell, he +as very assi0ilated +ith the0. *nd those eo le +ere so niceR 4uch refined cookin#R We had 1urkish dishes that +ere really so0ethin#R *nd one of the thin#s +e had7this is to tell you a"out the 0i2ture of our lives7+as so0ethin# e2traordinary: +e had, D 1)( D like 0any children, if you like, a kind of #overness, a ,e+ish +o0an fro0 40yrna +ho s oke 4 anish. .4o you also learned 4 anishU. * little. >reek, for e2a0 le, +e had >reek friends +ho ca0e to school +ith us "ecause there +ere thin#s 83isheries 9 of s on#es there, you kno+U 3t +as s0all, s0all. 3 ad0it it +as very s0all, "ut there +ere >reeks, there +ere 1urks, there +ere :n#lish, the consuls, that is. 4o all those eo le sa+ each other re#ularly in the laces called extra muros "ecause they +ere outside the city. /ou kno+, +e s ent 0uch 0ore ti0e +ith forei#ners. We +ere raised +ith forei#ners, our fa0ily es ecially, "ecause +e +ere outside. 1he fa0ily, the cousins, had already #one to :uro e. 4o they +ere very :uro eani=ed already too. 1here, 3G0 #oin# to tell you, for e2a0 le. 1here +erenGt so 0any teachers and schools and everythin#. ;y :n#lish teacher +as the . . . riest of the Protestants, as itGs called, he +as the one +ho +as Protestant. 4o 3 kne+ the +hole ,e+ish reli#ion e2 lained in :n#lish "ecause he tau#ht 0e a"out reli#ion. ;y 3talian teacher +as a defrocked riest. Naturally, there +as a ra""i in the house every day +ho ca0e for the "oys. We had teachers for everythin#. ./ou had rivate teachersU. 1here +asnGt anythin#R .1here +as an *lliance school, +asnGt thereU. 6h, yes, 0y -rench teacher +as the head0istress of the *lliance school. But she ca0e to the house only for us. 1here +ere the nuns? 3 s ent a year at the convent school. In Cairo, at the $e!innin! o3 the century, Jews were also at the 1unction o3 three cultures $ut were attracted more $y the 5rench schoolHin either its secular or its reli!ious, Christian or Jewish 3orms. (eople were proud o3 masterin! so many lan!ua!es, o3 $endin! to 5rench school discipline, o3 havin!

had to learn ra$ic as a 3orei!n lan!ua!e. t the end o3 the metamorphosis, ,dmond H. means 2the Jews2 when he spea#s o3 2,uropeans.2 He is already posin! as a 5renchman in his recollection o3 how the ,!yptian elite was #ept in a state o3 humiliation $y 4ritish colonial politics. Fative Copts and Muslims attended the D 1)$ D same schools without $ein! excluded 3rom the ,!yptian 3ramewor#. 5or the Jews, however, 3renchi3ication $y the school contri$uted to their mar!inali@ation. ,dmond H., Cairo, 78>8* 3t +asnGt an :#y tian country? it +asnGt the :#y t of the :#y tians. 3t +as a cosmopolitan country. *nd that +as our 0isfortune. Because if +e had a#reed to associate the :#y tian elite in +hat +e +ere doin#, +e +ould never have had the trou"les +e had. ,ust like the -rench in *l#eria. 3t +as the century of British do0ination. 4o for all the for0al a ers, it +as *ra"ic and :n#lish? for all the infor0al a ers, it +as -rench. 3n any store, "i# or s0all, you s oke -rench, and theyGd ans+er you in -rench. WhyU Because there +erenGt any ;usli0s "ehind the counter. 1hey +ere 0ostly ,e+s, >reeks, 3talians, Le"anese. .What a"out the Co tsU. 1hatGs another cate#ory alto#ether. WeGll talk a"out the Co ts later. 8In 3act, he never tal#ed a$out the Copts later. ,dmond H. !oes on. 9 3n Cairo, any ,e+ +ho didnGt s eak three or four lan#ua#es +as an i0"ecile, ure and si0 le. /ouGre #oin# to ask 0e: .Ao+ can it "e that he s eaks three or four lan#ua#esU Ae can s eak four lan#ua#es, +ithout readin# the0, +ithout +ritin# the0. WhyU7Because he han#s out +ith, is 0i2ed u +ith, all the others.. .4o +hat +as the 0ost +ides read of these three or four lan#ua#esU. -rench. .IeallyU Not *ra"icU. No, *ra"ic +as for the *ra"s? not for us. ;y dau#hter finished her studies at the -rench lycLe. 4he took her final e2a0s: :n#lish, first art, Ae"re+, second art. 4he never studied *ra"ic. ;y sister, +ho +as in the *0erican ;ission, al+ays had erfect :n#lish, erfect -rench. 4he couldnGt read even one +ord of *ra"ic. s in &unis with Beor!es J., the indi!enous lan!ua!e ,dmond H. de3ines as 2predominant2 was really the lan!ua!e o3 servants and D 1)H D clients. How one used lan!ua!es was one o3 the indicators o3 one)s position in the social hierarchy.

French Theater
*fter the school, alon# +ith the school, the "ookstore, the theater, and the o era +ere other da==lin# laces in +hich one could enEoy the fascination of -rench culture. 1unis. Plie B., "orn in 1B9B. *s a child, he received t+o francs a +eek fro0 his father. 3 +aited i0 atiently for ;onday to #o to the "ookstore to "uy a +ork for 1.() francs. 3 s ent ei#ht

ence on the 0ovies on 1hursday, +ith one enny at inter0ission for #a#is 8salted crac#ers sold $y peddlers 9. 4ut it was durin! his 3irst trip to 5rance in 78;> that he discovered the world o3 $oo#s and ideas, the variety o3 the daily press and literary reviews, scholarly societies, and even some 3amous writers. His trip turned into a literary 1ourney, an initiation into hi!h culture, the measure o3 his divorce 3rom the culture o3 his parents. +hile they visited the popular (arisian si!hts and stayed within &unisian mi!r circles, he crisscrossed (aris in the 3ootsteps o3 his intellectual heroes. 8In Marseille 9, 3 +as fla""er#asted. 3 sa+ the o en5air theater created "y the Co0Ldie5-ranWaise. 1hatGs +here 3 "ou#ht 0y first "ooks "y *ndrL >ide, the "ooks ut out "y the ;ercure de -rance. . . . 1hen +e +ent u to Lyon. 3n Lyon, 3 si0 ly visited the 4aint5,ean 'uarter. 3 visited -ourviVre. 3 visited the old streets of the 4aint5,ean 'uarter, and there too 3 discovered a secondhand "ookdealer +ho sold chea li0ited editions of #reat authors and authors 3 had heard of. . . . *nd then +e +ent on to Vichy. Vichy +as a0usin# "ecause, 3 re0e0"er, 3 +ent to the Casino every afternoon to hear classical o eretta. 3 visited the environs of the city, the Petit Palais. 3 +ent ro+in# alon# the *llier, and then 3 visited the +o0en. . . . 1hen, +e #ot to Paris. 3n Paris, +e lived in ;ontholon 4'uare. ;y father +ent to find the 1unisians +ho +ere livin# there. .1hey +ere already in that nei#h"orhoodU. D 1)) D When +e left 1unis, +e already had a lan. Peo le said to us: ./ouGre #oin# to Paris, #o see this one, #o see S., #o see F.. /ou kne+ that so0e #uy +as in so0e cafL. ;y arents +ent to the -olies Ber#Vre, to the Concert ;aillot. . . . 3 found out that there +as a "us not far a+ay that took 0e to Place 4aint ;ichel. 3 +ent to the Place de lG6dLon. 3 +ent to theater sho+s at the 6dLon. 3 +ent to see the u"lisher -i#uiVre, +ho +as u"lishin# Brulat at that ti0e. *nd 3 re0e0"er one day +hen 3 #ot 0y ticket to the Co0Ldie5-ranWaise. 3t +as 4e te0"er 1B, 3 re0e0"er. &he Myth o3 Sisyphus . . . . 3t +as 0a#nificent, that tra#edy . . . 3 re0e0"er 0y feelin#s in Paris +hen 3 assed 4alle ;arivau2. 3 often sa+ the #reat sta#e actor >a"riel 4i#noret #o "y. *nd 3 re0e0"er that, in Vichy, 3 +ent to the theater one day to see 3"senGs -oll)s House +ith Luc NL o8U9 and his +ife 4u=anne Oes rLs. 3t +as #ri in#. *nd in the orchestra seat ne2t to 0e sat the #reat actor of the 1hLZtre -ranWais, LLon BLrard. 3 looked at hi0 +ith ad0iration, and he 0ade a friendly little #esture to 0e, sensin# that 3 +as lookin# at hi0. 3 then asked to s eak to hi0. 3 had seen hi0 in so 0any fil0s . . . *nother thin# a"out Vichy +as +alkin# around the #reat avenues every afternoon, +ith the ne+s a er vendors +ho sold all the daily a ers. *t that ti0e, there +as a lar#e daily called %e Journal du peuple 8&he (eople)s Fewspaper 9, edited "y Aenri -a"re, +hen Aenri -a"re +as at the hei#ht of his #lory. 1here +as also a +eekly called %es Hommes du 1our 8Men o3 the -ay 9, and all the leftist ty es contri"uted to it. Back in Paris, 3 attended a conference of the 4ociLtLs 4avantes 8a cultural or!ani@ation 9. 3 visited the Louvre. ;y arents had their leasures, 3 had 0ine. 1hey +ent to Chantilly t+o or three ti0es to see the races "ecause so0e"ody had told the0 that that +as a 0ust. 1hey +ent to the -olies Ber#Vre and the Casino de Paris, "ut they didnGt #o to the theater even once. 3 sa+ u"lishers, "ookstores. 1hat year, at -i#uiVreGs, 3 0et Count S., +ho +as Auys0ansGs secretary. Ae took 0e to hi0 and then introduced 0e to other +riters. WeGd 0eet in the Lu2e0"our#? he lived on Iue 4ervandoni. 6ne day, he said to 0e: .3G0 #oin# to take you to the teacher of us all,. and he took 0e to *natole

D 1)K D -rance. 3 0ade that little visit to the Villa 4aid . . . and +hen he asked 0e +hat 3 lanned to do, 3 said: .;y dear 0aster, 3G0 thinkin# of devotin# 0yself . . . 3 have arents +ho are +ell off . . . 3G0 thinkin# of devotin# 0yself to literary ursuits.. Ae s0iled and said: .3tGs hard, you kno+.. %ater on, Ulie 4. launched a little literary review in &unisia, pu$lished his own poems, and opened an art !allery, all the while mana!in! a pharmaceutical $usiness. &he review was titled Aasis* 2 n Aasis is a place o3 concentration . . . a place o3 re3u!e She hesitates, I am surprised, I thin# 2!hetto26 then he !oes on, more 3irmlyT, o3 encounters. . . . 5or us, it)s a place o3 encounters.2 5or Madame O., $orn in &unis a3ter 78>>, +estern culture also meant the sta!e. ;usicU :very ni#ht, 0y 0other sat do+n at the iano and san#: %a 4ohNme, Madama 4utter3ly, %a#m . . . . 4he layed, and +e ut on our ni#ht#o+ns. We +ent to see her, and then +e scurried off to "ed. *nd +hen +e started learnin# the iano at the a#e of si2, one day, 0y sister and 3, +e +ere stuck, +e called ;a0a. .;a0a, +hatGs +ritten thereU. .3 donGt kno+.. .What do you 0ean, you donGt kno+U. .3 donGt kno+ 0usic, 3 donGt kno+ notes.. 4he layed "y ear? she layed very +ell. *nd -ernand, her "rother, ho+ he layed the rolo#ue of (aillasse and .1he old 0an cursed 0e. fro0 /i!oletto R /ou re0e0"erU .But ho+ did you learn 0usicU. Well, see. 3t +as a culture of o era. ;y father had a very #ood osition, he +as rich. 6<. ;y 0other had her "o2 at the 0unici al theater. 4he +ent to the evenin# erfor0ance on 1uesdays and 4aturdays. We had three seats reserved for the 4unday 0atinee all year. We +ent +ith our 0aid. 4he +as dressed u , +ore a hat and a suit. 4he sat +ith us. 6n 4unday 0ornin#s, it +as a ritual: 0y 0other called us, 0y father #ot u , +e sat at the foot of the "ed. 4heGd tell us the story, sin# assa#es to us, and +hen +e +ent to the o era, +e already kne+ +hat it +as a"out. /ou donGt have an in"orn kno+led#e of 0usicR *nd then, there +as, 3 think, so0ethin# in the fa0ily. We lived for 0usic. D 1)& D 6ne 0ore thin#: ;y father couldnGt study a lot "ecause his father, as soon as he +as #ro+n u , said: .3G0 not +orkin# any0ore, youGll have to #o to +ork.. Ae took char#e of his +hole fa0ily. But +hen 3 started readin#, 3 found in 0y fatherGs roo0 all of Iacine, all of ;oliVre, and all of Corneille in 6ld -rench, and all of Victor Au#o, the co0 lete +orks of Victor Au#o. 3 re0e0"er, 3 +as s0all, and 3 couldnGt "ear "ooks in 6ld -renchR 3 +as inca a"le of trans osin#, so 3 said .3 +os.. 3 re0e0"er IacineGs %es (laideurs 7+hat 3 had to endure to read the0. 3Gll tell you so0ethin# else. ;y 0other al+ays said that 0y *unt LLa +as very "eautiful, a real "eauty. 4he +as si2teen years old +hen she #ot 0arried. 1hey called her the Iose of 1unis. 4he +as e2traordinarily "eautiful. *nd she had "een asked for "y O. 6ne of the rich O.Gs. *nd 0y #randfather didnGt +ant hi0 "ecause he +asnGt educated enou#h. Ae referred 4.B. "ecause he +as educatedR *nd $ecause he was 5renchI Because 0y >randfather <. loved the -rench, +hile the O.Gs +ere 1unisian and not educated at all. . . . ;y father +asnGt handso0e? he +as dark. But he +as -rench, and he +as educated. &o $e 5rench was indeed the !oal o3 that e33ort on the part o3 the Jewish $our!eoisie to adopt the ways o3 livin!, the provincial culture, that &unis o33ered durin! the colonial period. .ou could $e dar# and even u!ly, $ut education and 5rench nationality !ave you a mar# o3 distinction. Fothin! else, 3or in the !allery o3 characters presented $y that woman, no 25renchman 3rom 5rance,2 as they were then called, appears. .ou could read a$out 5rance, hear a$out it, see it in the windows o3 the $oo#shops and on the

school $enches, $ut you hardly #new any 5renchmen. .ou were not close to any. /ather, to display a 5rench personality was to distance yoursel3 3rom the native culture, which was de$ased $y the colonial situation. &he same narrator adds* ;y arents s oke only -rench at ho0e. :ven 3 have a lot of trou"le s eakin# 8 ra$ic 9. When 3 #ot 0arried, 3 +as in 4ousse, 3 had an 3talian +o0an for so0e ti0e. *nd +hen she left, 3 +as forced to take an *ra" 0aid. *nd that +as 'uite a scene, +e +ere like deaf50utes, everythin# like that 8she !estures, mimes dialo!ue 9. 3 had to ask 0y sister5in5la+. D 1)B D Fot all the Jews had access to the 5rench school and some only passed throu!h it. 4ut, sooner or later, they were exposed to western culture styles and sei@ed $y them. ,ven &ita, who remained illiterate and ra$ic-spea#in!, was !lad when her hus$and adopted ,uropean dress. t the very least, others chan!ed their names, and that already indicated a chan!e in social station. &unis. In the last twenty years o3 the nineteenth century, Sar3ati, a tailor in the sou#, then a !rain dealer, had six children, six dau!hters* Marie, Mathilde, ,mma, Henriette, Beor!ette, and Al!a. ll the 3irst names are western and were 3ashiona$le at their time. However, $ehind the 3acade, another 3irst name was hidden, the one that assured continuity with one)s ancestors. 5or children received the names o3 their deceased 3ore$ears, those o3 the paternal line havin! priority over those o3 the maternal line. So, Marie was Me0ma, a diminutive o3 Miriam6 Mathilde was ) tu or Mes)uda6 ,mma was Me0ha, named a3ter her !reat-!randmother6 Henriette was Shmana. Me0ha, ) tu, ShmanaHthe etymolo!y o3 these names is no lon!er #nown. .ou #now only that someone in the 3amily had already had them. +hen the stoc# o3 ancestors o3 the last two !enerations was exhausted, 3amily memory reached its end, and the last $orn had only a western name* Beor!ette, $orn in 7K88, the 3irst to have a civil re!istration, had no other name6 nor did Al!a, $orn in 78>>. Famin! the elders was the ma1or concern6 it too# precedence over assi!nin! a Jewish identity to the children when they were $orn. I3 all the ra$ 3irst names !iven in this 3amily were used exclusively $y Jews, only that o3 the oldest, Miriam, is 3rom a $i$lical source. In the case o3 sons, the He$raic tradition was stron!er and com$ined with 3amily continuity. Fames 3rom the Ald &estament were then handed down 3rom !eneration to !eneration. 4ut sooner or later, westerni@ation too# hold, and the old names $ecame middle names or were 2translated2 into a western lan!ua!e. system o3 equivalents was set up in which $raham $ecame l$ert, Haim was called 'ictorH3or Haim is 2li3e28H9and there is the sound o3 vie in 'ictorHMa#hlou3 !ave way to /en, Judith slid into ,dith. So everyone !rew up with two, sometimes three, identities. Ane was 3or pu$lic and administrative purposes* in school, in various dealin!s with the $ureaucracy, one used the western name. 8H9 1ranslatorGs note: 3n -rench, .life. is vie . D 1)9 D &he traditional name, pronounced in the local lan!ua!e, was reserved 3or reli!ious rituals, 3rom circumcision to death. More private and 3or the early years o3 li3e, a nic#name was used $y parents, schoolmates, and relativesHMimil, -d, Fani, %ulu. &hat diminutive concealed $oth the He$rew name, which classi3ied the individual as old-3ashioned, $ac#ward, 2 ra$i@ed2 @0Gar"iC, and the western name, which thrust the individual into the 2developed2 world $ut which was somewhat em$arrassin! to use within the 3amily and community !roup. &he politics o3 the name 3ollows and illustrates the westerni@ation and seculari@ation o3 the Jews 3rom Saloni#a to Istan$ul or Casa$lanca. ,verywhere, a

#ind o3 Marrano-li#e8 )9mechanism operated to conceal the Jewish identity, to con3ine it to domestic and ritual use. Ane sported a western name 3or pu$lic use. ,sther ,. H., $orn in 787K in Mo!ador, explains how her children)s names were chosen* she was in3luenced $y tradition as well as $y recent history, that o3 the west, with the aspirations and illusions it aroused in Morocco. 8&he 3irst is 9 IenL, "ecause 0y father5in5la+Gs na0e +as ;akhlouf. IenL, that 0eans ;akhlouf, itGs the sa0e thin#. 3f you translate, itGs IenL. *ll ;akhloufs are called IenL. 1hat +as 0y father5in5la+ +ho died. Because +e canGt #ive the na0e of relatives +hen theyGre alive. 1hat is, the erson is afraid heGll die? itGs a su erstition. /vette, sheGs called FaQta, Eoy. /vette, 3 called her, after a friend fro0 hi#h school +ho0 3 loved very 0uch. We #ave the0 t+o na0es "ut +e al+ays called the0 "y the -rench one. 8Fote that .vette is the only 5rench name6 those that 3ollow are n!lo- merican. 9 ,i00y, his na0e is Aai0: itGs 0y #randfather, 0y 0otherGs father? and ,i00y, "ecause of the *0erican landin#. *nd +e had a fello+, his na0e +as ,i00y, he al+ays ca0e to our house. Io"ert, his na0e is Ia hael. 3 #ave hi0 a ra""iGs na0e. 3 said, if itGs a "oy, 3Gll na0e hi0 Ia hael. 3 donGt kno+ if 3 drea0ed it or so0ethin# like that. AeGs a #reat ra""i of 4alL. Lydia is na0ed after ;a0a, Aanna. ;a0a, it +as all the 8)9 ;arranos: ,e+s +ho +ere forced to convert in 4 ain and Portu#al +ere ostensi"ly Christian +hile 0aintainin# secretly their ,e+ish faith. D 1K% D sa0e to her, +hen she +as alive, she said, .3tGs Pa a +ho +as su erstitious? he +as afraid to die.. ;a0a died at the a#e of ei#hty5five and 0y father died +hen he +as si2ty5four. 4o, you see, thatGs not +hat killed hi0. *nd Vicky, Victoria: .WeGre #oin# to na0e her after Mueen Victoria.. 3tGs +hi0s. 1hey ca0e and you #ave the0 na0es. %aure ., Istan$ul, a$out 787>* ;y "rotherGs na0e +as *l"ert. *"raha0, *l"ert. ;y "rother +as so si0 leR . . . 3 thou#ht that *l"ert +as co00on, so 3 called hi0 Bert. 3t +as funny, it +as chic, it +as :n#lish. Ae said to 0e: .3f you call 0e that na0e a#ain, 3G0 #oin# to tell every"ody that 0y na0e is *"raha0. 1hatGll teach you to call 0e Bert.. Ae +as ca a"le of layin# a trick like that on 0eR (oor, less westerni@ed Jews succum$ed to the same attraction and 3ollowed the same politics o3 names. .vonne ., the tenth child o3 a 3amily in modest circumstances, $orn in l!eria in 78>8* 2My name is .mouna, that means trust. It)s a He$rew name. 4ut they called me .vonne. It)s more civili@ed.2

! -ame o' hance= The Identit) ard

In periods o3 sta$ility, Jews did not as# themselves questions a$out their reli!ious and political identity. &hey $elon!ed to a 3amily, a social milieu, a community, and did not loo# $eyond that hori@on. &hey lived an apolitical existence and were content to $e citi@ens o3 their own microcommunity without $otherin! a$out national denominations. &he 2papers2 that si!ni3ied an attachment to some consulate o3 a ,uropean country were ne!otiated accordin! to the interests o3 the moment and were su$1ect to the policies and rivalries o3 the various powers. n individual who $y chance, purchase, or 3avor o$tained

a ,uropean 2nationality2 did not really identi3y with that adopted nation. ,uropean nationality was considered an insurance policy rather than a testimony o3 identity. +hen a political chan!e occurredHle!islative re3orm, a crisis in international relations, warHthe question was then posed $rutally and D 1K1 D sometimes cruelly* +here to re!isterE +here to 3ind the protection o3 ri!hts and a!ents who would de3end 2their2 nationalsE &his is the story o3 ,dmond H. His ancestors, Attoman su$1ects in Syria, had $ecome 5rench-protected &unisians without ever seein! either &unisia or 5rance. In ,!ypt, ,dmond H. lost that status without acquirin! a nationality to replace it. He remained in that unde3inedHyet not uncom3orta$leHsituation 3or a lon! time. It is in 78C9, when he had to leave ,!ypt a$ruptly, that it $ecame ur!ent to have an administrative identity. ;.4. had "ou#ht his nationality. Not his children, +ho +ere "orn in :n#land. 1hey "eca0e .British "y "irth.. 3G0 #oin# to tell you ho+ he had o"tained it. *t the "e#innin# of the century, the 6tto0an :0 ire enco0 assed the entire 6rient. 3n :#y t, the ,e+s didnGt do 0ilitary service. 1here +asnGt any co0 ulsory 0ilitary service. 1here +asnGt an ar0y. 6n the other hand, in 4yria, in ;eso ota0ia, in Le"anon, and in *ra"ia, the 1urks had instituted co0 ulsory 0ilitary service. No+, 0ilitary service +ith the 1urks +as very very hard, and the ,e+s tried to #et out of it throu#h any 0eans. 1hatGs one of the reasons +hy the ,e+s of *le o, Oa0ascus, and the 4yrian to+ns esca ed and ca0e to :#y t, +hich, as 3 told you, "eca0e a land of 0ilk and honey as soon as the 4ue= Canal o ened. 4o0e eo le left for >reece? others +ent to :uro e? and the 0aEority ca0e to :#y t. 1hatGs +hy there +ere a lot of 4yrian ,e+s in :#y t. *side fro0 that, they +anted to stay. 1hey had their "usinesses? they had their houses. But they didnGt +ant to stay as 6tto0an su"Eects, so they asked the consults to rotect the0. :ach one of the rotected +as #ranted the nationality of the country he or she a ealed to +ithout too 0any difficulties. 6nce it +as #iven, the consuls of those countries sa+ that there +ere resources to dra+ on. :very ti0e so0e"ody ca0e to ask the0 83or nationality 9: .Ao+ 0uch can you ayU /ouGll ay so 0uch, theyGll #ive you citi=enshi .. *nd they found hi0 so0e relationshi +ith an :n#lish0an, an 3talian, a -rench0an. *nd, since the ort of Livorno had "urned do+n at that ti0e, the questura 7 that is, the city hall of Livorno7had also "urned D 1K( D do+n. 4o any"ody at all could say .0y arents or 0y #rand arents +ere in the 3talian a ers.. 4o the consuls used that over 1)% ercent, and distri"uted citi=enshi . 3n :#y t, the consuls told the0selves: .Not only can you do so0ethin# "ut you can 0ake yourself so0e 0oney.. 4o, instead of addressin# only the oor eo le, sayin# to the0 .AereGs nationality,. they addressed the rich ,e+s, sayin#: .1here are 0i2ed courts. 3f you have a "ad deal, they +ill Eud#e you in *ra" courts.. No+ there +erenGt any *ra" courts, that +as a 0ake5"elieve court. 1here +ere 0i2ed courts, ho+ever. *nd if a native had a case +ith a :uro ean, he +ent to the 0i2ed courts. 3t +as not o en to discussion. 4o, those +ho rofited 0ost +ere the 3talians "ecause they could #ive 3talian nationality after Livorno. 1hen ca0e the -rench. 1hey could also say: .1hey are ,e+s fro0 4 ain, +ho +ent do+n to the Bas'ue country, to 1oulouse, Bayonne, Bordeau2, etc., or to *l#eria or ;orocco or 1unis.. 1hatGs ho+ 0y #randfather, +ho +as in 4yria, +as a"le to #et 1unisian rotection.8K9

.1unisianU. 1unis +as a -rench rotectorate. Ae referred that "ecause there +as no 0ilitary service. *nd +e re0ained rotected 1unisians ever since the "e#innin# of the century. We had nu0"er 9%9 fro0 the consulate. 3 still have the a ers. 4o ho+ did +e lose that citi=enshi U We lost it "ecause, in 19H%, :#y tian co0 anies started risin#. No+, the constitution of an :#y tian co0 any rovides for seven 0e0"ers of the council of ad0inistration. *nd it +as sti ulated that the seven 0e0"ers had to "e :#y tians? they couldnGt "e forei#ners. 6<. 3 had an uncle +ho +orked +ith 0y father. No+, 0y uncle +as a #reat oker layer. 6ne of his friends +as Or. ;aher Pacha, +ho "eca0e chair0an of the Council. Ae +as assassinated in 19HK. 1hey layed to#ether at the Clu". 4o he said to hi0: .Listen, 0y children need :#y tian citi=enshi .. .What citi=enshi do you haveU. .Nothin#, -rench citi=enshi .. Because they had a valid -rench ass ort, like all other 8K9 By then 1unisia +as a -rench colony. D 1K$ D ass orts. 6nly, on the inside, it +as +ritten: .1unisian -rench rotL#L.. Ae said: .>o to the consulate, #ive u your -rench citi=enshi , and #ive 0e your a er of +ithdra+al. 3n t+o days, 3Gll #ive you citi=enshi .. Ae did indeed #o there, he #ave u his nationality, and they #ave hi0 the a er of +ithdra+al. 3n char#e of this +ithdra+al, there +as a secretary at the consulate called the Chancellor of the Consulate. 1his +as one ;onsieur *., a Le"anese: a Le"anese +ho +as a 1%1 ercent anti54e0ite, not 1%% ercent, 1%1 ercent. 4o he +as fu0in#: ./ou +ant to +ithdra+U With leasure, 0y "oy, only +eGre #oin# to convene the consular tri"unal.. 8&he tri$unal said 9: ./es, +e acce t, "ut on condition that fro0 Aai0 ;ichel A. on @0y #randfatherGs na0e +as Aai0 ;ichelC, the +hole A. mishpahah8&9 #ives u its -rench citi=enshi . * sin#le individual cannot #ive it u . *ll or nothin#.. ;y uncle didnGt #ive a da0n. Ae said, all a#reed. 1he decision +as 0ade: all the descendants of Aai0 ;ichel A. disa eared fro0 the lists of the consulate. But he didnGt 0ean us: +e +erenGt the sons of the A. +ho +ithdre+. But the chancellor didnGt #ive a da0n. Ae 0i2ed thin#s u . 4o, they #ot :#y tian citi=enshi and founded the :#y tian co0 any. *nd +e +ere stateless. Before 19)K, you had to re'uest :#y tian citi=enshi every five years. /ou aid for the ri#ht to re'uest, and they still didnGt #rant us citi=enshi . 1hey told us: .3tGs like this, itGs the la+. /ou have to 0ake the re'uest and +e donGt #rant it to you "ecause your na0e isnGt *h0ed or ;uha00ad.. .But +e +ere "orn in :#y t.. ./es, "ut that doesnGt 0ean anythin#. 3tGs the la+.. 3n reality, you didnGt need citi=enshi . No"ody cared a"out it. We never thou#ht of leavin# :#y t. What did it 0atterU /ou +ere there, so you didnGt need a ers. Fow we are in &ripoli. Camilla F., $orn -utch in %i$ya, $ecame Italian and then 5rench. She also descri$ed these chan!es o3 nationality in which ,uropean powers played a!ainst wea# states and to which the Jews ad1usted more or less com3orta$ly. 8&9 Ae"re+ +ord 0eanin# fa0ily, +hich :d0ond A. uts in the 0outh of the Le"anese chancellor of the -rench consulate. D 1KH D

;y fatherGs ancestors had left Pisa at a ti0e +hen there +as a Po e +ho +as very "ad to the ,e+s. *nd they +ent to 1ri oli. When they ca0e, those unfortunates, to 1ri oli, there +ere three or four fa0ilies +ho didnGt have a consul, +ho didnGt have any"ody. 4ince 3taly +as divided, there +as no 3talian consul. 3taly +asnGt yet for0ed. 4o Aolland took those ,e+s under its rotection and #ave the0 Outch ass orts. We stayed under that Outch rotection until the 1urks +oke u . WhyU Because 3taly had sent teachers, schools . . . not 0any schools, "ut ele0entary school any+ay. 4he ut out ro a#anda, and that cau#ht on a lot +ith the youn# eo le. ;y "rothers +ere a"solutely . . . 8with a !esture, she su!!ests 2in3lamed2 9. 1hey kne+ they +ere of 3talian ori#in. *nd then Aolland said: .No+ thatGs enou#h, there is a ti0e +hen everythin# has to "e settled.. 4o there +as a very heated de"ate. ;y father had #one to Constantino le 0ore than once, since the 1urks had "een really +onderful to hi0 and he had friends there, he didnGt +ant to do that. 3t "othered hi0 a lot to 0ake a choice. 1he 1urks didnGt #ive er0ission: .No, youGve "een here for 3 donGt kno+ ho+ 0any #enerations, youGll re0ain 1urks.. *ny+ay, there +as such a fuss that finally +e +ere 0ade 3talians "y royal decree. *nd thatGs ho+ +e ca0e to "e 3talians.

Nationalit)= Saloni<an
namesa#e o3 the previous narrator, (apou F., $orn in 7K8M, recalls the status o3 extraterritoriality 3rom which the Jews o3 Saloni#a $ene3ited at the turn o3 the century. He incorrectly attri$utes it to the intervention o3 /ussia. 3n 1B&B, the Iussians forced the 1urkish #overn0ent to #ive u ersonal control over all the non5 ;usli0 inha"itants of :uro ean 1urkey. 4o so0eone +ho +as, letGs say, 6rthodo2 "elon#ed to the 6rthodo2 atriarch? so0eone +ho +as an 3sraelite "elon#ed to the 3sraelite co00unity? and, of course, so0eone +ho +as -rench, :n#lish, 3talian, >er0an, or *0erican "elon#ed to his o+n consulates. . . . *nd for those of us D 1K) D +ho +erenGt ;usli0s, it +as a drea0. 1here +as no ta2. 1here +as no 0ilitary service. We +erenGt su"Eect to 1urkish la+s. 4o0eone +ho did so0ethin# in the street +ould say to the olice0an: .3G0 not a ;usli0.. .4o, +hat are youU. 3t de ended on your co00unity. 6<, thatGs Eust to tell you ho+ +e lived +ithout trou"le. 4ut the va!aries o3 history put the Jews in pric#ly situations, which the hero en1oyed tellin! a$out and 3rom which he always mana!ed to escape unharmed. &he Italian-&ur#ish war o3 787; 3orced the F.s and some other Jewish 3amilies to leave Saloni#a, some !oin! to 4russels, others to 'ienna, where our hero wor#ed 3or six months. &hen came the end o3 the war. ;ean+hile, the 1urkish53talian +ar is over, and +e all +ent "ack to 4alonika to#ether. 3t +as really a cele"ration "ecause 0y "rothers and sisters5in5la+ fro0 Brussels ca0e, and +e all sailed fro0 1rieste on a shi "ound for 4alonika. 1he tri lasted a +eek. 3t +as really a cele"ration? 0y father +as in seventh heaven. Besides, +e +erenGt the only ones. 1here +ere at least three, four other 4alonikan fa0ilies in our situation, 3talians like us, ;odiano, all that, +ith their children. 4o, on "oard, it +as one "i# arty, so to s eak. :very"ody +as ha y and everythin#. *nd +e #et to 4alonika7+hat 0iseryR7 Eust +hen the >reeks entered 4alonika. 1hey had finished one +ar, and already thereGs another Balkan +ar startin#. 4o that +as a disasterR But any+ay, ti0e assed, and after+ard, everythin# returned to nor0al. 1his "rin#s us to the end of 191(.

Aur hero)s tri$ulations started a!ain with +orld +ar I and Italy)s entry into the war, since the F. 3amily is still 2Italian.2 3taly had entered the +ar +ith -rance and :n#land a#ainst >er0any. 6<. 4he had a ealed to all 3talians +ho lived any+here in the +orld to co0e Eoin their ho0eland for 0ilitary service, to enlist in the ar0y. 3n 4alonika, there +ere a"out thirty or forty 3talians of 0ilitary a#e. We said to ourselves: ;y +ord, this doesnGt concern us. We never really kne+ 3taly, D 1KK D so +hy #o do 0ilitary serviceU WeGre in 4alonika, +hich +as 1urkish "efore and is no+ >reek. WeGll +ait. We +aited. 4ut mo$ili@ation did indeed ta#e place. Aur hero and his $rother were sent to 5rance. &his involved not 1ust the two soldiers, tossed 3rom camp to camp. /ather, it is the whole 3amily that is mo$ili@ed to !et them out o3 it* the mother and the aunt, who rush to Marseille, the 3ather and a cousin to (aris, the $rother to Saloni#a. dialo!ue in (aris ensued $etween a politician and the 3ather <2he was decorated with the Arder o3 His Ma1esty Oin! %eopold, he wore his medal proudly and his callin! card was )-ra!oman o3 the Consulate o3 4el!ium in Saloni#a)2=* .What is this storyU 3 donGt understand. LetGs #et to the oint in a fe+ +ords. /ou +ere "orn +hatU. .>ood, in 4alonika, 1urkey.. .4o youGre 1urkish.. @1hen he addresses ;. Lon#uet, the de uty: .1heyGre 1urkish, 6<, +hat elseU.C .1hen, at the ti0e of the rocla0ation of the ca itulation in 1urkey, +e chose to "e 3talian rotL#Ls.. .6h, yes, indeed, 3 kno+ that. 1hat does co0 licate 0atters. *nd no+U. .No+, itGs >reek.. .But, youGre not >reekU. .6h, no.. .*nd youGre not 1urksU. .6f course not.. .*nd youGre not 3taliansU. .No, since . . .. .6h,. he says, .+hat a storyR. Ae addresses the de uty: .;onsieur Lon#uet, 3 a0 sorry, 3 donGt understand. 3tGs so 0i2ed u , this ;acedonian salad. 3 donGt understand. 3n any case, thereGs nothin# a#ainst the0, is thereU >ood, since thereGs nothin# a#ainst the0, for us -rench, 3G0 #ivin# the order in ;arseille to set the0 free, to let the0 out of ca0 to do +hat they +ant.. In Marseille, at the pre3ecture, and a3ter numerous tri$ulations, the whole 3amily receives new papers and a tailor-made de3inition* D 1K& D .*s nationality, 3 ut do+n G4alonikanG for you.. .-ine, thatGs very #ood, 4alonikan..

./ouGre satisfiedU. ./es, 4alonikan, thatGs very #ood.. Some summon up (isan ancestors, others %ivornese tom$stones. M.S. <Saloni#a, $orn $e3ore 78>>= claims to $e 3rom Spain and !ets himsel3 out o3 trou$le twice* 3irst, he avoids military service in Breece and then extermination $y the Bermans in 5rance. When the Iusso51urkish +ar "roke out, +e +ere old enou#h to do 0ilitary service. 4o 0y fa0ily sent us to study at the university in -rance. We ca0e to -rance, +ith 0y "rother, and +e re orted to the refecture. *t the refecture, they told us that +e had to "e in #ood standin# at the consulate. *t the consulate of 4 ain: .WhatU -orei#ners, "orn in 1urkey, youGre 4 aniardsU Ao+ can that "eU. 1hey didnGt understand anythin# at all? they didnGt kno+ history. . . . We +ent to see the a0"assador, +ho told us that he had to consult +ith ;adrid: .:2cellency, +e have to re#ister at school, +e need re#istrationR. .3 canGt do anythin#. *ll 3 can do is to ut an a0"assadorGs seal on to .. We +ent +ith our ass orts: .WeGre reco#ni=ed "y the a0"assador.. *nd the a0"assador +rote to 4 ain and they confir0ed that +e "elon#ed to the three hundred si2teen fa0ilies +ho never lost 4 anish nationality. /ou kno+ a"out thatU 3Gll tell you: *s 4 anish ,e+s of 4alonika, +e needed 4 ain t+o or three ti0es. 1he first ti0e +as +hen the >reeks occu ied 4alonika. We +ere under the 1urks, under the re#i0e that surrendered. 1he >reeks entered 4alonika and said to us: .-or us, there arenGt any 4 aniards. 1here arenGt any forei#ners. :ither youGre 1urkish or youGre >reek.. .No, +eGre forei#ners, +eGre 4 aniards.. 4o, +e a ealed to the ;inistry of -orei#n *ffairs in ;adrid, +hich filed a suit a#ainst >reece. 1hat trial took lace at the 3nternational Court in the Aa#ue in 191K. 1hey reco#ni=ed a certain nu0"er of fa0ilies7three hundred si2teen fa0ilies7+ho had al+ays "een 4 aniards. 1hey added t+o. When the >er0ans ca0e here, +e said: .WeGre 4 anish, not >reeks, not 1urks, +ho are the ene0y, and +eGre not -rench D 1KB D either.. We +ent to see the consul of 4 ain, +ho +as a friend of 0y fa0ily, and 3 laid out the ro"le0 for hi0. Ae told 0e: .1hereGs only one thin# to do: #o to 4 ain and e2 lain your case.. *nd he sent our re'uest to the ;inistry of -orei#n *ffairs +hile +e +ent there. Ourin# the +ar, eo le couldnGt travel. But +e +ere 4 aniards. 1he >er0ans #ave us safe5conduct asses, and 3Gll tell you so0ethin# e2traordinary: +e +ent to 4 ain four ti0es and ca0e "ack. We crossed the "order as 4 aniards al0ost t+ice a 0onth. 3tGs un"elieva"leR No+, in thinkin# a"out it, +e have to say +e +ere una+are. Con esta !ente no se sa$ra nuncaI8B9 &hat identity document, meanin!less in peacetime, was the last card you had to play in a crisis* sometimes it 3ailed to save the !ame. &hree sisters were $orn in Istan$ul. Ane, Claire C., married in 5rance, was Spanish $y marria!e, and escaped Fa@i persecution $y leavin! (aris. &he second, who $ecame 5rench, also 3led to the south. &he third, /!ine, o3 &ur#ish nationality, was deported to a concentration camp with her 3amily. Claire tells* ;y sister +as in Bordeau2 +ith her hus"and, "ecause he +as +orkin# there. 1hey +ere +ith a very nice -rench fa0ily. 4o, so0e eo le said: ./ou kno+, there are ,e+s over there.. 1he >esta o ca0e. ;y "rother5in5la+ said: .But +eGre 1urksR. But he had #iven his card to "e rene+ed in Paris. 1hey sent hi0 to Orancy, and fro0 Orancy.899 . . . *nd it +as a"surd "ecause 0y sister had +ritten to 0e: .3G0

afraid for you "ecause youGre -rench. . . . WeGre not afraid of anythin# "ecause +eGre 1urkish.. *nd sheGs the one +ho +as de orted. Bad luck. 4he s oke 1urkish. ;y "rother5in5la+ s oke 1urkish like a real 1urk. 1hat +as very rare a0on# the ,e+s. /!ine and her 3amily did not return 3rom the death camp. 5or years, her sisters hid the truth 3rom the mother, ma#in! her thin# that /!ine had immi!rated to the Gnited States. 8B9 With those eo le, you couldnGt kno+R 899 1o+n near Paris +here the -rench olice rounded u the ,e+s in a ca0 "efore they +ere de orted. D 1K9 D -or a very lon# ti0e, 3 +as the one +ho +rote the letters. 3 said that they ca0e fro0 *0erica. 3 said: .3tGs IL#ine +hoGs +ritin#.. 1hen, +ith ti0e, 0y 0other also started #ettin# old, it +as already "lurry. 1o+ard the end, +e talked as little as ossi"le. 4he didnGt talk any 0ore either. D 1&% D

G; Wanderin&s
(overty and nti-Semitism are the most o$vious and most o3ten cited causes 3or leavin!. However, the emphasis shi3ts accordin! to circumstances and the !enerations o3 the emi!rants. &hose who le3t the /ussian empire at the $e!innin! o3 the century were mar#ed $y the memory o3 the po!roms <includin! the sadly 3amous one o3 Oishinev, in 78>:=, alon! with the revolutionary trou$les o3 78>C or the e33ects o3 the war a!ainst Japan. Fathan O., 3or example, dra3ted into the &sarist army and a$out to $e sent to the eastern 3ront, pre3erred to desert* 2I didn)t have anythin! a!ainst the JapaneseI2 /i!ht a3ter the out$rea# o3 +orld +ar I, the renewed out$rea# o3 anti-Semitism produced a new wave o3 mi!rations. &hese included numerous students who were prevented 3rom studyin! certain disciplines <particularly medicine= $y the nu0erus clausus. 5inally, in the 78:>s, the economic crisis and wretched livin! conditions returned to the 3ore.8 19

,e5artures
,mi!ration 3ollows a classic scenario. In most cases, a close relative, an uncle or a cousin, has already !one. Sometimes his traces are lost, and there is no more news. 4ut most o3ten, 3amily networ#s are esta$lished. &he 3irst emi!rants !ive in3ormation and advice. &hey invite the others to 3ollow their example. nother mem$er o3 the 3amily then leaves, settles in the new milieu, and is 1oined $y his wi3e and children. He sends money to his parents in hopes that they will come with his 819 Cf. Nancy >reen, &he (let@l o3 (aris* Jewish Immi!rant +or#ers in the 4elle ,poque @Ne+ /ork: Aol0es and ;eier, 19BKC. D 1&1 D $rothers and sisters. &hen the 3ormula is repeated. lmost always, part o3 the 3amily remains in (oland. nd the litany recursHthey never a!ain saw their relatives, le3t $ehind, cau!ht in the trap,

victims o3 !enocide. &he !rie3 is mixed with a sense o3 !uilt $ecause they couldn)t help them in time. /o$ert S.* 3tGs es ecially ,e+ish education that ce0ents solidarity in the co00unity and love in the fa0ily unit: the father for the children, the 0other for the children, the children for the arents, all +illin# to sacrifice for each other. Bein# a student in -rance7ho+ should 3 call it, a re0onitionU7first, 3 sent for 0y sister, the youn#est, to #et her out of Poland. 3 didnGt +ant to #o "ack there. 3 +as afraid of returnin# to Poland. 3 +anted to "rin# 0y +hole fa0ily. 4ince 3 couldnGt do that, "rin# the0 all to#ether, +ith the 0eans at 0y dis osal, 3 roceeded in sta#es. 4o in G$), 3 sent for 0y sister. *nd in G$&, 3 sent for 0y "rother. 3 arran#ed for hi0 to +ork in the student union in Nancy. Ae +aited on students in the canteen in e2chan#e for his 0eals. 1hatGs ho+ 3 #ot the0 out . . . "ecause if not, they +ould certainly have disa eared like 0y arents. *fter+ard, in G$B, 3 sa+ na=is0: it +as the nschluss +ith *ustria, the 4udetenland, and they +ere talkin# a"out Poland. 3 +anted to #et 0y arents out and also 0y older sister, +ho had stayed +ith the0. When 3 ro osed that to the0, 0y sister ans+ered in a letter that 0y arents +ere afraid of co0in# to -rance "ecause, at their a#e, they +ere afraid they +ouldnGt "e a"le to #et used to -rench life, not kno+in# a +ord. . . . *s for her, she didnGt +ant to leave 0y arents alone. 4o 0uch so that +hen the >er0ans invaded Poland and started de ortin# the ,e+s7at a certain ti0e, 0y sister +as stayin# +ith a riest +ho had "eco0e friendly +ith her and +ho +anted to hide her to allo+ her to esca e7she didnGt +ant to leave our arents. *nd she kne+ she +as #oin# to certain death +ith the0. 1hatGs +hat the fa0ily is, the sacrifice of the arents for the children, of the children for the arents . . . 8His voice $rea#s, a lon! silence, a pause .9 D 1&( D With relation to other e0i#rations, the e0i#ration of the ,e+s of eastern :uro e has its o+n articular di0ension. 1he touchin# 'uality of the de arture does not result only fro0 the fact that they +ere artin# fro0 loved ones. 1hey +ere also leavin# a cultural environ0ent @lan#ua#e, food, fa0iliar laces, the cele"ration of holidays, etc.C that constantly 0aintained a certain consciousness of identity, even in the least o"servant ,e+s. Aence the fears of those +ho re0ained: once led astray in 0odern Ba"ylon, +onGt the e0i#rants "e forced to lead a life that +as less ,e+ish, and even "e te0 ted to assi0ilateU .aco$-Jacques %.* -or arents, it +as a tra#edy +hen children left. 1heyGre #oin# to #o to *0erica, and theyGre #oin# to +ork on 4ha""atR 1hey kne+ that eo le +ork on 4aturday in *0erica. -or e2a0 le, +hen 0y older "rother left for 4+it=erland, 0y 0other +e t for +eeks and +eeks. .AeGll "e a #oy, +hat #ood is life: wos teu! mein le$n, +hat #ood is 0y lifeU ;y son +ill "e a #oy.. 5or all the 3amily networ#s and mutual aid, let us not paint an overly idyllic picture, however. &he sense o3 solidarity does not exclude con3lict, 1ealousy, or simply the exploitation o3 the newcomers, whose youth and inexperience o3ten made them easy prey. ,vidence o3 this is the case o3 Bolda /., who made several departures. Comin! to 5rance 3or the 3irst time at the a!e o3 thirteen, she was tossed $ac# and 3orth $etween two uncles, who 3ou!ht over her wor#. She then returned to (oland. When 0y older uncle, the first one, left for -rance, 3 +as si2 +eeks old. Ae left and +e didnGt hear any0ore a"out hi0. 1hirteen years had assed. 3 +ent to another uncle, one of his "rothers, +ho lived in ;arseille. Ae and his +ife did so0e "usiness on a shi . 1hat uncle +rote 0y arents to ask the0 if they +anted to send 0e to -rance. ;y father +as sick and +asnGt very keen a"out the idea. But, +hen 3

heard .Paris,. 3 +anted to #o. 1he uncle sent a contract, and 0y arents si#ned the authori=ation. 3 #ot to Paris. 1he uncle fro0 ;arseille had sent one of his friends fro0 Paris to 0eet 0e at the station. 8 . . .9 We had lunch and then he +ent out to send a tele#ra0 D 1&$ D to ;arseille that he +as uttin# 0e on the train that ni#ht. While +aitin#, 3 asked: .3 have another uncle here, 4a0. ;ay"e you kno+ hi0U. .4a0 lives ne2t door, in the hotel.. .4ince 0y Uncle 4a0 lives ne2t door, 3 +onGt #o "efore seein# hi0.. 1he +ife told hi0 in -rench, "ut 3 didnGt understand, that he shouldnGt #o there, that he +ouldnGt let 0e leave "ecause the t+o "rothers +ere 0ad at each other. Ae didnGt listen to her. When 0y Uncle 4a0 heard that a niece had co0e fro0 Poland, that she +anted to see hi0, he rushed over +ith his +ife. 4eein# 0e, he took 0e for one of his sisters. .No, 3G0 >olda, BrochaGs dau#hter.. .;y >odR /ou +ere si2 +eeks old, and no+ youGre a "eautiful #irl. Where are you #oin#U. .Aer0ann "rou#ht 0e. Ae sent 0e a contract.. .Aer0ann "rou#ht you to "e a 0aid in his house, to take care of his children. * #irl like you can have a nice career in Paris. 3 +onGt let you #o to hi0.. Ae ca0e do+n and didnGt #o to +ork. Ae +as a very #ood tailor. Ae took cloth and 0ade 0e a "eautiful velvet suit and a "eautiful coat +ith a fur collar. 1hen he took 0e to his "osses and introduced 0e. 1he "ossGs +ife told 0e that in Paris 3 could have a #ood career, that she +ould teach 0e to "e a finisher. Aearin# all that, the nei#h"or felt sick. ;y >od, 3 sent a tele#ra0R Ae sent another tele#ra0 to the uncle in ;arseille to say that 3 +asnGt co0in#, that his "rother +as kee in# 0e. *nd the ne2t day, 0y uncle ca0e fro0 ;arseille to Paris. 4ince he +as 0ad at his "rother, he sent that sa0e nei#h"or to ask 0e to co0e do+n. ;y uncle +ent out on the "alcony and called the other one, his "rother. 1hey 0ade u . *nd the other uncle ca0e u . .Why did you "rin# >oldaU What do you +ant to do +ith herU /ou +ant her to "e a 0aid in your house. 3 donGt +ant her to #o to you. 3G0 #oin# to teach her a trade so that sheGll "e so0e"ody.. 4o the other one left. *nd +hat did he doU Ae +ent to the olice and declared that he had sent 0e a ers, that 0y arents had si#ned. 1he ne2t day, +e +ere eatin# lunch and chattin#, +hen so0e"ody knocked on the door: .PoliceR. * olice0an D 1&H D entered: ./ouGre 4a0 >.U. ./es.. .1his is your nieceU. ./es.. .4he doesnGt have the ri#ht to "e there. /ouGre not the one +ho "rou#ht her. 4he 0ust leave for ;arseille. 3f not, she 0ust return ho0e, to Poland.. 1he olice0an e2 lained that the "rother +as +ithin his ri#hts? he had sent a contract? 0y father had si#ned. 6ther+ise, she +ould have to leave and if a ers +ere sent to her, she could co0e "ack later. ;y uncle said to 0e: .OonGt +orry. Ieturn ho0e, 3G0 #oin# to send you a ers i00ediately and youGll co0e "ack.. 4o 3 returned. But such tri s +ere not 0ade so easily. 3t +as not until a"out ten years later that >olda returned to

-rance @ receded this ti0e "y her o+n arents, +ho had decided to e0i#rateC.

rossin& 1orders
,mi!rants supplied with valid passports and visas could le!ally cross Bermany, where they sometimes stopped $e3ore landin! in 5rench railroad stations in Stras$our!, Met@, Fancy, or (aris. Sometimes these passports were 3alse or partially 3a#ed. nd many 1ourneys, particularly those o3 political activists, were ille!al, punctuated $y the most unexpected vicissitudes. &he memories o3 $order crossin!s and tri$ulations throu!h the countries o3 ,urope and even sia thus represent one o3 the stron!est points o3 the narrative* the duration seems to $e ma!ni3ied <events are told day $y day, hour $y hour=, while the rhythm speeds up in a host o3 episodes and details. (eople pass spontaneously to the present, and they act out incidents and restore dialo!ues with an ama@in! precision. &he wanderin! o3ten $e!ins in 787M, with the 3irst wave o3 re3u!ees 3leein! the theater o3 military operations. +e recall that HlNne H. was livin! in 4ialysto#, which was then located a$out twenty-3ive miles 3rom the Berman $order. Her 3ather, a $usinessman, 2who had $i! ideas 3or $i! deals,2 had !one to Sweden to $uy a wa!on o3 hairpins to sell them in the /ussian and (olish mar#ets. He was held up there $y the out$rea# o3 the war. HlNne H.)s mother decided to leave 4ialysto# with her three children and 1oin one o3 her uncles who withD 1&) D drew to the G#raine, to ,#aterinoslav.8(9 1he fa0ily re0ained scattered durin# the +ar, until the Iussian Ievolution. We @0y 0other, 0y t+o "rothers, and 3C +ere still in :katerinoslav. We didnGt have heat? +e didnGt have anythin# to eat. We ate oats. ;y father finally found us in :katerinoslav. 1hey decided to #o "ack to Poland. 1hey had co0e to #et hi0: the &che#a +as already active. Ae had ro"a"ly "een denounced as a "our#eois. But there +as still #reat confusion, a "i# 0ess. 1hey hurried. 1hey sold everythin# they had, the furniture, the linen. 3 re0e0"er that 3 +ent to the countryside +ith a sack to #et "read for our tri . We left +ith that and a tschaini#, a tea kettle. 1hat +as very i0 ortant "ecause there +as "oilin# +ater in all the railroad stations. /ou could 0ake tea. With tea and "read, you could survive. We traveled in cattle cars, assin# throu#h the north of Iussia, Lithuania, "ecause there +erenGt any trains, you took the train in +hatever direction it +as #oin#. 3 re0e0"er very +ell the train station of <ursk. 3t +asnGt in our direction at all. We s ent one or t+o days on the latfor0 of the station +aitin# for a train. *t that railroad station of <ursk, 3Gll al+ays re0e0"er the eo le +ho +ere there, e2hausted, +aitin# for +ho kno+s +hat. 1hen +e +ent on. We tried to #et "ack to Poland throu#h Lithuania. 3t +as very hard "ecause there +ere still skir0ishes. *nother ro"le0 +as that +e had sold all +e had, and 4oviet ru"les +erenGt +orth anythin#. 3n order to travel a"road, you needed 1sarist ru"les, only +ith the0 could you "uy anythin#. -inally +e +ere close to the Lithuanian "order, and +e started lookin# for a +ay to #et to the other side. /ou had to have a ass and you +aited a #ood lon# ti0e, at least t+o +eeks, in order to #et it. We lived there, on the "order, in terri"le conditions, in a easantGs house. We didnGt have anythin# to eat? +e ate #rass that +e cooked. 1here +ere soldiers +anderin# around there, di##in# u otatoes in order to eat the0 #reen. -inally +e found a easant +ho a#reed to take us to the other

8(9 No+ Onie ro etrovsk. D 1&K D side, for 0oney, naturally. When +e ca0e to the "order, the soldiers asked us for a ass: .Who #ave you that assU. .OonGt kno+R. Because +hat one officer #ranted, the one at the "order didnGt reco#ni=e. 1here +as nothin# to do "ut #o "ack to the villa#e. 1here +e +aited a +hile lon#er. 1he ro"le0 +as to find another "order runner. 1he second one +as a ,e+, a ,e+ish driver @not a ca", a sort of +a#onC: .3Gve #ot a son on the other side. 3G0 #oin# to see hi0, so 3Gll take you.. 6<. We #ot on and set out a#ain. Oid they #ive us another assU 3 donGt kno+ any0ore. Ae 0ust have chosen another crossin#, another entrance. But +e #ot lost. We s ent the ni#ht in the fields, so0e+here in a kind of racetrack. Neither +e nor the driver kne+ +here +e +ere #oin#. But in that lace +e 0et a easant, for 0e the kind they talk a"out in literature, that old 0an +ith a "eard, "arefoot. *nd +e asked hi0 the +ay. 4o he said: .3f you #o that +ay, youGre #oin# to 0eet the Ied *r0y, and if you #o that +ay, youGre #oin# to 0eet the Lithuanians. 4o you have to #o that +ay.. 1hat is, "et+een the t+o, throu#h the +oods. 3n fact, he #ave us false infor0ation? 3 donGt kno+ if it +as deli"erate. We +ere interce ted "y a atrol of Lithuanian soldiers: .What are you doin# thereU /ouGre s iesR. Can you "elieve itU 3n that cart, +ith all that lu##a#e and three children. 1hey took us to a villa#e. 1hey +ere on horse"ack, and +e +ere in the cart. *nd all of a sudden, fro0 the +oods, so0eone started shootin# at the atrol, +ith us in the 0iddle. 1he driver s eeded u ? 0y "rother started shoutin#. We heard the sound of a "ullet: .3 #ot hitR. 3t +as the driver +ho +as +ounded. *nd +e, +e ran, +e ran in order to #et a+ay fro0 the shots assin# over our heads. ;y father and 0other #ot out of the cart in order to cal0 the horse, and since 3 +as the oldest, they 0ade 0e #et out too. *nd 3 +as holdin# the tschainik, the tea kettle, "ecause you couldnGt let #o of that for anythin# in the +orld. 3t +as very i0 ortant. 3 ran till 3 +as out of "reath and 3 shouted: .3G0 #oin# to dro the tschainik, 3G0 #oin# to dro the tschainikR. /ou had to run fast in order to #et a+ay fro0 the shootin# D 1&& D "et+een the Ieds and the Lithuanians, and 3 dro 0ore tschainikR ed the tschainik. 3t +as a catastro he. 1here +as no

When +e ca0e to the villa#e @this ti0e, +e had crossed the "orderC, +e +ere thirsty. We asked for +ater and they +ouldnGt #ive us any. 1hey +ouldnGt #ive us any +ater "ecause +e +ere ,e+s. 1hey sa+ that ri#ht a+ay. 1hey ut us in a kind of shed +hile +aitin# for the authorities. 8 . . .9 We +ent on, and +e ca0e to a little to+n, 3 donGt re0e0"er its na0e e2actly. 3 think it +as called 4ouvarov. 1hatGs +here 0y #randfatherGs "rother -. lived. We +ent to the0, they +elco0ed us +ar0ly, and +e ate +hite cheese. 3Gll never for#et that cheese. 3t +as so0ethin# e2traordinary, that +hite cheese. Beor!es 5. tells o3 his clandestine entry into 5rance* 3 crossed the "order +ith a #rou . 3 +as the only one, al0ost the only one +ho succeeded: out of fifteen, t+o stayed, the others +ere turned "ack. 3 assed throu#h Bel#iu0 and 3 +as arrested. 1hey didnGt 0istreat us too "adly. 1hey asked us +here +e +anted to #o. We didnGt say +e +ere #oin# to -rance? +e said +e +ere #oin# to >er0any. *nd they took us to the >er0an "order. 1here, a s0u##ler +as +aitin# for us, the sa0e one +ho had taken us to Poland, in Craco+. Ae kne+ +e had "een arrested, the +hole #rou , and he +as +aitin# for us at the "order. Ae had told us in advance to say that

+e +ere #oin# to >er0any and not to Poland or to -rance. Ae kne+ +here they +ould take us. 1hey left us at the "order? they sent us "ack. 1hen this s0u##ler found us. Ae took us in a ta2i and "rou#ht us to >are du Nord. 1here +ere fifteen of us, a #rou of fifteen. 6f all those fifteen, t+o stayed in -rance7those +ho could ass throu#h the nets. 1hey +ere huntin# for forei#ners. 3t +as 0e and one other +ho had a de ortation order. Ae hid. Ae stayed any+ay, until after the +ar. Ae assed a+ay not lon# a#o. %on +.* *ll 0y "rothers left +ithout ass orts, clandestinely, thanks to s0u##lers. /es, they aid. ;y 0other ca0e to -rance later D 1&B D "ecause her oldest son +as already livin# in ;et=. Ae sent her ro er a ers to 0ake the tri as a visit. *nd +hen 0y 0other +as already in ;et=, on a visit, 0y "rothers said to her: .;a0a, no+ you +onGt #o "ack to <alis= a#ain. /ouGll stay +ith us.. .*nd the children +ho stayed thereU. .OonGt +orry, theyGll co0e too.. 3 +as nineteen years old at the ti0e, and they didnGt +ant to let 0e leave "ecause of 0ilitary service. We found a #uy at the refecture, +ho said to 0e: .OonGt +orry, 3Gll #et you a ass ort.. *nd he told so0e story a"out 0y #oin# to -rance for an inheritance. 1hey 0ade 0e si#n a a er: .6nce you have the inheritance, youGll co0e "ack to Poland to do your 0ilitary service.. 4ure 3 si#ned, and 3 #ot the ass ort. 1hen 3 +ent to Warsa+ for the visa, and +ith that 3 ca0e to ;et=. 1+o years later, 3 +as su00oned "y the consulate in 4tras"our#. 3 didnGt ans+er, 3 didnGt #o, and they didnGt su00on 0e a#ain. 1hatGs ho+ it +as left. Here is how %ouise M. succeeded in leavin! Fa@i Bermany* 3 +as 0arried in Berlin, five years "efore. 3 left Berlin +ith t+o children, a little "oy of four and a one5 year5old "a"y. 3t +as a very difficult e0i#ration "ecause 0y hus"and had already left for ;orocco to see if +e could 0ove there, and 3 +as su osed to follo+ hi0. *ll of a sudden, one "eautiful su00er day, the >esta o ca0e to 0y house. 1hey +anted to arrest 0y hus"and. 1hey thou#ht he +as involved in so0e deal of transferrin# 0oney. But you canGt talk to the >esta o. 1hree 0en ca0e at si2 oGclock in the 0ornin#. 1hey searched every+here, under the "eds, every+here, and +hen they sa+ that 0y hus"and +asnGt there, they said: ./ouGre co0in# +ith us.. *t that ti0e, 3 had a #irl in the house. 3 could leave her +ith the children. 1hey took 0e to >esta o head'uarters, to an office +here a 0an "e#an shoutin# ri#ht a+ay. But 3 said 3 didnGt kno+ anythin#: .6<, +eGre #oin# to take you to the cellar. 6nce youGve "een in the cellar a+hile, 0e0ories +ill start co0in# "ack to you.. 4o 3 really thou#ht that 0y last hour had co0e. Ae said to 0e: .No+, #et out and +ait in the hall.. 3 sat do+n. 1here +as so0eone else there, a 0an sittin# ne2t to 0e, +ho told 0e he D 1&9 D +as a ,e+. .What are you here forU. .3 donGt kno+.. .But you can tell 0e.. 3 understood ri#ht a+ay that he +as an infor0er. *nd then 3 reali=ed, +ithout anyone tellin# 0e, that they ut 0e face5to5face +ith so0eone +ho +as su osed to reco#ni=e 0e, and since he didnGt reco#ni=e 0e, the other one in the office had 0e "rou#ht "ack. *ll of a sudden, he "eca0e al0ost hu0an: .3G0 #oin# to let you #o,. and he #ave 0e an e2ist ass. /ou had to #o throu#h a kind of tunnel. 3 +as sure that +hen 3 +ent throu#h that tunnel, they +ere #oin# to kill 0e. But that +asnGt the case.

1he ne2t day, the 0en fro0 the >esta o ca0e "ack: .4ho+ us your ass ort.. 3 sho+ed it. .Oo you have a "ank accountU. ./es.. We had an account, not very 0uch, "ut they fro=e it even so. 4o there 3 +as, +ith 0y children, no ass ort, and no 0oney. ;y arents took us in. 3 stayed at their house for al0ost a year. *nd 0y hus"and +as in 4 anish ;orocco, in Larache, +ith 0y sister and "rother5in5la+. *l0ost the sa0e day the >esta o ca0e to 0y house, the 4 anish revolution had started and -ranco left that little to+n of Larache. :ven so, 3 found a la+yer, a la+yer +ho +as a 0e0"er of the National 4ocialist arty and +ho "eca0e a #ood friend. 1he ,e+ish la+yers 3 had a ealed to at first really +ere #ood for nothin#, nothin# at all. 1hey +ere liars and hy ocrites. But hi0, after al0ost ten 0onths, he succeeded in #ettin# 0y ass ort returned to 0e. 3t +as first to #o to Aolland, and the er0it there +as for only four days. *fter four days, 3 +ent to the consulate and +hen 3 ca0e, they looked at a list. 3n the 0eanti0e, 0y >er0an nationality had "een taken a+ay, +hich 3 didnGt kno+. *nd they ke t the ass ort. 1hen, after+ard, there +ere so0e fateful "lo+s. ;y little "oy, +ho +asnGt yet t+o, cau#ht ty hoid, and +hile takin# care of hi0, 3 cau#ht ty hoid 0yself. -inally, even so, they #ave 0e a a er that +ould allo+ 0e to leave and #o to ;orocco. %et us 3ollow the odyssey o3 Julien O., arrested as a &rots#yite in (oland. His trial too# place in +arsaw. D 1B% D 1he trial lasted al0ost the entire day. 1here +as a "reak at ni#ht. We +erenGt risoners? +e +ere rovisionally free. But it took a "ad turn. 3 thou#ht: 3tGs #oin# very "ad, 3 0ustnGt stay here. 3 told another one of the accused, the only one +ho +as fro0 Craco+, 3 said to hi0: .Co0e +ith 0e. 6ther+ise, +eGll "e "ack in rison.. Ae didnGt +ant to. But 3 left the court ri#ht after the indict0ent. 3 'uickly #ot 0y overcoat in the lo""y. 3 think 3 even thre+ a coin, and 3 left. 3 0eet 0y o+n la+yer and 3 donGt say anythin# to hi0. Ae asked 0e: ./ouGre #oin# out to #et so0ethin# to eatU. ./es, 3G0 #oin# out to #et so0ethin# to eat.. *nd 3 cau#ht the first streetcar that assed "y +ithout even kno+in# +here it +as #oin#. Julien O. was sentenced in a$sentia to 3our years in prison. 3 stayed +ith that tailor for a fe+ +eeks. *t first 3 never +ent out. 1hen, 3 re0e0"er 3 let 0y 0oustache #ro+, and 3 +ore dark #lasses7very classicR 1he or#ani=ation decided that 3 should stay in Warsa+ for a +hile. 3n the "e#innin#, 3 +as +anted. 3t +asnGt the ti0e to leave. 3 had to +ait until thin#s cal0ed do+n. 1hen they decided @0y father +as also infor0edC that 3 +ould #o to hide in C=echoslovakia, #oin# throu#h the 0ountains. 1hey took 0e to the train at the last 0o0ent, +ith a ticket of course. 3t +as the ni#ht "efore Pentecost, and the train +as acked. * lot of eo le +ere #oin# to the 0ountains. 1here +erenGt vacations like no+, "ut there +ere a lot of eo le even so. 3 #et on the train, and, "y chance, 3 overheard t+o 0en talkin#, one sayin# to the other: .1here are olice every+here, theyGre lookin# . . .. 3t didnGt have anythin# to do +ith 0e, "ut 3 +as scared. 1hen +e #ot to a station and, as a#reed, at such and such a de ot, the #uys ca0e to #et 0e. 1hey #ave 0e a card fro0 the *l ine Clu", and that card +as valid to cross the "order. 3 +as on an outin# in the 0ountains, +ith fine shoes and a kna sack. -inally, +e #ot to a road, the #uides left, and 3 +ent do+n "y the road. 3 +as already on the C=echoslovakian side. 3 +ent into an inn and sa+ a "i# ortrait of ;asaryk. 1hen 3 #ot on a train, "ut it stayed alon# the "order too lon# to "e #oin# to Pra#ue. 3 +as afraid the

C=ech olice +ould send D 1B1 D 0e "ack so 3 chan#ed 0y lan and ca0e to Brno, in ;oravia, in the 0iddle of the ni#ht. 3 ate so0ethin# at the station and then took the train for Pra#ue. 1he address they had #iven 0e in Pra#ue +as the office of the >er0an 4ocial Oe0ocratic arty. 1hose +ho #reeted 0e thou#ht at first that 3 +as sentenced to four 0onths or four +eeks. 1hey told 0e that it +asnGt +orth the trou"le. . . . 3 said: .NoR -our yearsR. 4o they ut 0e in a kind of house +here there +ere a lot of "eds and, thanks to their efforts, 3 o"tained the ri#ht of asylu0, the ri#ht to stay in C=echoslovakia. 3 rented a roo0 and +anted to study, "ut 3 didnGt do very 0uch. 3 visited eo le in different areas, 1rotskyites, eo le +ho #ravitated to the Co00unist arty. ;any of the0 +ere ille#al, and thatGs +hat ruined 0e. 3 stayed in C=echoslovakia for ei#ht 0onths. 1hose ille#als +ere kno+n to the C=ech olice. 6ne day, there +as a "i# roundu , and 3 +as arrested too. 1hey found all sorts of "rochures, 1rotskyite Eournals, and letters in 0y house. 1hey ke t 0e at the olice station, in difficult conditions, then they sent 0e to rison +ith those +ho +ere for"idden to stay and co00on cri0inals. ;y father intervened throu#h the inter0ediary of the ;inistry of -orei#n *ffairs and the C=ech Consulate. 1hat ha ened after BLnVsGs election as resident. 1hen a co00issioner 0ade 0e an offer: .We kno+ fro0 certain letters found in your house that you +ant to #o to -rance. We also kno+ that the 4ocial Oe0ocratic Co00ittee is interested in you. 3t +ill hel you to cross the *ustrian "order. 4i#n a letter sayin# that you +ish to leave C=echoslovakia. 1he olice +onGt escort you to the "order. /ouGll have er0ission to stay in Pra#ue for forty5ei#ht hours to arran#e your affairs. 1he co00ittee +ill take care of #ettin# you across the "order secretly. 1hen youGll #et yourself to Paris.. 3 acce ted. 3tGs true that 3 +anted to #o to -rance? that attracted 0e 0ore than stayin# in Pra#ue. 3 +as sent to a to+n close to the *ustrian "order. 3 re0e0"er that they +ere talkin# a"out the Po ular -ront, a"out 4 ain. 1his +as in G$K. 1hey hel ed 0e cross the "order, and 3 +as in *ustria, very far fro0 Vienna. 3 took the train73 had to chan#e7and ca0e to Vienna, +here a friend of 0y father +as D 1B( D +aitin# for 0e. 3 stayed there for three 0onths, co0 letely ille#ally. 1hen 3 did so0ethin# very stu id. 3 didnGt kno+ and 3 +as so furious +ith the C=ech olice: 3 thou#ht they had cheated 0e. 3 found that they hadnGt treated 0e very +ell "ecause they had ut 0e in a 0ore or less healthy cell, +ith co00on cri0inals. -ro0 Vienna, 3 +rote an an#ry letter to that co00issioner. When 0y fatherGs friend found out, he shouted: .What did you doU What stu idityR 3 kno+ he +ould have hel ed you #o to -rance. Ae +ould have #iven instructions for the C=ech :0"assy in Vienna to #ive you a C=echoslovakian ass ort. /ou could have entered -rance le#ally +ith the ass ort.. Naturally, that +as out of the 'uestion no+. 1hen 3 0et a 0e0"er of the ille#al 4ocialist arty @this +as durin# the ti0e of 4chusni##C.8$9 ;ean+hile, 0y father ca0e to Vienna, and +e even +ent to 0y #randfatherGs #rave. ;y father left 0e so0e 0oney. No+, in Vienna, 3 had found a first cousin +ho0 3 kne+ in Craco+. 4he +as a little older than 0e and lived +ith a #uy +ho turned out to "e a crook. 3 found the0 in dire overty. 1hey really didnGt have anythin# to eat. 3 took the0 to a restaurant. 3 lent the0 0oney. *nd he told stories a"out his "rilliant ros ects in the 0ovies, that he +ould earn a lot. 3n fact, he had already s'uandered 0y cousinGs 0oney, and he roceeded to s'uander 0ine. 3 finally +ound u a+nin# a suitR 1he result is

that 3 didnGt have very 0uch +hen the day of 0y de arture ca0e. We still had to #o throu#h the 0ountains, on skis, skiin# fro0 the hi#h 0ountains @+e had to do this +hole e2 edition in * rilC. 3 had done a lot of skiin# in Poland, in the 1atras, "ut 3 +asnGt really a #ood skier. 3t scared 0e a little. 3 left +ith so0e"ody +ho +as su osed to sho+ 0e, #uide 0e, like an instructor. Ae hi0self +as so0ethin# of a leftist socialist and had decided to co0e to -rance +ith 0e. Ae erished later, durin# the +ar in 4 ain. 4o +e left on that e2 edition +ith very little 0oney. We #ot to the 1yrol, to Landeck, and +e cli0"ed the 0ountain to a shelter called :idel"er#. Nor0ally, 8$9 *ustrian chancellor at the ti0e of *nschluss. D 1B$ D +e shouldnGt have stayed there, "ut he 0ade 0e ractice. Ae didnGt +ant 0e to lun#e into that e2 edition, all the +ay to 4+it=erland, +ithout doin# at least forty5ei#ht hours of skiin# e2ercises. 3t +as very hot73 stri ed to the +aist7so hot in the 0ountain sun that 3 #ot sun"urned. 3 #ot sick, 0y face +as "urnin#, 3 couldnGt shave, and 3 had a fever, a very hi#h fever. -or a"out t+o days, 3 had to stay in "ed. ;y co0 anion also #ot sun"urned. 1he result +as that +e used u our su lies. *nd +e had to eat and ay for that 0ountain shelter, at very hi#h rices. We s ent al0ost all our 0oney. We finally 0ade it to 4+it=erland. But durin# the e2 edition, there +as another 0isha . 3 lost a ski. . . . 3n 4+it=erland, in 4usch, +e +ent to a hotel, +ith the little "it of 0oney +e had left. We decided to leave the skis and to hitchhike. 3n fact, +e didnGt have enou#h 0oney to take the train. We +ere in the canton of >risons, not very far fro0 Oavos, and the railroad "elon#ed to a rivate co0 any and +as very e2 ensive? you had to 0ake a lon# tri to #et to Furich, BZle, and the -rench "order. While hitchhikin#, he even "e##ed. * 4+iss fa0ily #ave us so0ethin#. Naturally, the 4+iss didnGt understand that +e traveled +ithout 0oney. *t Fuo=, not far fro0 Oavos, the 4+iss olice arrested us. *nd 3 re0e0"er that the olice +ere es ecially outra#ed "y the fact that +e didnGt have any 0oney. ;y co0 anion +as all ri#ht +ith his a ers "ecause he had an *ustrian ass ort? at that ti0e, *ustrians could enter 4+it=erland +ithout a visa. But 3 didnGt have any ass ort. 3f only +e had had 0oneyR 1he ro"le0 is that +e didnGt have any. 3 re0e0"er that the olice0an +rote in his re ort: 2In Schri3t und Beldslosen "ustand,2 .+ithout a ers and +ithout 0oneyR. 4o, they ut us in a kind of rison. 1here +ere "ars and a very nice vie+ of the 0ountains. We stayed there one ni#ht and, in the 0ornin#, the olice0an announced to us: ./ou ca0e fro0 *ustria? +eGre sendin# you "ack to *ustria.. ;y co0 anion ans+ered that that +as fine, he +as an *ustrian. But 3 said 3 didnGt +ant to "ecause 3 +as a olitical refu#ee and 3 +anted to #o to -rance. 4o the olice0an said to 0e: ./ou can #o to -rance if you have the 0oney to ay for your ticket, and a D 1BH D olice0an +ill acco0 any you.. 4ince 3 didnGt have any, there +as nothin# 3 could do. 3 had to #o "ack to *ustria. We returned to the to+n +here +e had co0e do+n, to 4usch. 1he 4+iss olice checked everythin#: such and such a hotel, etc. We left the skis? +e couldnGt dra# the0 around any0ore. *nd they took us to the "order, to ;artins"ruck on the 3nn: on one side of the river +as *ustria, on the other 4+it=erland. 1here +as a "rid#e. 4o 0y co0 anion said: .3G0 crossin# the "rid#e,. and 3 +as te0 ted to do it, "ut he #ave 0e this advice: .OonGt do it. 3f you +ant to #o to -rance, ut u so0e resistance. /ouGre

stayin#R. 1hatGs +hat ha ened. 3 said: .3G0 not crossin#.. 3 resisted. 1hey really rou#hed 0e u . 1hey took 0e "y the collar. 1hey led 0e "y force and dra##ed 0e half+ay across the "rid#e. *nd since the other half of the "rid#e "elon#ed to *ustria, they +ent "ack. 3 stayed on the "rid#e. Bet+een *ustria and 4+it=erland, in the 0iddle of the "rid#e. 1he +eather +as 'uite nice. 3t +as * ril, the end of * ril? "ut little "y little, it "e#an to #et chilly. 3 had a "ack ack. 3 took out a s+eater and thre+ it on, as if 3 didnGt 0ind. 3 stayed on the "rid#e. 1he olice0en had #one. 6n the 4+iss side, ri#ht at the "order, there +as an inn: a little "oy sent "y the hotelkee er ca0e u to 0e and asked: .*re you hun#ryU. ,ncoura!ed $y this !esture, Julien O. returned to the Swiss side6 the inn#eeper allowed him to call a contact in "urich <3or a delivery o3 money 3rom his 3ather= $ut re3used to !ive him a room 3or the ni!ht and advised him to !o to the inn on the ustrian side. 3 listened to hi0. 3 crossed the "rid#e. 6n the other side, the *ustrian custo0s officials, +ho had seen the +hole scene, al0ost "urst out lau#hin#: .Why +ere you afraid to co0eU. 8 . . .9 4o 3 +ent to the inn on the *ustrian side: .Ao+ co0e you stayed on the "rid#eU. 1hey offered 0e a roo0 and a 0eal, +ithout askin# for 0oney. 1hey said: ./ou kno+, +eGre havin# hard ti0es in *ustria. :ver since the atte0 ted utsch a#ainst Oollfus, >er0an tourists donGt co0e any0ore. 3tGs a disaster. *ny+ay, +e ho e that so0eday +eGll "e reunited +ith D 1B) D >er0any. WeGre >er0ans all the sa0e.. 6<, 3 didnGt say anythin#. 3 sle t there. 1he ne2t day, 3 +anted to call Furich a#ain, so 3 +ent to the 4+iss side? 3 +ent "ack over the "order and crossed the "rid#e a#ainR An the advice o3 the ustrian inn#eeper, Julien O. went toward 5eld#irchen to cross the Swiss $order in another sector. An the way, in %andec#, another inn#eeper, a /umanian Jew, came to his aid* Julien)s clothes $ein! torn, he o33ered him 2some #ind o3 !ol3in! #nic#ers with white soc#s6 that)s what the Bermans typically wear <we were in the &yrol=.2 &hen he put him in touch with the $order a!ents o3 a Jewish networ#. &hey made him clim$ another mountain and his !uide le3t him alone, showin! him a path that went down to Swit@erland. It was ni!ht, and a storm $ro#e. 1he youn# 0an had sho+n 0e that road "ut 3 +as co0 letely lost. 3 had 0issed the athR 3 +as e2hausted, soaked. 3 ke t on #oin# do+n, dirty, soakin# +et. By no+ it +as 0ornin#, and 3 didnGt kno+ +here 3 +as. But finally it turned out that 3 +as still in *ustriaR 3 ca0e to a easantGs house, and he #ave 0e so0e 0ilk. Ae let 0e dry 0y clothes, and 3 sle t in his "arn. 3 told hi0 3 +anted to #et into 4+it=erland ille#ally, and he said: .3G0 #oin# to hel you. 3 have a field thatGs ri#ht ne2t to the "order. 3Gll sho+ you. 6ne of 0y cousins has a hotel in Lichtenstein. /ouGll #o to hi0. 1hen youGll only have to cross the old Ihine. But stay a+ay fro0 Buchs "ecause thatGs a "order station. 1he 4+iss olice check there. >o to Aaa#, an internal station. 1ake the train for 4aint5 >all, and youGll #et to Furich.. But thatGs not all. 3t also turned out that this easant +as a Na=i: ./ou arenGt the first one 3Gve hel ed to esca e *ustrian tyranny. 6thers assed throu#h 0y field, and "y no+ theyGre all in >er0anyR. :ven so, 3 tell hi0 3G0 fro0 Poland. 3t ha ens that heGs #ot a dau#hter, and he introduces 0e: 2,in 'ol#s!enosse aus (olenI2 * fello+ country0an fro0 PolandR Ae #ave 0e a sickle. 3 retended to +ork, and +e crossed the field. Ae sho+ed 0e +hat ath to follo+ +hen ni#ht ca0e.

D 1BK D 3 did as he said and 3 #ot to that hotel, +hose o+ner +as ro"a"ly a Na=i too. 1hen 3 #ot to that station of Aaa#, 3 took the train, 3 chan#ed at 4aint5>all, and 3 0ade it to Furich. 3 +ent to see that +o0an +ho sent 0e 0oney? she +elco0ed 0e very +ar0ly. 3 stayed in her house for a fe+ days. 4he #ave 0e a letter fro0 a co0rade in Craco+, a leftist 4ocialist, +ho advised 0e to a eal to a Polish 4ocialist association in Furich. When 3 +ent to the "uildin#, 3 learned that the association had "een there "efore the +ar ofG 1H, "ut it no lon#er e2istedR 1hey told 0e to #o to the "uildin# of the 4+iss trade unions. But there +as a 0eetin# #oin# on73 should co0e "ack later, in t+o hours. 4o 3 +ent for a +alk. 3 +as still dressed like that, in 0y +hite socks. 3t +as ty ically >er0an, "ut 3 didnGt kno+ that. *nd the lainclothes co s arrested 0e: ./ouGre >er0anU 4ho+ your a ers.. 3 told the0 3G0 not >er0an "ut, since 0y a ers +erenGt in order, they arrested 0e, and 3 +as sentenced to one day in custody for crossin# the "order ille#ally. 1hen they +ent +ith 0e to #et 0y "a#s at that ladyGs house, and they ut 0e in a train, in a "arred car. .Where are you takin# 0eU. .1o BZle. WeGre #oin# to try to #et you into -rance, since you have chosen that "order. WeGre hel in# you, "ut "e +arned that if you donGt succeed, if they send you "ack, +eGll have no choice "ut to send you "ack +here you ca0e fro0, that is, to *ustria.. 3 ca0e to BZle. 3 stayed one 0ore ni#ht in the olice station? it +asnGt a rison. Besides, thereGs a olice0an there +ho didnGt understand. Ae thou#ht 3 +as "ein# sent "ack to >er0any. Ae 0akes a #esture like that: .What kind of "lo+s youGre #oin# to #etR. 1he ne2t day, a 4+iss a#ent took 0e: ./ou #o do+n that street, there. 1hereGs a little field. /ou cross it and youGre in -rance, in 4aint5Louis. /ou #o on, and youGll find a "us or a train station for ;ulhouse.. 3 crossed. 3 +ent as far as the station. 3 sa+ that there +as a train for Paris, "ut 3 didnGt have 0uch ti0e. 3 chan#ed 4+iss francs into -rench francs, and 3 ate so0ethin#. :verythin# +as #oin# fine until suddenly a -rench co a roached 0e and said, in *lsatian dialect: 2Sie san a -itcherE2 /ouGre >er0anU 3 said no, "ut since 3 didnGt have a ass ort, he took 0e to D 1B& D the olice station. 1he co00issioner, a "earded 0an, s oke -rench: .Listen, theyGve "een very strict a"out the ri#ht of asylu0 ever since <in# *le2ander of /u#oslavia +as assassinated. 1ell 0e honestly, +ho sent you here to -ranceU 1he 3nternational Ied Ael U. .No, itGs not the 3nternational Ied Ael .. .4earch hi0R. 4o they found the a er of the 4+iss olice. .*hR 3tGs the 4+iss oliceR We have to send hi0 "ackR. * olice0an took 0e on the "ack of his 0otorcycle. Ae took 0e to the 4+iss "order station, holdin# the a er: .Aere, heGs yours, take hi0R. 1he 4+iss olice +ere furious. 1hey +ere in a kind of "arracks. 1hey +ere very friendly, and they shared their o+n food, a very #ood 0eal, +ith "eer. *nd they #ot 0ad: .1hose "astardsR 3n the country

of freedo0, after the victory of the Po ular -ront in the elections. 1hey send you "ack like that, a olitical refu#ee. 3tGs outra#eous, scandalousR. ./ouGre ri#ht, "ut "y the +ay, 3Gd like to ask you +hy 3 canGt have the ri#ht of asylu0 in 4+it=erlandU. .Why, itGs not the sa0e thin#. 4+it=erland is a little country. 1hat oses ro"le0s. 3n -rance, there are so 0any forei#ners, she can allo+ herself.. 1hey took 0e "ack to Aead'uarters and e2 lained to 0e: .WeGre not #oin# to send you "ack to *ustria a#ain. WeGre #oin# to try a#ain. 4ince you +ent to the train station last ti0e, donGt #o "ack there. 1ake the "us.. 3 felt unco0forta"le "ecause 3 +asnGt shaved. 3 +anted to #o to a "ar"er, "ut the 4+iss olice +ouldnGt let 0e: .We donGt have ti0eR. 4o, on the -rench side, 3 +ent and #ot a shave. :verythin# +ent +ell, "ut all of a sudden, there +as a scene like one in an *0erican fil0 3 had seen, I m a 5u!itive . 6ne of the station co s ca0e into the "ar"er sho R But he didnGt reco#ni=e 0e. When 3 left 3 said: .>ood5"ye, #entle0en,. and 3 re0e0"er the co ans+ered, .>ood5"ye, ;onsieur.. 3 sa+ a "us and 3 asked if it +as #oin# to ;ulhouse: .No, itGs #oin# to Belfort.. .6<, thatGs all ri#ht.. 3 s ent a day in Belfort. 3 +alked around and ate an e2cellent 0eal +ith so 0any D 1BB D hors dGoeuvres that 3 couldnGt finish the rest of it. 3 thou#ht it +as very e2 ensive. 3 re0e0"er +hat 3 aid: fourteen francs. Late in the afternoon, there +as a train, and 3 #ot to Paris that ni#ht.

The .ost ountr)

3ter arrivin! in 5rance, time in memory passed 3aster6 it 3lowed in rhythm with movin! and chan!in! 1o$s. &hrou!h the diversity o3 individual destinies, recurrent themes emer!e here too* o3 wor#, tenacity, e33ort. In the 2Jewish2 trades <tailors, tanners, 3urriers, etc.=, the newcomers 3ollowed the networ# o3 relatives and immi!rants who preceded them. &hose who came to 5rance at the end o3 the nineteenth and the $e!innin! o3 the twentieth century ran little wor#shops or shops, and the in3lux o3 immi!rants $etween the wars provided an a$undant and !enerally su$missive la$or 3orce.8H9&he economic crisis emphasi@ed the return to 2Jewish2 trades, or!ani@ed accordin! to the characteristic system o3 puttin! out wor# 3rom patterns. /ecent immi!rants, o3ten lac#in! a resident permit, su$1ect to the competition o3 their co-reli!ionists, and constantly 3earin! arrest <3ollowed $y expulsion=, wor#ed at home, ille!ally, 3or poor salaries. Home, 3or many o3 them, was reduced to one unhealthy room into which a hal3 do@en people were crowded* 3reed to set their own pace, these homewor#ers, in 3act, imposed upon themselves a $rutal wor# load. Maurice F.* 3 +as livin# in that hotel 8in 4elleville 9? there +ere only ,e+s there. 1here +ere si2 of us in one roo0. ;y father didnGt earn very 0uch. *t that ti0e, he +as a delivery0an. 4o 0y 0other hel ed hi0, +ith the four kids. But even so, she hel ed hi0 a little, +hatever she could do at ho0e. *nd 3 #ave a hand too. *s soon as 3 +as thirteen, 3 +ent to +ork in the tannery. *t thirteen. 3 had had only one year of schoolin# in -rance, "ut nevertheless 3 had to +ork. ;y father +as then earnin# a"out 8H9 Oavid Wein"er#, Community on &rial* &he Jews o3 (aris in the 78:>s @Chica#o: University of

Chica#o Press, 19&&C? Cf. also Nancy >reen, &he (let@l o3 (aris . D 1B9 D t+o hundred francs a +eek. 3 +orked for a ,e+ish ho0e+orker, as a tanner, +hich +as ei#hty5ei#ht to ninety hours a +eek. 3 earned a franc an hour, so 3 "rou#ht ho0e ninety francs a +eek? that +as an enor0ous su0. ;y fatherGs t+o hundred francs and 0y ninety francs, that +as a lot. *nd 3 +ent on +orkin# like that, all those hours, +hen there +as a lot of +ork. When there +asnGt 0uch, you did fifty or si2ty hours. *nd +hen there +as a lot of +ork, you did as 0uch as ninety hours. ;y relations +ith 0y "oss +ere very #ood. Ae +as a very interestin# 0an, +ho hel ed 0e in a lot of thin#s. When 3 read a "ook, the t+o of us discussed it. Ae +as a ,e+ fro0 Lod=? he +as de orted later on. 3 stayed +ith hi0 until 19$K, the ti0e of the Po ular -ront. Ae then ro osed that 3 "eco0e his artner, "ut 3 didnGt +ant to. 3 +as already a radical and 3 left hi0. 3 +ent to +ork for another "oss. 4everal o tions develo ed outside the ,e+ish net+orks, ho+ever. 1he usual difficulties of every 0i#ration then stood out even 0ore shar ly: a renticeshi in the lan#ua#e, isolation in a forei#n environ0ent, ada tation to other custo0s. Certain su"Eects that +ere recalled in the revious e isodes on de artures recur, "ut +ith a ne+ t+ist: eo le stressed the e2cellence of rofessional trainin# ac'uired in the ho0eland and their assion for +ork as o osed to the nor0s of the host country. -urther0ore, in#enuity took the 0ore -rench for0 of resourcefulness. Aenceforth, the notion of ro#ress +as confused +ith inte#ration into the ne+ 0ilieu and a rise in the social hierarchy. .aco$-Jacques %.* 1hey had #iven 0e a na0e of so0eone in the area of ;ont"Lliard7a ,e+ +ho 0i#ht hel 0e. 3 didnGt kno+ a +ord of -rench. When 3 #ot to his house, he said to 0e, in >er0an: .3f there isnGt enou#h +ork to kee 0y o+n +orkers "usy all +eek, ho+ can 3 hire youU. 3 asked hi0 +hat 3 should do. .>o to the surroundin# villa#es.. 3 re0e0"er as if it +ere yesterday. When 3 left73 +as already on the "otto0 ste and he +as on the to 7he called 0e, ca0e do+n: .;onsieur, hereGs t+enty francs.. *t that ti0e, that +as 0oney. But 3 +as roud. 1hat u set 0e: .;onsieur, 3G0 lookin# for +ork. 3G0 not a "e##ar.. D 19% D 3 s ent the +hole day #oin# fro0 villa#e to villa#e. 1hey didnGt understand 0e, and 3 didnGt understand the0. 3 +as so tired, so tired. What could 3 doU *t ni#ht, 3 sa+ a cafL and +ent in. 3 s oke to the "oss, "ut he didnGt understand a +ord. 4o 0any years have assed and 3 still re0e0"er. 4o, 3 asked the #irl +ho +as +aitin# on 0e: .Oo you s eak >er0anU. ./es.. .6h, 3G0 saved.. 3 told her that 3 +as lookin# for +ork. 1hey #ave 0e a roo0 and the ne2t day, the "oss said to 0e: .3 understand no+. 3G0 #oin# to 0ake a hone call.. 1hen the #irl e2 lained to 0e: .1hey +ant you in Beaucourt, at ,a y Brothers.. 6<. 3 +ent to Beaucourt. 1he 0ana#er received 0e, "ut he didnGt kno+ +hat 3 +anted. Unfortunately, he didnGt s eak >er0an. Ae called a #irl +ho +orked in the factory. 4he sa+ that 3 didnGt understand. .1he 0ana#er is askin# you +hat you +ant.. .3G0 lookin# for +ork. AereGs 0y ass ort, 0y visa, everythin# is in order.. .6h, yes, they called 0e. 6<, +hat can you doU 3n our clock0akerGs sho , the 0anufacture is divided into three arts: the first is a renticeshi , 0olds and +heels? the second is the esca e0ent, the +heel that 0akes the +atch #o? the third is settin# it in cases and uttin# on the fra0e and the hands.. 1he #irl asked 0e +hat 3 +anted to do: the first or the last artU 4he didnGt 0ention the second art, the hardest. But 3 said that 3 +anted to do the esca e0ent, to 0ake the +atches #o. 1he 0ana#er: .4o0e"ody +ho co0es fro0 Poland, +ho hasnGt "een to school, +ants to do the hardest +orkU. ./es, 3 can do it. 3 did it in Warsa+.. .6<, 3G0 #oin# to #ive you that +ork, "ut, note, if you

canGt do it, +e +onGt chan#e your Eo". We Eust +onGt hire you.. .-ine, 3 a#ree.. 4o they 0ade a lace for 0e to +ork. 1he +orkers ca0e to +atch 0e. 1hey "rou#ht 0e tools, if 3 needed this or that. 3n Poland, you donGt see that. *nd the 0ana#er also stayed near 0e. 4o 3 called the #irl over: .1ell the 0ana#er to let 0e +ork alone. 3 canGt +ork +hen eo le are +atchin# 0e.. 1hey left, and, of course, 3 did the Eo". 1he #irl took it and "rou#ht it to the 0ana#er. 3 kne+ ho+ it +ould end. 1he 0ana#er called 0e over: .What school did you #o toU. ./es, 3 +ent to schoolR. D 191 D .What schoolU. .;ichel 4chool.. 4o, he looked in his dictionary of +atch0akin# schools and didnGt find anythin#. 3 e2 lained to the #irl: .1ell the 0ana#er heGs +ron#? itGs 0y father +hoGs called ;ichelR. Ae shru##ed, and, of course, 3 +as hired on the s ot. S&wo years later, .aco$-Jacques %. !oes into $usiness 3or himsel3.T 3 saved u and 3 "eca0e a 0anufacturer. 3 "rou#ht inde endent +orkers. 3 al+ays had four or five, so0eti0es t+enty +orkers, ,e+s fro0 Poland. 3 lived in Beaucourt, a villa#e of five thousand inha"itants. 4o0e said: .4ee, a ,e+ +ho canGt even s eak -rench correctly and heGs a 0anufacturer already. *nd us, our #reat5#reat5#randfather +orked for ,a y.. 4o, +hat did 3 doU 3 said to the0: .Listen, #entle0en, +hat do you do at ni#htU. .6h, at ni#ht, 3 #o out, 3 #o to a friendGs house, lay a #a0e of cards, or #o to "ed early.. .;e, at ni#ht, 3 +ork until 0idni#ht, you kno+U *nd on 4undayU. .3 #o fishin#.. .;e, on 4unday, 3 +ork all day lon#. 3f you had done as 3 do, youGd "e a 0anufacturer too. 1hereGs no 0iracle.. &he lan!ua!e pro$lem was posed most sharply 3or immi!rants who came to 5rance to continue their studies. &heir (olish diplomas were not reco!ni@ed, and they were 3orced to $e!in their entire course o3 study all over a!ain. /o$ert S. represents the typical case o3 the poor student who wor#ed at ni!ht to prepare 3or his examinations and in the day not only to support himsel3 $ut also to help his parents, who remained in (oland. &he trials he endured demanded !reat patience and an uncommon stren!th o3 character. Havin! arrived in 5rance in 78;K, at the a!e o3 twenty, he could not pass his 3inal examination until a3ter the war, in 78M9, and 3inally set out on his own. 3 arrived in -rance, in Nancy, on 6cto"er (B, 19(B. 3 #ot off at the train station +ith ten francs in 0y ocket. 3 +ent to see a friend +ho had already finished school the revious year, and +ho +as livin# in a hotel. 3 didnGt s eak -rench? in Nancy they s oke >er0an. 3 said to the o+ner of that hotel: .;onsieur, 3 D 19( D Eust have ten francs? 3Gll #ive the0 to you to #uarantee 0e a roo0 for a +eek. No+, do you kno+ anyone +ho 0i#ht ut 0e to +orkU 3 need to earn 0y livin#, 3 +ant to study, and 3 donGt have any 0oney. 3 donGt +ant charity.. *nd 3 told hi0 that 3 +as a ,e+. .Well,. he ans+ers, .3 Eust ha en to kno+ so0e"ody +hoGs a ,e+.. 1hat +as 0y future father5in5la+, +ho had a little factory +here he 0ade "o2es. No sooner said than done. Ae hired 0e. 3 re ared the "oards in e2chan#e for so0ethin# to eat and ocket 0oney, +hich 3 sent ho0e. 3t +asnGt 0uch, "ut +ith the e2chan#e rate, it allo+ed

the0 to 0ake do in Poland. Unfortunately, 0y future father5in5la+ fell on hard ti0es +ith his o eration. 3 had to look for +ork and +as one of the first students to co0e u +ith the idea of #oin# to the streetcar co0 any: 3 could +ork at the streetcar de ot at ni#ht, +hich +ould leave 0e the day for 0y studies. 4o 3 +orked fro0 nine oGclock at ni#ht to five oGclock in the 0ornin#. ;y +ork in the de ot consisted of +ashin# the cars. *t five oGclock, 3 +ent to "ed? at seven, 3 +as u . 3 +ent to school fro0 ei#ht oGclock to noon, fro0 t+o to five. *t five oGclock, 3 returned ho0e, +ent to "ed to slee a little, and then started to study and revie+. 3 earned a #ood salary: a hundred fifty francs a +eek? that +as si2 hundred francs a 0onth. 6f the si2 hundred francs, 3 ke t a hundred and fifty for 0yself @for 0y roo0, 0y studies, foodC and re#ularly sent ho0e four hundred fifty francs a 0onth, for 0y arents. 3 e0 hasi=e that +hen 3 ca0e to -rance, 3 didnGt kno+ -rench. 4o 3 started to +ork on #ra00ar "y takin# ti0e fro0 0y slee . *nd +hen 3 finished +ork on the car, 3f 3 had an hour left, 3 hid so as not to "e cau#ht, and 3 cra00ed. 3 can say that the irre#ular ver"s and so on #ave 0e a rou#h ti0eR Ourin# the su00er vacation, 3 didnGt #o "ack to Poland like 0y friends. 3 +as afraid of #ettin# stuck there for lack of 0oney and not havin# any 0eans "y +hich to feed 0y arents. 3 +as o"sessed a"out it. 3 think that if 3 hadnGt "een a"le to leave a#ain, 3 +ould have co00itted suicide. 4o 3 o ted to sacrifice 0y tri to Poland and instead to +ork to save enou#h 0oney for 0y studies and for 0y arentsG needs. D 19$ D Ourin# the school year, 3 +orked at ni#ht since 3 had to #o to classes durin# the day. But durin# vacations and on holidays, 3 +orked durin# the day, as a conductor. *nd even "etter: 3 did t+o days in one. Ao+U Work on the streetcar +as done fro0 five in the 0ornin# to one oGclock7thatGs ei#ht hours. *nd 3 started a#ain at three oGclock until late at ni#ht. 1his +orked out "ecause the -rench0an took advanta#e of the fact that there +as so0eone +ho could re lace hi0. Ae said: .3 +ant to #o dancin# +ith 0y #irl,. and it +as 4unday, a holiday, or durin# the +eek. 1hey kne+ 3 +as +illin# to take the shift. *t 0y a#e, 3 could +ork t+o shifts and, es ecially, "y earnin# t+o days in one, 3 could re+ard 0yself +ith a 0eal, +hich, for 0e, +as a real treat. What did it consist ofU 3tGs so0ethin# e2traordinary +hen 3 think of it no+. 3 could ay 0yself +ith a steak, fries, and salad, a 0eal that +as ty ically -rench, "ut for 0e, it +as a royal feastR 3 enrolled for the second year. 3 did it and +hen the vacations ca0e, 3 asked 0yself a#ain: .*0 3 #oin# to Poland to see 0y arentsU. 3 0ade an accountin#, and, a#ain for the sa0e reasons, 3 de rived 0yself of the leasure of that tri . 3 0ust add that if 3 had kno+n ho+ thin#s +ere #oin# to turn out, 3 certainly +ouldnGt have 0ade that choice "ecause 3 never sa+ 0y arents a#ain. -or 0e, seein# ho+ events +ere unfoldin#, there +as never a 'uestion of 0y #oin# "ack to Poland. *t any rice. 3 "rou#ht 0y sister fro0 Poland, sendin# her 0oney for the tri . *t the outset, 3 #ot her hired as a cleanin# +o0an at the cine0a. 4he +as a dress0aker. *nd little "y little, she 0ana#ed to find so0e custo0ers? she 0ade dresses, in secret, at ho0e. 8 . . .9 ;y university di lo0a didnGt #ive 0e the ri#ht to ractice in -rance. 1here +ere t+o conditions sine qua non to "e a"le to ractice in -rance: to have an official di lo0a and, in addition, to "e a naturali=ed -rench0an. -or naturali=ation, you had to #o throu#h the union @of dentistsC, to #et their a roval, +hich they al0ost never #ranted. 3 re0e0"ered OL utL 4., +ho had offered 0e his hel . 3 e2 lained to hi0: .3 have to convert 0y di lo0a into an official di lo0a. 3Gll do that no 0atter ho+ 0uch ti0e 3 have to devote to #ettin# the -rench "accalaureate.

D 19H D 3Gll slave a+ay. But 3 canGt co00it 0yself as lon# as 3G0 not sure of o"tainin# -rench citi=enshi .. Ae had 0e ut to#ether a file +ith all 0y +ork certificates. 1he +hole thin# didnGt take lon#7he 0ade 0e a royal #ift. 6n the very day 3 received 0y di lo0a, in 19$$, 3 received the order to ay the costs of naturali=ation, and 3 +as naturali=ed. 3t +as rare at that ti0e, es ecially for a dental student: the union +as vi#ilant in not lettin# anyone #et throu#h? you had to have a helluva talent to #et their a roval. &hus, /o$ert S. set out to pass the $accalaureate. +hile he prepared 3or the examination, he o$tained a position as attendant in a municipal li$rary <where, despite his protest, they wanted to appoint him=. 5inally, the !reat day came* 4o, 3 sho+ed u for the first "accalaureate e2a0. 3 re0e0"er it as if it +ere yesterday. 1here +as an o en5ended to ic: .Io0ain Iolland, in one of his +orks @3 donGt kno+ +hich one any0oreC, says that he "elieves in the future of aviation. 4ay +hether you a#ree +ith hi0 and +hy.. With 0y leftist leanin#s, if 3 dare say so, 3 defended the idea that if aviation could "rin# eo le to#ether, contri"ute to "rotherhood, 3 a#reed? "ut if it had to serve +ar and destruction, no. *nd the inevita"le ha ened, of course: 3 had the "ad luck to fall on so0e turkey +ho #ave 0e a lo+ #rade. By cross5checkin#, 3 +as a"le to identify the teacher and 3 asked hi0 olitely to e2 lain to 0e: .3 donGt clai0 that 0y essay +as erfect, "ut did it really deserve that #radeU. Ae ans+ered 0e: .;onsieur, in our vie+ the "accalaureate candidate is not asked to state +hat he thinks "ut +hat others, 0ore 'ualified than he, have said.. 1hat 0eant you 0ustnGt choose an o en5ended to ic "ecause he Eud#ed that the candidate +asnGt fit to deal +ith it. *fter hearin# this reasonin#, +hat did 3 doU Ourin# the vacation for the second session, 3 took out of the li"rary the four volu0es of -a#uet, the "est critic of -rench literature at that ti0e. *nd 3 0e0ori=ed all the authors of the four centuries, Ionsard, Ia"elais, and so on. 3 invested a lot of ti0e, and 0ore than once, 3 +e t +ith ra#e? "ut +ithout it 3 couldnGt #o any further. Ca0e the "accalaureate e2a0, +ith the classical D 19) D su"Eect: .Which do you refer, the theater of Corneille or of IacineU. Predicta"ly, 3 #ra""ed Iacine, and recited -a#uetGs reasonin# @since they didnGt ask 0e for 0y o+n o inionC. 4o 3 #et throu#h the first art of the "accalaureate, that +as in G$&, and started re arin# for the second art. *nd there ca0e the first 0o"ili=ation, at the ti0e of ;unich. 3 couldnGt take the e2a0. When 3 ca0e "ack, 3 continued to re are, and then it +as cut off for #ood: the +ar "e#an. &he epilo!ue o3 that 2apprenticeship2 came only in 78M9* We returned to Cler0ont5-errand, and 3 enrolled as a candidate for the second "accalaureate. 3 could have taken advanta#e of s ecial arran#e0ents, as a -rench0an +ho had fulfilled his 0ilitary o"li#ation durin# the +ar and +ho had served in the Iesistance. But 3 didnGt +ant to. 3 had the first "accalaureate, and 3 +anted everythin# to "e e'ual +ith 0y -rench country0en so that they +ouldnGt so0eday co0e accusin# 0e of havin# taken advanta#e of +ar conditions. 3t +as 0y ri#ht and 0y ride. 4o 3 assed the second "accalaureate, like all the others. ;y naturali=ation, a"ro#ated under PLtain, +as no+ restored. 3 had only to convert 0y university di lo0a into an official di lo0a. *t that ti0e, the la+ de0anded another five years, "ut in 0y case, they authori=ed 0e to resent the five years in a sin#le e2a0ination.

3 ca0e to Nancy. 3 +orked in a #arret @3 re0e0"er the hotelC durin# the 0onth of *u#ust. 3t drove 0e cra=y. 3 kne+ 0y 0aterial inside out. No+, on the anel, there +as one truly co0te0 ti"le individual, a har0acolo#y rofessor, an anti54e0ite +ho +as al+ays ickin# on 0e: nothin# 3 ans+ered +as any #ood. 1o 0ake this clear, 3 have to oint out that one of 0y "uddies, A., +ho had #one to school +ith 0e, had "eco0e dean of the dental school. When 3 told hi0 a"out 0y trou"les, he hi0self +ent to the dean of the 4chool of ;edicine and it turned out that the latter +as none other than the officer 3 had served +ith @as a 0edical orderlyC throu#hout the +ar. 4o he sent for 0e: .WhatGs this all a"outU. 3 e2 lained that 3 had to convert 0y di lo0a into an official di lo0a. .3n short,. he said, .you had the ri#ht to #et yourself killed for -rance "ut D 19K D you donGt have the ri#ht to live for -rance. 1hatGs not ri#ht and it canGt "e. :nou#h already. /ouGve assed the e2a0. -or #rades, theyGll take the file you had in 19$$: you assed the e2a0 once, thatGs enou#h. /ou did all that had to "e done as a -rench0an. 3 can testify to it. No+, letGs talk a"out so0ethin# else.. *nd thatGs ho+, +ith the di lo0a, 3 could finally set 0yself u +ith everythin# in order.

New -hettos
s we have seen, in the 2Jewish trades,2 the immi!rants 3ormed networ#s where they were amon! themselves, more or less isolated in the midst o3 5rench society. &hey certainly did not re-create the environment they had le3t* the demo!raphic and cultural context turned out to $e too di33erent <#osher 3ood or the rhythm o3 the Jewish holidays, 3or example, were no lon!er imposed with the same strictness as in (oland=6 and mi!ration tended to accelerate the process o3 seculari@ation $e!un in the homeland. 4ut people did continue to sociali@e with Jewish 3riends, and thou!h !atherin!s were hence3orth held on Sundays rather than Saturdays, people still shared common memories, exchan!ed news, and were with their own. Mutual aid societies, or Lands0anshaften, 3ormed $y those who came 3rom the same community, multiplied $etween the two world wars. t 3irst essentially 3uneral societies, they expanded their activities little $y little, eventually includin! social, cultural, or educational services. In the late 78:>s, there were almost two hundred such associations in (aris, which em$raced hal3 o3 the Jews 3rom eastern ,urope <more than twenty thousand 3amilies=.8)9&hey evidenced the vitality o3 immi!rant .iddish culture in the most varied 3orms* newspapers, li$raries, theatrical and athletic activities. 'ery o3ten, .iddish continued to $e spo#en within the 3amily circle, at least $y the parents, even i3 the children pre3erred to answer in 5rench. (aradoxically, in some cases, youn! immi!rants did not really learn .iddish until a3ter they come to 5rance. 8)9 Oavid A. Wein"er#, Community on &rial . D 19& D 4ernard (.* 1he ,e+ish co00unity in Ioanne then nu0"ered a"out forty or si2ty fa0ilies, all fro0 Poland, or 0ore or less Polish: fro0 >alicia, Poland, Lithuania, Bali@ianer, (ola#, %itva# : thatGs +ho they are. :very 4aturday, +e #ot to#ether. 6n 4aturdays or 4undays, ro"a"ly on 4undays. We #athered in a "uildin# that "elon#ed to the co00unity. We had 0eetin#s, +e took e2cursions to the countryside. *nd

+e also danced? +e #ot to#ether to sin#. We +ere youn# in those days. But that activity al+ays took lace +ith a Fionist "ack#round 8 . . .9 We lived a0on# ,e+s. ;y still rather i0 erfect kno+led#e of the -rench lan#ua#e +ould have revented 0e fro0 livin# outside that ,e+ish co00unity. Besides, itGs in Ioanne that 3 really learned to s eak /iddish. 3 kne+ a "it? 3 could fi#ure out the al ha"et since 3 had learned Ae"re+, "ut 3 learned to read and fi#ure out /iddish in 0y first 0onths in -rance. We lived essentially in a ,e+ish environ0ent. 4ocial visits, dates7+e had the0 +ith the fe+ #irls fro0 our o+n 0ilieu. ;y +ife +as one of the0 @0y +ife here no+C. Mathilde /.)s parents, however, decided that the only solution to the Jewish pro$lem was assimilation. So they $anished .iddish 3rom the house on principle and even went so 3ar as to put their dau!hter in a Catholic school. Fevertheless, .iddish cropped up in snatches, in the mother)s words o3 a33ection to her dau!hter. nd the 3amily !roup preserved the culture o3 the homeland </ussia in this case= as a point o3 re3erence, as i3, despite their inte!ration into the 5rench environment, they needed to recall their own distinct identity. When 3 +as "orn, 0y arents had the stran#e notion that the solution to the ,e+ish ro"le0 +as assi0ilation. 6<, they +erenGt the only ones. But for the0, the solution +as to lay the ostrich, to ut their heads in the sand so as not to "e seen. 4o 3 +asnGt su osed to "e told 3 +as ,e+ish. Which 0eant that 3 s ent 0y childhood, u to G$B, +ithout kno+in#, consciously at any rate. -inally, there +ere stran#e thin#s that stirred 0y curiosity. -or e2a0 le, 0y arents, +ho s oke Iussian +ith each other +hen they didnGt +ant 0e to understand, so0eti0es D 19B D said: .1heyGre one of us,. s eakin# of eo le +ho +ere neither Iussian nor Polish. 3 found that u==lin#. .1hey didnGt s eak /iddishU. No, not at all. 1hey 0ust have kno+n it in their childhood, "ut they really for#ot it. 1he only thin# is that 0y 0other, in her 0o0ents of tenderness, so0eti0es said affectionate thin#s to 0e in /iddish: .mein teures Oind. . 3 re0e0"er that. 3 had no idea +hat it 0eant. -inally she told 0e +hat it 0eant, .0y dear child.. But in +hat lan#ua#eU 3 really donGt kno+ +hat e2 lanation she #ave 0e. 3n any case, there +as that u==le: to "e one of us, +hen youGre neither Iussian nor Polish, +hat does that 0eanU 3 had a va#ue e2 lanation, consciously? that is, it s un around in 0y head. 3 thou#ht that 0ay"e forei#ners +ere ours "ecause they +ere forei#ners. *nd so0eti0es they said it a"out eo le +ho see0ed -rench to 0e and that 0ust have co0 licated the u==le even 0ore. 4o 3 lived in that kind of e2tre0e a0"i#uity, "oth fro0 the cultural oint of vie+ and fro0 the reli#ious oint of vie+, +ith so0ethin# nevertheless that +as a unifyin# ele0ent, to a certain e2tent, "ecause it +asnGt Eust anyone +ho told 0e at that ti0e that 3 +as a ,e+. 3t +as 0y aunt, 0y fatherGs older sister @+ho +as de orted in GH(? 3 found her na0e in <larsfeldGs "ook not lon# a#oC.8K9 *nd that aunt73 +ould say that in her house, it +asnGt ,e+ish culture, althou#h ro"a"ly it +as in the at0os here and in the air. But it +as a kind of Iussian culture. When +e #athered to#ether, 0y arents san# +ith her in Iussian or told 0e Iussian stories. When 3 +as still very little, 3 had already heard a"out Iussian +riters, Iussian oets, or Iussian co0 osers. 3n short, Iussia +as a #reat 0a#netic ole. 1here +as no talk of ,e+ishness.

"olitical !cti(ists
(olitical activists <Communists, 4undists, or "ionists, with their multiple shades and variations= also had their own mutual aid societies, 8K9 4er#e <larsfeld, a -rench la+yer +ho, +ith his +ife Beatte, has "een very active in huntin# Na=is and colla"orators. D 199 D youth movements, and cultural !roups.8&9In their own way, these networ#s 3ostered a solidarity $ased on common culture and memory. &hus, the Communist activists, while preachin! the dissolution o3 Jewish identity in proletarian internationalism <unli#e the 4undists=, were nevertheless !rouped in the .iddish lan!ua!e su$section o3 the (arty. &he 3act o3 a33inity and residence <the immi!rant population $ein! concentrated in certain quarters o3 (aris* the I'th, JIth, or JJth arrondisse0entsC meant that activists o3 Jewish ori!in were !rouped in the same cell . Marc 4.* 3n 19(), 3 ca0e to Paris. 4ince 3 had #ood friends +ho +ere tanners, 3 could #et +ork ri#ht a+ay. 1he sa0e +eek, 3 #ot in touch +ith the Bundists in Paris. 1here +as a cafL, )% Iue des -rancs5Bour#eois. *ll the Bundists #athered there, on the first floor, and they created the ;ede0 Clu". Because in the 0eanti0e, ;ede0, the leader of the Bund, had assed a+ay in Ne+ /ork. We didnGt have a "uildin# ri#ht a+ay. We or#ani=ed conferences, and +e +ent on outin#s, to ac'uaint the ne+ i00i#rants +ith cultural life in -rance. 1hey ut 0e on the co00ittee of the ;ede0 Clu" ri#ht a+ay. 3n 19(B, No0"er#, a #reat ,e+ish +riter, assed a+ay. 1hey or#ani=ed a 0e0orial evenin#? the #reatest +riters 74hole0 *sh, 4chneour7ca0e to that evenin#. 1hey said: .WeGll char#e a fee, and +hatever +e take in +ill "e used to create a li"rary.. We collected a certain su0 and created that li"rary, +hich +as in that cafL. We "ou#ht a "i# ca"inet, +hich still e2ists in the "uildin# +e "ou#ht in 19(B. 1hen, the first thin#, +e #ot offers fro0 eo le +ho had "ooks, and +e "ou#ht the0. 3 +as one of the foundin# 0e0"ers of that li"rary. 3n the ;ede0 Li"rary, there are still hoto#ra hs of the first co00ittees that created it. 1here are only t+o livin# 0e0"ers left fro0 that co00ittee, ;onsieur W. and 0e. We +ent on like that. 1hen, +hen our 0ove0ent #re+, +e rented other "uildin#s, "i##er, 0ore co0forta"le ones. 1he last one +as 11% Iue Vieille5du51e0 le. We already had a "i# "uildin#? the li"rary ke t #ro+in#. 8&9 Cf. Nancy >reen, &he (let@l o3 (aris . Oavid A. Wein"er#, D (%% D 3n 19$(, +e founded the social clu" *r"eiter Iin#. 1he "uildin#, the entire "uildin#, "elon#ed to that clu". 1here +asnGt a ,e+ish artist, a ,e+ish +riter assin# throu#h Paris +ho didnGt have a 0eetin# in the "uildin#711% Iue Vieille5du51e0 le. Not only did +e 0ake an au2iliary of the Bund in Poland "ut also a 4ocialist 0ove0ent, the Bund in -rance. We u"lished a a er, the +acher, the *+akenin#. 3 +asnGt articularly one of the leaders? 0y #oal +as cultural, the li"rary. 3n 19$(, they also set u the 0utual aid society. 1here +ere various cate#ories of eo le +ho didnGt have 4ocial 4ecurity. 1hey could enroll in the society and "e fully covered. We also set u the co00unity "urial vaults in 19$B. 3 +asnGt art of that #rou at that ti0e, "ut it e2istedR Ourin# the +ar, in the social circle, they set u a canteen to hel +o0en +hose hus"ands had #one into the ar0y as volunteers. Maurice F. Community on &rial, . )1JK(.

3 "eca0e active in the Co00unist youth in G$$ or G$H. 3 +as thirteen or fourteen years old. 3t +as in Paris. -irst 3 +as in the youth of the SSth. ;ost of the0 +ere -rench. 1here +erenGt 0any ,e+s, Eust a fe+. Ii#ht after, 3 Eoined the youth of the S3th "ecause there +ere ,e+ish friends do+n there, so 3 chan#ed 0y nei#h"orhood. 3n the Co00unist youth, they didnGt la"el you a ,e+ or a non5,e+. *t that ti0e, they +ere seekin# assi0ilation, like every"ody else, like the -rench. 8 . . .9 3 layed foot"all, did #y0nastics. 1he /.*.4.C. +as a clu" that had five or si2 hundred 0e0"ers. Ielations +ith non5,e+sU /ou kno+, +e didnGt han# around to#ether. We retty 0uch created our o+n #hetto . . . mon! le3tist activists, Julien O. 3ollowed an ori!inal path, independent o3 the predominantly Jewish networ#s. +e recall that he arrived in (aris a3ter many vicissitudes, at the time o3 the victory o3 the (opular 5ront. 3ter a 3ew months, he decided to !o to Spain to 3i!ht in the International 4ri!ade with the /epu$licans. He was sent to the ra!on 3ront. D (%1 D 3t really +as a stran#e +ar. We didnGt have +ea ons, +e did so0e e2ercises. 1he rest of the ti0e +e ar#ued, +e took sun"aths, and fro0 ti0e to ti0e, +e shot. 1he only e2 edition 3 +ent out on +as at ni#ht. We +ent to the ene0y trenches? +e s+i ed a case of +ea ons fro0 the0. 3t +asnGt a "i# deal. We had t+o or three +ounded. *0on# those +ho +ere +ith 0e, there +as one73 learned 0uch later +ho he +as. Ae +as the fa0ous +riter 6r+ell, the author of Fineteen ,i!hty-5our . Ae +as +ounded in 0y resence, ri#ht ne2t to 0e. What +as his na0eU Blair. 3 didnGt find out +ho it +as until years later "ecause he +rote a "ook on Catalonia under his real na0e. Ieadin# it, 3 reali=ed it +as 6r+ell. By then he +as dead, "ecause for a lon# ti0e 3 hadnGt kno+n +ho he +as. Ae +as very tall and, once, +hen he stood u +ithout thinkin#, a #ood shot on the -ascist side +ounded hi0. We took hi0 to the hos ital in Barcelona. 6<, 3 stayed on that so5called front, 3 +ent on leave to Barcelona, 3 +ent "ack to the front, then a#ain to Barcelona. 1here, there +as the fa0ous event of ;ay $, the civil +ar, the atte0 t of the Co00unists to li'uidate the P.6.U.;.8B9 1here +as a "i# raid a#ainst the P.6.U.;., and thatGs +here they arrested 0e. 1hey took 0e to the olice station, then to the ass ort office, Calle Corse#a, +hich they had 0ade into a kind of rison, an ille#al rison, "ecause it +asnGt official. *t first, you had the i0 ression that it +ould "e terri"le. We +ere four 0en, they locked us in a little roo0 +ith no +indo+, +ith "arely any air, +ithout anythin#: ./ouGre #oin# to slee there, on the #round.. 1here +ere also +o0en, "ut they #ave the0 a nice roo0, on the first floor, +ith "eds. 4o, +e revolted, +e "an#ed on the door, and, finally, after they yelled at us, +e +erenGt locked u in that little cell any0ore. We could slee on a "ench, and the lucky ones #ot a 0attress on the floor. 6ne fine day, they said to us: .>et ready, youGre leavin#R. 1hey ut us in a truck, +ithout tellin# us +here +e +ere #oin#. We thou#ht they +ere takin# us to Carcel ;odelo, "ut no, they 8B9 P.6.U.;. +as a 1rotskyite #rou . D (%( D took another road and +e sa+ that +e +ere leavin# Barcelona. We +ere takin# the hi#h+ay. 3

re0e0"er that 3 +as struck to see the inscri tions of the P.6.U.;.: 2Bo$ierno de la derrota que has hecho de FinE2 We continued on. 1hey took us in fact to the -rench "order. We didnGt have any a ers any0ore, nothin#, "ecause they had taken everythin# fro0 us +hen they arrested us, even our hotos, and they didnGt return anythin#. 4o +e +ondered +hat the -rench +ould do +ith us.

Lo(e !''airs
,motional li3e is recalled in the memories we have collected only with modesty and discretion. &hey do con3irm that 3or the youn! immi!rants o3 the 78;>s and 78:>s, even those who were totally cut o33 3rom reli!ion, the possi$ility o3 marria!e with a non-Jew !enerally seemed unthin#a$le. In 3act, 3riendships and wor# relations, as well as the networ# o3 associations, 3avored unions $etween immi!rants or $etween immi!rants and the children o3 immi!rants. &his re1ection o3 mixed marria!e was already much less evident in the next !eneration. &he tale o3 Bolda /. allows us to 3ollow the lively and chaste love a33airs o3 a !irl who came to 5rance in the 78:>s. In its mix o3 sentimentalism, melodramatic situations, and theatrical stro#es, the episodes she relates seem to come strai!ht out o3 a popular novel. -espite loyalty to Jewish endo!amy, doesn)t this very 2dated2 style o3 amorous li3e indicate a certain 3orm o3 acculturationE When youGre in Paris, you 0eet eo le. ;atch0akers ro osed 0arria#e. 1hey introduced 0e to a youn# 0an. 3n Poland, he had "een a doctor, in ;insk ;a=o+ieck. Aere he couldnGt ractice. Ae +asnGt allo+ed. 4o he 0ade deals. Ae +as very reli#ious, very orthodo2, "ut 0y father +asnGt so reli#ious. ;y 0other +as already used to Paris. 4he had to +ork on 4aturdays. When he ca0e, she hid the 0achine. 4he +asnGt er0itted to +ork. Ae +as so reli#iousR When he #ot a letter on 4aturday, he +ouldnGt o en it "efore ni#ht, "efore seein# a star in the sky. .Bolditch#e @he +as a LitvakC, 3 +ant to 0arry you.. .But 3G0 not reli#ious. /ouGre too reli#ious for 0e.. D (%$ D We +ent +alkin# on the Buttes5Chau0ont. 3t +as very hot, "ut he said that he +as for"idden to #o drink in a cafL. 3t +asnGt allo+ed? it +as 4aturday. *nd he +as very stin#y. 3 didnGt +ant a 0iser. 4ince he +as a eddler, 3 said to hi0 once, in a Eoke: ./ou sell s+eaters7"rin# 0e one, a +hite one.. Co0es 4aturday, he didnGt "rin# 0e anythin#. .But 3 +ould have aid for itR >o a+ay and donGt co0e "ack.. 4till, he ca0e "ack every 4aturday. 8 . . .9 *t that ti0e, 0y father died. Ae had a cousin, a +o0an, +ho lived near us. Ae ca0e "ack, +ent to see his cousin, and then ca0e to our house: .;y little >olda, 3 sa+ your father in a drea0. Ae told 0e that +e should #et 0arried, the t+o of us.. .Listen, if 0y father had loved you +hen he +as alive, and if he ordered 0e to 0arry you in a drea0, 0ay"e 3 +ould do it. But 0y father didnGt like you. Ae didnGt a ear to you in a drea0. 4to esterin# 0e. >o find so0e"ody else.. 8 . . .9 3n the sho +here 0y 0other and 0y "rother Lei"l +orked, there +as a resser. Ae said to 0y "rother: .3t see0s you have a sister. 3Gd really like to 0eet her. Why doesnGt she co0eU. *s soon as 3 heard there +as a youn# 0an +ho +anted to 0eet 0e, 3 didnGt +ant to #o there. ;y 0other said: .Co0e hel 0e turn one or t+o coats.. 3 didnGt +ant to.

6ne 4unday +hen 0y 0other +as out +alkin# +ith 0y cousin, she 0et hi0, Chil. Ae ca0e u to 0y 0other and asked her: .1his is your dau#hterU. .1his is 0y sisterGs dau#hter.. .Will you allo+ 0e to +alk +ith youU. .Why notU. 1hey continued +alkin#, and they arran#ed that the ne2t rende=vous +ould "e at our house. Chil "e#an co0in# to our house? he ca0e every ni#ht. 6nce he said to 0e: .No luck. 3 talked a"out you and no+ 3 0eet you. Why didnGt 3 0eet you soonerU. .What difference does it 0ake since youGre #oin# out +ith 0y cousinU. Ae visited her for 0ay"e si2 0onths. 3 said to 0y cousin: .Iosette, ho+ lon# are you #oin# to dra# on +ith Chil and +ork for nothin# for your "rotherU /ou can #et 0arried. /ouGll +ork, you and Chil, youGll "e a"le to live.. 4he ans+ered 0e: ./ouGre ri#ht.. 4he +ent "ack ho0e and told her "rother that D (%H D she +as datin# a youn# 0an and +anted to #et 0arried. Aer "rother started roarin#: ./ou +ant to take a resserR /ou +retch, youGll die of hun#erR. *nother i0"ecile +ould have ans+ered: .What 0ore do 3 have in your houseU. 4o, this Chil +as a resser. Ae didnGt have any 0oney, no house. Ae sle t in a hotel. Ae didnGt s'uander his earnin#s? he ke t it to take her to the 0ovies. When Iosette ca0e to us for lunch, +e told her to "rin# Chil: if thereGs enou#h for three, thereGs enou#h for four. Let hi0 eat +ith us. ;y 0other said: .Listen Iosette, 3G0 #oin# to rent you a roo0. OonGt +ork any0ore for nothin# for your "rother. >et 0arried.. 4o, they decided to a ly to city hall. Iosette had trou"le #ettin# a "irth certificate, "ut her 0other sent her so0e sort of certificate fro0 Poland. When her "rother ;a2 learned that she had "een to city hall, he 0ade a scandal: ./our cousin convinces you so that youGll "e 0isera"le. 1hey +ant to "ury youR. 3t +as 4aturday ni#ht, the "rother ca0e to our house, and they started fi#htin#, her "rother and her fiancL. 1a"les and chairs +ere flyin#, a disasterR *fter such a "attle, there +as no 0ore talk of 0arria#e. Chil ke t on co0in# to our house. Ae had "eco0e 0y "rotherGs friend. Ae liked it at our house. 3f he didnGt sho+ u one ni#ht, he 0issed our ho0e. Ae ca0e every ni#ht. 6nce, so0ethin# ha ened. 3t +as 0ay"e eleven oGclock. 3 +as already slee in#, "ut 0y 0other had "rou#ht so0e +ork ho0e fro0 her "oss. 4he +as still u . 1he +indo+s looked onto the street? he sa+ the li#ht and ca0e u . ;y 0other looked at Chil and reali=ed that he hadnGt eaten all day? his veins +ere "lue. 4he ca0e to +ake 0e u : .>olda, co0e do a #ood turn. >ive Chil so0ethin# to eat? 3 donGt dare invite hi0.. 3 #ot dressed? 3 +ent in: .Why have you co0e so lateU. .3 +as co0in# fro0 0y sister :stherGs, and 3 sa+ the li#ht.. 3t +as +inter. We had ickled herrin#, Eellied calvesG foot. 1here +as al+ays so0ethin# to eat in our house. .Chil, do you +ant to eat so0ethin#U. 3 served hi0, he ate. ;y 0other +ent to "ed, 0y "rother +as slee in#, and 3 stayed +ith hi0. 4o he said to 0e: .>olda, D (%) D 3 +ant to tell you so0ethin#. -ate +ants you and not Iosette to "e 0y +ife.. .Chil, thatGs i0 ossi"le. 4ince you +ere #oin# out +ith Iosette, 3 canGt #o +ith you..

3 kne+ everythin# that +as #oin# to ha en. Chil started to talk. Ae didnGt sto talkin#, all ni#ht lon#, until it started to turn li#ht. Ae talked so 0uch that 3 finally said yes. 3 #ave 0y +ord. *nd he: .3 s+ear to you that Iosette is nothin# to 0e. 4heGs not the one 3 have in 0y heart. 3tGs you that 3 love, "ut 3 +as +ron#, 3 did everythin# +ron#.. ;y 0other had heard everythin#. ,ust i0a#ine. 3n the 0ornin#, +hen she ca0e in, he rushed to her and hu##ed her: .3 +as su osed to "eco0e your sisterGs son5in5la+? 3 refer to "e yours.. No sooner did 3 say yes than 3 re#retted it. 1he nei#h"or ca0e in, IoQsse. We +ere all fro0 the sa0e shtetl, 6t+osk. When she heard the story, she said: .>olda +as for you, not IosetteR. *nd 0y "rother: .4ince thatGs ho+ it is, Chil, donGt stay in the hotel, +ith all the e2 enses. 3 slee alone in 0y roo0. Co0e, youGll stay +ith 0e.. 4ut thin!s turned out $adly. 3ew months later, Bolda and her 3amily discovered that the 23ianc2 had returned to /osette and her 3amily. &hey threw the traitor out. *nd Iosette took hi0 "ack. But a little +hile later, her "rother told hi0 that he had no 0ore +ork for hi0. .3f thatGs ho+ it is, 3Gll take a #un and kill 0yself. 3G0 #oin# to kill Iosette, and 3Gll kill 0yself too. 3 sha0ed >olda, and she +as dearer to 0e than anythin#. /ou +onGt #et a+ay +ith this.. ;a2 +as scared, and finally they #ot 0arried. What kind of +eddin# did they 0akeU 1hey "ou#ht t+o slices of ha0. 1here +asnGt any"ody there, and they called in a kind of ,e+ +ho "lessed the0. *nd they +ent to live in the hotel, in that .fine hotel.. We +ere 0ad. 3 had s+orn that 3 +ouldnGt talk to 0y cousin any0ore. 1hen, thank >od, she #ot re#nant, she had t+ins. *nd the t+o children died. * +hile later, she #ot re#nant a#ain, and that child also died. 1hey said to the0selves: 6ur D (%K D children are dyin# "ecause of our #uilt a"out >olda. 4he 0ust for#ive us or +eGll never "e a"le to have children. 3 didnGt kno+ anythin# a"out all that. 6ne day, 0y 0other 0et 0y cousin in the street. Iosette ca0e u and kissed her: .*unt, dear aunt, 3 have already had three children +ho died. >olda 0ust for#ive 0e? every"ody says that >olda 0ust for#ive 0e.. .3 0yself for#ive you ri#ht a+ay,. said 0y 0other. .>olda also for#ives you. Aave children +ho live +ith your hus"and to "e a hundred.. But 3 didnGt +ant to see the0 any0ore, not her and not hi0. 8 . . .9 3 +as +orkin# in a knittin# sho as a +inder. 1he "ossGs +ife had a sister, and +e "eca0e friends. 1he oor #irl also had t+o children, and she #ot sick. 4he had cancer. We #ot alon# very +ell, the t+o of us. When 3 finished +ork, 3 hel ed her, 3 "athed the children. 4he kne+ she +as #oin# to die. 4he had a very #ood hus"and. 6ne day, she said to 0e: ./ou kno+, >olda, +hen 3G0 dead, 3 +ant you to 0arry 0y hus"and. ;y children love you. /ou see that heGs a #ood hus"and. Pro0ise 0e to 0arry hi0.. .Ao+ can 3 0ake you such a ro0iseU /ouGre #oin# to #et "etter. /ouGll raise your children.. 3 didnGt ro0ise her, "ut she died. 1he children loved 0e very 0uch. 1he little "oy +as already four years old at the ti0e? the older one +as si2. Ae said to his father: .Pa a, 3Gd like you to 0arry the lady

+ho +orks at ;adeleineGs.. *vro0 also +anted to 0arry 0e? he didnGt +ant any"ody else. Ae ca0e to our house and stayed until t+o oGclock in the 0ornin#, talkin# +ith 0y 0other. Ae had a "i# knittin# sho , a cotta#e at the Porte des Lilas, "ut he +ent "ankru t. Ais +ifeGs illness had cost hi0 all his 0oney. 6ne day, he ca0e and said to 0e: .Listen, >olda, no+ 3 a0 oor. 3 donGt +ant to dra# you into overty. But ro0ise 0e that you +onGt take any"ody else.. .3 canGt ro0ise you.. 4o he +ent to +ork in *lsace, in artnershi +ith his "rother5in5la+. 1hey +orked in 0etals? they "ou#ht cars. vrom made a 3ortune as a scrap dealer and returned 3or Bolda. &hey married in 78:? and moved to ,l$eu3 . D (%& D

-eneration -a5s
lready in the old country, a !ap had appeared $etween a !eneration o3 parents $ound to a set o3 traditions and the !eneration o3 their children attracted to 2modernity.2 .et another !ap separated the !eneration o3 immi!rants and the !eneration that !rew up in the host country. series o3 contrasts would mani3est themselves, 3or example, durin! the immi!rants) periodic trips home to visit parents who had remained in (oland and to introduce them to their !randchildren who were $orn in 5rance. &hese mi!rants 3ind a di33erent $ut 3amiliar world, reli!ious practices they have a$andoned $ut that they pretend to resume, so as not to !ive shoc# and out o3 respect 3or their parents. &heir own children, however, discover a stran!e, totally un3amiliar world, where they themselves $ecome o$1ects o3 curiosity 3or their cousins 3rom (oland.899 &he !ap $etween the !eneration o3 the immi!rants and the !eneration o3 their children is there3ore de3ined, essentially, as a 3unction o3 the 3amiliarity each o3 them maintains with di33erent cultures. &he immi!rants had come out o3 a world in which .iddish#eit was a 3act o3 li3e* whatever their ultimate development, they preserved its imprint and o3ten 3elt nostal!ia 3or it. &hey 1ud!ed contemporary li3e and, more particularly, their children)s $ehavior in re3erence to values they received 3rom that lost world. Conversely, in spite o3 their inte!ration into the host society, they maintained a sense o3 distance 3rom it, sometimes quite minimal, $ut irreduci$le nonetheless. &heir children were impre!nated $y 5rench culture, which was 3or them another 3act o3 li3e. &here resulted di33erences that a33ected not only lan!ua!e or tastes $ut also spontaneous reactions, li3e-style, and, 3inally, the consciousness o3 Jewish identity itsel3. /o$ert S.* 3tGs a terri"le thin# to ask a erson +ho +as "orn in one country and +ho i00i#rated to another to adEust to the soil, the lan#ua#e, the environ0ent, the conditions, the life of that ne+ country. 3t doesnGt 0atter ho+ 0uch you try to learn a lan#ua#e: +hat is ours to deter0ine, +e 0ana#e to do. But +hat is not ours to deter0ine, thatGs +hat you take fro0 your 899 1his is one of the su"Eects recalled "y ;aurice IaEsfus, Duand 1)tais 1ui3 8When 3 Was a ,e+9 @Paris: ;L#relis, 19B(C, . 1%(J11$.

D (%B D ho0eland. /ou canGt "e a -rench0an or a Pole Eust "ecause you +ant to. *t a certain a#e, to try to adEust to the life of a country that you donGt kno+ fro0 *da0, thatGs so0ethin# else. :s ecially +hen you +ant to ossess the lan#ua#e and its refine0ents. 3t +asnGt enou#h for 0e to read the articles in the &emps . 3 also +anted to understand the Eokes in the Canard enchaVn .81%9 3f you have to e2 lain a +itticis0, it loses its char0? itGs not a +itticis0 any0ore? itGs detractin# fro0 so0ethin# "eautiful. 6n the day 3 could finally #ras the nuances of the Canard enchaVn , 3 said to 0yself: you have only "arely "e#un to taste the richness of the -rench lan#ua#e. 4till, 3 could take heart. 3 +as no lon#er that i#nora0us +ho had to ask +hat theyGre talkin# a"out and ho+ this is eaten. 3 could follo+ +hen fire+orks eru ted at the ta"le +ith the children, +ho handled the lan#ua#e correctly "ecause they +ere "orn in -rance. 3 didnGt +ant to see0 inferior to the0? it +as 0y vanity. 3G0 the only one +ho kno+s the rice 3 aid to o"tain it. But 3 did it. Nevertheless, in s ite of everythin#, 3 have the sense of havin# achieved only artial success. Not "ecause 3 didnGt +ant it, or "ecause 3 didnGt ay the rice. But "ecause it canGt "e had. 1here is so0ethin# that is not deter0ined "y you, and that 0akes you +hat you are. 1he native #round73 donGt have it. 8 . . .9 1here is so0ethin# that redis oses every ,e+ in certain +ays, es ecially +hen he co0es fro0 those countries +here ,udais0 +as at the "ase of life. 1hereGs no other life ossi"le. 1he ,e+ is 0arked, +hatever he does. :ven if 3 had +anted not to "e, 3 couldnGt not "e ,e+ish. 3n 0y soul, 3 think, 3 feel like a ,e+. 3 acco00odated 0yself to the de0ands of social life in -rance. But if 3 had to choose, if 3 have the ossi"ility of #oin# to a 0eetin# or a "all +ith -rench eo le or a ,e+ish 0eetin# or "all, 3 +ouldnGt hesitate: 0y heart ulls 0e there, 3 feel "etter there, 3G0 +ith 0y o+n. 3f 3 could have o ted for a dou"le nationality, thin#s could have fallen into lace 0ore easily at least. 1hat +ould have 81%9 * satirical +eekly. D (%9 D 0ade 0y life less co0 licated. 3tGs a line of ar#u0ent 3 canGt use in talkin# +ith a -rench0an? it +ould shock hi0, ri#ht, "ecause he +ouldnGt understand. 3G0 not co0 lainin#. 3 have sho+n that, a0on# civili=ed eo le, you can find a modus vivendi . -or e2a0 le, +ith ;onsieur ;. 8his dau!hter-in-law)s 3ather 9, 3 +ould 0uch refer to talk a"out literature, "ut +e canGt #et to#ether, "ecause if you let hi0 talk, it +ould "e ;aurras or OLroulVde,8119 and 3 +ouldnGt touch that su"Eect. But he +ouldnGt co0e to 0e and talk a"out 0y authors. 4o +e 0eet on the #round of +ine and cheese. *nd there 3G0 i#norant. *ny+ay, 3 had to learn, not "ecause 3 learned to like the0, "ut "ecause 3 have no choice +hen 3G0 in a #rou +here 3 canGt raise other 'uestions. With all that 3 have seen, 3 0ust conclude that 3 havenGt chan#ed one iota on the ,e+ish level. 3 have re0ained Eust as 3 +as, 0inus reli#ion, "ecause 3 thou#ht that that +asnGt the essential thin#. 1he essential thin# for 0e is the culture that is trans0itted "y ,udais0, "y the +riters and "y the reli#ion. 1he difference "et+een 0e and 0y father +as that of one #eneration that #ave life to the other. 1he difference "et+een 0e and 0y sons is a lea of t+o or three #enerations. 3tGs i0 ossi"le to adEust to it. /et 3 kno+, >od kno+s, the ains 3 have taken to try to follo+ 0y children, to understand the0. But there are 0o0ents +hen 3 donGt understand, thin#s esca e 0e. Oo you feel the soul of a childU &he lac# o3 connection with the !eneration $orn in 5rance is mani3est particularly when the pro$lem o3 mixed marria!e is posed* even with the most open-minded parents <2I want his happiness a$ove all2=,

there is a sense o3 a private reticence. +hen they express their re!rets more openly, they 3ind consolation in the notion that their children, in spite o3 everythin!, still 3eel Jewish. 4y what criteriaE In this respect, the State o3 Israel sometimes plays a paradoxical role* /o$ert S., 3ormer Communist 3ellow traveler, li#e Maurice F., 3ormer Communist, converted su$sequently to a certain solidarity with the "ionist movement. 4oth declare their pride in seein! their children share those 3eelin!s. 8119 ;aurras, OLroulVde, sy0"ols of -rench ri#ht5+in# nationalis0. D (1% D /o$ert S.* 3 couldnGt leave 0y children and settle there, in 3srael. 3n s ite of 0y sorro+ a"out it. 3 sa+ that the children +anted to stay in -rance even +hile 0y heart +as dra+n there, there, there. . . . 3 had everythin# to 0ake 0e ha y, in -rance, "ut there +as an ele0ent of dissatisfaction. 3 0issed the essential. Because if you had to choose "et+een the t+o, 3 +as 0ore ,e+ish than -rench. LetGs say the +ord, letGs not "e afraid: 3 +as a ,e+. By +hat criteria did 3 raise 0y childrenU ,udais0: 3 have an a+areness of havin# done the Eo" of assin# on +hat 3 received. 3 told 0y sons the *##adah81(9 as +ell as the ,e+ish ast: the destroyed 1e0 le, all they have suffered, the +anderin#s throu#h so 0any countries, the 3n'uisition, and so on. 1hat they kno+. But they havenGt lived like 0e in the 0ilieu +here the sa0e thin#, +hen itGs told, +ei#hs 0ore. * history told in its conte2t +ei#hs differently fro0 history taken out of a "ook. 3 told the0 a a#e taken out the conte2t of life. 1ake a "ook, no 0atter ho+ interestin# it is, read a a#e fro0 it7+hat does that #iveU 3t #ives +hat it can #ive. 3 did 0y "est, "ut 3 +as a+are that never @and for #ood reason, it +asnGt ossi"leC +ill 0y children "e +hat 3 a0, that is, an u rooted ,e+. But still a ,e+. 4o 3 "rou#ht u 0y children +ith the idea of ,udais0. When 3srael +as in dan#er, they +ere on the list of those +ho +anted to #o as volunteers. 4o "oth of the0 re0ained ,e+s in their soul. 6f that 3G0 roud. Maurice F.* ;y son has his o+n o inion. 3 donGt +ant to influence hi0. We talk, +e talk a lot. . . . Ae su orts 3srael. When thereGs a de0onstration for 3srael, for the ,e+s in Iussia, 0y son is there. Ae doesnGt 0iss a de0onstration. But heGs not co00itted olitically. 3 think heGs very disa ointed "y all the arties, like 0e, 0ay"e. But +hen there +as +ar7every ti0e he +anted to enlist. Ae +ent to the e0"assy to enlist. 81(9 ;oral rece ts and ara"les of the 1al0ud. D (11 D Ae has t+o children, a "oy and a #irl. 1hey #ot a li"eral education, +ithout reli#ious "eliefs? "ut they kno+ +hat ,udais0 is. 1heyGre "e#innin# to kno+. 1hey kno+ theyGre ,e+s. 1heyGre for 3srael. :s ecially the little #irl7sheGs very ,e+ish. D (1$ D

"!RT T.REE; T.E OT.ERS

D (1) D

H; !round the Mediterranean

&he memories o3 the past revived a dense world, mar#ed $y a wealth o3 communications and 2the polyvalence o3 relations.28195or $etter or worse, the relations $etween nei!h$ors, 3riends, relatives, or in the economic sphere wove a networ# o3 relations amon! mem$ers o3 the Jewish milieu. 4ut what a$out non-JewsE +hat trace did they leave in memory, with what 3eatures do they appear in the pictureE &hese are delicate questions, 3or it is pain3ul to tal# o3 tensions and unresolved con3licts. /ecallin! a lost world, people would li#e to descri$e it as harmonious and to expel discordant notes 3rom memory. 2+e2 va!uely indicates the 3amily circle and the whole Jewish population to which one $elon!ed. 4eyond that circle, conceived as a totally natural unity, one recalls other ethnic and reli!ious !roups. Individuals are not !enerally desi!nated $y status, occupation, personal qualities, $ut 3irst o3 all $y their !roup a33iliation. +hile many narratives a33irm the 3riendly tolerance that prevailed $etween ad1acent !roups, su$tle and multiple si!ns reveal a more equivocal reality. It seems rather than misunderstandin!, even mutual distrust, o3ten separated the various 2communities2Hta#en as a whole, despite the clear social distinctions within them. School, the nei!h$orhood, wor# could $rin! individuals to!ether $ut not the !roups to which they $elon!ed. 4esides, the various components o3 the population were not perceived and presented as equal. An the contrary, one senses !radations, a hierarchy, and, consequently, the 819 3 take this e2 ression fro0 ,oNlle Bahloul, (arent et ethnicit* %a 5amille 1uive nord-a3ricaine en 5rance 8<inshi and :thnicity: 1he North5*frican ,e+ish -a0ily in -rance9, Ie ort to the ;inistry of Culture, ;ission du Patri0oine ethnolo#i'ue de la -rance, 19BH. D (1K D search 3or appropriate means to avoid the lower orders or to clim$ to hi!her levels. So $ehind the peace3ul coexistence lay the tacit competition that set the various !roups up a!ainst one another.

! Mutual EFclusion
Istan$ul in the 78;>s. %aure . recalls $oth her 3riendship 3or an rmenian schoolmate and the collective antipathy the Jews 3elt toward the rmenians. She literally could not stomach them, she could not swallow their tea* Not every"ody could #o to the school 3 +as in. 3t +as very e2 ensive. *s a 0atter of fact, there +ere only t+o ,e+ish #irls, 0e and one other. 1he others +ere either Iussians +ho had scholarshi s, Bul#arians and Iu0anians +ho +ere very rich, even so0e +ho had scholarshi s, or *r0enians +ho had scholarshi s. 1he *0ericans rotected the *r0enians, and +e hated the0. We ,e+s hated the

*r0enians. We didnGt trust the0. 3 donGt kno+ +hy. But +hen 3 +as very s0all, a"out ei#ht years old, 3 had an *r0enian friend +ho +as very nice. 3 had "een in her house. 4he had a s lendid house, +hite, 0uch nicer than ours, +ith a "i# #arden. 4he didnGt have a 0a0a, she had a #rand0other. 3 ad0ired that house a lot. 4o the #rand0other said to 0e: .1chai, tchai.. 3n 1urkish that 0eans tea. 3 didnGt kno+ that. We never drank tea at ho0e, e2ce t +hen +e +ere sick. 3t didnGt e2ist. 4o 3 said: .1hank you, ;ada0e.. 4he had #iven 0e tea. *s soon as she turned her head, 3 thre+ it into the flo+ers. 3 couldnGt s+allo+ it. Later she said to 0e: .*nother cu of teaU. 3 said: .6<.. 3 did the sa0e thin#. 3 couldnGt "ear it. 3t +as the custo0 of the *r0enians. But that *r0enian #irl +as so nice, +ith "i# "lack eyes. 4he had "een +ith 0e in the >er0an school. 1hatGs +here 3 kne+ her fro0. *nd 3 re0e0"er, +e +ere very, very #ood friends. In the picture o3 manners descri$ed $y %aure ., her 3ather, a ru! dealer, was a $i! $usinessman with an international reputation. He was honest and !enerous. His rmenian collea!ue had to $ow, 2#neel,2 to such virtues. &hus is history turned into a para$le. D (1& D ;y father had a lar#e fortune. Ae had a factory near the custo0s house. 1here +ere #irls +ho +orked for hi0. 3t +as a "i# enter rise. But it +as all +holesale. Pa a didnGt sell retail. Ae e2 orted. -or e2a0 le, there +ere custo0ers +ho ca0e fro0 >er0any, Vienna, +ho kne+ 0y fatherGs na0e. 1hey ca0e lookin# for hi0. 6nce they had co0e to "uy so0e thin#s. ;y father said to the0: .3G0 sorry, 3 donGt have that ite0, "ut #o ne2t door.. Because 0y father +as like 0y "rother, very #enerous, very #rand, not etty at all. .>o ne2t door.. .But thatGs your co0 etitorR. .AeGs not 0y co0 etitor, +e donGt deal in the sa0e thin#. >o ne2t door, youGll find everythin# you +ant.. 1hat +as an *r0enian. *nd that *r0enian +as under the i0 ression that 0y father hated hi0. ,e+s and *r0enians +erenGt su osed to #et alon#. When he finished his "usiness +ith that Viennese, he ca0e to kneel at 0y fatherGs feet. Ae said to hi0: .;onsieur *., 3 didnGt kno+ you +ere such a fine erson. /ou kno+ +hat #olden "usiness 3 did thanks to youU. 3 said 8sic 9: .3tGs nothin# s ecial. 4ince 3 donGt deal in that, you should take advanta#e of it.. .But 3, 0yself, +ouldnGt have 0ade such a #racious #esture. *nd 3 had no idea that the ,e+s +ere like that.. Istan$ul, 3ormer capital o3 the Attoman ,mpire, was still the capital o3 &ur#ey a3ter +orld +ar I. +ould %aure . tal# a$out the &ur#sE &hey are almost a$sent 3rom her memory. .es, thin#in! a$out it a!ain, she remem$ers dancin! with one or two o3 them $ut some$ody had immediately recalled the rules o3 the !ame. In the summer, in Moda* Oo+n there, there +ere dance halls. *nd +e danced +ith 1urks. We danced +ildly +ith 1urks, ;usli0s. 1here +as a 1urk +ho +as cra=y a"out 0e. 1hat 1urk +anted to kiss 0e on the 0outh. 3 kne+ nothin# a"out that. 1hat dis#usted 0e. 4o after he touched 0e, 3 +i ed 0y 0outh: .*h, youGre +i in# yourself, youGre dis#usted +ith 0e and thatGs +hy youGre +i in# your 0outhR. .No, 3G0 Eust not used to it.. ./ouGll #et used to it. /ouGre #oin# to kiss 0e.. 4o 3 told 0y "rother5in5la+. Ae said: .Listen, Laure, never +ith ;usli0 1urks. Pay attention. /ou can #o around +ith the0 "ut donGt #et close to ;us5 D (1B D li0 1urks. 3tGs very dan#erous. 1hey can 0ake you re#nant. 1hey can do a lot of thin#s to you, and you canGt do anythin# to the0. 1heyGre the 0asters here.. &he anecdote spea#s o3 a mutual exclusion. An the one hand, the Jews did not have access to political

power, which the &ur#s remained masters o36 on the other hand, they roundly re1ected this system $ecause it was considered in3erior to that o3 the western powers. %aure and her #ind didn)t tal# to &ur#s and studied only in 3orei!n schools in &ur#ey. She insists that she did not want to live or !et married in &ur#ey. t the end o3 the 78;>s, the 3amily moved to Milan. %aure 3inished school in the merican colle!e, 1oinin! her parents only durin! school vacations. 3ter two or three o3 these trips* *t custo0s, they said to 0e: .3t canGt "e true. /ouGre not a student. /ouGre traffickin# in clothes. *t your a#e, so youn#, to #o to 1urkey to study7that canGt "e.. .But 3G0 not #oin# to 1urkey, 3G0 #oin# to an *0erican colle#eR. %aure 3inished our interview with this nice 3ormulation, which recalls /enaissance travelers descri$in! the Attoman ,mpire* 2I don)t thin# I was much help. .ou didn)t learn much a$out the customs and manners o3 the &ur#s.2 &unis $etween the two wars* Madame O. remem$ers her childhood in the nice nei!h$orhoods, her Muslim !irl3riends and classmates. She recalls the prohi$itionsHyou must never play with $oysHand today she de3ines that spirit o3 the times as 2re!ressive.2 Well, the s irit +e hadR Ne2t to us, on Iue 3s0aQl5Ou ont, there +ere t+o F. "rothers, Nourredine and 1ahar, +ho "eca0e a doctor. 1hey +ere handso0eR But since +e +ere ,e+s and they +ere *ra"s, +e took the streetcar to#ether as if they didnGt e2ist and as if +e didnGt e2ist. We didnGt say hello to each other, nothin#. 3n 19&(, in Aa0ilcar, 3 0et a "lond #entle0an +ith "lue eyes7Nourredine. Ae looked at 0e, 3 looked at hi0, and he said 8murmurs 9: .Why, it canGt "e, itGs her, hello.. *nd 3 said 8lon! murmur 9: .Aello.. 1here, no+ +e said hello to one another. . . . *fter fifty years, +e said hello to one another. 3 D (19 D thou#ht that +as funny. 1hat story, the *ra", you didnGt see hi0. ./ou had no relations +ith the *ra"sU. With the #irls, yes. But the 0en, +e took the streetcar to#ether and +e didnGt see one another. What a s irit +e had, re#ressive. 3 re0e0"er that +e had a nei#h"or, Lalla -atha. We +ent to her house. 4o 0y father 0ade a rule that +e 0ust never lay +ith the little *ra" "oy. 4o the oor kid, he said to us: .Can 3 layU. We said: .No, you arenGt to lay +ith us.. Later on, he "eca0e a 0e0"er of the Ai#h CouncilR

CWe !re Not !ra2sC

&ita S. no dou$t never #new that nice quarter o3 &unis, $ut her vision o3 the ra$s remains what Madame O. denounced as re!ressive. 5or her, it was the humiliations the ra$s once made the Jews su33er that led to the 5rench occupation. &hus, two poles emer!e in her representation o3 the society* on one side, the ra$s, threatenin!, un3air, dan!erous, opposed $y the 5rench, on the other side, who had come to restore 1ustice. In her narrative, in 3act, these 5rench remain a #ind o3 inaccessi$le a$straction. When the situation +as strai#htened out, +hen the -rench ca0e, they 8the ra$s 9, didnGt "other the ,e+s, no. 1he situation cal0ed do+n. Before, +ho +ent out at ni#htU No"ody. Because the ;usli0s +erenGt scared of the ,e+s. 1he ,e+s didnGt feel confident a"out it "ecause, at first, they +ould har0 the0. 1he others +erenGt #ood, +erenGt nice. When the *ra"s +ere told that +hat they +ere doin# +asnGt #ood, they listened.

.Oid you s end a lot of ti0e +ith *ra"s, your father, for e2a0 leU. No. Pa a didnGt +ork +ith the0. Ae kne+ the0, sure, "ut he didnGt s end ti0e +ith the0. Ae had a shoe0akerGs sho . Why +ould he s end ti0e +ith *ra"sU We didnGt associate +ith the0. We +erenGt friends +ith the *ra"s, no, since, as 3 said at the "e#innin#, they fri#htened us. We re0ained fri#htened. 3 had a "rother, *0os, +ho +ent +ith D ((% D the *ra"s to 4idi ;ahre= +hen he +as youn#. Ae +as a "u0. 1here +ere *ra" cafLs there, and the ,e+s used to sit in the0. When he #re+ u , he "rou#ht his friend to 0y 0otherGs house. Who +as his friendU *n *ra"R Ae "rou#ht hi0 and said: .Please #ive hi0 so0ethin# to eat, ;a0a.. 1hey +ere like "rothers. But 0e, 3 didnGt +ant to. 3 said: .;ay you have "ad luckR /ou could only find a ;usli0 for a friendR. *nd +hat did he sayU .6n ;a0aGs life, heGs #oldR Ae doesnGt hurt any"ody, he doesnGt "other any"odyR. Before, the *ra"s +ere a little. . . . Later on, they #ot to kno+ the ,e+s and sa+ the ty e of eo le they +ere. 1hey +ent and drank to#ether in the cafL. &he 3ather was a shoema#er6 one $rother was a $um6 the other was a stevedore. ,ven at this level o3 the social scale, Jewish identity implied that one #ept the ra$s at a distance, that one loo#ed down on them. .Ao+ did your 0other dressU. Like the *ra" +o0en, +ith that kind of dress and a sarwal and a handkerchief like 0ine. .1he veilU. No. WeGre not *ra"sR &hen, recallin! the !atherin!s o3 women in the courtyard o3 the house* .4o, you stayed sittin# on the #round, talkin# in the courtyardU. 4tandin#. We didnGt sit do+n. *re +e *ra"sU $arrier also separated the Jews 3rom other se!ments o3 the colonial population* a lin!uistic $arrier, a status $arrier. &ita, who did not !ive the ra$s names, uses titles when she recalls the 5rench, 2Monsieur,2 2Madame,2 2the $oss.2 .*nd the -rench, you kne+ the0U. Never. 3 didnGt kno+ to talk. Later, 3 kne+, +hen 3 +orked in the hotel. With ;ada0e *nna, a -rench+o0an, no, an 3talian +o0an. 3tGs the sa0e thin#. 4he tau#ht 0e a little. . . . 3 kne+ -rench eo le, "ut 3 never talked to the0. 1he "oss of the hotel, ;onsieur *r0and, +ho could talk to hi0U D ((1 D 3n her lon# "io#ra hy, 1ita did not na0e, did not 0ention any other individual "elon#in# to the non5 ,e+ish o ulation.

Saloni<a= 1ro<en .armon)

Breece, $etween 787> and 78;>. /eality, li#e memories, is 3ull o3 contradictions. In everyday li3e, Ida A. recalls Bree# and rmenian 3riends, shared discussions and plans, the attraction she 3elt 3or Bree# reli!ious practices. *s for 0e, 0y #irlfriends +ere >reeks, not ,e+s. We lived a0on# >reeks, in 0i2ed nei#h"orhoods. ClashesU /es, there +ere so0e, "ut it +as a fair fi#ht, for you #ave insult for insult. 1he >reeks so0eti0es #ot e2cited. Co0in# out of school, they called us tchiu3uti .8(9 1hey thre+ stones. But it +asnGt serious? +e called the0 so0ethin# else. Ida A. recalls the !i3ts she $rou!ht to the Bree# wor#ers at ,aster time, the processions she participated in, $ut also the distrust that existed even $etween 3riends. &he accusation o3 ritual murder returned every year. 1he 0ost tra#ic ni#ht +as :aster ni#ht, >reek :aster. *l+ays the ,e+s killed a child? they ut "lood in the 0at=ah. :very year, it +as the sa0e dra0a. /ou could see that the youn# eo le +ere in a "ad 0ood. 6n :aster ni#ht, the >reeks, they +ere really +orked u . -or all ei#ht days7no 0atter ho+ 0any friends you had? no 0atter that throu#hout your youth you +ent out +ith >reeks, had discussions. Who kno+s, so0eday you 0i#ht even 0arry a >reek. *nd on the ei#ht days of their :aster, it +as the end of the +orld. *nd on :aster ni#ht, on the street +here +e lived, on all the streets, they assed "y +ith the Vir#in ;ary in so0e thin#a0aEi# they held "y the hand. *nd all of the0 +ith candles "ehind. 1here +as a rocession that +ent to the church. *nd 0e, 3 stood in the 0iddle. What could ha en to 0eU 3 liked it a lot. 8(9 Ci3uti , Ei"e fre'uently used in 1urkey as in >reece +ith re#ard to @or concernin#C ,e+s. D ((( D *nd that ni#ht, all the nei#h"ors didnGt talk to us. 1he ne2t day, the youn# eo le +ho didnGt talk to us at ni#ht, they ca0e +ith "o2es to 0ake a collection. .Christianetsi, Christianetsi..8$9 1hat 0eans .,esus is resurrected.. 3t +as 0a#nificent. *nd as for us, 0y father took us to the >reek +orkers. We dressed to the nines, +ith little "askets. We +ent to visit all 0y fatherGs +orkers in their ho0es. We "rou#ht the0 lots of colored duck e##s. 1hatGs ho+ custo0s +ere. 3t +as 0arvelous. Ida A. descri$es the situation 3rom $e3ore the 78;>s. &he Jewish population o3 Saloni#a was the most numerous and, socially, in a stron! position. In the 78;>s, anti-Semitism $ro#e out. %i#e Ida. A., Ba$riel -. <Saloni#a, a$out 787>= attri$utes the tranquillity the Jews en1oyed to their 3avora$le social position. +ith the arrival o3 the Bree#s 3rom sia Minor, those 2su$-Bree#s,2 the two !roups experience a chan!e in relations. We +ere livin# har0oniously, >reeks, ,e+s, 1urks. 3n 4alonika, +e lived very, very, very, very, very, very +ellR 3n 191(, the >reeks returned, "ut +e also continued to live +ith the 1urks "ecause it +as the 6tto0an :0 ire. When Veni=elos ca0e to o+er in 19((, there +as an e2chan#e of o ulations, +hich, in >reek, 3 call the a$alai .8H9 *ll the 1urks in 4alonika +ent to 1urkey or *sia ;inor, and all the >reeks fro0 *sia ;inor and 1urkey ca0e to 4alonika, and they 0ade an e2chan#e. *fter that e2chan#e, anti54e0itis0 started in >reece, you understandU . . . We +ere livin# +ell "ecause al0ost all the ,e+s of 4alonika +ere 0erchants . . . lus a fe+ crafts0en and a fe+ construction +orkers, and all that. . . . We +ere livin# +ell until anti54e0itis0 started. *nti54e0itis0 started in >reece +ith the eo le fro0 *sia ;inor, not +ith the >reeksR . . . But the su"5>reeksR

8$9 Christos anesti. 8H9 6ne hundred fifty thousand 6rthodo2 Christians fro0 *sia ;inor +ere .e2chan#ed. for four hundred thousand 1urks de orted to *natolia. Veni=elos, a .li"eral. leader, defeated in the elections of 191& "y the arty favora"le to <in# Constantin, returned to o+er follo+in# the defeat of >reece "y 1urkey @19(1C. >reece then e2 erienced several years of olitical insta"ility. D (($ D In Saloni#a, as in other parts o3 the Mediterranean $asin, the Jews who went to schools set up $y the western powers were attracted to ,n!land, 5rance, or Bermany. In this case, con3rontin! the rise o3 Bree# anti-Semitism, it was to Bermany that one loo#ed 3or salvationI Ida A. a!ain* We had the 3raulei , >er0an +o0en, nurses. We liked the >er0ans very 0uch. 3 re0e0"er 0y father in 4alonika. *fter >reece "e#an to hu0iliate us, he +as al+ays rayin# to the >ood Lord for the >er0ans to co0e. 3 had #irlfriends +ho +ere 0usicians, +ho had co0e "ack fro0 >er0any. 1hey +ere thrilled +ith >er0any. . . . 1hey told us: .Let the >er0ans co0e to 4alonikaR. Ao+ever, they finally found salvation in e0i#ration. 3da 6., +ho couldnGt "ear a first tri to -rance in 19(H, returned there for #ood in 19(9. * half5century later, she roudly retains >reek nationality: With the >reeks, +e +ere very ha y, very, very. When they told 0e that the ,e+s +ere de orted in one day, 3 couldnGt even i0a#ine such a thin#, never. M. M., also a Saloni#an, attri$utes the $rea# with the Bree# population to a strate!ic error on the part o3 the Jews in their participation in the elections. Implicitly, two su$1ects intersect in his readin! o3 the past. 5irst, there were the contradictions inherent in a political system $ased on a !eneral election com$ined with a society divided into clearly separated ethnic and reli!ious !roups. Individual choices inevita$ly impin!ed on the community6 collective pre3erences involved the ris# o3 reprisals. &o this con3lict o3 alle!iance, to this insolu$le tension, M. M. opposes and pre3ers the status 'uo ante. &hen the second su$1ect emer!es, the contradiction $etween the century-old presence o3 the Jewish community in Saloni#a and its situation o3 quasi-extraterritoriality. &he community $ene3ited 3rom a #ind o3 internal autonomy6 it did not have to ta#e a position on issues that went $eyond its own $oundaries. Inte!ration into a $roader political whole was not desira$leH3or the reasons already indicatedHand when it was imposed, Jews !ot out. &his same spea#er, who 3led Breece to avoid military service, D ((H D 3ou!ht in 5rance to o$tain his naturali@ation and then to serve in the army and do his 2duty.2 When 3 +as in >reece, there +as no +ar, no fa0ily s irit, no s irit of a country that +elco0ed us . . . ./ou didnGt have any attach0ent to the countryU. /es, 3 loved >reece and 3 continue to love her. But itGs erha s uni'ue in the annals of history: eo le +ho live in a country, +ho have never done 0ilitary service7theyGre inde endent. We +ere left to ourselves. . . . While here, itGs co0 letely different. 6nce you set u a ho0e, youGve #ot children, thereGs no reason +hy a -rench0an +ould #o fi#ht and, 0e, 3 look on. &his situation o3 extra-territoriality is not 2unique in the annals o3 history.2 Conver!in! memories come 3orth 3rom Istan$ul, &ripoli, lexandria* excluded in 3act, i3 not in law, 3rom the political scene

that involved the ma1ority population $ut not the Jews, the latter too# advanta!e o3 the situation to exercise their ri!hts and duties within the con3ines o3 the community. So one 3elt at home in his homeland $ut on condition that he was with his own people. I3 this isolation was threatened $y antiJewish violence or $y political chan!es that imposed new o$li!ations on the Jews, they le3t. Ironically, they were ready to accept wholeheartedly the o$li!ations imposed $y the new host country,8)9 for there they had access to a olitical "ody that i#nored differences of .race and reli#ion,. at least in rinci le. 5rom &ripoli at the $e!innin! o3 the century, Camilla F. reports memories li#e those o3 Ida A. in Saloni#a. She also $ra!s o3 havin! !rown up outside o3 the con3ines o3 the Jewish milieu. Her 3amily had contacts with the rulin! circles, 3irst &ur#s, then Italians, a3ter the esta$lishment o3 the colonial re!ime. nd the 3ather rivaled the &ur#ish di!nitaries. &hus, he 2inherited2Hat his own expense, to $e sureHthe carria!e o3 the !overnor who was recalled to Istan$ul. 6ur friends +ere 4yrians. 1here +ere7ho+ shall 3 ut itU7state officials, functionaries of 1urkey. 1hey ca0e fro0 4yria, Le"anon, they s oke *ra"ic, they s oke 1urkish. Pa a s oke 1urkish erfectly, he +as very assi0ilated +ith the0. 8)9 We have reviously seen other as ects of the attraction e2ercised "y -rance. D (() D 8 . . .9 3t +as very funny in our fa0ily, there +ere seven of us. 1here +ere the "elievers, the non"elievers, everyone +as a ty e. ;y oldest "rother +as reli#ious "ut didnGt learn 1al0ud? he +as very, very li"eral. Because +e +ere raised +ith riests. When the 3talians ca0e there +as an arch"isho , the *rch"isho of 1ri oli. Ae referred 0y "rother to all the others, and the Catholics +ere furious. >overnor IedEe" Pasha had to leave. We liked hi0 a lot, and he liked us a lot. Ae used to say: ./ou are 0y children.. Ae called 0y father and said to hi0: .Listen, N., 3 0ust ask a favor of you.. .*sk 0e +hatever you +ant.. 4o he said: .Listen, 3 have to #o7itGs really a cou 7"ut the one +hoGs re lacin# 0e is 0y +orst ene0y. 3 adore 0y horses, 0y carria#e, 0y driver. 3 donGt +ant hi0 to #et the0. 3 donGt +ant hi0 to sit there in the carria#e +here 3 sat. 3 donGt +ant hi0 to have anythin# of 0ine. 4o, it +ould #ive 0e leasure if you "ou#ht it.. ;y father said: .3 +ould "e deli#hted to do it and a0 very unha y a"out your de arture.. 4o +e inherited7Pa a "ou#ht7that carria#e, +ith all the #ildin#, the victoria, the horses, 0arvels. 1he coach0an +as over si2 feet tall, +ith the "earin# of a no"le0an of Constantino le. When the other Pasha ca0e, he sent an e0issary, one of Pa aGs friends, called ;uha00ad :l ,a0al. ;uha00ad :l ,a0al really +as a very #ood friend of the fa0ily. Ae +as often there. Ae ca0e and said: .N., 3 have "ad ne+s for you.. .WhatGs u U. .3 +as +ith the #overnor. 6<, +ell, heGs very u set a"out the carria#e and the horses. Well, the horses, thatGs all ri#ht. But he canGt find a driver to suit hi0.. /ou "et, the coach0an had an un"elieva"le styleR .4o he asks you . . . if you +ould #ive hi0 your coach0an.. 6<. 4o 0y father says: .,ust i0a#ine, to #ive the driver, the horses, and all thatU What ha ens to 0eU Listen, tell hi0 that heGs the 0aster? that not only if he asked for thin#s, "ut if he asked for 0y son, 3 +ould #ive hi0 0y son as a driver if thatGs +hat he +anted. Because itGs fittin# that one sho+s hi0 res ect. Ieally, tell hi0 that 3 a0 at his co0 lete dis osal.. We +ere all around there. We didnGt kno+ +hat +as #oin# on, "ut +e sa+ that so0ethin# very dra0atic +as takin# lace. D ((K D

;uha00ad said: .Cal0 do+n, cal0 do+n.. Ae left and, later, he said to that #overnor: ./ou kno+, not only +ould N. #ive you the carria#e and the driver, heGd even #ive you his son "ecause he canGt refuse you. But 3 +ent there and the children surrounded 0e and said: GWhatR /ouGre #oin# to take G*"du a+ay fro0 us, you canGtRG 1hey +ere cryin#. Ieally, 3 think it +ouldnGt "e #ood to take G*"du . . .. 4o the #overnor ans+ered: .1ell N. that 3 thank hi0 very 0uch for everythin# and that 3 acce t his driver, "ut 0e, 3 #ive hi0 "ack to his children.. Camilla F. had almost nothin! to say a$out the native population except once, to descri$e a reli!ious procession with a com$ination o3 3ascination and 3ear. %i#e Ida A.)s parents, hers are presented in the role o3 $ene3actors, patroni@in! the other reli!ious !roup. 5urther on, the %i$yan population will $e recalled, in association with another instance o3 intolerance. What did they call *ra" fanaticsU 1hose +ho 0ake 1ihad 8holy +ar9, +hat are they calledU 1hey had a na0e. . . . *t certain ti0es, +hen they had a cele"ration, there +as the @awyia 7you kno+ +hat a =a+yia isU 3tGs an oratory. 6<. :ach =a+yia had all its follo+ers, and the youn# ones es ecially, +ho did +hat corres onds to Christian thin#s, +hen they #o in the street +ith the Vir#in ;ary, a rocession, ehU 4o each =a+yia lined u to 0ake Eihad. 1hey +ent to the city, they +ere all very +orked u , "ecause for the ei#ht days "efore, in their =a+yia, they drank very sti0ulatin# thin#s, they shouted, they talked. .1hese +ere the G3ssa+aU. 1he G3ssa+aR 1hen they ca0e out. 3t +as so0ethin# very i0 ressive. /ou kno+, all the consuls advised all the :uro eans to lock the0selves in and not co0e out on those days "ecause you couldnGt kno+ +hat 0i#ht ha en. 3t +as e2traordinary "ecause our house +as on the sea, on the 0ain street, and they all assed "y us "ecause it +as on the +ay to the ho0e of the 1urkish #overnor, and they +ere #oin# to ay ho0a#e to hi0. 3t +as really s ectacular. But +e, +e +erenGt afraid, "ecause they liked us a lot. -irst Pa a, every ti0e a =a+yia needed 0oney, he #ave it to the0. :very ti0e a 0os'ue fell do+n, he had it re"uilt. 4o they liked hi0 a lot. *nd they assed "y +ith D ((& D ca0els and children and "anners in t+o arts: instead of havin# a fla# +ith only one +in#, there +ere t+o +in#s. 1here +as the #uy +ho holds the ole and the "anner covered all those +ho 0ake the G3ssa+a. 1hose G3ssa+a, +ith a dru0, they +ere actually in a trance. 1hey shouted .Aeia, heia, heia,. and they started like this, like this, like this 8movement o3 the head 9. 1hen, 3 donGt kno+ if youGve seen that *ra"s leave a "raid in the 0iddle of their head. 4o, on the day of the G3ssa+a, they undid that "raid. /es, they undid it and it 0ade the 0ove0ent +ith their hair that falls like that and like that 8waves her head 9. 3 re0e0"er that, +hen they assed under the house, you kno+, do+n there, +e distilled oran#e "losso0s, roses fro0 the country. We had flasks, and +e s rinkled all the flo+er +ater +e had on their heads. 1hey did so0ethin# s ecial for us? it +as an ho0a#e. 1hatGs to tell you. . . . When 3 think that there are hatreds, it sets 0y teeth on ed#e, it really irritates 0e, it "reaks 0y heart. 2&hat)s to tell you . . .2 +hat are Camilla F., Ida A., other Saloni#ans tryin! to convey when they recall $oth the !ood relations $etween the !roups and the anti-Jewish demonstrationsE I3 they remem$er acts o3 violenceHver$al or otherHit is to ta#e o$1ection to them immediately. Sometimes they assert that the incidents had no consequences6 sometimes they distance them $y locatin! the victims in communities they didn)t 3requent or $y puttin! the culprits on a social level that allowed them to view these events 2with contempt.2 Sometimes, the clashes are imputed to 3orei!n elements. &his de3ensive attitude has o3ten $een o$served in 5rench Jews, who resort to the same mechanisms to $anish pain3ul memories 3rom their minds, to shroud a phenomenon that they are una$le to explain.8 K9

CLittle Thin&sC
5or Camilla F., anti-Semitism is not a 3act o3 experience $ut a 3act o3 discourse, reported $y a history $oo# <which reveals to her that the evil was rampant very close to &ripoli, in the small communities o3 8K9 Oo0ini'ue 4chna er, Jui3s et isralites 8,e+s and 3sraelites9 @Paris: >alli0ard, 19B%C? *ndrL Aarris and *lain de 4edouy, Jui3s et 5ranQais 8,e+s and the -rench9 @Paris: Le Livre de oche, 19&9C. D ((B D %i$ya, those 2little thin!s2 she never saw= or $y an anecdote she heard 3rom a poor mattress ma#er. %i#e Ida A., her social position sheltered her 3rom hostility, $ut others told her that in the city itsel3, where she never went, poor Jews had to respond with patience or tric#ery to the daily harassment to which they were su$1ected. 4o 0e, in 0y delusions7since +e +ere very s oiled7that +e +ere very friendly +ith the *ra"s7and, really, +hen 3 +as s0all, 3 had never heard that there +ere any trou"les. 1rou"les, little thin#s, yes, little thin#s. . . . But then 3 read that "ook they sent 0e,8&9 and 3 sa+ +hat horror, ho+ 0any ti0es they +ere 0assacred "y the *ra"s. 3tGs so0ethin# that really hurts you. .3n the #hettoU. /es, But no, not those of 1ri oli, "ut there +ere ,e+s all around, like 1anEura, you kno+, and other such s0all laces. 1here, fro0 ti0e to ti0e, 0assacres +ere co00itted. 3t really hurt 0e "ecause it took a+ay 0any of 0y illusions. 3Gll tell a little story7of ho+ they hated the ,e+s. 1here +as a madrasa 8school 9, you kno+ +hat that is, there, ne2t to the #hetto. *nd once a year, +e had a 0attress 0aker +ho ca0e to +ash the +ool and redo the 0attresses. Ae ca0e to the house, of course, since everythin# +as like that. Ais na0e +as Aa0ini. Ae +as a ,e+ and so 8lau!hs 9 he said to 0e: .3G0 al+ays +orkin#, and there 3 a0, +orkin# in the door 8!esture o3 her lowered head 9 of 0y sho , and all the kids co0in# out of the 0adrasa ca0e over. 1hey knocked 0e on the head. 1hey said, Ghere, !ed $ou# ou 1edde# G 8here, 3or the !rand3ather o3 your 3ather and your !rand3atherIHan insult accompanied $y $lows on the $ac# o3 the nec#. &he narrator)s explanation is not clear. 9 4o, +hat did he doU Ae +as very silent, like that. Ae +as an old 0an. -or 0e at least, at that ti0e, he +as an old 0an. 4o he said: .6ne day, 3 couldnGt take it any0ore. 3 had a headache. What could 3 do a#ainst that rush of kids. 3 couldnGt. 3 took a ile of ins, a lot, and 3 stuck 8&9 I. de -elice, ,$rei in un paese ara$o* Bli e$rei nella %i$ia contemporana tra colonialismo, nationalismo e sionismo <7K:CR78?>= 8,e+s in an *ra" Country: ,e+s in Li"ya in ;odern 1i0es "et+een Colonialis0, Nationalis0, and Fionis0 @1B$)J19&%C9 @Bolo#ne, 19&BC. D ((9 D the0 8lau!hter, indication that the pins were li3ted 9. Aere ca0e the first one, ca0e the second. 1hey didnGt co0e "ack any0ore.. /ou could al+ays #et the0 +ith trickery.

C1ut What Is It> These JewsIC

&he sense o3 superiority that some 3elt with respect to the rmenians, others with respect to the ra$s, could also $e 3elt with respect to other Jews. s 3or Ida A., she did not even suspect the existence o3 other communities. In the 78;>s*

3 didnGt even kno+ +hat Poles +ere. When 3 ca0e here to -rance, 0y sister said to 0e: .* friendGs co0in# here, and sheGs a Pole.. .WhatGs a PoleU 3 thou#ht +e +ere the only ones aliveR. 3 never kne+ anti54e0itis0. 3 didnGt kno+ +hat it +as or a"out >er0an ,e+s. 1here +as only us. 3 said to 0y sister: .But +hat is it, these ,e+sU. .What do you think, thereGs Eust youU. 3n 4alonika, 3 thou#ht it +as Eust us, that there +ere no other ,e+s. But thatGs too stu id "ecause 0y hus"and had t+o 0ovie theaters in 4alonika. Ae sho+ed fil0s fro0 Poland, fro0 Iussia: the o#ro0s they had there, terri"leR *nd +e thou#ht that it +as all Eust stories. Saloni#a a!ain, at the $e!innin! o3 the century* 1he first ti0e 3 sa+ an *shkena=i is +hen 3 started school and needed a hat for school. ;y 0other took 0e to the hat0aker. 3 sa+ this #entle0an +ho s oke a very "ad 4 anish +ith a very thick accent, and 3 said to 0yself: .1his isnGt a ,e+.. 3 asked 0y 0other: .What is that 0anU. 4he e2 lained to 0e that they +ere eo le fro0 Poland. But +e never considered that they "elon#ed to us. We kne+ nothin# a"out each other. 1here +ere so0e +ho "eca0e 4e haradi "ecause +e +ere the 0aEority. /ou reco#ni=ed the0 "y those na0es, the na0e *shkena=i. :very"ody +ith the na0e *shkena=i is 4e haradi. 3n 4alonika, there +ere very fe+ *shkena=i0. 1hey +ere s0all crafts0en, es ecially hat0akers, thin#s like that, and +e didnGt have anythin# to do +ith the0. 1hey had their o+n D ($% D syna#o#ue. 1hey had one syna#o#ue, +e had thirty5si2 . . . 8H.S. y 4., $orn $e3ore 19%%9 Istan$ul, Milan, (aris* a$out 78:>, in Milan, %aure . met a youn! 'iennese Jew whom she wanted to marry. Ae ca0e fro0 a very rich fa0ily. 3 +as at their house +ith ;a0a. 1hey had "i# dinners. *s for 0e, 3 +as al0ost en#a#ed. . . . Ae +as 'uite a 0an, you kno+, athletic, skiin#, tennis7all that. Ae +as co0 letely 0y ty e, +hile the others +ere old hat. When +e #ot to Paris, 0y father 0et this youn# 0anGs father. *nd they didnGt #et alon#. Because +eGre 4e hardi, he +as esh#ena@ . 4o, +e had a kind of . . . 8pout 9. 1hey, for their art, considered the0selves su erior, and +e, in 1urkey7itGs du0"7+e considered the eshkena= inferior. 4o, once, +hen 3 told hi0 that, he "urst out lau#hin#. 3 said: .*t ho0e, the eshkena= +ere dirty.. .-or us, the 6rientals, the 4e haradi, +ere dirtyR. She 3inally married a Sepharadi 3rom Saloni#a who was livin! in (aris* Ais first lan#ua#e +as 4 anish, like us. But he also kne+ >reek. Ae didnGt like >reeks, "ut he s oke >reek.

In !l&eria= The French Mira&e

s with their &unisian nei!h$ors, the Jews o3 l!eria have memories that reveal misunderstandin! and 3ear o3 the Muslim population, o3 those who are indiscriminately called 2the ra$s.2 Inversely, the valori@ation o3 the 5rench !oes hand in hand with a distancin! that is $oth su33ered and desired. Su@anne &., whose tri$ulations and social rise we have 3ollowed <p. :8, C>=, re!ularly inserts 5rench people into her narrative. &hey emer!e at #ey points to resolve crises, settle di33iculties, $rin! decisive help. She places them in a relationship o3 patrona!e, presents hersel3 in a position o3 de3erence, also

emphasi@in! the contrast $etween their attitude, which she 1ud!es positively, and that o3 the Jews, who are seen to have no respect 3or principles. 5airness is on the D ($1 D side o3 the 5rench. So, it was a youn! 5rench captain who addressed her hus$and in the 3amiliar 3orm at their 3irst meetin! and !ot him his 3irst contract6 it was a 5rench $aili33 who too# the side o3 the law, whereas his Jewish collea!ue !ave in to personal interests. In l!iers, a 5rench con3ectioner, 2a !oodhearted man2 who understood 2the drama o3 the common people,2 recti3ied an in1ustice and opened the vast perspectives o3 the /ue d)Isly 3or the hus$and. It was a 5rench midwi3e who saved her li3e durin! a di33icult $irth. +ith the declaration o3 war, the hus$and went o33 to the 3ront, leavin! Su@anne with $ut a 3ew pennies. 1hen 3 thou#ht a"out ho+ 3 +as #oin# to feed 0y children. 4o 3 +ent to see 0y nei#h"or. 4he 0anufactured clothes. 3 asked if she could lend 0e her er0it so 3 could #et so0e +ork. 4he #ave it to 0e. 3 e2 lained to her that 3 couldnGt +ork outside, that 3 had to find +ork to do at ho0e +hile takin# care of 0y children. 3 left the "a"y +ith her7he +as "arely t+o 0onths old7and 3 +ent to to+n. 1here +ere t+o factories that did +ork for the ar0y: that of L., a ,e+, and that of :ssartier, our ne+ 0ayor. 3 started +ith the ,e+ "ecause his lace +as closer to 0y house. When 3 introduced 0yself, the fore+o0an sent 0e to the office. 1here +as a +o0an. 3 later found out that that +as ;ada0e L. 4he started askin# 0e 'uestions: +hether 3 had a se+in# 0achine, +hat 3 could do. 3 told her honestly that 3 had never +orked, that 3 had s0all children. 4he ans+ered that she didnGt +ant a "e#inner and that she +asnGt interested in takin# care of those details. 3 +ent to the other factory, +hich +as 0uch farther fro0 0y house. What could 3 doU 3 had no choice "ut to #o to that factory. * +o0an said to 0e: .What do you +antU. 3 ans+ered: .3 +ant to see ;onsieur :ssartier.. 4he asked if 3 had an a oint0ent. 3 said no. 4o she ans+ered that he +as "usy, that he couldnGt see 0e. 3 said to her: .1ell hi0 that 3G0 fro0 Bou=area.. 4he +ent to see hi0, and she told hi0. Ae o ened the door and told the clerk to leave us alone. Ae had 0e sit do+n and started askin# 0e 'uestions. 3 told hi0 that +e lived in -rais5Vallon. 3 told hi0 everythin#. When 3 finished talkin#, he said: .Co0e +ith 0e.. 3 sho+ed hi0 0y D ($( D nei#h"orGs ass? she +orked for hi0. Ae ans+ered: .No, 3Gll #ive you +ork in your o+n na0e,. and he +ent +ith 0e to the cashier. Ae told the head of the office that +henever 3 ca0e for +ork, 3 +as to "e aid ri#ht a+ay +ithout any 'uestions. 3 left 0y na0e and address and he told the cashier: .>ive ;ada0e 1. ten francs.. 3 told hi0: .;onsieur, 3 asked for +ork, not charity.. Ae ans+ered that he +ould take it "ack little "y little. Ae never did take it "ack. -or +ork, he #ave 0e ar0y shirts to ut the "uttons on: five ennies a shirt. 3 left +ith +ork, and he #ave 0e 0oney. 3 started that very day. I3 the 5rench were the patrons and protectors, they could not $e the alter e!o. &hat 3unction was reserved 3or Spanish 3riends. ssociated with ima!es o3 happiness and a$undance, they were so dear to Su@anne)s heart that she named her dau!hter Hermine, a3ter the wi3e o3 her hus$and)s wor#er and 3riend. &he rest o3 the population remains virtually invisi$le. Fo l!erian appears in the picture, except in the 3orm o3 a threatenin! crowd o3 ra$s descendin! 3rom the douars to stir up trou$le in Sti3 or Constantine. An one occasion, an anonymous 2old Moorish woman2 saved her dau!hter 3rom a disease the doctors were una$le to cure, while another 2old ra$ woman2 helped her sister !ive $irth. An another occasion, the $lac#smith nei!h$or protected the 3amily a!ainst rioters. He too remains nameless and Su@anne sometimes descri$es him as an ra$, sometimes as a 4er$er.

Su@anne had $e!un her $io!raphy with her $irth, immediately 3ollowed $y these words* 2My !rand3ather 3ou!ht in the war o3 7K?>.28B9 claim to !lory* she not only received 5rench nationality li#e all the other Jews o3 l!eria, 3ollowin! the Crmieux -ecree <7K?>=, $ut also, as it were, on the 3ield o3 honor. &hat her 3ather returned wounded and an alcoholic 3rom the war o3 787M, that her son was #illed in a 5rench uni3orm in the l!erian war o3 independence has no e33ect on her pride o3 $ein! 5rench. An the contrary, that pride was nurtured $y the trials she had to endure* today, two portraits han! in the apartment where she livesHthose o3 her dead hus$and and sonHand there is a 3rame containin! her son)s citation, his war cross, and the military medal. 8B9 1he -ranco5Prussian War. D ($$ D

The Riots o' $%BD

&wo moments are en!raved in the memory o3 the Jews o3 eastern l!eria* the riots o3 78:M, durin! which l!erian Muslims pilla!ed shops and massacred several scores o3 Jews6 and the period o3 the 'ichy !overnment, which expelled the children 3rom the schools and excluded Jews 3rom the administration.899.et, that Jewish couple 3rom Constantine, married in 78:K, descri$es the riots as a 3leetin! episode and even dis!uises it in a narrative o3 3riendly relations, illustratin! how di33icult it is 3or people to admit acts o3 violence. She : We +ere fine. We al+ays had very #ood contacts +ith the *ra"s and the Christians. 1here +as no racis0 like +e find here. .4o, you never sa+ riotsU. He : 1here +ere riots in G$H, "ut it +as no "i# deal. 1here +ere so0e +ho +ere attacked, "ut they +erenGt fro0 Constantine. She : No. We had very #ood contacts. .But they +ere i0 ortant all the sa0e, the riots of G$HU. She : 6h, yes, they +ere i0 ortant. He : 3n G$H, yes. She : 1hey looted all the stores, killed a lot of ,e+s. He : But you didnGt take that into account. She : 3t +as settled ri#ht a+ay the ne2t day. He : 1hey a olo#i=ed, and thatGs it. She : 1he to+n stayed under sie#e. -or ho+ lon#U He : 3t 0ust have "een 'uite so0e ti0e . . . 899 6n these t+o eriods, see ;ichel *"it"ol, %es Jui3s d) 3rique du Ford sous 'ichy 81he ,e+s of North *frica Under Vichy9 @Paris: ;aisonneuve et Larose, 19B$C. D ($H D She : ;y arents had a far0. We lived off of that far0. 1he #ardener 8an ra$ !ardener 9 +ould "rin#

us fruit and ve#eta"les. We shared so0e +ith the nei#h"ors. 1he soldiers +ho #uarded us durin# those riots knocked on our door +ith their rifles to ask for so0ethin# to drink. 1hat fri#htened us? +e screa0ed. 4ince +e had a lot of lu0s, 3 #ave the0 the "asket. 1hat leased the0. We #ave the0 +hatever "read +e had. 3 had 0y #ardener co0e to "rin# us flat "read fro0 ho0e. Ais 0other 0ade it and he "rou#ht us a ile of flat "read, since +e +erenGt allo+ed to #o out. :verythin# +as under sie#e. 3 #ave so0e to the soldiers +ho +ere #uardin# the entire nei#h"orhood. With all the other +itnesses, these riots left "itter 0e0ories. 3t is an event that eo le cannot erase? it inevita"ly returns in the narratives. Billette 5., $orn in 78;?* 3 canGt kee fro0 re0e0"erin# *u#ust ), 19$H, +hen they "roke into our store, 0y fatherGs. 3 +as seven years old. 3 re0e0"er that story very, very +ell. 1he ni#ht "efore, or rather t+o days "efore, 0y father had #one to Constantine to "uy 0erchandise. 1hey started thro+in# stones at the store "ecause it +as in an *ra" nei#h"orhood. *nd a youn# 0an ca0e to tell hi0: .OeQdou, ay attention, 3 think theyGre #oin# to rise u a#ainst us.. *nd in fact, the ne2t 0ornin#, the 0ilk0an ca0e, an old 0an, you see, 3 re0e0"er very, very +ell, you see, itGs funny. Ae knocked softly on the door and +e +ere afraid: .OonGt #o out. OonGt #o to the store. 1heyGre ransackin# the store and all the stores near"y, >uenounGs, >uedEGs, Uncle *lfredGs.. *nd +e sa+7since +e +ere livin# on the first floor, *venue ;a#enta7fro0 the +indo+, +hose shutters +ere closed of course, +e sa+ 0y fatherGs fa"rics #oin# u to the *ra" villa#e, alon# +ith the 0attresses fro0 the houses they had looted. 1hatGs a thin# that 0arked 0e. *nd since then, the oor 0an 8my 3ather 9 never #ot over it. 4i2 0onths later, +e decided +e didnGt +ant to stay in *Qn BeQda any0ore, "ecause it +as i0 ossi"le to live like that. 3n G$9, +e 0oved to Constantine. D ($) D 0n 4e0da a!ain. Claire ., $orn in 7879, narrates* 1he riots of G$H7that +as the catastro hic ti0e for us. 3 +as a #irl. 3 +as seventeen years old, and 0y 0other 0ade a decision that very 0onth to leave *Qn BeQda "ecause +e +ere surrounded "y *ra"s. *nd you kno+ +hat ha ened. 1hey looted our store? they set fire to 0y fatherGs store. 1hey looted our "eautiful house. We had a 0arvelous house, and they set fire to our house. We +ere left +ithout anythin#. 3tGs very si0 le. When the *ra"s ca0e into the courtyard, +e had so0e a0a=in# luck. ,ust at the 0o0ent7after a +hole ni#ht of havin# stones at the doors and +indo+s, they couldnGt #et in, and "y nine oGclock in the 0ornin#, they s0ashed in the door. 1hey #ra""ed on to 4i0one, 0y sister. 4he +as little, 0ay"e t+o years old. 4he had a knife at her throat, 4i0one did. 4he +as at deathGs door. *t that 0o0ent7since +e lived near the railroad station7the le#ion arrived. 1hey ca0e into our house. 4o the *ra"s ran a+ay. 1+o of the0 +ere killed in our courtyard "y the Le#ion. 6ther+ise, the +hole fa0ily +ould have died. We 0ade it throu#h the riots. 1hatGs +hy ;a0a didnGt +ant to stay any0ore. -irst of all, +e didnGt have a house any0ore. We didnGt have anythin#. 6n the 0ornin# it ha ened, 0y #randfather, the oor 0an, ca0e, >randfather *ou=i, ;a0aGs father. . . . Ae ca0e to take us to his house. Well, +e left "arefoot7 no shoes, no clothes, nothin#. 1hey took us like that, +ith a +hole ar0y. *n escort, so that +e could leave our house and #o to our #randfatherGs. /ou kno+, that story has re0ained en#raved on 0y "ein#. We could never for#et it. . . . *nd +e stayed +ith 0y #rand arents +hile ;a0a +ent alone to look at an a art0ent in Constantine. *nd thatGs ho+ on that sa0e day, she found an a art0ent on Iue de -rance, and a +eek later, +e +ere all in Constantine. 1here +e had to "e#in fro0 scratch all over a#ain. 3t +asnGt easy.

8 . . .9 We +ere doin# very +ell in aQn BeQda. We had lived very, very +ell. When those riots took lace, all the stores +ere destroyed. 1here +as a fire, and then it +as all over. *ll the ,e+s suffered. 6verni#ht, they +ere "arefoot and naked. D ($K D .What caused these riotsU. /ou certainly kno+ that the *ra"s +ere a#ainst the ,e+s. 1hatGs ho+ it +as. 1he *ra"s +ho ca0e do+n fro0 the 0ountains didnGt kno+ for +ho0 or +hy they +ere killin#, thatGs all. Let 0e tell you so0ethin# even "etter. 3 had a #irlfriend. We +ere never a art. 4he +as the dau#hter of a forester, -rench. 4he ca0e to 0y house. 4he +as Catholic. 4he ate at 0y house? she sle t at 0y house. 3t +as 0utual. 3 also +ent to her house. 6n the day of the riots, she herself +as the one +ho ointed out 0y house. *nd +hen they s0ashed in the door, 3 sa+ her, her, in front. 4he +as sayin# to the0: .Aere it is, here it is. >et in, killR. 3t +as a+ful. Well, ever since then, 3 havenGt trusted any"ody any0ore. 3t +as over. 3 +as really cured of it. 1hatGs so0ethin# 3Gll never for#et7she +as the one +ho ointed out our house, "ecause ho+ +ould the *ra"s, +ho ca0e fro0 far a+ay, kno+ our houseU *nd then +e started all over a#ain there. We +ere in Constantine, and, "elieve 0e, it didnGt #o +ell. Constantine, in 3act, had the same trou$les. 4ut $ein! in a lar!er community o33ered some protection, not only 3rom dan!er $ut also 3rom close relations with 2the ra$s.2 /eturnin! to 0n 4e0da in 78:8, 3ive years a3ter the riots* 3t had "eco0e too. . . . 1here +as too 0uch . . . .1he *ra" co00unity, that isU. 1hatGs it, yes, too, too. . . . 3 re0e0"er /vette. 4o0eone had sent her a love letter, a 0arria#e ro osal, so you can i0a#ineR 3t +as a anic. Iaoul +as #oin# to the *ra" cafLs. /ou see +hat a 0ess it +as. 8Billette 5., $orn in 78;? 9 In Constantine, that promised land, the riots were even worse. Su@anne &. reports 3acts and dates, with the explicit desire to o33er testimony re!ardin! that traumatic event.81%9CorrectlyH3or the chronicles o3 the period con3irm her taleHshe emphasi@es that the colonial authorities didn)t do anythin! to prevent the trou$les and that help was 81%9 3n the sa0e s irit, she had earlier recalled riots in 4Ltif in the 19(%s. D ($& D late in comin!. In a revealin! slip o3 the ton!ue, she says co00iseriat to re3er to the police station, where the Commissioner did not show any commiseration. 6n *u#ust (, 19$H, a -riday ni#ht, 0y hus"and ca0e ho0e as usual, +ith a 0elon and a +ater0elon. Ae told 0e that thin#s +erenGt #oin# +ell in to+n, that the *ra"s said that a ,e+ had issed on the +all of the 0os'ue. We ate su er and +ent to "ed. :very 4aturday 0ornin#, 0y hus"andGs friends and their +ives used to co0e ick us u to #o to the s+i00in# ool, not far fro0 +here +e lived. While 3 +as dressin# the children, 0y hus"and had taken out the icnic "asket and +as +aitin# for his friends in front of the door. 1he closest nei#h"or ca0e "ack fro0 to+n. Ae asked 0y hus"and +hat he +as doin# in front of the door so early in the 0ornin#. ;y hus"and ans+ered: .3G0 +aitin# for so0e friends to #o to the s+i00in# ool, like every 4aturday..

1he nei#h"or, a "lacks0ith, had t+o sons7#ro+n 0en7t+o dau#hters, and his +ife. 4o he said to hi0: ./our friends +onGt co0e. /ouGd "etter #o "ack inside. 3tGs very "ad in to+n. ;ost of all, donGt #o any+here.. ;y hus"and ca0e "ack in and told 0e +hat the nei#h"or had said to hi0. We "elieved hi0 "ecause a si2ty5year5old 0an +ouldnGt 0ake u thin#s like that. *"out ten oGclock, +e sa+ 0y father5 in5la+ co0in#. 1hinkin# that +e didnGt kno+ anythin#, he ca0e to +arn us. But +hen he left, he couldnGt 0ake it throu#h the city any0ore. 4oldiers had to escort hi0 ho0e. -ro0 our house, +e heard noises and shouts fro0 the city. By evenin#, +e +ent "ack @fro0 the courtyard to the a art0entsC +ith the children. 3 had three children of 0y o+n @the "a"y +as si2 0onths oldC, 0y hus"andGs youn# sister, +ho had co0e in the 0ornin# +ith her father and +ho didnGt +ant to leave, and the fa0ous ,oel. ;y hus"and +as kee in# #uard. 1he children had fallen aslee . But neither 0y hus"and nor 3 closed our eyes. :arly in the 0ornin#, the nei#h"or ca0e to do errands for 0e. 3Gll al+ays re0e0"er: 3 had 0ade noodles +ith to0ato sauce, fried fish, i0entos, a salad of to0atoes and cucu0"ers. ;y hus"and and the children +ere sittin#, +aitin# for 0e to D ($B D #ive the0 so0ethin# to eat. ,ust as 3 +as #oin# to ut the ot on the ta"le, 3 hear a noise 3 had never heard "efore. 4o 3 asked 0y hus"and +hat it +as. Ae ans+ered: .3tGs the alar0.. 1he to+n +as on fire, in fla0es. Peo le +ere screa0in#. ;y hus"and ut a ladder a#ainst the roof and he had us cli0" u , one "y one. We hid "ehind a chi0ney. Ne2t to the roof +as the "alcony of so0eone na0ed Iou#ie. We +ent do+n to that "alcony: the +o0an +ent to o en the door to let us in. Aer hus"and ca0e and he said to his +ife: .WeGre not #oin# to #et ourselves killed "y the *ra"s for ,e+s.. Ais +ife +e t, "e##ed hi0 to let us in for a little +hile. But he +ouldnGt hear of it. Ae o ened the front door and thre+ us out. 3t +as 4unday, *u#ust H, and it +as al0ost 11:$%. *ll the *ra"s +ere #athered to kill the ,e+s. Ae closed the door "ehind us. When they sa+ seven eo le co0in# out all at once, they +ere stunned. *t that ti0e, the "lacks0ith nei#h"or o ened his door to us and let us in. Ae stood in front of the door +ith his t+o sons, his t+o unveiled dau#hters, and his +ife. 3t says a lot for an *ra" to unveil his +ife and dau#hters. Ae said to the *ra"s: ./ouGll have to kill 0e and 0y fa0ily "efore you kill those eo le.. Ae also had the >uedE fa0ily in his house, and the ;elki fa0ily70any fa0ilies fro0 the area. 1here +as 0y uncle, 0y fatherGs "rother, +ho +as the #uard at the o+der factory, and another #uard +ho lived on the other side. 1he nei#h"or +ent out and honed the olice. Ae told the0: .4everal fa0ilies are in dan#er.. 1he olice told hi0 that they +ere co0in# to #et us. 3t +as t+o oGclock in the 0ornin# +hen the olice car ulled u in front of the door. With their +ea ons in their hand, they 0ade us #et in. 1he lace +as full of *ra"s. -ro0 there, +e +ent to the o+der factory to ick u the other fa0ilies. When +e #ot to the Place de la BrVche, they had us #et out to take shelter in the co00iseriat. 1hatGs +here 3 reali=ed 3 +as "arefoot. 1here +as #lass on the #round. 3 +alked on it and slit 0y foot. 1he other fa0ilies +ere a"le to stay +ith relatives. -or us, +ith 0y uncle and 0y hus"and, they found us a lace to live. We +erenGt a"out to 0ake trou"le. We lived throu#h so0e very difficult 0o0ents, the ti0e +hen everythin# cal0ed do+n. D ($9 D 1hank >od, +e #ot out of it alive, "ut +e didnGt trust anyone any0ore. -or the sake of the children, +e found a lace to live in to+n, and thatGs +here +e stayed.

8%ater on :9 ;y hus"and +ent to see the co00issioner. Ae told hi0 ho+ that Ber"er had saved several ,e+ish fa0ilies. * little +hile later, he +as decorated +ith the 0edal of "ravery for his coura#e. 3ter tellin! what she and her 3amily su33ered directly, Su@anne &. assesses the riots 3or the Jewish population as a whole. Within a short ti0e, the to+n +as fire and "lood. Iue Nationale +as the street 0ost seriously affected. Iich ,e+s lived in that nei#h"orhood as +ell as on Iue Cara0oun and Iue de -rance. 1he *ttali fa0ily lived there? the father +as a rinter. 1heir dau#hter had Eust #otten her di lo0a as a 0id+ife7in *l#eria, there +as no school for 0id+ives, you had to #o study in ;ont ellier. 1he arents had +aited for 4unday, the very day of their dau#hterGs return, to cele"rate their sonGs co00union 8$ar mit@vah 9. 1he arty +as to have "een that very evenin#. But the *ra"s let loose. 1he #irl +as do+nstairs +ith her "rother. 1hey started "y ra in# her, torturin# her ri#ht in front of her "rother. 1hey cut off one of her "reasts. 1hen it +as the "oyGs turn. Ae +as "arely thirteen years old. 3n Iue Nationale, the fa0ily of *l honse Aali0i +as killed. 1he little servant, seein# ho+ they killed the 0asters, took the t+o50onth5 old "a"y fro0 its cradle and hid +ith hi0 in the attic. 4he saved the "a"yGs life, "ut he +as co0 letely or haned. Later on, +hen hel finally arrived, she +as a"solutely hysterical. *t the end of the Iue de -rance, it +as a fa0ily of "utchers, 1aie" . . . 1here +ere others +ho +ere killed7in all, a collection of thirty5three coffins. 1he +hole to+n +as in 0ournin# that +eek. *ll those cor ses +ere #athered to#ether in the ce0etery, and all the sho s closed that day as a si#n of 0ournin#. 1he -rench had stirred u the *ra"s a#ainst the ,e+s. 1hey had +aited for the 0onth of *u#ust, +hen every"ody +as on vacation. 1he 0ayor, ;orineau, the refect, all the nota"les +ere a"sent. 1hey left the ,e+s at the 0ercy of the *ra"s. 1here +as D (H% D an assistant to the 0ayor: +hat could he do after the to+n and its inha"itants +ere 0assacredU Ae called on the 4ene#alese rifle0en stationed in Phili eville. 1he to+n +as never itself a#ain after that7+hat +ith the une0 loy0ent, the unease. Peo le +ere scared. :very"ody +as scared at the si#ht of 0ost of the ,e+s in 0ournin#. Constantine had "een kno+n for its #aiety, "ut no"ody +anted to lau#h any0ore. /ou had to #o on +orkin# to live? you really had no other choice. But so0ethin# +as 0issin#. /ou lived in the fear that it +ould ha en a#ain. *nd thatGs ho+ the year G$H ended. In the memories reported 3rom eastern l!eria, no one mentioned the riots o3 Sti3 and Constantine that too# place in May 78MC and durin! which several thousand l!erians died, victims o3 ruthless repression. (eople weep only 3or the dead o3 their own community.

Far 'rom the Front= !nti9Semitism and the War

In the interval, +orld +ar II had ta#en place. In &unisia, it le3t memories o3 the 3ear provo#ed $y the Berman presence $etween the autumn o3 78M; and the spirin! o3 78M:. ,verywhere, the memory remains o3 the shorta!es and the in!enuity necessary 1ust to survive. In l!eria, there is also the memory o3 the shoc# at the anti-Semitism o3 the colonial population and the anti-Jewish laws imposed $y the 'ichy !overnment. Su@anne &.* 6ne day, in 19H1, 3 had sent 0y t+o children to school as usual. *n hour later, they ca0e "ack cryin#. 3

asked the0 +hy and they ans+ered: .1hey sent us ho0e fro0 school. 1he rinci al told us that school is for the -rench, not for the ,e+s.. *nd +ith the other students, he san# the0 an anti5,e+ish son#. *nd, of course, 0isfortune never co0es alone. We heard on the radio that all ,e+s had to a ear +ith the fa0ily ass"ook on Iue dG3sly in order for all to re#ister. With 0y hus"and @0ean+hile de0o"ili=edC, +e +ent. 1here +as a line and +e stood at the end of it. 3 had 0y last "a"y, +ho +as four 0onths old, D (H1 D in 0y ar0s. *ll those +ho assed "y +ondered +hat it +as. 1hey looked at us like +e +ere stran#e ani0als. 3n front of us, there +as an a""ot, *""ot 4tora, and his sister, a little 0endicant nun. * olice0an ca0e u to the0 and said: .-ather, 4ister, you donGt "elon# here.. 1he a""ot ans+ered: .WeGre ,e+s.. 1hen our turn ca0e. 1hey #ave us the "lue a ers73 still have the07for the +hole fa0ily, even the four50onth5old "a"y. *lon# +ith these a ers, they +ere su osed to #ive us the yello+ star. 1hank >od, they never #ave the0 to us. 1hey had even lanned a concentration ca0 to lock u all the ,e+s in :l Biar. Later, on the radio, +e learned that all the ,e+ish students could return to school. But the children never +anted to #o "ack. Life "eca0e i0 ossi"le +ith the alerts and the "o0"s. Billette 5., 0n 4e0da* 3 didnGt +ant to #o to school any0ore "ecause of the status of the ,e+s. /ou 0ustnGt for#et that, unfortunately. *nd since they had shoved us aside +e didnGt have any desire to study any0ore. 1hey shoved us aside: if you +ere a native ,e+, you +ere this, you +ere that. 1he -rench ca0e first and then us. We +ere art of the natives. We +erenGt art of the class any0ore. 1hey ut us in another school, +hich +as in the midrash 8the syna!o!ue 9, a ,e+ish school. We could continue our studies, "ut 3 kno+ that 3 lost all interest in it. 3t +as over, and 3 Eust let it dro . Manou 4.* 1here +as racis0 there, "ut +e didnGt #ive a da0n. 3t +asnGt really a ro"le0. We did suffer fro0 it in GH( at the ti0e of Vichy, "ut that didnGt last lon#. 3 +as sent ho0e fro0 school in GH( +ith 0y little "rother, and 3 started +orkin# in the "arracks ri#ht a+ay as a secretary. 8Spea#in! o3 the Jewish nei!h$orhood, she continues 9: *ny+ay, even if you +anted to live farther a+ay, you +erenGt allo+ed to. Peo le +ouldnGt let you in as soon as they kne+ you +ere a ,e+. 1hey refused to #ive you a lace to live. When 3 #ot 0arried, 3 had found an a art0ent in the 4aint ,ean section. 3 +ent D (H( D to see it. ;y hus"and didnGt look ,e+ish at all. Ae +as "lond +ith "lue eyes, he didnGt look at all like that . . . not even like a ied5noir. We +ent and sa+ the a art0ent, and +e +ere ready to ne#otiate. *nd +hen he #ave his na0e, Cohen5B., the #uy said: .Listen, 0ister, thereGs so0e"ody ahead of you.. 4o +e didnGt #et the a art0ent. 3 #ot 0arried in 19H), ri#ht after the +ar. Ather Jews o3 the Mediterranean $asin were already in 5rance when the war $ro#e out. &hey shared the tra!edy o3 the Jews o3 ,urope and the unspea#a$le memories it le3t $ehind. D (H$ D

@; In Euro5e
In some memories o3 (oland or /ussia, the 3i!ure o3 the Ather at 3irst seems a$sent. &he memory o3 the shtetl, with its warm community, passes over the Christian part o3 the villa!e in silence. &he Jewish world seems to $e a sel3-enclosed entity.819+hen the (oles or the /ussians inevita$ly $urst into the narration, they simultaneously shatter that isolation and the earlier happiness. &hen hatred and violence well up* in the memories o3 childhood, the Athers are associated with anti-Semitism.

The Others in "oland

Handed down 3rom !eneration to !eneration, historical memory in eastern ,urope has preserved a lon! series o3 mis3ortunes, 3rom the massacres o3 Chmielniec#i, in 79MKRM8, to the waves o3 po!roms in the 7KK>s and then in the $e!innin! o3 the century. Individual memories datin! 3rom the interwar period, in newly independent (oland, are a continuation o3 this collective past. In this context, the case o3 Ulie ,. is distin!uished $y its ori!inality* So tiny was his shtetl in Balicia that the Jews <two or three 3amilies= had no alternative $ut to live in economic and social sym$iosis with the (olish peasants surroundin! them. He explains how his 3amily escaped the 3lood o3 po!roms around 78;>. 819 6n this .erasin# of the !oyim, . see also *nnette Wieviorka and 3t=hok Ni"orski, %es %ivres du souvenir* Memoriaux Jui3s de (olo!ne 81he Books of ;e0ory: ,e+ish ;e0orials of Poland9 @Paris: >alli0ard!,uliard, 19B$C, . 1$B. D (HH D ;y father o+ned lands, +hich he cultivated like a easant. Ae +as a very ious, very reli#ious ,e+. ;y 0other, +ho +as fro0 Iu0ania, ca0e fro0 a #reat fa0ily of ra""is, mitna!dim, learned 0en +ho critici=ed the ro0anticis0 of the Aasidi0. We lived in a tiny, very isolated shtetl in >alicia, in the su"5 Car athian ;ountains, set in a 0a#nificent landsca e, +ith "eautiful curtains of trees. 1o #et there, you had to continue "y cart, after the last station of the narro+5#a#e railroad. 1here +ere only t+o or three ,e+ish fa0ilies in that shtetl. 3 liked the Polish easants all around us. 3 layed +ith their children, e2ce t durin# the days of the ro#ra0. 1hen they told 0e: .1o0orro+, +e +onGt lay +ith you7theyGre #oin# to sa+ the ,e+sR. What did that 0eanU 1hey ut a ,e+ "et+een t+o "oards and they sa+R Ii#ht after the >reat War, there +ere easant u risin#s, first a#ainst the lando+ners? then there +ere o#ro0s and, finally, a series of acts of 0araudin#. Ourin# the o#ro0s, +e sa+ the easants leavin# the surroundin# villa#es in carts, headin# for a shtetl. 1he returns +ere es ecially ainful. 1hey ca0e "ack dra##in# ,e+ish +o0en7+e heard the cries. -irst one shtetl, then another. We +aited for our turn. ;y fa0ily esca ed the o#ro0s "ecause, every ti0e, so0ethin# ha ened that allo+ed us to "e s ared. 3 re0e0"er, one day, 3 +as in the kitchen +ith our sta"le"oy and so0e easants fro0 the shtetl he had #athered to rotect us. 1hey +ere standin# #uard. 4ince 3 +as a youn# "oy @a"out ten years oldC, they didnGt ay any attention to 0e. *nd 3 overheard our sta"le"oy say to the others: .3f there is a o#ro0 a#ainst the0, +eGre the ones +ho have to "e#in. 1heyGre oursR. 1here +as also a car enterGs son +ho had co0e "ack fro0 the +ar after travelin# a lot. Ae had ac'uired

nice 0anners. 1o us, he +as "rilliant. We ad0ired his fine a earance, his ele#ance. 3 re0e0"er that he had a 0a#nificent "utterfly collection. Ae aid court to 0y older sisters +ith a erfect correctness and ro riety. 4o, he often ca0e to the house, stayed late? he "eca0e a sort of re#ular. Ae and his co0 anions +ould rotect us. 3t +as durin# the "anditry, +hich could strike anyone, not only the ,e+s. *nd that friend, +ho often ca0e to our house, D (H) D +as arrested. Ae confessed to t+enty cri0es and +as sentenced and then e2ecuted. 1hatGs ho+ +e learned that he hi0self had "een the head of a #an#. Ae ca0e to our house Eust so heGd have an ali"i. Is there some sort o3 paradoxical mutual attraction com$ined with anti-Semitic violenceE &he narrative o3 Beor!es 5. <committed, as we have seen earlier, to the ideas o3 modernity and pro!ress= indicates another type o3 am$i!uity. His shtetl had $een trans3ormed, with the esta$lishment o3 a munitions 3actory6 it too# on the proportions o3 a small town. Beor!es 5. states that, with the economic development and the increase o3 the (olish population <composed o3 wor#ers, en!ineers, and mem$ers o3 the intelli!entsia=, anti-Semitism was considera$ly a!!ravated* it seemed to result ultimately 3rom the process o3 civili@ation itsel3. 1hen the villa#e #re+. 3t attracted a lot of eo le. 1hey "uilt a "rid#e to rovide access to the railroad station. 3t "eca0e a railroad Eunction for Poland. 8 . . .9 * factory, a very "i# ar0a0ents factory, +as set u . 3t attracted eo le, "ut the ,e+s +erenGt allo+ed to +ork there. None of that +as done for the ,e+s? the ,e+s +ere ushed to the rear. 1hey started "uildin# houses for the +orkers, the Catholics, since the ,e+s couldnGt #et into the factory. When all those +orkers ca0e into our villa#e, racis0 also ca0e, anti5 4e0itis0. While the Catholics +ere #athered in church on 4unday, the ,e+s +ere afraid to #o out into the street. We hid. 1here +ere ti0es +hen +e Eust didnGt #o out into the street +ithout "ein# acco0 anied "y so0eone. Iacis0 +as a "y5 roduct of civili=ation and ke t us fro0 livin# nor0ally. 8 . . .9 By 19$$J$H, the situation +as "eco0in# intolera"le. 3n the streets, they constantly taunted us: .,ust +ait till Aitler co0es, heGll take care of youR. Ane 3elt sorely $etrayed and $ewildered to discover this anti-Semitism even amon! those considered to $e 3riends. %on +.* 3 told you a"out the ;ay Oay de0onstration. 1hat +as in 19((. 3 artici ated in that de0onstration. We araded +ith the D (HK D red fla#? they had deli"erately ut us in the 0iddle. 1hen, ri#ht in the 0idst of the de0onstration, so0e"ody shouted: .Oo+n +ith the ,e+sR. 3 #ot hit +ith a stone in 0y le#. 1hey +ere socialists +ho +ere shoutin#, +orkers. :ven in the 4ocialist arty, there +as anti54e0itis0. 3 never understood +hy. &he hostility o3 the surroundin! world did not always assume the exacer$ated 3orm o3 the po!rom. It was mani3ested, more or less sharply, in the $anality o3 everyday li3e as well. 4ernard (., $orn in 78;;* 6ne ro"le0 concerned the hi#h school 8the He$rew hi!h school o3 Oalis@ 9. 4ince school +as si2 days a +eek, +e didnGt #o to school on 4aturdays "ut on 4undays. *nd "ecause of that, as a s0all child, 3

had the o ortunity to e2 erience for the first ti0e the effects of anti54e0itis0, for, often, +hile #oin# to school on 4unday, 3 had to rotect 0yself fro0 stones thro+n "y the non5,e+ish "oys +ho didnGt acce t the idea that you could #o to school on 4unday. Maurice F., $orn in 78;>* *nti54e0itis0 al+ays e2isted "ecause +e +ere se arate. 1he ,e+s +ere on one side, the Poles on the other. 3n school, +e +erenGt 0i2ed, and there +as anta#onis0. 1here +ere often +ars "et+een us, "et+een ,e+ish kids and Polish kids. We used to fi#ht a lot. /o$ert S., $orn in 78>?* 4o 3 +ent to hi#h school, and as far as 3 can re0e0"er, it +as there that 3 had 0y first contact +ith anti5 4e0itis0. :very +eek, +e had a lesson in ,e+ish history, ,udais0, an hour a +eek +ith a ,e+ish teacher. 1hat is, every year, there +ere three series, *, B, and C, like today. We divided u : the ,e+s of the three series for0ed a #rou +ith the ,e+ish teacher, and the Christians #athered +ith their riest. *nd +e found that every ti0e +e 0et a#ain after the reli#ion class, the "ehavior of the Christian students to+ard the ,e+s +as a"o0ina"le7as if so0e"ody had incited the0 a#ainst the ,e+s. *t first, +e D (H& D didnGt understand. We +ere Eust kids, eleven years old. We didnGt really #ras very +ell +hat +as #oin# on. But 3 re0e0"er that they s it in our faces and treated us as dirty ,e+s. Charles H., in his small town in Balicia, also went to the (olish hi!h school. His memories echo the precedin! ones thou!h they paint a more su$tle picture. 3n the Polish hi#h school, +e +ere in contact +ith non5,e+s, +ho +ere in the 0aEority. 1o "e#in +ith, there +ere t+o of us ,e+s in a class of t+enty5t+o or t+enty5five students? that is, +e +erenGt even 1% ercent. 4o0eti0es, a certain ca0araderie develo ed. 3 used to #o to the ho0es of non5,e+ish friends +here 3 +as acce ted, or they ca0e to 0y ho0e. But 3 donGt re0e0"er eatin# a sin#le ti0e in the ho0e of a non5,e+ in ei#ht years of hi#h school. *nd they didnGt eat in our ho0e either. We lived se arately, side "y side. 3tGs rather stran#e, it +ill #ive you an idea of the relations +e had. 3 0ust have "een fourteen or fifteen years old. 3 started the first soccer clu" in our to+n, 0e and a non5,e+ish friend +ho ca0e fro0 Craco+. We "eca0e friendly "ecause +e +ere a0on# the "est students in the class. Ae told 0e that in his old hi#h school he had layed on a soccer tea0. 3n our little to+n, eo le didnGt kno+ +hat soccer +as, neither the ,e+s nor the non5,e+s. 4o the t+o of us decided thatGs +hat +e +ould do. 3 re0e0"er that +e collected 0oney for a year to "uy a leather "all. We took it fro0 our allo+ances: try talkin# to arents a"out a "allR -irst, they didnGt even understand +hat +e +ere talkin# a"outR We talked it u +ith our class0ates, and 3 +as the treasurer. * fe+ 0onths later, +e finally collected enou#h 0oney and, on a tri to Craco+, +e "ou#ht a "all. *fter+ard, it +asnGt a ro"le0. 1here +as a "i# field in the "ack of city hall. We 0arked it out, +e dre+ lines, 0ay"e not e2actly accordin# to the di0ensions, "ut +e "e#an racticin#. 1hen, +e 0ana#ed to for0 t+o tea0s. 4occer had cau#ht on. 1here +ere 0atches, and eo le ca0e to +atch. No"ody aid, of course, "ut eo le ca0e to see. ;y friend +as the resident of the clu", and 3 +as the treasurer. D (HB D

1+o years later, once it +as already esta"lished, the teacher of our class started to #et interested and he took char#e. 4ince it +as his class, he took over and started coachin# us. 3t +as then that there started to "e a hostility to+ard the ,e+s. 3, alon# +ith 0y al, +as the founder, yet he #radually ushed 0e out. 3 +as one of the founders "ut 3 +as a ,e+, so the teacher took over as "oss, and 3 found 0yself out. 1hey couldnGt eli0inate 0e as a layer, "ut 3 +as no lon#er one of the leaders of the clu". No+ that the clu" +as or#ani=ed and +as successful, that teacher turned it into a atriotic and anti54e0itic #lory. 4o, since there +ere 'uite a fe+ ,e+s +ho ca0e to +atch the #a0es, +e created a ,e+ish athletic clu". Like all ,e+ish clu"s, it +as called ;acca"ee. We created our o+n clu". When there +as a 0atch a#ainst 0y class, 3 layed +ith the ;acca"ees. 8 . . .9 3 +as the "est student in the class and, in articular, 3 +as the "est in Polish. 6ne day, to #ive you a sense +hat it +as like. . . . 3t +as the last year, +e +ere already re arin# for the "accalaureate. 6ur Latin and Polish teacher +as very friendly +ith us. 6ne day, he #ave an assi#n0ent: +e each had to 0ake an oral e2 osition on the influence of the u risin# of 1BK$ on Polish literature. Ae started +ith one student, then a second, then a fourth, a fifth: they talked, letGs say, t+o or three 0inutes, or they didnGt o en their 0ouths. *fter half an hour, tired, he called on 0e. Ae called 0e "y 0y first na0e: .Aai0, do you +ant to s eak a"out thatU. *nd 0e, 3 s oke for an hour and a halfR 3 had read a lot of Polish literature @and not only Polish literatureC. 4o, the re0ark the teacher 0ade at the end of the class: .*nd it has to "e a ,e+ +ho tells you a"out thatR. 1hatGs the re0ark. *nd he +asnGt an anti54e0ite. Ae +as friendly . . . ;y friends needed 0e. 4o0eti0es there +as a ro"le0 or a co0 osition to do at ho0e. *"out ten of 0y class0ates ca0e to 0y house to ask 0y advice. 3 +as very 0uch in de0and, for no other reason than that they +anted 0y hel . :2ce t for one #irl. 3 +as in love +ith her. 4he +as the "est non5,e+ish student in the class, so +e studied for the "accalaureate e2a0 to#ether. 3t Eust ha ened D (H9 D that this #irl +as the "est. *nd she +as #ood5lookin#, +ith her "lack hair. 3 had "een very friendly +ith that #irl for t+o or three years "y then. ;any years later, in ,erusale0, 3 learned fro0 an aunt @the only one +ho survived "ecause she had "een in 4i"eria? one day she talked to 0e a"out that +hen 3 found her a#ain in ,erusale0C73 learned that 0y arents had "een afraid of a 0i2ed 0arria#e. 3 didnGt kno+, 3 +as so a"sor"ed in re arin# for the "accalaureate e2a0. 3 +as +orkin# hard. We +orked to#ether? +e +ere #ood friends. *ny+ay, 3 ro"a"ly +as in love. 3 donGt kno+ e2actly +hat her feelin#s +ere. But +e did kiss each other. 3n those days, to kiss a #irl +as a "i# dealR But neither of us, not 0e and not her, thou#ht of 0arria#e. So there were (oles who were close and even 3riendly. &here were also those who played a role in the li3e o3 the Jews* careta#ers, sha""es #oyi0 <who too# care o3 the 3ires and the li!hts durin! holidays=. (recisely this involvement in the Jewish world reduced their otherness. &hose (oles not only shared the 1oys and sorrows o3 their nei!h$ors $ut they also spo#e per3ect .iddish. Sometimes this proximity !ave rise to mix-ups, later 1o#in!ly recalled. %on +. lived in Oalis@ in the house descri$ed earlier $y %a@are M. 1he caretakers s oke /iddish Eust like 0e. 3G0 #oin# to tell you a story that illustrates this. 3t +as durin# the o#ro0. 1he caretaker of our house lived in the cellar. 3t +as a "ase0ent. * ,e+ish shoe0aker also lived in this "ase0ent. Ourin# the o#ro0, they "eat u the ,e+s. 1hey ca0e into the courtyard7+e lived a little farther a+ay, on the first floor. 1hey ca0e into the courtyard and started

s0ashin# all the floors. 1hey thou#ht they +ere in the ,e+sG houses, "ut it +as the caretakerGsR 4o 8lau!hs 9 the caretaker ca0e out and scuffled +ith the0R 4uch stories. It is as thou!h the Ather could only have $rotherly 3eelin!s i3 he were drawn into a condition o3 sameness. tra!ic case $ears this out* reverse assimilation led to sharin! the 3ate o3 !enocide. Beor!es 5.* /es, 3 had friends +ho +erenGt ,e+s "ecause our villa#e +as so s0all. We kne+ each other, and +e ran into each other on D ()% D the s'uare. Personally, 3 +as +ell liked "y 0y Catholic als. We lived so close to#ether that +e didnGt learn 0uch Polish "ut they learned /iddish. Ieally. 1here +ere kids +ho lived +ith us, Catholics, +ho s oke /iddish like 0e. 1here +as one +ho #ot hi0self de orted, a Catholic. Ae #ot hi0self de orted Eust "ecause of his lan#ua#e. Ae s oke /iddish, and no"ody ever "elieved he +as a Catholic. Ae +ent u in s0oke like the rest.

The Wanderin& Jews

Conversely, however, mastery o3 the (olish lan!ua!e was not enou!h to ensure inte!ration into the national community. +e recall the di33erence that existed 3or /o$ert S. $etween the (olish he used with his parents <althou!h they spo#e to him in .iddish= and the 5rench he learned later on <and which, despite all his e33orts, still put up resistance to his ea!erness to master it=. &he complicity that $ound him to another (olish spea#er could not, however, su$stitute 3or a homeland. +ith his 3ellow citi@ens, he never 3ound the emotional warmth or the $onds o3 solidarity that united him with the Jewish community. Duite the contrary, he 3elt persecuted and re1ected $y the ustrians as well as $y the (oles. -ecidin! to leave his homeland and to live in 5rance, he moved into a situation o3 total and utter uprootedness. His li3e un3olded a!ainst a $ac#!round o3 insurmounta$le otherness, 3or he would always miss that 3amiliarity with a native land that one usually acquires only in one)s childhood. Gltimately, in attemptin! to de3ine himsel3, /o$ert could only turn to the millennial 3i!ure o3 the +anderin! Jew. 3 think that a ersonGs "a##a#e "e#ins +ith the years of childhood, +hen everythin# is stored a+ay like a treasure you dra+ on in hard ti0es. No+, as for 0e in that eriod, 3 0yself didnGt store u anythin#. WhyU Because the "ehavior of the citi=ens of first *ustria and then Poland ke t 0e fro0 #ettin# +hat 3 +as entitled to e2 ect. 3 +as al+ays "eyond the ale, 3 +as al+ays 0ar#inal: in *ustria, in Poland, and later in -rance. 3n s ite of all 0y efforts to try73 donGt say to assi0ilate @for thatGs not 0y #oalC7"ut to inte#rate into that society +here 3 +as destined to live, +ithout offendin# it, 3 have al+ays felt that eo le considered 0e different. 3Gve tried everythin#. 3Gve done D ()1 D everythin#, "ut 3 havenGt really succeeded. 3 see that +hatever +e do, +eGre stran#ers +herever +e #o: the Wanderin# ,e+. 3 can reassure 0yself, "ein# a -rench citi=en, naturali=ed, havin# filled all 0y o"li#ations73 say it honestly: 3 have never suffered fro0 anti54e0itis0 in -rance, "ecause here it is latent. -or the 0o0ent, 3 feel relatively cal0. But if you ask 0e +hether 3G0 sure that those thin#s, anti54e0itis0 and all the rest, +onGt co0e "ack, 3 +ouldnGt s+ear to it.

Aere 3 a0, this u rooted ,e+. 3 +ould have liked to kee u +ith 0y hi#h school friends. 3Gve al+ays 0issed the0. 3n short, 3 had to ick u t+ice and start out all over a#ain in a ne+ society. No+, the connections that "ind youn# eo le in school canGt "e co0 ared +ith those you create later on. ;e0ories of childhood are of a certain sort: ./ou re0e0"er that fi#ht, that EokeU. 3tGs all there, 0o0ents of ain, tears, and Eoy. Later on, you canGt allo+ yourself that lu2ury @for it is a lu2uryC? and thatGs the essential oint. %ouise M. 3eels a similar sense o3 uprootedness and 3inds that the same holds 3or her 3riends, in ,n!land, HollandHeverywhere. 3tGs no fun, you kno+, to "e . . . to lose your roots. 3tGs no fun. ;y "est friend lives in London, 0y "est friend since -rankfurt, a lon#, lon# ti0e a#o. 4heGs an art historian, and her hus"and +as too. 4he never co0 letely ut do+n roots in :n#land. Aer relatives, 0ost of the0, also ca0e fro0 >er0any. 4he al+ays says that her nationality is British "ut that she isnGt :n#lish "ecause thatGs only +hen youGre "orn in :n#land. 6ther+ise youGre 4ritish .8(9 4o, she re0ains a forei#ner. ;ay"e itGs different in *0erica. But in a country of tradition, itGs hard. 3n Aolland too. 3 have a cousin in Aolland. 3 have #one to visit her 0any ti0es, and +ho are the eo le around herU 1heyGre al+ays eo le +ho ca0e fro0 >er0any.

The Others in France

In 5rance, these immi!rants are mar#ed $y a dou$le otherness* o3 the 3orei!ner and o3 the Jew. side 3rom administrative and police 8(9 1he +ord is #iven in :n#lish in the ori#inal. D ()( D annoyances, they inevita$ly 3ind a certain anti-Semitic hostility. 4ut in this country o3 the -rey3us 33air, anti-Semitism appears much more 2moderate2 than what they #new in (oland. t least up until the war. In 3act, their memories are divided $y a new !ap, this time, a chronolo!ical one. lthou!h the memory o3 the 78:>s, 3or example, dwells on the di33iculties connected with 2permissions2 <or 2re3usals2= to stay, it is o3ten expressed with humor and does not 3undamentally question the hospitality o3 the 5rench. Beor!es 5.* Life in Paris +asnGt so ha y for those +ho ca0e. /ou had to hide, not #o out at ni#ht. 1he olice +ere after us. 3t +asnGt all that #reat. -or e2a0 le, one ni#ht, des ite the ro"le0s, 3 +ent to a class on Iue de Lancry. 1here +ere classes for i00i#rants, "ut +e +ere afraid to #o "ecause they could ick us u co0in# out. We +ere ille#al. 4ernard (.* 3t +asnGt si0 le. -rance didnGt #ive a visa. But finally, +ith the hel of relatives, +e assed throu#h 3taly. We stayed there three +eeks. 3n 3taly, +e #ot tourist visas @that +as one of the last visasC, tourist visas for -rance. *nd that tourist visa could "e chan#ed in -rance into a er0it to stay that could "e e2tended fro0 0onth to 0onth. Until the Li"eration, 3 had no a ers "ut the recei ts of e2tension fro0 one 0onth to the ne2t @aside fro0 the eriod of hidin#, of courseC. Julien O.* When 3 ca0e "ack to Paris, 3 tried to le#ali=e 0y situation. But since 3 +as returnin# fro0 4 ain, 3 didnGt #et a real er0it to stay. 1hey Eust e2tended 0y recei ts until, finally, they #ave 0e a refusal to

stay. 1hat +as a valua"le a er. With a refusal to stay, you could stay until a articular date, at +hich ti0e the ar"itrariness started. 4o0eti0es it +as for t+o 0onths, so0eti0es three 0onths. *nd once they e2tended 0e for three days. When 3 +ent "ack to the refecture, they said to 0e: .Brin# certificates fro0 three consulates, sayin# that they refuse to #ive you a visaR. 3 donGt re0e0"er any0ore +hat consulates 3 +ent D ()$ D to. 1hey #ave 0e certificates easily enou#hR *nd thatGs ho+ 3 0ana#ed until the +ar, +ith the refusal to stay. +e remem$er that Mathilde /., $y contrast, was $orn in 5rance and was even $rou!ht up not #nowin! <in principle= o3 her Jewish ori!in. She there3ore could not ma#e sense o3 the way the others loo#ed at her in the Catholic school and the meanness o3 some o3 the teachers. -irst, 3 had a school0istress +ho t+isted 0y na0e in a horri"le +ay. 3 didnGt understand +hy at all. 3 Eust thou#ht that 0y na0e +as articularly difficult to ronounce and stran#e, one that 0ade 0y little class0ates lau#h a lot. -or a school0istress, every ti0e, she ke t har in# on it. 3 canGt say that she +as really unfair "ecause, frankly, 3 had co0e to "e second or first, "ut she +as al+ays very nasty, very harsh, +hile she +as #enerally nice +ith students +ho +ere +ell "ehaved. 3 also re0e0"er @that 0ust have "een the ne2t yearC that, in #y0nastics, there +as a teacher +ho also 0ade a oint of syste0atically 0essin# u 0y na0e. 3 +as very #ood in #y0nastics, "ut 3 re0e0"er that, one day, there +as an unusually difficult co0 etition. 1hat is, she had us do increasin#ly co0 licated 0ove0ents, and she eli0inated those +ho failed. 1hen there +ere t+o of us left. 4he kne+ that there +as one 0ove0ent 3 did "adly and thatGs the 0ove0ent she chose to decide the +inner. *ny+ay, it +ould erha s oversi0 lify to say it +as only "ecause of anti54e0itis0. But that doesnGt kee 0e fro0 "ein# convinced of it today.

Other Jews
&he Athers are not only non-Jews, (oles, /ussians, or 5rench. &here are also other Jews. Certainly, in 5ranceHand especially in (oland or /ussiaHthe immi!rants were 3amiliar with the extreme diversity o3 the Jewish world, 3rom the most reli!ious to the most assimilated. 4ut it is si!ni3icant that the discovery o3 other Jews, who are Jewish Athers, too# place durin! trips and mi!rations. +hen /o$ert S., comin! 3rom (oland, arrived in a $i! city in eastern 5rance, he 3ound a cate!ory he was i!norant o3 until then, the Israelites. D ()H D &heir inte!ration, even assimilation, into 5rench society did not surprise him at all. 4ut he was astonished $y their indi33erence to the mis3ortunes stri#in! their co-reli!ionists in central and eastern ,urope and $y their hostility toward the immi!rants.8$9He was stunned and shoc#ed $y the a$sence o3 solidarity amon! Jews, which was inconceiva$le to him. His clash with the ra$$i o3 the city mar#ed a $rea# in his li3e* he lost his 3aith. When 3 ca0e to -rance, "efore 3 found +ork +ith 0y future father5in5la+, 3 +ent to the ra""i, as a Christian +ould #o to his riest. 3 +ent to see the ra""i "ecause 3 had "een raised in the s irit of ,udais0 and 3 +as a "eliever. *t least 3 +as +hen 3 left ho0e? it +as only later that 3 "eca0e the infidel 3 a0 no+. 4o, 3 +ent to the ra""iGs. Ae +as *lsatian, the chief ra""i A. 3 knock on the door. Ae o ened

it "ut didnGt invite 0e in. Ae asked 0e +hat 3 +anted. 4o 3 e2 lained to hi0, in >er0an, that 3 +anted to +ork to ut 0yself throu#h school, that 3 +asnGt askin# for charity. 3 0ade it very clear that 3 +anted to +ork. *nd +hat did the ra""i, chief ra""i A., ans+er 0eU ./oun# 0an, you should kno+ that you donGt co0e to -rance to study if you donGt have 0oneyR. Ae +as a"out to sla0 the door. 3 had Eust enou#h ti0e to ut 0y foot in and sto hi0, and 3 said to hi0: .3Gll 0eet you a#ain in five years. 3Gll rove to you that one can study +hen one +ants, even if one doesnGt have any 0oney.. *nd 3 left. However, than#s to a su$ter3u!e, /o$ert S. $ene3ited anonymously 3rom the Jewish community. +e recall that, in 78::, a3ter 3ive years o3 study, he received his certi3icate as a dentist. 3 devoted the first 0oney 3 earned to ayin# "ack 0y de"t. 1his ti0e o enly. 3 +ent to see the 4ecretary of the -aculty. .4ir, 3 no+ have the 0oney necessary to ay "ack the co00unity. 3f you +ill "e so kind as to #ive 0e the ackno+led#0ent that 3 have si#ned, 3 +ill take the su0 to the ra""i.. 8$9 6n the relations "et+een -rench ,e+s and i00i#rant ,e+s, cf. Paula Ay0an, 5rom -rey3us to 'ichy* &he /ema#in! o3 5rench Jewry, 78>9R78:8 @Ne+ /ork: Colu0"ia University Press, 19&9C. *lso Oavid A. Wein"er#, Community on &rial, . 9)J1$(. D ()) D 3 knocked on the ra""iGs door. *nd that ti0e, he invited 0e in, for 3 +as s eakin# ro er -rench. .WhatGs this a"out, youn# 0anU. Ae had o"viously for#otten 0e. .Chief ra""i, in 19(B, 3 ca0e to you. /ou received 0e at the door. 3 0ade 0yself very clear, at the door. 3 asked you to hel 0e #et +ork and not 0oney. 3 didnGt co0e to "e# for charity. *nd you ans+ered 0e: G3n -rance, you donGt co0e to study +hen you donGt have 0oney.G 3, in turn, set a 0eetin# for 19$$. Aere 3 a0. 1his is to rove to you that +hen one +ants to, one can study. *nd here is 0y di lo0a. 1hatGs not all. We arenGt yet even. 3 contracted a de"t throu#h ;onsieur 1., the 4ecretary of the -aculty? you advanced a su0 that hel ed 0e at a critical 0o0ent. 1hat allo+ed 0e to continue 0y studies. 3 a0 #rateful to you for that. 3 thank you for it. Aere is the 0oney 3 o+e you.. Ae took the 0oney and stared at 0e. ./oun# 0an, 3 0ust tell you that this is all to your credit.. 3 lau#hed at +hat he told 0e. 3 thou#ht that, if 3 hadnGt had the +ill to study, he +ould have ruined 0y future. *nd 3 couldnGt for#ive hi0 for that. .*ll the sa0e, 3 +ould like an e2 lanation, chief ra""i. 3 +as raised in a house +here reli#ion counted. 1he +orld clai0s that the ,e+ish co00unity is distin#uished "y its solidarity. ,e+s are su osed to su ort one another. /ou didnGt #ive 0e any evidence of that. Why did you refuse +hen 3 asked you for +orkU 3 +as only askin# for +ork, not 0oney.. 4o he took a key, o ened a dra+er of his desk, and took out a ile of ass orts. .1here, youn# 0an. *ll those ass orts are led#es for the 0oney your studious co0rades have "orro+ed.. .3s that a sufficient reason to refuse 0eU Why did you ut 0e +ith the0U 3n the Bi"le, in the story of 4odo0 and >o0orrah, *"raha0 ha##led +ith >od so that Ae +ould for#ive: .;y >od, if you find only fifty ri#hteous 0en, +ill you for#iveU. *nd he ca0e do+n to one. 3f there +as only one ri#hteous

0an, >od +ould have for#iven. Ae didnGt find any, and >od didnGt for#ive. But youU /ou didnGt kno+ if 3 +as u ri#ht D ()K D or notR Why did you Eud#e 0e +ithout kno+in#U /ou failed in your duty and you have lost a ,e+. 3 succeeded in finishin# school "ecause that +as 0y +ill and 0y a0"ition, "ut you donGt have any share in it. /ou failed in your 0inistry.. 3f 3 had #iven hi0 a cou le of sla s, it +ouldnGt have "een 0ore effective. Ae #ot the little lesson he deserved and 3 left. 5or /o$ert S., other Jews weren)t limited only to 5rench Jews6 he also included the children o3 immi!rants, $orn in 5rance, who, in their arro!ance and $lindness, thou!ht they could escape the dan!ers o3 Fa@ism. He repeats the reasons why he is cut o33 3rom reli!ion. 3 understand, one could ar#ue that it is 0an, not reli#ion, that is sinful. When a riest does his holy office "adly, he is re0oved. No+, 3 talked a"out it +ith the ,e+s of the co00unity: they liked that *lsatian +ho0 3 detested fro0 the de ths of 0y heart. Because he had all the ty ical *lsatian traits. 3 "eco0e al0ost racist as re#ards those *lsatians. 3 +as a"le to o"serve the0 durin# the +ar, ,e+s and Christians. 3tGs really so0ethin# to see: theyGre 0ore -rench than the -rench. *lsatian ,e+s are Eust like the .e#es, the >er0an ,e+s. 1hey thou#ht: .3t canGt ha en to 0e, a ,e+ +ho has "een here for one, t+o, three centuries. 3t canGt ha en to 0e.. 3G0 #oin# to 'uote one case. 3n Nancy, there +ere t+o "oys +ho rose u fro0 the ranks. 1hey +ere of forei#n ori#in, "ut "orn in -rance. 1he ra""i ushed the0. 6ne, na0ed O., +ent to the Polytechnic school8H9 and then had an i0 ortant osition in the 4ocialist arty. *nother one, B., "eca0e a la+yer. *t resent, heGs in the consistory. 1hey +ere that kind of -rench ,e+ +ho7+ith re#ard to us forei#ners +ho ca0e fro0 Poland and central :uro e7ke t us at a distance. No 0i2in#, if you lease. /ou 0ustnGt 0i2 na kins and +ashcloths. /es, 3 had a rou#h ti0e of it. When 3 0et #uys like that, it 0ade 0e sick. 3 couldnGt foresee that, unfortunately73 really 0ean unfortunately7the future +ould undertake to sho+ the0 that, althou#h they +ere "orn in -rance, they +ouldnGt "e s ared any 0ore than +e forei#ners +ho ca0e fro0 so0e+here else. 8H9 6ne of the 0ost resti#ious -rench schools for en#ineers. D ()& D Life takes funny turns. 4o0eti0es it corrects inEustices. 3 +as in ;ont ellier, at 0y oldest sonGs. 3 +ent out to the avenue and sat do+n in a cafL to read 0y ne+s a er. *ll of a sudden, 3 felt so0e"ody ta in# 0e on the shoulder. 3 looked u and sa+ 0y B., after thirty so0e years, la+yer B., the one +ho +as so aloof, as if he had "een "orn in -rance "ecause of so0e ersonal 0erit. 6f course, 3 invited hi0 to Eoin 0e for a drink. 3 invited hi0 to sit do+n at the ta"le, and he actually did. 3 had the sense +hile +e +ere talkin# that so0ethin# +as "otherin# hi0. Ae +as ill at ease. 3 +as too, "ut it +as 0ore o"vious +ith hi0. Ae +as very fid#ety. 4o0ethin# +as +ron#. *nd then, at a certain 0o0ent, he ca0e out +ith it: .;onsieur 4., 3 o+e you an a olo#y.. /es, after so0e thirty years. 3 said to 0yself: 4o thatGs it. AeGs #ot it, heGs finally understood. 3 kne+ +hat it +as all a"out. 3 +as sure it +as #oin# to "e that and that +as that. 3 listened to 0y La+yer B., after so 0any years: ./ou can "elieve 0e or not, "ut for years itGs "een hauntin# 0e. 3 +as unfair to you, thinkin# it

+ouldnGt ha en to 0e.. ./es, Counsellor, 3 think you +ere unfair and, 0orally, you hurt us a lot +ith your "ehavior. /ou did Eust +hat the /ekes did +hen eo le talked to the0 a"out their situation. U to the last 0inute. Ao+ever, +e had already seen +hat Aitler +as ca a"le of.. &he memories o3 the Jews o3 central and eastern ,urope virtually i!nore the Sephardic Jews. &hese latter were occasionally mentioned in historical contexts, when the various mis3ortunes o3 the Jewish people were recalled* the expulsion 3rom Spain and the harshness o3 the Inquisition have entered a common memory that stretches 3rom the Mediterranean lands to /ussia. 4ut Sephardic Jews appear physically only in the course o3 the itineraries 3ollowed in mi!rations. &hus, we have seen %ouise M. escape 3rom Bermany to Morocco <$y way o3 msterdam=. &here, Moroccan Jews emer!e as 3undamentally di33erent and 2$ac#ward.2 She then experiences a total ina$ility to communicate. 3n ;orocco, naturally, our life +as co0 letely different fro0 +hat it had "een in >er0any. 3t +as so0ethin# else alto#ether, to such an e2tent that the ;oroccan ,e+s so0eti0es didnGt +ant D ()B D to reco#ni=e us as ,e+s. 1hey Eust didnGt +ant to: .Because you donGt kno+ this, you donGt do that, so youGre not ,e+s.. 3n #eneral, +e +ere e2tre0ely +ell received, "ut there +asnGt . . . there +ere very fe+ oints in co00on "et+een their life in #eneral and ours. Naturally, that chan#ed, +hen +e ca0e it +as still very "ack+ard. /ou canGt i0a#ine the +o0en there. 1he +o0en +ere still in a condition that +as really . . . characteri=ed "y #reat intellectual overty. 1hose +o0en didnGt understand that +e +ere ,e+s. We didnGt have anythin# in co00on +ith the0. With the 0en, it de ended on the #eneration. 1hose +ho +ent to school and "eca0e teachers or . . . 1hat 0ade an enor0ous difference. But 0others didnGt s eak -rench. -athers 0ay"e kne+ it, "ut 0others s oke only *ra"ic +ith an un"elieva"le s eed, un"elieva"le. Mathilde /., then a$out ten years old, too# a trip to (oland with her mother, to visit her !randparents and other mem$ers o3 her 3amily. She was still i!norant a$out her Jewish ori!in <althou!h certain si!ns had aroused some pu@@lement in her=. 5or her, this trip was the occasion o3 a dou$le discovery. An the one hand, the anti-Semitic hostility o3 a (olish child made her suddenly aware 2o3 what she had always #nown.2 An the other hand, she met Jews who were un#nown to her until thenHHasidimHat whom she loo#ed with condescension <while warnin! us, clearly, that she no dou$t adopted the assimilated, upper-middle-class opinions o3 her uncle=. Mathilde /.)s story in 3act un3olds on several levels. She reenacts the events intensely, in slow motion, to such an extent that the ima!e, rich in detail, seems 3ro@en, as i3 speech were attemptin! to restore the moment when the scene was en!raved in her memory. t the same time, in a complementary movement, the narrator 3lies over the years, esta$lishin! relations her contemporaries could never have suspected. 4oth a remem$rance and a re3lection on remem$rance come into play. 5inally, with an almost timeless serenity, in her retrospective commentary, she puts in the same cate!ory <2there was no lon!er any di33erence2= all those other Jews o3 (oland, in whom she has 3ound her own identity. 1here +as the dau#hter of the caretaker of the little "uildin# there. 6ne day, she started dancin# around 0e, dancin# on one D ()9 D le# and sin#in#: .Oocher "ydI Oocher "ydI .8)9 6n that day 0y eyes +ere o ened. 3 a"solutely . . .

1hat +as really the +ay they descri"e . . . the +ay +e kno+ it ha ens +hen children discover. . . . 1hey are told one day ho+ children are 0ade and they kno+ they al+ays kne+ it. Ieally. 3n short, 3 understood everythin# all at once. 3 also understood that it +asnGt nice. 3t didnGt see0 to "e all that "ad, +hat she said to 0e, "ut 3 understood very +ell that she +asnGt doin# it to lease 0e. 3 ran to 0y aunt, 0y 0otherGs "rotherGs +ife. 4he +as an intelli#ent +o0an, very s+eet and nice, +ho disa eared +ith her hus"and durin# the +ar, in the Warsa+ #hetto. 4he consoled 0e, sayin#: ./ou kno+, "ein# ,e+ish is very #ood, very no"le. WeGre a very old eo le, a very no"le eo le.. 3 still re0e0"er the +ords she used, in Polish, even thou#h 3 never s eak Polish any0ore and 3 never did kno+ it +ell. 3 still hear her +ords. Pro"a"ly fro0 that 0o0ent on, 3 "e#an to notice 'uite a fe+ thin#s, unless 3 have reinter reted the0 since. Ourin# that short tri to Poland, that stay +hich lasted one or t+o 0onths, in the su00er of G$B, 3 re0e0"er +alkin# do+n a street in Lod=. 1here +as a "i# "anner across the street, +ith a "rush attached. *nd it +as 0arked: 4ic "ydow .8K9 3 asked so0e"ody to translate it for 0e: .>et the ,e+sR. 3 also re0e0"er 0y uncle, the 0iddle5class uncle. Ae also racticed the olicy of assi0ilation in Poland. 3 still see hi0, +earin# #aiters, ale yello+ #loves, a cane +ith a handle. 3t 0ust have "een a 4unday, a 4aturday, in any case, a day +hen they didnGt +ork. *nd the Aasidi0 assed "y, in lon# coats, +ith payes .8&9 1hey didnGt look very clean. ;ay"e it +as "ecause 3 had already ado ted the reEudices of that side of the fa0ily, althou#h 3 +as fairly neutral a"out all that, 3 +atched the0. But 3 had the i0 ression that they +erenGt very clean. 1hey +ent "y and shouted to 0y uncle: .3tGs "ecause of you, eo le like you, +hatGs ha enin# to usR. *nd 0y uncle ans+ered the0: .3tGs "ecause of eo le like youR. 8)9 <osher ,e+, in Polish. 8K9 .Beat the ,e+s.. 1he narratorGs translation is softened. 8&9 4idecurls. D (K% D 1hatGs so0ethin# that stayed +ith 0e like a kind of sy0"ol: you could have ut that in a fil0 and seen the0 to#ether, at the end, in a concentration ca0 , reconciled the follo+in# year. 1here +as no 0ore difference. 3 see it all a#ain, there. *"solutely. 3 think that if 3 +ent "ack there, 3 +ould find the house and the e2act lace +here 0y uncle +as standin# +hen those Aasidi0 assed "y. D (K1 D

"!RT FOUR; E3ILE !N, MOURNIND (K$ D

%; ! New ,ias5ora
CTh7r8se Le(8re $H Rue ,es Fleurs "aris 3VIIC
3n the ca0 , 3 had this idea of co0in# to -rance. 3n the ca0 at that ti0e, you couldnGt have anythin# in your ockets "ecause there +as a search every other day. 3f they found a iece of a er, anythin#, they "eat you. ;y cousin 8met 3or the 3irst time in uschwit@ 9 #ave 0e his #irlfriendGs address: .3 canGt #ive you 0y o+n address "ecause 3 donGt kno+ +here 0y arents are.. *nd there it is, that address. 3 still re0e0"er it: 1hLrVse LevVre, 1& Iue des -leurs, Paris SV33. *nd every 0ornin#, +hen 3 #ot u , 3 said 0y rayer: 1hLrVse LevVre, 1& Iue des -leurs, Paris SV33. . . . Well, +hen 3 +as li"erated, in 4+eden, he 8the cousin 9 +as already in Paris. Ae +as a survivor. 3 +rote to his #irlfriend. 4he +ent to his house and told hi0: .3 #ot this letter fro0 4tockhol0.. Ae ans+ered 0e ri#ht a+ay. We #ot in touch and he told 0e: .3f you donGt +ant to #o "ack to 4alonika, co0e to -rance.. *nd thatGs ho+ 3 ca0e. 8An his arrival in (aris 9 ;y uncle said to 0e: .Co0e to us to eat +henever you +ant.. *nd 3 +ent to eat at 0y uncleGs house every day. 1hen later, 3 0et 4alonikans +ho +ere there fro0 "efore the +ar. 6ne day, they introduced 0e to a lady: ./ou like her, that ladyU 4he is also a stall5kee er. Aer hus"and +as de orted. 3f you like, 3Gll ut you in touch. 4ee if it suits you. 3f not, you neednGt do anythin#. 3f it does, +eGll introduce you to her.. 3t D (KH D +orked out, and 3G0 still +ith that +o0an. 8Ba$riel -., Saloni#a, a$out 787>. 9 In the cohort o3 Jews who have told us o3 their youth here or there on the shores o3 the Mediterranean, a 3irst !roup came to 5rance $etween the two world wars, those o3 the eastern Mediterranean. In Forth 3rica, the colonial re!ime appeared 3irmly esta$lished and destined to last. Social mo$ility, westerni@ation, and seculari@ation reached new strata o3 the Jewish population. &hose who le3t 3or 5rance went 3or a little adventure and stayed only temporarily, returnin! with some new asset, a university diploma, 3or example. In ,!ypt, the 3ormal independence the country en1oyed since 78;; opened new vistas to the most enterprisin!. In Breece and &ur#ey, $y contrast, political conditions $ecame unsta$le. &he revolution o3 the .oun! &ur#s, the capture o3 Saloni#a $y the Bree#s in 787;, the arrival in Saloni#a o3 more than one hundred thousand Bree#s 3rom sia as one o3 the population exchan!es 3ollowin! +orld +ar I a33ected all elements o3 the population and upset relations $etween reli!ious communities. 5irst, the Jews wanted to evade military service and con3licts that were none o3 their $usinessHthe Italian-&ur#ish war o3 7877R7;, the 4al#an wars o3 787;R7:, and 3inally, +orld +ar I. 3ew years later, they had to escape anti-Semitism, which $e!an to ra!e more openly in Breece. s Ba$riel -. tells us, some le3t Saloni#a 3or (alestine. He was one o3 them. He participated in the construction o3 the port o3 &el viv $ut did not stay there. Some went to the Gnited States, and others, 3inally, chose 5rance. +hyE ,xplanations have already come up in the memories we have read* all western countries en1oyed !reat presti!e, unli#e the local sociopolitical systems in which people calculated that the possi$ilities o3 ma#in! their way were limited. &hrou!h school or other means, they had acquired 5rench culture. 4ut the lever o3 history they tell us a$out, the decisive element that loomed to set them in motion was a relative who had already ta#en the plun!e and moved to 5rance. Someone 3rom 2home2 was already there6 2home2 had moved to 5rance and was waitin! on the other shore. n unconvincin! explanation, 3or some$ody had to ma#e the $rea# in the 3irst place. 4ut people don)t want to dwell on the drivin!

3orce. &hey 1ust assume that once the community o3 ori!in had set 3oot in 5rance, 5rance was no lon!er a 3orei!n counD (K) D try. &he connection with 5rance can $e so tenuous that sometimes it sounds li#e an incantation* 2&hrNse %evNre, 7? /ue des 5leurs, (aris J'II.2 Ba$riel -., who saw his wi3e and dau!hter die in the camp, thirteen mem$ers o3 his 3amily deported 3rom Saloni#a to uschwit@, recited li#e a prayer the name o3 that !irl3riend o3 his cousin, who !rew up in (aris and whom he met in the camp. In (aris, a new3ound uncle 3ed him, and other Saloni#ans married him o33.

CThe Same -rou5C

%et us listen now to one o3 the pioneers o3 the mi!ration to 5rance <at least in our !roup=,8 19(apou F. +e le3t him in Marseille durin! +orld +ar I, where the authorities had created custom-made national identity 3or him* he was declared a 2Saloni#an.2 In Marseille he was no lon!er alone6 indeed, he never was. His $rother Henri had $een inducted into the army at the same time as he. &heir parents, in3ormed o3 where their children were, immediately 1oined them, accompanied $y one o3 their dau!hters. +ith this 3irst movement, the 3amily networ# reconstituted itsel3 in the host country. &hey moved to /ue (aradis. &he process continued* than#s to cousins 3rom (aris, our hero was released, and the 3amily o$tained identity documents. third $rother, who had le3t Saloni#a 3or thens durin! the war, also arrived in Marseille as did a sister, already married. &he 3amily networ# was 3urther rein3orced $y the marria!e o3 the $rother o3 a sister-in-law with the hero)s sister* *unt 4o hieGs "rother, +ho had already kno+n *unt ;athilde in 4alonika, also ca0e to ;arseille on leave, "ecause he +as in the 4er"ian ar0y. Ae +as a colonel or so0e retty i0 ortant rank. *nd +e entertained hi0 in our house, etc. . . . +ith 0y sister, +ho kne+ hi0 . . . so +ell that three days later, a +eek later, he asked 0y father and 0other for her hand. 4o 0y father and 0other a#reed, "ecause they kne+ the fa0ily, since the sister +as already 0y "rotherGs +ife. *unt ;athilde #ot en#a#ed and he +ent "ack to the ar0y. 1hey +aited until 819 1he ,e+s of the 6tto0an :0 ire had "e#un to settle in -rance as early as the nineteenth century. 4ee Paula Ay0an, 5rom -rey3us to 'ichy . ;ore articularly, t+o of Pa ou N.Gs uncles had e0i#rated to Paris. D (KK D the end of the +ar to #et 0arried and, in fact, +hen the ar0istice ca0e, it +as a ti0e of #reat reEoicin#. Ae ca0e to ;arseille on a re#ular leave and ri#ht a+ay 0oved in +ith his fiancLe. *nd they set the date of the +eddin#. Simultaneously, a second process was operatin!, with the same success* the 3amily networ# 3unctioned as an economic networ#. 5rom 7879 to 787K, the Marseille $ranch o3 the 3amily supplied the $rother, a purveyor o3 the army in Saloni#a. +hen the war was over, (apou F. persuaded his 3ather to let him !o to (aris to open a $ranch o3 the Marseille $usiness. &he new $rother-in-law, $arely demo$ili@ed, returned to 4el!rade and was also ready 3or merchandise* When he #ot "ack to Bel#rade, he o ened the sho he had +ith his father, and he needed 0erchandise. 3 +as +orkin# as an a#ent in Paris for cloth, velvet, +hatever he +anted. *nd fro0 there, he sent 0e other custo0ers. 4o it +ent +ell. 4o +ell that 0y second "rother, Aenri, also ca0e to Paris, "ecause

alone . . . s in Saloni#a, (apou F. was !oin! to ta#e a wi3e 3rom the rediscovered or reconstituted community. 3n 19(%, a"out ;arch or * ril, 3 +as #oin# to the 4entier,8(9 "ecause 3 +ent to the 4entier all the ti0e to "uy te2tiles for 0y custo0ers. 3 0eet ;onsieur B.: .4o, +hat are you doin# hereU. Au#s and all that. ./ou kno+ itGs our PassoverU. ./es, 3 kno+.. .*nd you arenGt #oin# to your arents in ;arseilleU. .No, "ecause 3G0 +aitin# for t+o custo0ers fro0 /u#oslavia and Iu0ania.. .6<, listen, since youGre not leavin#, co0e to 0y house. 1o0orro+ ni#ht is Passover and itGs our tradition to entertain friends and ac'uaintances. 4o, it +ould #ive 0e #reat leasure to entertain you. 3 donGt +ant you to stay alone in Paris on Passover ni#ht.. 4o 3 acce ted and +e set a ti0e. 1he ne2t ni#ht, they introduced 0e around7 there +ere t+o dau#hters7a very leasant +elco0e. We sat do+n at the ta"le, +here there +ere ten or t+elve eo le. Ieally, a very friendly, 8(9 1he 4entier is the #ar0ent district in Paris. D (K& D very +ar0 at0os here. 1he father of 0y future +ife73 didnGt kno+ she +as 0y future +ife7 +elco0ed 0e very #raciously. . . . *nd they had 0e for the ne2t ni#ht too7another very leasant +elco0e. 1hey read the rayers. *nd 0eanti0e, 3 said: .Listen, youGve invited 0e t+ice. 3tGs 0y turn to invite you out.. 1hen 0y father5in5la+70y future father5in5la+, that is7said to 0e: .Listen, thatGs very kind, "ut 3 donGt #o out at ni#ht. But if you like, invite 0y dau#hter and 0y son.. *nd three days later, 3 invited the dau#hter and the son. 3 invited the0 to #o to the 6 Lra Co0i'ue to see Carmen . 1hey acce ted. 3 ca0e to ick the0 u and then had another invitation to their house. 6ne thin# led to another. 3 +rote 0y arents that 3 +anted to ask for her hand. 3 +anted the0 to #ive their consent. 1hey told 0e: .Ao+ do you +ant us to #ive you our consentU We kno+ the #entle0an very +ell, "ut +e donGt kno+ the dau#hter. 3f you think the #irl suits you, leases you . . . *s for the fa0ily, thatGs fine, since +e kno+ the arents very +ell. But ask "y yourself, sayin# that +e a#ree.. %ocal endo!amy continued to $e practiced. +hat remained to $e done was to appropriate a space. In the period $etween the two world wars, havin! !iven up the import-export $usiness, those 3rom Marseille and (aris con!re!ate a!ain in the Sentier and !o into #nitwear* Before the :uro ean +ar of G1H, all the eo le of 1urkey, either fro0 3stan"ul or 4alonika, +ho ca0e to -rance to +ork started out in te2tiles. 1e2tiles 0eans cloth, hosiery, ullovers, etc. 1here +ere t+o centers: one near the Place Voltaire, +hich +as of a lo+er class, for 0ore ordinary thin#s? and a center that +as a little 0ore stylish, +hich +as the 4entier in Paris. 1he 4entier, as it +as called, +as kno+n since Na oleon, ever since they 0ade Iue ILau0ur and all that. 4o they ca0e and started "y lookin# for a sho in the 4entier. 3t +as Iue dG*"oukir. 4o, they +ere clustered to#ether, so to s eak. 3n 19(%, for e2a0 le, +ithout e2a##eratin#, of three hundred sho s in the 4entier, a"out a hundred of the0 "elon#ed to 4alonikans. 4o you +ere in the sa0e #rou , so to s eak . . . you couldnGt call it a fa0ily circle, "ut +e +ere fello+ country0en. D (KB D &his scenario is reproduced in many memories* parents and adult children decide to!ether on mi!rations, economic initiatives, reorientations, matrimonial alliances. &hey cele$rate (assover to!ether as well as the Few .ear)s ,ve and other local holidays. &hey rediscover others in the Sentier. ,nrique S. y 4., who arrived in the 787>s, spent his whole li3e in the trade and manu3acture o3 cloth alon! with his 3ather-in-law. Ida A., whose hus$and mana!ed two cinemas, a theater, and a dance hall

in Saloni#a, started a cloth $usiness in 78:> on /ue de Clry in (aris. She also tells us that her son succeeded her. Married to a Saloni#an, %aure ., 3rom Istan$ul, was not in the Sentier, $ut her hus$and owned several clothin! shops in (aris $etween 78:> and 78?>. Several levels lower, Ba$riel -., who came a3ter the war, sold #nitwear in open mar#ets. M. M., an upholsterer in Saloni#a and an upholsterer in (aris $etween 78;; and 78:K, 3inally went into the #nitwear $usiness with a Saloni#an $rother-in-law and Saloni#an 3riends.

Success'ul Emanci5ation
+as it a success3ul routeE &his is the impression le3t $y the story o3 (apou F., as animated when he spo#e o3 his homeland as when he tal#ed o3 his li3e in 5rance. Many people would not have anythin! to say a$out their li3e in 5rance, as i3 it were the natural outcome o3 a movement started in Breece or &ur#ey, an 2emancipation,2 as they call it, which could only lead to 5rance. M. M., whose whole 3amily remained in Saloni#a and was annihilated in the deportations, measures the road he has covered with satis3action. 5or him, he 3ound material and pro3essional security6 3or the children, upward mo$ility throu!h the schools* the host country !enerously 3illed the aspirations that could not have $een satis3ied in Breece. 24ac# home,2 however, still indicates Saloni#a in his speech. 6f our stay7itGs not our stay any0ore, itGs our lives that +e have led in -rance, fro0 every ers ective, althou#h it +as very hard for +ork and everythin#7+e have a very #ood 0e0ory. 6f the +ork, of the constitution of -rance that allo+ed us to do +hat +e +anted, to educate the children. 3tGs an enor0ous advanta#e +e couldnGt have had "ack ho0e e2ce t "y ayin#. *nd >od kno+s if you could ay. 1hatGs so0ethin#. 1he social la+s are very, very #ood in -rance. D (K9 D . . . 6n the +hole, 3 re eat, 3 have "een very satisfied +ith 0y stay and 0y life in -rance, and 3 think that the country has done +ell "y every"ody, "y all forei#ners. Comin! 3rom ,!ypt, Bioia . also preserves a da@@lin! memory o3 her marria!e with 5rance. It)s a dream she reali@ed in 78::. In (aris, she 3ound a $rother who had preceded her, an architect cousin. -id she #now any 5rench peopleE .es, she still sees them in the spotli!hts. When 3 +ent to a ly for naturali=ation, the olice ins ector said to 0e: .Why, ;ada0e, do you +ant to "eco0e -renchU. 3 said: .;onsieur, itGs your fault.. .;y faultU. Ae +as a oor soul, a olice ins ector +ho didnGt kno+ BLcon5les5BruyVres.8$9 3 said to hi0: .Aere, ;onsieur, 3 had a a a +ho s oke to us in -rench? 0y 0other ton#ue, in s ite of 0y accent, is -rench. 3 nursed on -rench 0ilk? all the lulla"ies +ere -rench. 3 +as in a ,e+ish school +here 3 learned -rench? 3 +as at the hi#h school +here 3 learned -rench? 3 assed the "accalaureate e2a0s in -rench. *nd +hen +e +ere little, they told us: G-rance, -rance, -rance.G 4o 3 +anted only one thin#: to co0e to -rance.. *nd that +as true. Besides, 3G0 #oin# to tell you, 0y older "rother ca0e to -rance "efore us? he ca0e in G1B 8he died shortly a3ter 9. 3 al+ays drea0ed of co0in# to Paris. *nd +hen 3 0arried a 0an +ho lived in Paris, 3 donGt kno+ if 3 0arried hi0 for hi0self or to co0e to Paris. 3 really donGt re0e0"er. 3 lived on the Cha0 s5PlysLes, the Lido. Because +hen he ca0e to Paris, 0y hus"and said: .Nothin# is too #ood for 0y +ife.. 4o +e lived in the Lido, no 0ore and no less. Ae had an office in the 4entier, since he i0 orted fa"rics fro0 Lyon and +orked in silk 0anufacture. When he +as a "achelor, he +ent to all the cafLs on the Cha0 s5PlysLes. But that really didnGt interest 0e. 3 didnGt co0e to Paris to sit in a cafL. Ae said to 0e: .1ell 0e +hat you +ant.. .3 +ant to #o to the theater..8H9 4o +e +ent to the

theater. 3 kne+ it very +ell. 3t +as the ti0e of 4acha >uitry, Louis ,ouvet, Charles Oullin. 1he first 8$9 :'uivalent of .no+here, -rance.. 8H9 * literary echo of this re resentation of -rance is found in the auto"io#ra hical novel of Nine ;oatti, Mon en3ant, ma mNre . D (&% D ti0e 3 sa+ %e 5aiseur, it +as +ith Charles Oullin and it +as the theater of the Aeuvre . *nd +e +ent to Oeauville for +eekends, for :aster, for vacations. "., $orn in 78>> and livin! in (aris since early childhood, considers that he le3t $ehind the dar#ness o3 the con3ined, 3anatic atmosphere o3 the community o3 Istan$ul at the $e!innin! o3 the century. He is so opposed to every 3orm o3 se!re!ation, $elieves so stron!ly in the improvement o3 the entire human race that he coins a word, assi0ili=ation. 8 !ainst 3anaticism 9 3 0yself a0 for co0 lete civili=ation of the races, 3 a0 for assi0ili=ation. 3 donGt kno+ .,e+,. .Catholic,. .Buddhist.. 8I don)t want 9 any constraints. He is an a!nostic and a 5reemason and calls himsel3 2assimilated.2 I as#ed him what led him to 3reemasonry. ;y ersonal ideas, the ideas of assi0ilation of the races, of freedo0, of the i0 rove0ent of 0an, "rotherhood, 0utual hel , ri#ht. 1o 0ake an a"straction of reli#ion. *nd no nationalis0. 3n discussions, +e +erenGt afraid of anythin#, in . . . 8masonry 9. But durin# the +ar, it +as closed do+n. 3 +ent to Iue Cadet every day. 3 sa+ the osters that it +as closed. 1hey also thre+ us 8Jews 9 out of the clu", not out of 0aliciousness "ut "ecause they +ere forced to. 1he authorities said ,e+s couldnGt Eoin the clu". 4ut does not this adherence to a universalist ideal reveal a 3orm o3 MarranismE 5or Monsieur ". wanted to $lend into 3reemasonry so as not to $e identi3ied as a Jew. /ecallin! his childhood in (aris, in the communal school, he declared that he was 25rench without $ein! 5rench, while $ein! 5rench,2 and he concluded our conversation in a cho#ed voice* 25rance is hospita$le, $ut not the 5rench.2

CFrance Is .os5ita2le 1ut Not the FrenchC

&here is a !ap here $etween the desire 3or inte!ration and the reality o3 a new exclusion. +as se!re!ation desired or imposedE -esired, i3 D (&1 D one is to $elieve the many testimonies, 3or 5rance did not live up to the ima!e people had o3 it. Claire C., ".)s sister-in-law, pictured (aris as a 3ashion ma!a@ine. 3 0ade a first tri to :uro e. We crossed 3taly. We ca0e to Paris and stayed at a hotel. 3 +as a "it of a Parisian for a +hile and +as very disa ointed. 3 thou#ht, you kno+, that it +ould "e like in the fashion 0a#a=ines, that all Parisian +o0en +ere like that. *nd 3 sa+ eo le in +orn5do+n shoes. 1hat sur rised 0e very 0uch. Ida A., who made her 3irst trip to 5rance at the same time, in the 78;>s, su33ered the same disillusion. 3 #ot 0arried and 3 ca0e here. Not to live. 3 ca0e +ith 0y hus"and to visit. 1here +as his fa0ily, +ho +ere here since "efore G1B. 4o0e of the0 lived in Iei0s, the "rother, +ho had t+o Ee+elry stores. Ae

+as 0arried to a Catholic do+n there. 4he +as the dau#hter of the 0ayor of Iei0s. *nother art +as here in Paris. 1he year 3 ca0e, 3 +as really youn#. 3t +as in ,uly, and the +eather +as a+ful. 3 said: .1his is -ranceU No, 3 donGt +ant it. 3G0 #oin# "ack to 0y o+n country. 3 +ant to #o +here itGs +ar0 and see 0y #irlfriends a#ain, all that.. 4o his +hole fa0ily, +ho had co0e "efore73 didnGt kno+ the0, 3 0et the0 here7they said: ./ouGre +ron# to #o. /ouGll see, -rance is #ood.. ;y sister +as here. 4he said to 0e: .-ranceR -rance, itGs terrificR. 8&he $rothers-in-law su!!est $uyin! 3or her 9 .a +ine sho , a Nicolas.. .;e, a +ine 0erchantR. .No, no, no, no, no. 3G0 #oin# "ack to >reece,. 3 told 0y hus"and. .3 donGt like it. 3G0 #oin# to >reece. 1hatGs +here 3 +as "orn. 1his is not for 0e.. 1he roof is that 3 stayed >reek. 3 +ent "ack to 4alonika. What could 3 tell you, it +as a #ood life do+n there. 85ive years later 9, +e said: .LetGs #o a+ay. 3tGs "e#innin# to look fishy.. 1hey +ouldnGt leave the ,e+s in eace any0ore. ;y arents and 0y hus"and sold everythin# do+n there. In the community o3 the past, Jews $ecame slowly estran!ed 3rom the local population. In 5rance in turn, they #ept the indeli$le D (&( D mar#Haccent, tastes, memoryHo3 another place. Ane lived $etween two worlds, without $elon!in! to either. Monsieur M. <Sousse, 78>>=, says* 2+e were on the $order.2 Claire C., a!ain, who returned to (aris and !ot married there, spea#s o3 the unhappiness o3 $ein! a 2hy$rid.2 1hat, in a nutshell, +as our 0isfortune. 3G0 a hy"rid. 3 +as "orn in 1urkey. 3f 3 +anted to +ork for the -rench, not "ein# -rench, they said: .6h, sheGs a forei#ner, +ith her accent . . .. Bein# in 1urkey, 3 didnGt kno+ a +ord of 1urkish, since *taturk8)9 +asnGt still there in 0y #eneration. 4o 1urkish +asnGt co0 ulsory? no"ody kne+ 1urkish. 5inally, did one ever leaveE Claire C. says she 3ound 2all o3 Istan$ul2 in (aris, $y which she means the Jewish population. She also o$serves that 2there is a very $i! Jewish colony here,2 that is, solely o3 Istan$ul. 3ter hal3 a century in 5rance, Claire admits to 3inally 2$rid!in!2 the !ap that separated her 3rom the 2authentic 5rench2 environmentH$y means o3 the !ame o3 $rid!e. 3n -rance, 3 had 0any #irlfriends fro0 Constantino le. Not 0any -rench+o0en, so to s eak, no. But since 3Gve "een layin# "rid#e, 3Gve 0et -rench+o0en. 3 have a #rou of -rench+o0en 3 entertain and +ho invite 0e to their ho0es. We are very friendly +ith the0. /ou 0ustnGt for#et, thereGs a very "i# ,e+ish colony here. *ll 0y #irlfriends are fro0 3stan"ul. 3 found the0 here. We used to say .all 3stan"ul is here,. all 0y #irlfriends. 3 continued +ith friends and relatives fro0 3stan"ul here in -rance. 3t hasnGt "een all that lon#7only a fe+ years7that 3Gve had -rench friends: +hen 3 took u "rid#e. * lady introduced 0e and then 3 #ot to kno+ authentic -rench circles. ,xclusion was also imposed on these immi!rants. &hey thou!ht they were leavin! the !hetto 3or an open society, exchan!in! the intensity <$ut narrowness= o3 communications in the Jewish environment 3or the diversity o3 relations with the 5rench. &he latter emer!e as polite individuals who seem to !reet you only to avoid any meanin!3ul ex8)9 *taturk +as resident of the first @19($C re u"lic of 1urkey.

D (&$ D chan!e. &hey are discreet, do not as# questions, and do not !ossip. 4ut doesn)t that mean that they i!nore you and don)t care a$out youE &hey loo# at you without seein! you and #ill you $y a #ind o3 slow death. ,xchan!in! neither words nor loo#s, they don)t share $read and wine either. &he same ima!e recurs in several narratives* that o3 the individual piece o3 stea#, a sym$ol o3 3ood that can)t $e shared. /eserved, this is 3inally the common quality o3 the 5rench* reserved, hence on !uard6 reserved as a seat is reserved and consequently not availa$le6 reserved, hence exclusive, all complicity $ein! suspect. In 5rance, one is not invited to come in, $ut to reserve his seat and to stay in it. *s for 0e, co0in# fro0 3stan"ul to -rance, the first thin# that shocked 0e +as this: +ith us, in 3stan"ul, as soon as a erson ca0e in, you #ave hi0 coffee, Ea0, a #lass of +ater. /ou had to. 1he 0aid ca0e +ith the tray. /ou didnGt have to ask: .Oo you +antU. When 3 ca0e here, they didnGt #ive any thin#. Aere, 3 +ent u stairs70y u stairs nei#h"or is a very, very -rench lady. 4he didnGt say: .Co0e in,. +hereas in 0y house, 3 al+ays say: .Co0e in.. 3tGs so0ethin# that shocked 0e tre0endously. 6ne shouldnGt #enerali=e, "ut one thin# did shock 0e7that they didnGt offer anythin#. *fter 0y nei#h"orGs hus"and died, 3 used to ay a little visit fro0 ti0e to ti0e and stayed to chat for a little +hile. Never did she say: .Can 3 #et you so0ethin#U. 1hatGs Eust to tell you: as a 1urk, 3 +as shocked. ,dmond H. <Cairo, 78>8= uses the same words to denounce the a$sence o3 spontaneous conviviality. Aere in -rance, if you co0e to 0y house at one oGclock and 3G0 eatin#, 3 +onGt so 0uch as offer you a drink. When 3 "uy t+o steaks, itGs for 0e and 0y +ife. 3f you +ant to co0e, you have to tell 0e in advance so 3 can "uy a third steak. Back ho0e, 3t +asnGt like that. 3t drives 0e cra=y. We +ere used to livin# in co00on, livin# to#ether, that +as life. No+, 3 have an *l#erian nei#h"or. With hi0, itGs like livin# "ack in :#y t. But +hen +e +ere do+nstairs, there +as a -rench +o0an. With her, you o ened the door: .>ood 0ornin#,. .>ood evenin#.. /ou could dro dead in your a art0ent D (&H D and no"ody +ould co0e say to you: .WhatGs +ron# +ith youU. *nd for 0e, thatGs a allin#. U stairs +e had an old -rench lady. By chance, 3 sa+ her dra##in# alon#. 4he +anted to co0e do+n to call her doctor. 3 said: .;ada0e, +hy are you #oin# do+nstairsU Co0e into 0y house to call.. .Ao+, do you allo+ 0e to co0e to your house to callU. 4he called her doctor. 4he +anted to ay 0e for the tele hone call. 1hat hurts. WeGre not used to that kind of life. WeGre used to a life 0uch closer to the heart . . . 3tGs not that 3Gve #ot anythin# a#ainst -rance. 3tGs a country like any other? 0ay"e itGs even +orse in other countries. But the difference "et+een +hat 3 i0a#ined in 0y 0ind and +hat 3 found +as "et+een heaven and earth. %i#e many Jews o3 ,!ypt, ,dmond H. came to 5rance in the !reat wave o3 expulsions 3ollowin! the 5ranco- n!lo-Israeli campai!n o3 78C9. $out :>,>>> Jews le3t ,!ypt at that time. 5or ,dmond H., the $e!innin! o3 the 78C>s had already $een dar#ened $y economic reverses, which he attri$uted to the ar$itrariness o3 the political system. &he revolution o3 78C;, which ousted the monarchy and $rou!ht Fasser to power, was not reported in the spontaneous 3low o3 his memories. 4ut he does recall the revolution that was ta#in! place $e3ore his departure 3rom ,!ypt, in which the ,!yptians in !eneral and the lower classes in particular were !ranted the power the old re!ime had withheld 3rom them, while people li#e him lost the more 3avora$le positions they had en1oyed.

&he irony is that ,dmond H., li#e other Jews who immi!rated at the same time, su33ered in 5rance the very down3all he had tried to escape in ,!ypt. With the 1reasury on 0y "ack, +hich ruined 0e co0 letely, 3 +as a"le to leave :#y t at the end of G)K sayin# hamdulallah 8than# Bod 9, 3 have nothin# to lose. 3 had everythin# to #ain. 3 +as 0akin# a ne+ life. Because, after 0e, after G)K, there +ere eo le +ho stayed in :#y t, eo le +ho couldnGt li'uidate their ro erty. 1hey couldnGt li'uidate it: if they had li'uidated, they +ould have lost everythin#. *nd "elieve 0e, to lose everythin# 'uietly like that, that really hurts. ;y son5in5 D (&) D la+Gs father, >. -., +as 0ana#er of the national s innin# 0ill of :#y t, a fa"ulous Eo". Ae had to leave a lar#e su0 of 0oney in :#y t. Ae Eust couldnGt 0ana#e to #et it out7in s ite of court trials, in s ite of anythin# you +ant. Ae had real estate, land and "uildin#s. Ae ca0e here: he, +ho had "een a 0ana#in# director in char#e of t+o thousand +orkers, +as forced to +ork like a "u0 in a u"lishin# co0 any +here the youn# eo le 0ade fun of hi0. Ae +as seated at a little ta"le +here he +as not even a clerk? he did the kind of a er+ork you #ive to a child. *nd his "oss, +ho +asnGt even as old as his son, +ould tell hi0: .What, ;onsieur -., you havenGt finished your +orkU. 1hat e0"ittered hi0. Ae had a heart attack and died. *nd there +ere 0ore Eust like hi0, do=ens of the0R 3 0yself73 ca0e to -rance, 3 rostituted 0yself. 3 did all trades: 3 +as a house ainter? 3 +as a car enter . . . 8In Marseille, when I came 9 the secretary of the ,e+ish Council said to 0e: ./ou kno+ a lot, +eGll kee you.. 1o do +hatU Shamash 8$eadle 9 of the syna#o#ue, not even sha0ash, assistant sha0ash. But 3 +anted to +ork. 1hey #ave 0e an a art0ent, for +hich 3 +as very #rateful. 6<, there +as the sha0ash. 3 said to hi0: .What does a sha0ash doU. Ae said to 0e @ uttin# on airsC: ./ou have no idea. Aere, you can 0ake yourself a lot of 0oney "ein# the sha0ash in the syna#o#ue.. ./ou 0ake 0oney for yourselfU. ./es. -irst, every 4aturday, eo le co0e to syna#o#ue or to the se3er . 1hey 0ake donations for the ha@an and for the sha0ash and thatGs yours to kee . *nd thereGs $etter than thatR When so0e"ody dies, +e #o +ash the cor se. 1he dead ersonGs fa0ily #ives us clothes and sheets and 0oney.. ;y >od, 0y >od, 0y >od. . . . 3 ca0e to -rance to +ash cor sesU 3t canGt "e. ,dmond H. 3inally 3ound less de!radin! employment. s with Monsieur M. 1ust previously, the di33iculties experienced $y the immi!rant !eneration were compensated in his eyes $y the success and eventual inte!ration o3 the children. 1he children really did +ell. 1here are scholars, doctors, accountants, en#ineers. *nd that really #ives you satisfaction. 6n the +hole, the ,e+s of :#y t have succeeded in -rance. D (&K D

Vision o' Yesterda)> ,ream o' Toda)

Su@anne &. tells* 6ne day, the second or third day of Passover, after lunch, 3 lay do+n. 3 +asnGt slee in#. 3 sa+ an old 0an dressed in the old5fashioned +ay, that is, in a +hite !andoura,8K9 a "urnoose and a +hite tur"an, lookin# at 0e. Ae said to 0e: ./ou donGt kno+ 0e. 3 a0 your hus"andGs #randfather. /ou are #oin# to have a "oy and you +ill #ive hi0 0y na0e, Iah0in.. 4o 3 sat u and +ondered +hether 3 had "een drea0in#. When 0y hus"and ca0e ho0e to have his coffee at four oGclock, 3 descri"ed his #randfather

to hi0. Ae couldnGt #et over it. Ae said to 0e: ./ou never kne+ 0y #randfather. Ao+ did you do thatU. 4o 3 told hi0, and his #randfather had died at least three years "efore. :i#ht 0onths later, 3 had 0y son, Oece0"er &, 19$1, at four oGclock in the afternoon. 3t +as the nicest day of 0y life. We called our son Pierre Iah0in, the #randfatherGs na0e. dream is the expression o3 the individual)s most private wishes, and this one clearly articulated what Su@anne aspired to most. 4ut this dream is also the almost transparent product o3 a cultural tradition. It says that li3e is constructed on the 3oundation $uilt $y our ancestors6 that one need not have seen and #nown them to receive and transmit their herita!e. It says that to !ive li3e is to !uarantee the continuation o3 the name, the 3irst name, in a #ind o3 resurrection o3 the dead. 4ut is it not Bod who $rin!s the dead $ac# to li3eE &hat is indeed what it is, 3or Bod expresses himsel3 throu!h that whitedraped 3i!ure whom He thus wants to reincarnate. Su@anne !ives a minute description o3 three episodesHand only threeHin her son)s li3e* his circumcision, his $ar mit@vah, and his death in the 5rench army durin! the l!erian war o3 li$eration. &he end o3 his li3e si!nals a $rea# in history, the rupture o3 a tradition datin! 3rom time immemorial. In 5rance, men wrapped in a $i! white $urnoose no lon!er appear in visions. Here is what &., $orn $etween the wars, dreams o3. 8K9 1ranslatorGs note: * sleeveless #ar0ent +orn "y *ra"s under a "urnoose. D (&& D 1here is a ro+ of houses lined u facin# the sea. No+, "et+een that line and the sea, another ro+ of houses has "een torn do+n, and only one of the0 re0ains, 0ine. 3 turn to the +o0en surroundin# 0e and #et an#ry that eo le have torn do+n all those houses, cut do+n the landsca e, transfor0ed an inha"ited s ace into a +asteland. 3 turn to those +o0en, +ho had lived in those destroyed houses. Auddled to#ether, they for0 a circle and are en#a#ed in lively conversation. 1hey donGt see0 in the least trou"led. 1hey see0 to say: .Well, +hat can +e do, thatGs ho+ it isR. But 3 suddenly o"serve that each one has a "anda#e in the 0iddle of her face. 1hey e2 lain to 0e, one of the0 at any rate, Berthe, a cousin, that they had to chan#e their noses "ecause, in -rance, you kno+ . . . 1he seashore, 3 kno+ it, itGs "et+een Cartha#e and La >oulette. 1he t+o co0 onents of society, the *ra"s and the ,e+s, for0 the t+o ro+s of houses and the second has to "e torn do+n, to the last ca"in. When 3 turn around, +e are in -rance, and the lively conversation of the +o0en says that life continues "ut you have to chan#e your identity, hide that ,e+ish nose, +hich is vie+ed +ith disdain here. 1hatGs it. * stran#e drea0, isnGt itU Memory o3 a destroyed town, memory o3 exile* that is Jewish memory.

The -reat ,e5arture o' the Jews o' North !'rica

+hen ,dmond H. came to 5rance, the exodus o3 Forth 3rican Jews was already in pro!ress. It was when the three countries achieved their independence. &unisia and Morocco, $oth 5rench protectorates, re!ained 3ull soverei!nty in 78C9. 3ter a $loody war lastin! 3rom 78CM to 789;, l!eria was also 3reed. Several thousand Jews le3t the two 3ormer protectorates 3or Israel as soon as the State was created. &he mass departures 3or 5rance started with independence $ut were spread over several years, with each serious crisis in the country itsel3 or in its relations with the 3ormer colonial power $ein! 3ollowed $y a new wave o3 emi!ration. In l!eria the Jews had $een 5rench citi@ens since

D (&B D 7K?> <except 3or those o3 the M@a$, who were naturali@ed on the spot at the time o3 their departure=. &hey le3t the country en masse, either durin! the war orHli#e most o3 the colonial populationHin 789;. &he $alance sheet o3 this movement reads as 3ollows* most o3 the Jewish communities o3 Forth 3rica have disappeared6 those that survive, in the $i! cities li#e &unis or Casa$lanca, 3or example, are reduced in num$er and continue to decline. In 5rance today, the immi!rants and their descendants 3orm the ma1ority o3 the Jewish population. In recallin! this period, the Jews 3rom l!eria still use the euphemism that was 3ound in the 5rench press, 2the events,2 3or no$ody wanted to admit that these were movements o3 national li$eration. 4ut once the word is uttered, people assume you #now what it means and do not !ive a historical account. Instead, the so-called events coalesce in one sin!le event, which touched them more directlyHthe death o3 a relative. &his is what provo#ed a hasty departure, surrounded $y an atmosphere o3 3ear* a collective 3ear o3 a collective adversary, 2the ra$s.2 %ouise B. < 0n 4e0da, 78;7= does not indicate the year o3 her departure* Ao+ did 3 leave ConstantineU 3 had a "rother killed on ,uly 1H. 6n the 1$th, at ni#ht, oor ,., +e looked for hi0 every+here. When +e found hi0, he +as lyin# in a ool of "lood. 1hatGs +hy, less than a year later, +e left Constantine. Manou 4., 0n 4e0da, $orn in 78;9, le3t l!eria in 78C9* *s soon as the events started, +e ca0e "ecause 3 have a first cousin +hose throat +as slit. 1hat scared 0e a lot, and thatGs +hat 0ade 0e leave. 3 sent 0y children i00ediately and 3 ca0e retty soon after that. 3 stayed at 0y 0otherGs. 'iviane 4., $orn in 78;8, le3t l!eria in 78C9 ;y hus"and 0oved do+n there in the Postal 4ervice, installin# lines, and there +as that attack in Colo. 1hey 0assacred 'uite a fe+ eo le, the -.L.N. 8the Fational %i$eration 5ront 9. But fortunately, he +as out of Colo that day. 1hatGs ho+ he +as saved. We +ere so scared +e asked for his transfer to Paris. D (&9 D ;y fatherGs fa0ily had already "een esta"lished here for several years, since 19$$ . . . Su@anne &., whose son was #illed in 78C9, did not leave l!iers until 7897* 3t #ot +orse and +orse in *l#iers. 6n 6cto"er &, 19K1, +e left *l#iers +ith five children. 1hree +ere 0arried. Needless to say, +e didnGt take anythin# +ith us. 1he ca"inets +ere full of linen, the "uffets and the cu "oards full of dishes. 1he +ashin# 0achine, the refri#erator, the television, not to 0ention the furniture, the aintin#s, the ne+ 0attresses. 1o a"andon everythin#, to leave everythin# you o+n and leave +ithout kno+in# +here7thatGs very hard. Not kno+in# +hat youGre #oin# to find so0e+here else. 3tGs a +hole life you leave "ehind, it +as +renchin# for every"ody. We had to leave. 6n 6cto"er &, +e took the lane to ;arseille. lice 4., 0n 4e0da, $orn in 787:, le3t l!eria in 789;* 1here +e +ere. We +ere doin# very +ell. We never e2 ected to leave *l#eria and co0e here. 3ndeed, +e +ere the last ones still there. We +ere su osed to s end Passover there. But "ecause of the killin#s. . . . /ou kno+ that ,. 8her $rother 9 +as a olice0an at that ti0e. Ae couldnGt leave +ithout "ein# transferred. 6ne -riday 0ornin#, Eust like that, they killed so0e oor #uy, a ,e+, the oor soul, ri#ht on Iue de -rance. Ae +ent to the #rocer to "uy a candle and #o u to the ce0etery7look at the

coincidence7early in the 0ornin#. ,. +as slee in#. *ll of a sudden, +e heard shouts. /ou kno+, everythin# ha ened on Iue de -rance. 1hey +ent u to NL#rier Place to #o to the hos ital and the ce0etery. :very"ody ca0e to the +indo+s. We sa+ that oor soul. ,. #ot dressed, and one5t+o5three, he +ent to his al, the one +ho 0ade shi in# crates. We told the0 that +e +ere never #oin# to leave and +hat a"out 0oneyU *nd ,. said to us: .;a0a and *lice, +hat are you doin# hereU >o to :. in Paris and +ait for us to co0e.. Could +e tell hi0 that +e donGt have the +here+ithal to #o to -ranceU *nd +here do +e #o, to :.GsU D (B% D 4o, ,. ca0e do+n to his al and said to hi0: .Co0e u ri#ht a+ay.. Ae looked over the a art0ent. Ae sa+ the furniture, everythin# that could "e taken a+ay, and he 0ade us a crate. 6n -e"ruary (, 19K(, +e set out7+e "y air lane and ,. "y shi . *nd thatGs ho+ +e #ot here. 3n *l#eria, it +as sno+in# so0ethin# a+ful. 4o 0uch so that +e couldnGt take the air lane near Constantine? +e had to #o to Philli eville. We took a car +ithout an escort, +ithout anythin#, and sno+ all around like a +all. *nd us +ith the *ra"s, +e +ere sure our 8last 9 hour had co0e. *nd +e took the air lane. *nnette 4., $orn a$out 78:>, le3t Morocco in 789?, 3ollowin! the Six -ay +ar* 3 +as scared, 3 +as scared. 3 +as scared of the *ra"s. 3 said, 3G0 leavin# ;orocco. ;y hus"and said to 0e: .>o, 0ove to -rance for a 0onth, t+o, three, four 0onths +ith the kids. Let 0e +ork.. ;y hus"and +as a #ood soul. Ae had a #ood Eo". Ae had confidence. We left our house, everythin#, everythin#, everythin#. We left +ith t+o suitcases, +ithout a cent. *nd +e stayed in ;arseille. * year later, 3 chan#ed 0y 0ind. 3 said to 0y hus"and: .LetGs #o "ack.. But the children didnGt +ant to.

The "ain o' ,eath

&he la! $etween past and present is especially 3elt $y the Jews o3 Forth 3rica, as is the dis1unction $etween the ideal 5rance, the 5rance o3 the text$oo#s, and the !round on which they have landed. &hemes and ima!es that came up earlier in the $io!raphies o3 Jews 3rom the eastern Mediterranean saturate the memories o3 the Jews o3 Forth 3rica as well. &he parents) social 3all, compensated 3or $y the excellence o3 the children)s schoolin!, the resistanceHnot hostile $ut silentHput up $y the 5rench to the desire 3or communication6 a #ind o3 social division o3 la$or that ma#es you a pu$lic char!eH in3antili@ed, in sumHwhile the 5rench, includin! 5rench Jews, assume the role o3 overseers with whom you maintain an impersonal relation. &he ima!e o3 the closed door is contrasted with the 3ree circulation that prevailed in the D (B1 D past, and the care3ully rationed portions o3 meat are measured a!ainst the a$undance o3 3ood that had $een the rule. Su@anne &. is as#ed i3 she has visitors* /es, the doctor, the nurse, "ut 3 es ecially +ait for the 0ail0an, +ho "rin#s 0e ne+s of those in 3srael. 4y an irony o3 history, the daily human contact that $rea#s her solitude comes 3rom her nei!h$ors, &unisian ra$s*

3G0 hel less. 3 donGt have any"ody to talk to. 3 read the ne+s a er. 3 listen to the radio. 3 look at 1V. -ortunately, 3 have nei#h"ors. 1unisian *ra"s. 3tGs their son Aa"i" +ho runs errands for 0e every day, "uys 0e 0y "read and the ne+s a er. Sonia H., $orn in Morocco in 78CM, spea#s o3 her 3ather and then o3 her whole 3amily* Ae had ride, the ride of a co0 letely self50ade 0an, +ho never asked any"ody for anythin#. 4o, to +ork, to #o "ack to +ork as a clerk, it +asnGt ossi"le. 1hat +as failure. Ae had only one solution, to esca e into illness. Pa aGs illness s read, he +as 1%% ercent disa"led, that is, an invalid, and thatGs no+ his source of inco0e. We ca0e directly to Paris. 3 +as thirteen at that ti0e. 3t +as rather difficult for 0e to live throu#h, insofar as it +as difficult for all those around 0e: ro"le0s in ada tin# 0ade the0selves felt at all levels. *t the level of 0aterial life, ractical life. 6<, 3 +as rivile#ed enou#h insofar as, at the a#e of thirteen, itGs an a#e +hen youGre for0in# your o+n ersonality. *nd 3 succeeded in findin# around us relief fro0 the internal fa0ily life. 1hat is, 3 had a thirst for learnin#, 3 had readin#, the co0 letely intellectual esca e. 1hat is ho+ 3 could esca e fro0 the an#uish that revailed in the house. ;a0a +as very de ressed. Pa a lived really 8silence 9. . . . Ae sort of lost his identity, that is, he had lost his role of atriarch in the fa0ily. Ae really tried to find +ork and to reha"ilitate hi0self socially. But it Eust +asnGt ossi"le. Ae had a heavy fa0ily "urden +ith his seven children. *nd then the +hole e2ternal +orld +as erceived to "e hostile. D (B( D 1hat is, the +eather +as "ad, the cli0ate +as different, and even the lan#ua#e. Ae had to learn all over a#ain ho+ to live in -rench, to s eak -rench, there +as the +hole ad0inistrative 0ish0ash, for0s to fill out, re#istration for 4ocial 4ecurity, in short, all those rather "ar"aric inhu0an thin#s. We children did have a -rench culture, if you like, +hen +e ca0e. 4chool +asnGt a no 0anGs land you never entered. We s oke -rench, +e had studied in -rench. *lto#ether +e did 'uite +ell in school. 1here +as never a ro"le0 at that level. But there +as a kind of #uilt that 0y father ut on us. 1hat is, in 0o0ents of crisis, there +as the over"lo+n50elodra0atic .3G0 finished, itGs "ecause of you.. 1hose years, 3 re0e0"er, really had t+o an#les. 1hose t+o years +e s ent in Paris, fro0 19K& to 19K97+hen 3 +as "et+een thirteen and fifteen7there +ere t+o as ects that 3 felt: first, the e2ternal, "ecause Pa a e2 erienced it in a hostile +ay, and then finally . . . a kind of content0ent "ecause 3 +ent to the u"lic li"rary and discovered all of -rench literature. Perha s 3 didnGt understand everythin#, erha s 3 didnGt understand everythin# 3 +as readin#, "ut 3 +as al+ays readin#. *nd thin#s +ent very +ell at school. 1he environ0ent at school +asnGt hostile, "ut 3 +as nevertheless a forei#ner and they often took 0e for an *ra" 8lau!hter 9. 1hey often asked 0e if 3 ate +ith a fork or if 3 used 0y fin#ers to eat couscous. 1hey +ould ut 0e in the cate#ory of ied5noir. ;y arents felt +e +ere #ro+in# a art fro0 the0. 1hey felt that very 0uch. We had friends +ho ca0e to the house, als. . . . While they +ere real her0its. 6utside of the fa0ily, strictly s eakin#, +hich +as rather dis ersed any+ay7+e sa+ each other every seven years at a holiday or a 4ha""at7they +ere really alone. 4o +e, as far as +e +ere concerned, +e o erated on t+o levels. *t ho0e, it +as rather stressful. We +ere retty cro+ded "ecause there +ere only five roo0s for nine eo le. 3 sle t +ith 0y three sisters in a little roo0, a roo0 of three "y t+o 0eters. ;y "rothers had a roo0 for the three of the0. ;y arents had a roo0. *nd in the dinin# roo0, +e +ere really on to of one another. 4o for 0e school +as essentially a iece of luck, in fact, "ecause it #ot 0e out of the fa0ily 0ilieu.

D (B$ D ;a0a +as stuck in the kitchen as sheGd al+ays "een. 1hatGs +hy 3 felt that ;a0a +asnGt ada tin#: itGs "ecause +e continued to eat as +e had eaten in ;orocco, that is, a lot of 0eat, a lot of ve#eta"les. 3n short, really, she didnGt ada t at all either to -rench rices or to the -rench +ay of life. ;a0a s'uandered considera"le su0s in 0akin# the food +e thre+ a+ay on 4unday 0ornin# "ecause there +as too 0uch. Claire ., Constantine, $orn in 7879. She came to (aris in 78MK. 2+e were almost the only Jews in )C>R)C7.2 Clearly, she is re3errin! to the Jews o3 Constantine, 3or other Jews were as 3orei!n to her as the 5rench population that surrounded her. 3t +as really overty. *t the ti0e +e ca0e, you had to #ive a security de osit to have a house. 4o +e didnGt have a lace to live. We lived in a hotel roo0, "ut +e +erenGt allo+ed to 0ake food, nothin# at all. We had a very little roo0 that +e aid for "y the day. 3t +as #loo0y, #loo0y, #loo0y, #loo0y.

,is9Oriented Jews
Ima!es associated with the con3used experience o3 exile and mournin! now clo! the memory o3 Mediterranean Jews. ,xile and mournin!, in other words, loss, deprivation, nostal!ia 3or someone a$sent, the cuttin! o33 o3 your own $ein!* these wounds are expressed a!ain in the most diverse 3orms. Comin! to Marseille, ,dmond H. was o33ered a 1o$ washin! corpses. 5or lice 4. and her mother, the city itsel3 was deadly, and they inau!urated their move into a (arisian apartment with tears. Ima!es o3 dar#ness also 3i!ure to Claire ., who came at the end o3 the 78M>s* (aris, city o3 li!ht, was 3or her 2!loomy.2 s 3or Manou 4., the houses were 2all dar#, all u!ly.2 &he west really was the place where the sun sets. Havin! le3t 2a whole li3e $ehind,2 as Su@anne &. writes, in the country you have le3t, you are, once in 5rance, le3t without a li3e. .our $ody is $ro#en, inert, dis-located. Manou 4. still surrounds hersel3 with all her children 3or the holiday o3 Oippur, $ut they no lon!er 3ast. It is as i3 she was cut o33 $y that $rea#6 she em$odies the sic# tradition. D (BH D 3 canGt stand that they donGt res ect <i ur any0ore. 4o 0uch that 3 canGt stand, 3 canGt +alk any0ore. 3t 0ade 0e very, very sick. Ane is also cut o33 $y the death o3 those who were close. In !oin! throu!h their memories, people count their dead rather than the livin!. 5or the dead had shared their li3e, whereas the new !enerations, $orn on 3orei!n soil, $elon! to another world. &hey do not renew the pact that not only $ound Bod to the Jewish people $ut one !eneration to another. 3Gve often re#retted not havin# raised 0y children in *l#eria, in that ,e+ish co00unity +here our arents didnGt have any ro"le0s, not the ro"le0s +e have today. 3 have four children, three "oys and a #irl. 1he ro"le0 is that 3 have three 0i2ed 0arria#es. 30a#ine, three out of four, thatGs a lotR 8Manou 4., $orn in 19(K.9 (aradoxically, deaths put you to!ether a!ain, 3or every 3uneral provides an occasion 3or the 3amily to recollect. Fow, you meet in the cemetery* We have fa0ily here in Paris, "ut theyGre far a+ay in the su"ur"s so +e donGt see each other. 3 only see S., thatGs all. :ither in the syna#o#ue or 3 #o see her or she co0es to see 0e. 6r +hen +e visit so0eone, +e 0ake an a oint0ent and #o to#ether.

.Who do you #o seeU. 6h, +e visit sick eo le or ay condolence calls. Never to the theater, no, never, and yet 3 adore the theater. Before, yes. 1he first years +e lived in Paris, +ith S., +hat e2cursions +e 0adeR We +ent to the ark of Vincennes to#ether. We took alon# a snack and +e had a nice ti0e to#ether. No+ thatGs over. -irst, itGs al+ays cold, no sun, so the cli0ate also affects us. 4o +e donGt #o out any0ore. 8%ouise B., $orn in 19(1. &he rest o3 her narrative shows that she remains in daily touch with her children and !randchildren. 9 &o lose the taste 3or li3e* the metaphor is reali@ed in many testimonies. Fot a sin!le person tal#s o3 the delicacies o3 5rench cuiD (B) D sine. An the contrary, the 3ood in 5rance is less meat than carrion. &he chic#en, 2we throw it away,2 one woman tells us <see p. CM=, its win!s are $ro#en and its 3lesh is $lue, writes another. &he meat is spoiled, rotten, !an!renous, while 2$ac# home,2 it was health3ul and clean. Manou 4., $orn in 0n 4e0da, in 78;9 3G0 not 0issin# anythin# "y kee in# kosher. -irst, 3G0 used to eatin# kosher, itGs clean. 1hereGs nothin# +ron# +ith kosher 0eat, anyho+. Aa0, even on television, they +arn a#ainst it? they say that itGs s oiled. Su@anne &., $orn in Sti3, in 787>* Poultry, +e had to "uy it fro0 the *ra". Ae ca0e +ith us to the ra""i to see if +e could "uy it. 6nly then did +e ay. 1he chicken couldnGt have even a tiniest "ruise or the ra""i reEected it. Not like no+. 1he "utchers sell you chickens +ith "roken +in#s or "roken thi#hs, full of "ruises. 4ince you donGt have a choice, you have to thro+ a+ay all the affected arts. *t that rice, itGs very e2 ensive. *nd you canGt do anythin# a"out it. 1hatGs -rance. 3Gll never #et used to it. 3tGs too hard for 0e, es ecially at 0y a#e73G0 #oin# to "e seventy. 3Gve felt lost ever since 3 lost 0y oor hus"and. We lived to#ether for forty5ei#ht years. 3tGs hard for 0e to "e all alone7if only 3 could Eoin hi0.

! New EFile
&he 3ullness o3 the world !one $y is expressed $y the repeated use o3 2all,2 2every$ody,2 2to!ether26 $y the coincidence o3 the 3 o3 individual 3ate and the we o3 the community and tradition. &he community is remem$ered as a homo!eneous, uni3orm, unanimous whole, closed to others. 4y contrast, solitude, con3inement in a 3orei!n, even hostile, world, a$senceHthese recur in the memories o3 the present with the words nothin!, no one, and the constant use o3 the ne!ative 3orm. We ca0e to live in Paris, and 0y hus"and didnGt have any +ork. 1he children +ere all little. -ortunately, +e +ere a"le D (BK D to #et an e0 ty a art0ent, not even a chair or a ta"le, nothin# at all. :ventually, 0y hus"and found +ork. 3nstead of "ein# the "oss, he "eca0e a "ookkee er. We didnGt have anythin# to eat. We ca0e here, +e had Eust enou#h to ay for the a art0ent and then +e didnGt have anythin# left. 8%ouise B., 19(1.9

,ven the cloc# o3 time is out o3 order and there is no time le3t. .esterday, the livin! and the dead lived to!ether in a 3riendly 3amiliarity. Ba$riel -. tells us that, in Saloni#a, * +eek "efore Ne+ /earGs day, our arents 0ade a il#ri0a#e to the ce0etery to invite the dead to co0e to the house for the co0in# Ne+ /earGs day. 3t +as a tradition. 1hen +e +ent ho0e to cele"rate the holiday. It is true that 3or all important rituals, the visit to the cemetery involved the dead o3 the 3amily in the cele$rations. 4esides, the children received the 3irst names o3 their dead !randparents, circumcision renewed the pact $etween Bod and His people. +hat is one to thin# today, when the cemeteries have remained in the countries le3t $ehind, when the 3irst names are lost, when the circumcision o3 male children is no lon!er the rule i3 their mothers are not JewishE &oday, time is a routine, measured $y punchin! in while yesterday)s time was !eared to rituals and social exchan!es. Manou 4., a!ain* 3 ca0e to follo+ 0y 0other, and 0y hus"and couldnGt take it. Not at all. Ae said to 0e: .-or 0e to #o to +ork in the 0ornin# and co0e ho0e at ni#ht, thatGs out of the 'uestion.. Ae stayed for t+o 0onths and returned to Bone. -irst of all, at the ti0e @19HBC, there +erenGt any a art0ents. 1here +asnGt all this construction. 1here +ere only old houses, in Paris, all dark, all u#ly, and +ith do+n ay0ents. ;y hus"and couldnGt take it. When he +anted to #o "ack, 3 +as thrilled. Because 3 didnGt like Paris at all. When 3 returned in 19)K, 3 +as a nervous +reck, t+o years of total de ression. &he time o3 exile is a discontinuous time6 it is 3ull only durin! holidays. 4ut these always underline somethin! that is missin!* you no lon!er see one another except at holidays, or you don)t even see one D (B& D another at holidays anymore. Holidays aren)t the same, 3or the wholeness is shattered, sometimes $y the desertion o3 a 3amily mem$er, sometimes $y distance. nd a part o3 the rituals is a$andoned. &hen, i3 you have to cele$rateHhow to do itE &he maternal cuisine and the holiday ta$le remain the ultimate re3u!e 3or $ein! 2all to!ether,2 even $rie3ly, and 3or doin! 2everythin!2 as $e3ore. Manou 4.* :very -riday 3 have 0y children, oh yesR Whether they 0arried !oys or not, they kno+ that on -riday they all have to "e there. *nd there isnGt one of the0 +ho doesnGt co0e. 1heyGre all there, and 3 have 0y "rother too. 3tGs 0y older one +ho says the rayer. Ae 0arried a little ,e+ish #irl. AeGs the only one, the oldest son. nnette 4., Mo!ador, $orn a$out 78:> We al+ays arran#e to do +hat +e did in ;orocco. 3, at least, didnGt leave out anythin#, "ecause 3 +ould "e afraid to. 3 say to 0yself: .3f 3 take a+ay anythin#, so0ethin# is #oin# to ha en to 0y children, to 0y hus"and.. *s 0uch as 3 can, 3 do. 4o0eti0es, 3 +ant to si0 lify life, "ut later, 3 have a dreadou"t, 3 say no, 3Gd "etter not. 3 al+ays did it. 4o0eti0es, no+, 3 think itGs stu id, really, to follo+ all those thin#s. 3 tell 0yself, really, itGs not the old days any0ore . . . -ou$ts a$out the validity o3 traditions mix with 3ears o3 $rea#in! them* nnette 4. coins a word to si!ni3y this tension* dreadou$t, 3ear and dou$t, which is exorcised only $y respect 3or tradition. (assover cele$rates the ,xodus 3rom ,!ypt, the li$eration 3rom exile. +hat to do when you yoursel3

are deep in the solitude o3 exileE Oeep the tradition o3 the past in order to assure yoursel3 a 3uture. nnette 4., a!ain* We +ere far a+ay, +e +ere in Chatillon5sous5Ba#neu2, in a su"ur". 3 said to 0y hus"and: .3 donGt have a sister, 3 donGt have any fa0ily. Who is thereU. Ae said: .Listen, do +hatever you +ant.. 3 said 3 +onGt re are anythin#. 3 stayed like that . . . and later on, 3 said to 0yself: .But even so. . . . :ver D (BB D since 3 #ot 0arried, 3Gve al+ays set a nice ta"le and 3Gve al+ays had eo le over. :ven if there +erenGt eo le, there +ere 0y children, 0y hus"and.. 4o 3 set a nice ta"le that day. 3n half a day, 3 0ade 0ore than 3 +ould have 0ade in t+o +hole days. *nd 3 0ade a nice s read. *nd +e +ere there and, all of a sudden, 0y ne he+7+ho +as in Paris and +ho0 3 hadnGt seen for 'uite so0e ti0e7ca0e. Ae ca0e, he "rou#ht so0e als +ith hi0. We didnGt kno+ +here to ut the0. *nd +e s ent 'uite an evenin#R Ae really livened thin#s u for usR Ae san# in *ra"ic, -rench, and Ae"re+. 1here +as another "oy +ho san#. We s ent an evenin#, really, +ith an at0os here like 3 never s ent in ;orocco. 3f 3 hadnGt re ared anythin#, ho+ +ould 3 have 0et those eo leU ;y hus"and said to 0e: ./ou see, you 0ust never lose ho e.. *nd +e had a +onderful evenin#. &he memory o3 places and the people who populated them coincide when you recall the world !one $y. &he house, the street, the nei!h$orhood 3ormed so many 3amiliar !hettos where communication was immediate. &he space o3 exile is monumental and impersonal, populated and yet deserted since you don)t reco!ni@e anyone there, inha$ited $ut uninha$ita$le since you don)t have access to dwellin!s that are too expensive. -isplaced, you were disoriented, you still are.8 &9 lice 4., $orn in 787: 1he first 0onths +ere really terri"le for us +ho had al+ays "een do+n there. We +ere u rooted fro0 our ho0e. 1hen, little "y little, +e ada ted. But even no+, itGs already nineteen years that +eGve lived here, 3 donGt like it as 0uch as do+n there in 0y o+n ho0e, that is, at ho0e, in 0y o+n country, +ith all those eo le, there, all those friends. 3 did #et used to it, "ut never co0 letely. 3G0 not ha y. 3t all "oils do+n to that. 8&9 3n his 0ost auto"io#ra hical "ook, %a &erre intrieure, *l"ert ;e00i e2 resses his nostal#ia for the #hetto of 1unis and he adds: .*nd 3 #o on drea0in# of a universe +here thin#s +ould "e in their ro er lace. @ . 1HC, e2 lainin# further on: .3n the #hetto, you lay a #a0e, you acce t the la+s, hu0an, fa0ilial, social, and divine? you su"0it "ut you find in that su"0ission a #reat rest, a #reat co0fort, #reat Eoys. . . . 1hat +as the #hetto, at least in 0y 0e0ory . . . or in 0y i0a#ination, 3 no lon#er kno+. @ . 1)J1KC. D (B9 D :s ecially no+ +hen every"ody is far a+ay. ;y oor I. is #one 8deceased 9. ;y 0otherGs #one. 1hereGs no"ody any0ore in the Place de la IL u"li'ue,8B9 and you canGt even #o there no+. 4ince +eGve "een here, itGs al+ays "een e2actly the sa0e routine. 3tGs al+ays the sa0e closed doors in the tenantsG a art0ents. /ou never see any"ody on the stairs. /ou canGt say hello here and there and no"ody says to you: .*lice, you +ant to have a cu of coffee +ith 0eU.7like they did do+n there in *l#eria. Havin! moved into a new apartment, lice 4. wept* the nei!h$ors #ept their doors closed, her $rothers

had !one awayH2every$ody)s !one.2 In 5rance, space separates instead o3 unitin!. When +e ca0e here, if you only kne+ ho+ 0uch +e cried, 0y 0other and 0e, seein# ourselves all alone like that. *nd you kno+ that 4unday here, itGs deadly in Paris. We ca0e in here -e"urary 1&, 19K$, and our nei#h"ors told us there +as a ,e+ish +o0an on the sa0e floor as us, ;ada0e 4. But 4., he said to his +ife: .Listen, it see0s theyGre *l#erians.. Ae didnGt "elieve +e +ere ,e+s. Ae thou#ht that *l#erian is *ra". .Listen to 0e: close the door, donGt o en it, "ecause *l#erians, they lay +ith knives.. 4o +hen +e ca0e there, every"ody shut hi0self in, and +e didnGt see a soul. Space o3 exile, space o3 dispersion* Sonia H., who lived successively in (aris, Stras$our!, and a!ain in (aris, explains eloquently her $ein! deprived o3 the Arient, her $ein! dis-Ariented.899 3 still encounter ro"le0s at the level of everyday life. 3 donGt identify co0 letely +ith -rench life? 3 donGt identify +ith ;oroccan life73G0 "adly in need of so0e sort of identity. 6<, 3 think that +ill last as lon# as 3 do and +ill end +hen 3 die. 8lau!hter 9. 1hat is, laces sli a+ay, laces never really tally +ith +hat you e2 ect fro0 the0. 3G0 not really fro0 ;orocco? 3G0 8B9 Place de la IL u"li'ue is one of the 0ost cro+ded ia==as in Paris. 899 *0on# the 0any literary e2 ressions of this loss is the artly auto"io#ra hical novel of *l"ert Bensoussan, 5rimal-d1e@ar @Paris: Cal0ann5LLvy, 19&KC, +hich talks a"out the .love of the territory. @ . (%%C. Ae also +rites: ./ou +ere 0y to+n and 3 o+ned you. @ . 1&1C. D (9% D not really fro0 -rance. Casa 8Casa$lanca 9, itGs not that it +as the "e all and end all, "ut +e had it #ood there. 3n 0y o inion, itGs not a ro"le0 of di0ensions. 3tGs a ro"le0 of kno+in# the to+n. 1hat is, +hen 3 look at Paris like that and 3 try to locate laces +here 3 have so0e"ody7you see, itGs a rather senti0ental 0easure7+here 3 have so0eone 3 love and +ould like to visit, Eust like that, one afternoon, to knock on his door and say: .Ai, 3Gve co0e to have a cu of tea.. Well, there Eust isnGt any"ody in Paris like that. 1here are friends +ho +ork, so 3 have to call and say 3G0 co0in#. Whereas, +hen 3 +as a child in Casa"lanca, it didnGt see0 es ecially "i#, even for a little one like 0e. ;y aunt lived t+o streets a+ay. We lived in the +estern art of the city, and t+o of ;a0aGs sisters +ere there. 3t +as a lace to +hich 3 +as e0otionally attached, "ecause every+here, there +ere eo le 3 kne+. 3n fact, itGs not the city thatGs forei#n, itGs the eo le +ho live in it. Because 4tras"our#, after all, never #ave 0e the i0 ression of "ein# a forei#n city, si0 ly "ecause OadGs fa0ily lived there. 1here +ere OadGs sisters and "rothers, so there +as a structure, and the streets +ere 0uch 0ore fa0iliar. /ou +ent to see S, +ho lived on such and such a street. *nd thatGs ho+ the city shrank, if you like, it looked like the . . . the #hetto. 1here, it +as ta0ed. nd to demonstrate her present uneasiness, she turns to spatial re3erences that indicate $oth what has $een lost and what has $een dismem$ered $y this new -iaspora* 3tGs this dis ersion in s ace. . . . 1hatGs it, itGs a dis ersion. D (91 D

$?; -enocide
2%e$n vi !ot in 5ran#ray#h,2 2Happy as Bod in 5ranceE2 &hen came the 5rench capitulation o3 June 78M>, the 'ichy re!ime, the Berman occupation. In everyone)s memories, whatever the individual)s a!e <adults as well as children=, +orld +ar II is a point o3 conver!ence and de3ines the structure o3 the narrative. A3ten, $e3ore approachin! the $lac# years, there is a silence, then the tone o3 voice chan!es. &hey recount their trials and tri$ulations, their tra!edies, the twists and turns o3 their personal histories. In the un3oldin! o3 memories, when they 3inally !et to the end o3 the war and the %i$eration, it seems that there is nothin! le3t to tell. &he tale has reached its conclusion* 2+hat more is there to tell youE2 In the time o3 memory, even 3or the survivors, the end o3 the war mar#s the end o3 li3e, o3 a certain li3e, that o3 the world $e3ore* a3terward, a di33erent li3e, an a3terli3e $e!ins. In 3act, we !enerally had to press our in3ormants to !et them to tal# a$out the postwar years6 they then quic#ly s#immed over the course o3 a 2normal2 li3e, somehow without history, reduced to a curriculum vitae* sta!es o3 pro3essional li3e, marria!es, $irths. &hey dwelt more on the development o3 their political or reli!ious convictions in a !eneral way. &heir memories turn into a re3lection on the inevita$le pro$lem o3 Jewish identity. &his re3lection then $rin!s them $ac# to the war, and it is that which remains at the center o3 their memory* recollections o3 those who disappeared, o3 waitin! 3or those who never returned, more stories o3 survivors, or sometimes even !hosts. 5or the trauma that sundered their lives is !enocide. It is, 3or the survivors, the torment o3 mournin!, an impossi$le mournin!. D (9( D

Threat o' ,eath

Gnder the Berman occupation, di33erence came to $e experienced as the threat o3 death* one was aware o3 an a$solute and irrational otherness that questioned the very essence o3 the individual)s $ein!. Moreover, the permanent threat was inscri$ed in material si!ns, the 2Jew2 stamped on the identity card, and especially the yellow star, which sti!mati@ed those who wore it in the eyes o3 everyone. Mathilde /. <psychoanalyst= accompanies her memories with almost pro3essional commentaries <which mi!ht no dou$t apply to many other cases=, while intensely relivin! the an!uish o3 those days. &he yellow star seems li#e the external and literally un$eara$le mani3estation o3 a secret $lemish, a $lemish $uried in the unconscious and then i!nominiously revealed to expose the truth a$out the person. 3 also re0e0"er the star 3 +ore, +hich +as se+n on a Eacket, a Eacket 3 carried on 0y ar0. *l+ays +ith the idea that if so0eone said to 0e ./ouGre a ,e+. Why arenGt you +earin# the starU.7 3 could sho+ that everythin# +as in order. What did 3 do +ith the Eacket durin# classU Oa0n, 3 donGt kno+? 3 think 3 never let anyone in school see that 3 had that star, "ut 3 did have it +ith 0e. 3 also re0e0"er that the +ord .,e+. +as +ritten on the star +ith so0e+hat stran#e letters, sha ed like Ae"re+ letters, and 3 found the0 terrifyin#. 3t +as a sti#0a that revealed so0ethin# scandalous a"out 0e, so0ethin# 3 0i#ht analy=e today, al0ost in sychoanalytical ter0s. 4o0ethin# scandalous not only in the eyes of others "ut also in 0y o+n eyes? so0ethin# unkno+n, hidden fro0 0e yet 0anifest to others. *nd, indeed, 3 couldnGt "ear to sho+ 0yself +ith that "ecause it +as a dis lay of so0ethin# . . . a"solutely scandalous, i#no"le, sha0eful, dark . . . -oes the #nowled!e o3 the outcome in3lect the tone o3 memoriesE &he dan!er o3 death was not clearly

perceived at the $e!innin! o3 the Accupation, either $y 5rench Jews <who could consider themselves protected $y the 'ichy !overnment= or $y immi!rant Jews. Gp to the middle o3 78M7, Berman policy was still limited to e33ectin! the expulsion o3 the Jews 3rom Bermany and the territories she controlled. 819In the 819 ;ichael I. ;arrus and Io"ert 6. Pa2ton, 'ichy 5rance and the Jews . D (9$ D census required $y the re!ulation o3 Septem$er ;?, 78M>, in the occupied @one, and $y the law o3 June ;, 78M7, in the 3ree @one, most <a$out 8> percent= declared themselves to the authorities*8(9indicative o3 na0vet, 3ear, o$session 3or le!ality, o3 course, $ut also testimony to a certain trust. &he most ur!ent pro$lems 3or most o3 them at that time were practical and material* exclusion 3rom pu$lic 1o$s and the li$eral pro3essions, and ryani@ation <i.e., con3iscation= o3 $usinesses or wor#shops 3orced them to see# new means o3 existence. 5orei!n Jews were threatened most directly. &he 'ichy !overnment promul!ated a decree on Acto$er M, 78M>, declarin! them lia$le to house arrest or internment. It is estimated that at the $e!innin! o3 78M7, 3orty thousand o3 them were held in various camps in the 3ree @one <Burs, /ivesaltes, %e 'ernet, %es Milles, etc.=.8$95orei!n Jews were also victims o3 the 3irst waves o3 arrests in (aris, on May 7M and u!ust ;>, 78M7* close to ei!ht thousand were interned in the camps o3 (ithiviers, 4eaune-la-/olande, and then -rancy <under 5rench administration=.8H9&hey remained there 3or several months under increasin!ly intolera$le conditions, $ut their 3amilies still har$ored hopes o3 seein! them 3reed. However, on -ecem$er 7: and 7M, 78M7, the arrests in (aris extended to seven hundred distin!uished Jews o3 5rench stoc#. nd we now #now that the Fa@i leaders decided in January 78M; on the means o3 the 5inal Solution. Its execution $e!an in 5rance durin! the sprin! and summer o3 78M;, which mar#s the 2!reat turnin! point2 in the history o3 !enocide.8 )9&he 3irst convoy o3 deportation le3t -rancy on March ;? 3or uschwit@, 3ollowed in May $y convoys 3rom (ithiviers and 4eaune-la-/olande.8K9&hen came the in3amous roundup o3 the 'el d)Hiv, on July 79 and 7?, 78M;, when 5rench police arrested more than twelve thousand people, sparin! neither women nor children nor old people. 5rom u!ust 7M on, Jewish children were also deported. 8(9 3"id., . 99J1%%? 4er#e <larsfeld, 'ichy- uschwit@* %e rWle de 'ichy dans la solution 3inale de la question 1uive en 5rance, 78M; 8Vichy5*usch+it=: 1he Iole of Vichy in the -inal 4olution of the ,e+ish Muestion in -rance, 19H(9 @Paris: -ayard, 19B$C, . (HJ(). 8$9 ;arrus and Pa2ton, 'ichy 5rance, . 1)B. 8H9 ,ac'ues *dler, 5ace P la perscution* %es or!anisations 1uives P (aris de 78M> P 78MM 8Confrontin# Persecution: ,e+ish 6r#ani=ations in Paris fro0 19H% to 19HH9 @Paris: Cal0ann5LLvy, 19B)C, . )&, K$. 8)9 ;arrus and Pa2ton, 'ichy 5rance, 8K9 <larsfeld, 'ichy- uschwit@, Vol. 3., *dler, 5ace P la perscution, . (%. . (%$ff. . )9JK%, 191? ;arrus and Pa2ton, 'ichy 5rance, . (1(?

D (9H D +hy were they ta#in! so many people un3it 3or wor#E &he situation was such as to arouse the worst suspicions.

4ut how could one ima!ine the 5inal SolutionE &he o33icial versionHthat they were $ein! trans3erred to 2la$or camps2 in (olandHseemed plausi$le. +hen in3ormation 3ilterin! out o3 uschwit@ $e!an to appear in 5rance and was circulated $y the under!round press at the end o3 78M;, it !enerally encountered only s#epticism and dis$elie3.8&9I3 not pure propa!anda, was it not at least exa!!erated rumorE (eople certainly suspected that terri$le thin!s were ta#in! place in 2(ichipoi26 $ut whatE Surely not the systematic extermination o3 all the JewsI -espite the an!uish, people could not, did not want to $elieve it, even thou!h they #new 2in a certain way2* reality surpassed understandin!. Mathilde /.* /ou kno+, if 3 #o "ack to that ti0e, 3 have the i0 ression finally @3 canGt s eak for 0y arents or 0y auntC, 3 have the i0 ression that so0e+here +e kne+ that the horror +as there. 3n a certain +ay, +e al+ays kne+ it, fro0 the ti0e the >er0ans first ca0e. But in each instance, +e didnGt 'uite +ant to kno+.

Tri2ulations
I3 our witnesses o3ten violently denounce the scandal o3 the laws o3 'ichy in the country o3 the /i!hts o3 Man as well as the participation in !enocide o3 the 5rench police and administration, they also pay emotional homa!e to those sympathetic 5rench people who sheltered them, helped them, saved them. &hese 1ud!ments are mixed with the memory o3 the ever-recurrin!, sadly $anal tri$ulations* exodus, roundups, camps, 3li!hts, clandestine shelters, 3alse identities, 3ailed arrests, more 3li!hts, 3inal arrest. s the rhythm o3 the episodes accelerates, the intensity o3 the reexperienced dramas and the very sur!e o3 memories slow down the time o3 the narrative* once a!ain <even more than 3or the period o3 arrival in 5rance=, memory dwells on details and 3ollows events day $y day, hour $y hour, restorin! with ama@in! precision 8&9 3"id., . 19HJ19). 6n the first u"lication of infor0ation fro0 *usch+it=, see the narrative of *da0 Iayski in his 0e0oirs, Fos illusions perdues 86ur Lost 3llusions9 @Paris: Balland, 19B)C, . 1(HJ1(). D (9) D the schedules, places, vicissitudes, dialo!ues, and even emotions o3 the moment. +e return to Charles and HlNne H. &hey met at school in Fancy and 3inished their medical studies in (aris. Charles H. was naturali@ed in 78:7, and they were married. 3ter Charles H. did his military service, they moved to a little town in 4rie <$etween Meaux and Melun=. In 78M7, with the promul!ation o3 the statute o3 the Jews, they were 3or$idden to practice medicine. In Fovem$er, they decided to escape to the 23ree2 @one. Charles H. : 3 stayed in hidin# for a +eek. 3 had #iven u 0y office, "ut there +ere still a fe+ thin#s to do. We decided to leave se arately, 3, "y one route, she, "y another? and +e sent >uy 8their son 9 "y yet another road. HlNne H. : We had a friend, Ooctor V. 6ne of his relatives +as an official of Vichy. 3t +as a#reed that +hen he +ould take the train to #o across the line of de0arcation,8B9 he +ould ask the >er0an officer if the child could #o see his #rand0other. 3 acco0 anied the0 and 3 left >uy in Vier=on. Ae asked his 'uestion? 8the Berman o33icer answered 9: ./es, +hy notU. >uy +as five years old and he +as terri"ly u set "y this "usiness, leavin# +ith a #entle0an he didnGt kno+ at all. Ooctor V. had +arned his 0other, a lady of seventy5five. 1his lady +asnGt infor0ed at all, she didnGt kno+ +hat a ,e+ +as? she didnGt kno+ +hy these eo le +ere hidin#. 4o she s0elled so0ethin# fishy. -inally, since it +as a child

+ho +as co0in#, she a#reed. >uy ke t on cryin# nonsto for t+enty5four hours. 1hey told hi0 he +ould see his father there? "ut 0y hus"and hadnGt co0e. Charles H. : 4o 3 decided to #o across. ;y contact +as the address of a har0acist in Beaune +ho kne+ a net+ork that +orked for risoners of +ar. 3 took the train? 3 sa+ the har0acist. 1he contact +as very si0 le: he +as a #entle0an +ho lived on the line of de0arcation and had stone 'uarries on the other side. 8B9 1he line that se arated the northern art of -rance, then occu ied "y the >er0an ar0y, fro0 the southern .free. =one. *fter the ar0istice of ,une 19H%, PLtain set u his #overn0ent in Vichy. D (9K D 8 . . .9 3n the end the har0acist couldnGt #et confir0ation 83rom the networ# 9. When 3 left, he did #ive 0e the na0e, "ut he didnGt kno+ if it +ould +ork. But 3 +as in a hurry "ecause 3 kne+ that >uy +as +aitin# for 0e at Chateaurou2. 3 had to rush. 3 left Beaune "y train to #et to that little to+n on the line of de0arcation, near Chalon5sur54aYne. 3 chatted +ith the eo le in the train. 3 +as scared of an ins ection +hen 3 #ot off the train. 1hat +as very dan#erous. 4o so0e"ody ro osed a car that +as +aitin# at the station "efore Chalon5sur54aYne. 3 +as #oin# to Bu2y. Nor0ally, you +ent to Chalon and then you took the train for Bu2y. 3 decided to #et off at the station "efore Chalon, a"out fifteen kilo0eters earlier, in order to avoid the ins ection. 1he eo le 3 0et had a car +aitin# for the0 at the station and they took 0e to a crossroads a fe+ 0iles fro0 Bu2y. -ro0 there, 3 +ent on foot. 3 already had a +inter overcoat @it +as Nove0"erC, a "riefcase +ith so0e sand+iches the har0acistGs +ife had #enerously 0ade for 0e in Beaune, and a Chai2, a railroad ti0eta"le. 1here +as a fo# you could cut +ith a knife, +hich suited 0e Eust fine. 3t +as "et+een five and si2 oGclock in the 0ornin#, and you couldnGt see si2 feet in front of you. 3 +as al0ost t+o kilo0eters fro0 Bu2y, +hen all of a sudden, the fo# lifted and 3 found 0yself face5to5 face +ith t+o >er0ans on a "ikeR 1hey sto ed 0e: .What are you doin# hereU. 3 #estured to the0 that 3 didnGt understand any >er0an and 3 e2 lained: .3G0 "uildin# a house and 3G0 #oin# to "uy stones. 3 need 0aterials and they told 0e thereGs so0e"ody +ho has 'uarries over there.. .No, youGre #oin# to cross the line of de0arcationR. .6f course not? 3 +ould have asked for an usweiss and 3 +ould have sat 'uietly on the train. No, so0e"ody ut 0e do+n there @3 ointed to the Chai2C: this +ay 3 save a day.. 3n fact, it +ould save a day if 3 +ere #oin# round tri ? 0y ans+ers +ere lausi"le. *nd he re eated: .Co0rade, shoot, co0rade shoot, if you #o over the line of de0arcation.. Ae had 0y a ers. 3 had a card +ithout the ,e+ish sta0 "ut +ith 0y na0e. 1he "oss read: .Aol="er#. and he said: .*h, D (9& D these -rench na0es, itGs a real ainR. 1he other one said to hi0 in >er0an: .WeGre #oin# to take hi0 to the station? the officer +ill #et it out of hi0.. *s for 0e, 3 told 0y story in #i""erish. 1he one +ho couldnGt read 0y na0e finally said: 2%ass ihn lau3enI2 @Let hi0 #oRC When 3 heard that, 3 didnGt react at all. 1here +as a #reat silence: ./ou still need 0y a ersU. Ae #ave the0 "ack to 0e and re eated: .>ood, "ut co0rade shootR. 3 ke t +onderin#: 3 donGt kno+ if he thou#ht 3 +as a ,e+, "ut he certainly sus ected that 3 +as #oin# to the other side. -ro0 the fact that he re eated: .Co0rade shoot,. +ith the #esture.

6<, 3 left a#ain. 1he villa#e +as at the end of the road 3 +as takin#. Before enterin# the villa#e, 3 sa+ a kind of hut in the corner. 1hatGs the #entle0an 3 +as lookin# for. 3 +ent into his house, into the office. 1here +ere eo le there, and 3 +aited for the0 to leave. 1hen 3 #ot strai#ht to the ointR .3tGs to cross the line of de0arcation.. .,ust to #o and co0e "ack ne2t +eekU. .No, for #oodR. 3 had the i0 ression he +as #oin# to do so0ethin#. 3n fact, he said to 0e: .1his contact isnGt +orkin# any0ore? itGs finished. 3G0 under surveillance 0yself, to such an e2tent that if a >er0an +ere to co0e in no+ and find you here, heGd shi you off.. /ou could see the road throu#h the +indo+. ./ou see the line of de0arcation7thatGs the road in front of us, the one that asses under the +indo+. *ll youGve #ot to do is Eu0 over the ditch. 1he >er0ans never cross to the other side, "ut they do shoot.. -ro0 his house the +idth of the road +as al0ost thirty feet, 0ay"e t+enty5five feet, and then the ditch. 1he house +as on a rise, and the road +as on the side of a hill. 1here +ere fields, since +e +ere on the ed#e of the villa#e. *t the end of the road, there +as a stee dro . ./ouGll "e e2 osed for t+o hundred yards. 6nce youGre on the slo in# #round, itGs all over.. Ae ro osed that he #o his o+n +ay into the fields to+ard the hills. .>o alon# +ith the story you told. Pretend youGre returnin# to take the train to Chalon. >o al0ost t+o hundred yards. 3Gll D (9B D "e u a"ove. 3G0 #oin# to #o in front of you. /ouGll see 0e on to . *nd 3Gll start issin#? that +ill "e the si#n that thereGs no atrol in si#ht, that you can #o. 1hen Eu0 .. -ine. /ou see, the fields +ere "ordered +ith hed#es of ha+thorns, +hich #o do+n. 3 +ent, 3 canGt say ho+ far, 0ay"e 3 +alked too fast or 0ay"e he +as arrested, 3 donGt have any idea. 6r 0ay"e he #ot cold feet. 3 donGt kno+. 3 never sa+ that 0an a#ain. 3 +ent a"out a hundred fifty yards. Nothin# in front of 0e. No #entle0an issin#, nothin# at all. 3 didnGt see any"ody. Ae had told 0e: .;ost i0 ortant, donGt look around. 1hat +ould "e sus icious.. 3 did it any+ay. 3 didnGt see anythin# in front of 0e. 1he road +as strai#ht. 3 looked to the left, the ri#ht, in "ack, and didnGt see any"ody. 4o, +ithout hesitatin#, ho , 3 Eu0 ed, and 3 started runnin# alon# a hed#e, like that, "ent over, tellin# 0yself they didnGt see 0e on the other side. *nd then 3 heard shots. 3 didnGt kno+ if it +as for 0e. 3 didnGt look "ehind 0e. 3 didnGt hear the +histlin#. Were they huntin# a ra""it in "ack, or +as 3 the ra""itU 1he hed#e +as to 0y left as 3 ran. 3 a0 tellin# you they couldnGt see 0e on the other side, "ut they could have seen 0e if so0eone +as on to or to 0y ri#ht. 3 had 0y overcoat on 0y ar0. 3t +as a hed#e of ha+thorns. While 3 +as runnin# 3 thre+ 0y coat onto the ha+thorns, len#th+ise. 3 let 0yself roll over to the other side on 0y coat. 3 #ra""ed 0y coat and ran to the other side. 3 heard another shot. 1here +ere t+o to three hundred yards, once 3 reached the slo e. 3 +as out of the +oods. Ae had told 0e that, at the "otto0, at the ed#e of the river, 3 +ould find a far0 +here they +ould #ive 0e directions to the road. 3 reached that far0 throu#h the fields. ;y hands +ere full of thorns. 1here +as a little #irl. Aer arents +erenGt there. 4he asked 0e if 3 +anted so0ethin#. 1here +as a "asin +ith +ater. 3 +ashed 0y hands. 3 started ullin# out the thorns. 4he said to 0e: ./our hands are shakin#R. 3 still re0e0"er the childGs co00ent.

Inducted into the 5rench army, /o$ert S. was ta#en prisoner in the 'os!es in June 78M>. +ith the other prisoners, he was held in a $arrac#s in Stras$our!. &han#s to his commanderHa 5renchmanHhe D (99 D succeeded in concealin! the 3act that he was a Jew and then in !ettin! 3ree. wor# in Clermont-5errand at the $e!innin! o3 78M7. dentist, he mana!ed to

3 +orked for B., as an assistant. Ae +as a "achelor and a li"ertine. Ae lived at ni#ht and rested durin# the day. 3t suited hi0 to have an assistant. Ae ad0itted he never had an assistant like 0e "ecause he had 0ore custo0ers than ever "efore. ;oreover, there +ere custo0ers fro0 the refecture, +ho had #ood ositions. We a#reed that if there +as ever any dan#er, he +ould +arn 0e "y tele hone and tell 0e: .>et out, thereGs dan#er.. 3 +orked for a year and a half until GH(, and then, thin#s started heatin# u "ecause it see0ed that the >er0ans +ere invadin# the free =one. 1he situation +as "eco0in# dan#erous. 3 had to leave B., and 3 found another dentist, <., +ho had a friend +ho +as a district attorney in Iio0. 4o he +as covered and 3 +as too, indirectly. But, one day, at ten oGclock in the 0ornin#, t+o dele#ates of the ,e+ish Co00issariat899 ca0e lookin# for 0e. 1he nurse called 0e, and 3 found 0yself facin# t+o #entle0en, one old and one youn#. 1he old one asked 0e: .;onsieur, youGre a ,e+. OonGt you kno+ you donGt have the ri#ht to +orkU. 4o 3 layed 0y last card: .;onsieur, 3 a0 the head of a household. 3 have a +ife and a child to feed. *nd 3 a0 a ,e+. /ouGve found 0e out. ;y fate is in your hands.. 4o the youn# one 7a iece of filth, the Na=i ty e in the -rench 0ilitia7interEected: .4o, do +e shi hi0 offU. 1he other one said: .Leave hi0 aloneR. *nd to 0e: .3G0 #oin#, "ut you, disa ear.. 1hat 0eant: OonGt stay in Cler0ont. Ae left. 3 +ent and #ot 0y +ife and child, and +e left for >iat, +here 3 kne+ a dentist +ho had a skin disease on his hands. Ae had to +ork +ith #loves, so0ethin# thatGs hardly ractical for the 0outh. Ae ke t a lace for 0e as rosthesis technician. 3t +asnGt far fro0 Cler0ont, "ut it +as in the country, and the >er0ans couldnGt "e every+here. ;oreover, the Iesistance +as +ell esta"lished. *nd that +as a land of 0ilk and honey. 1here +as no lack of 899 3n ;arch 19H1, the Vichy #overn0ent or#ani=ed the Commissariat Bnral aux Duestions Juives, a co00ission to deal +ith ,e+ish affairs. D $%% D "read or 0eat or 0ilk. 1here +ere other ro"le0s, ho+ever, and 3 still had to "e careful. 6ne day at the dentistGs, the olice ser#eant, a s+indler +ho +as tryin# to 0ake 0oney on the "acks of the ,e+s, ca0e to have a #old "rid#e 0ade. 3 'uickly understood that he had no intention of ayin# for it. Black0ail, "ut done su"tly7you had to understand it and not e2 ose yourself to so0ethin# that could have "een disastrous. 3 sa+ +ho 3 +as dealin# +ith? 3 did the +ork and e2 lained to the dentist that it +as at 0y o+n e2 ense. 3 0et that olice ser#eant later on, after the Li"eration. Ae tre0"led +hen he sa+ 0e. * fe+ 0onths later, the dentist didnGt need 0e any0ore. Ae fired 0e. We had to eat. 4o 3 took a "ike, ut 0y instru0ents in the saddle"a#s, and layed the travelin# dentist, doin# si2ty 0iles a day on 0y "ike. :very day, 3 +ent to take care of the easants in their houses, +hich suited the0 "ecause they didnGt have to #o any+here. /ou kno+ that you have to +ait at the dentistGs. -or the easant, that +as a day lost. 3 didnGt ask for ay0ent in 0oney, 3 didnGt care a"out that. 3t +as for food su lies. When 3 0ade 0y rounds on the "ike, 3 couldnGt tell eo le +hat 3 +as doin#. 3t +as a very risky

"usiness. Peo le "e#an to #ossi , sayin# that 3 +as doin# "lack 0arket "usiness in 0y saddle"a#s. * ,e+ doin# "lack 0arket. 1here +as al+ays anti54e0itis0. /ou had to "e on #uard. 6ne 4unday, the villa#e riest said this in his ser0on: .3f the ,e+ish eo le are sufferin#, they deserve it. 3tGs "ecause they are the eo le +ho co00itted deicideR. 3n >iat, there +as also an aviation officer +ho asked the 0ayor one day: .Ao+ co0e that kike is thereU.70eanin# 0e. 1he 0ayor 0ade it clear to hi0 that he +as interferin# in thin#s that +ere none of his "usiness and that, if he 0ade a 0ove, the Iesistance +ould intervene. 8 . . .9 We really +erenGt in dan#er "ecause, in that section of *uver#ne, +ith the forests, the Iesistance +as +ell esta"lished. :very ti0e it looked like dan#er, +e +ere +arned: .>et out to the fields, scatter, the >er0ans are co0in# to >iatR. We +ere +arned70y +ife +ho +as re#nant +ith Oany7+e ran like cra=y eo le into the fields. D $%1 D When 3 told the head of the Iesistance that 3 +anted to artici ate actively, he told 0e: .We donGt have enou#h +ea ons, and you can hel us as a dentist. -irst "ecause +hen +e have #uys +ho are in ain, +e really canGt take the0 to the dentist. *nd you kno+ Iussian, Polish, and, 0ost i0 ortant, >er0an.. 4o 3 served as an intelli#ence a#ent. Beor!es 5.* 3 left Paris after the roundu in the S3 arrondisse0ent in 4e te0"er GH1. 1here +as the "i# roundu and, Eust "y chance, 3 donGt kno+ ho+ it ha ened, at noon, they sto ed. 1here +ere 0ay"e three houses they hadnGt #otten to. 3 left the ne2t day, +ith a +o0an, a -rench+o0an, +ho took char#e of 0e and #ot 0e into the free =one. 4he didnGt take a cent. 4he Eust did it for her ersonal #lory. Beor!es 5. went to %yon, where he was 1oined in July 78M; $y his wi3e, Martha, his three-year-old dau!hter, and his mother-in-law. 3n Lyon, +e +ere also ursued, +orse than in Paris. 3 continued to +ork ille#ally, hidin#, hu##in# the +all to #o to +ork. 3 lived near the railroad station of Perrache, and 3 +ent to +ork on the other side, at the Croi2 Iousse. 3 had to take the trolley and try to #et throu#h the nets. 4o0eti0es there +ere roundu s. 3 couldnGt #et "ack ho0e a#ain? 3 had to stay there. 1he "oss kne+ +ho 3 +as. Ae let 0e stay one ni#ht +hen there +as dan#er. 1hen, leavin#, 3 took the trolley +ith another +orker? and the >esta o sto ed the trolley to check if there +ere any ,e+s inside. Ae #ot scared. Ae Eu0 ed off the train, and they killed hi0. 1hey shot overhead and he died, in front of 0e. 1hen, they had to deal +ith the cor se. 1hey let the trolley #o on, and 3 #ot throu#h like that, +ithout "ein# touched. 8 . . .9 4o 3 lived on that Iue des 1rois5;aries, in Lyon, +ith 0y +ife and 0y 0other5in5la+, in the house of an old -rench+o0an. When 3 ca0e to her house, 3 introduced 0yself as an esca ed risoner. ;ay"e she kne+ 3 +as a ,e+, "ut she never said anythin#. -ro0 ti0e to ti0e, +hen she kne+ there +ere roundu s, she told us: .3f any"ody knocks durin# the ni#ht, donGt o en the door. 3Gll #et it.. D $%( D *nd once, there +as a very "i# roundu . 4he +asnGt there. 1he area +as surrounded, in old Lyon. 3t +as very easy for the0 +hen they took u their ositions. 1here +as no +ay to esca e the0. 3t +as over. 3tGs a city of "rid#es, Lyon. 1here are a lot of "rid#es. 6ur dau#hter +as laced in the country. We ut an iron "ed in front of the door, and +e said: .3f they knock, +e +onGt o en the door. Let the0 do +hat they +ant, "ut +e +onGt o en the door. 3f they "reak do+n the door, +eGll lay it "y ear.. 1hey ca0e.

1hey +ent fro0 one house to another on Iue des 1rois5;aries. 6ur house +as the only one that +asnGt "roken into. 1here +as no e2it on the other side. *cross fro0 us, they de orted a fa0ily +ith 0ay"e ten children. We never sa+ a trace of the0. No one ca0e "ack. *nd +hen they ca0e to our house, they thou#ht they had already done it on the other side. 1hey sto ed there and it +as over. 1here +as a +histle. 1hey left, and +e +ere saved Eust like that, +ithout doin# anythin# at all. 1hatGs ho+ +e esca ed 8lau!hter 9. 1hen +e started that terri"le life a#ain. 3t canGt "e descri"ed. We lived like 0oles. Martha 5. : *nd then there +as 0y 0other, +ho +ent on talkin# /iddish as if nothin# +as ha enin#. Beor!es 5. : 4he couldnGt s eak anythin# else. 3t +as terri"le. Martha 5. : 1here +as no use "e##in# her. 1here +as nothin# to do. Beor!es 5. : ;ost of the ,e+s +ho ca0e fro0 Paris 0et on a co00ercial s'uare, the Place des 1erreau2. 3t +as a lace like the Plet=el, full of ,e+s, +ho 0ana#ed to do a "it of "usiness to survive. 3 never +ent to that s'uare. 1hatGs +hy 3 esca ed. 6ne day, 0y +ife sent so0eone to 0e to tell 0e not to co0e "ack, that there +ere >esta o in the little s'uare. Martha 5. : When 3 sa+ that, 3 +as scared. We had a rostitute in the house, +ho lived ri#ht u stairs. 4he +as very nice, very devoted, very decent. 3 +ent u and 3 said to her: .Listen, >eor#es isnGt "ack yet. AeGs #oin# to co0e any 0inute, and, D $%$ D look, there are >esta o do+nstairs.7still on the rete2t that he +as an esca ed risoner, "ut every"ody kne+. 4o she said to 0e: .OonGt +orry, 3G0 #oin# to #o ahead of hi0 and 3Gll tell hi0 +hatGs ha enin#.. 4he did, in fact, 0eet hi0 on the "rid#e, and he +ent "ack to his "oss. Beor!es 5. : 3 +ent "ack and sle t there that ni#ht. *nother ti0e, it +as a really un"elieva"le story. 3n that house on Iue des 1rois5;aries, there +as an old 0aid +ho had cats. 3 donGt kno+ +hat #ot into her. 6ne of her cats cli0"ed u onto the roof. Ae fell and died. *nd she thou#ht it +as the ,e+s +ho cast a s ell over hi0. 4he +ent out ho+lin# that the ,e+s cast a s ell over hi0. ,ust that echo, that .the ,e+s cast a s ell over hi0,. that forced us to leave and #o slee at the Croi2 Iousse. Martha 5. : 3t sounds like a novel, this stuff. Mathilde /.* -inally the +ar ca0e. 3t +as o"vious that +e had to leave. We +ere art of the e2odus like every"ody else. What 3 can tell you first is that @includin# also schools "efore the +arC, 3 +ent to eleven schools u to the university, +hich re resents a certain nu0"er of 0oves. We left the Parisian re#ion in GH%. We +ent to Nor0andy, +here 0y arents had a little house. 1hen +e really left on the e2odus: +e +ound u in Bordeau2 and then in the 1arn. *s for school, 3 donGt kno+, 3 0ust have s ent a 0onth or t+o in each one and then +e ca0e "ack to Paris. 4o 3 entered the LycLe Iacine in the seventh #rade. 1hen +e lived in Paris until the roundu of the Vel dGAivG, doin# all the a"surd thin#s ,e+s did, that is, declarin# yourself, havin# a sta0 ut on your identity card, "rin#in# your radio to the olice station. -or reasons of rovisinos, enury, and econo0y, +e +ent to live +ith 0y doctor aunt, the one 3 Eust talked a"out, +ho lived on *venue Carnot, one of the avenues of the Ptoile. We +ere ri#ht in the heart of the occu ation. When 3 read Patrick ;odianoGs %a (lace de l)Utoile,8 1%9 it really struck 0e: the at5

81%9 Patrick ;odiano, %a (lace de l)Utoile @Paris, 19KBC, is a novel a"out >er0an occu ation in Paris. 1here is an o"vious dou"le 0eanin# to the +ord Utoile 84tar9 in the title. D $%H D 0os here he descri"es is +hat 3 sa+ at that ti0e. 3 +as t+elve years old in GH%. /ou couldnGt hel "ut feel the 0ood of thin#s: 3 sa+ >er0an soldiers 0archin# every day at noon? the cine0as of the Cha0 s PlysLes, +hich +ere for"idden to ,e+s, the cafLs, the restaurants. 3t +asnGt al+ays o"li#atory, "ut so0e of the -rench eo le did it =ealously and ut u : .,e+s -or"idden.. 3 also re0e0"er +hen they sho+ed Jud SXss, "ecause of those terrifyin# osters in the su"+ay. 3n short, that very s ecial and yet very fa0iliar at0os here, very fa0iliar for 0e "ecause of that sense of ro2i0ity to dan#er: you +ere in the +olfGs 0a+. *t the sa0e ti0e, at school, 3 hid the fact that 3 +as a ,e+. 1hatGs +hatGs so cra=y a"out the +hole thin#. Because, o"viously, 3 had a na0e that aroused all sorts of sus icion . . . 3 also re0e0"er one 0o0ent. . . . 1here +ere so0e 0o0ents that shone like little li#hts in that +orld +here ,e+s 'uaked every ti0e the door"ell ran# at an unsee0ly hour. 6ne day 3 sa+ 0y father co0in# out of the >are du Nord or the >are de lG:st, 3 donGt kno+ any0ore, he 0ust have 0ade a tri 7 erha s he si0 ly +ent to a su"ur"73 think in fact that 3 +as +ith hi0. 3n any case, 3 sa+ hi0 co0in# out of the railroad station and a lainclothes olice0an asked to see his a ers. ;y father took out the identity card +ith the sta0 , and the #uy7and 3Gll never kno+ if he +as -rench or >er0an7 ut his fin#er on the sta0 and let 0y father #o. *nd he +as there for a roundu . 3 also re0e0"er ho+ naQve +e could "e? na0ely, +ith 0y father +e said: .3tGs really e2traordinary7he ut his fin#er on the sta0 , and he didnGt see itR. 3 think they 0ust have 0ade us +ear the star a little +hile "efore the roundu of the Vel dGAivG. *nd 3 re0e0"er the "i=arre tricks +e did, really "i=arre tricks. We had the a"surd idea that the 0en +ere threatened and not the +o0en. *nd the children, o"viously, even less. 4o 0y aunt 8whose specialty was tu$erculosis 9 +alked in front, +ith her star. 4he +alked as so0e sort of courier, in front of 0y father, +ho +alked a fe+ 0eters "ehind her. ;y father didnGt +ear the star. 4he looked to see if they +ere arrestin# eo le. *nd 0y father took the su"+ay every 0ornin#. But +hy the devil did he take the su"+ayU Ae +asnGt +orkin#. 3 think that "y that ti0e he +as hidin# fro0 D $%) D the nei#h"ors that he +asnGt +orkin#. We lived for so0e ti0e like that. 3t see0s co0 letely a"surd "ecause 0y aunt could have "een taken7she +as arrested later on . . . 1here. 3ter the roundup o3 the 'el d)Hiv), Mathilde /.)s 3amily escaped 3irst to a villa!e o3 the Cher, and then they went to &oulouse, in the southwest o3 5rance. Why 1oulouseU Because 0y father had #one to school in 1oulouse and he still had very fond 0e0ories of his landlady. 4uch tenuous thin#s. 1he landlady, 0eanti0e, had a#ed a lot. 4he had started listenin# to Vichy radio and found that the ,e+s and the terrorists @+hat they called .terrorists. on the radioC8119 +ere a+ful. 3 +as ut in "oardin# school. 3t +as stran#e, at school. 1he at0os here +as different fro0 Paris "efore the >er0ans had invaded the =one. 1here +ere a lot of #irls +ho +ere ,e+ish. ;ost of the0 hid it. 3 hid it too. 1here +as one #irl na0ed ;arkestein and, one day, a school 0onitor said to her: .Peo le of your race7+e canGt e2 ect anythin# of the0R. 1here +as also a #irl na0ed Oreyfus, +ho really looked as ,e+ish as a syna#o#ue, and she didnGt ad0it it either. 1hen another one, na0ed Bar'ue, yes, thatGs ,e+ish, she +as fro0 Bordeau2, and every"ody thou#ht she +as Catholic. 6ne day, she ca0e in tears.

4he hadnGt #otten any letters fro0 her arents for so0e ti0e, and thatGs +hen she told us her father +as a ,e+. 3t +as a "i# sur rise for 0e. 4he layed the -rench #irl like no"odyGs "usiness. *nother #irl +as called Cie=ano+ska7+hat na0esR7"ut for 0e, that +as a Polish na0e? she +as a retty "lond #irl +ith rin#lets, "i# "lue eyes, a"solutely adored "y every"ody. 6ne day, she ca0e in tears, sayin#: .1hey arrested 0y arentsR. 1hey had "een arrested in Paris. 1hey +ere leather+orkers. *nd thatGs +hen she told us she +as a ,e+. 3t +as a sur rise for all of us, for 0e as 0uch as for the others. 1here too, there +as a kind of rocess of "lackin# thin#s out: it had ha ened to the0? +as it #oin# to ha en to 0eU 3t +asnGt o"vious that 8119 1he Iesistance 0ove0ents +ere la"eled .terrorist. "y the Vichy ress and radio. D $%K D there +as a connection. 3tGs hard to resituate yourself in that kind of dou"le situation in +hich +e lived. Mathilde /.)s 3amily continued its wanderin! and escaped to a villa!e o3 the Cantal in the center o3 5rance. &he 3ather le3t on a $icycle every mornin!, pretendin! to !o to wor#, while the dau!hter went to the convent school. *#ain, 3 +ent to a school run "y nuns, +hat +as called a convent. 1hanks to 0y Catholic education7a artial education, "ut it had so0e i0 act73 didnGt have any trou"le recitin# the rayers. 3 0ust say that 0y arents, +hile havin# funny ideas, had nevertheless "een #ood for so0ethin#. 4o 3 could do the rayers. ;oreover, 3 had resence of 0ind, +hich see0ed to sur rise only the adults. 3t is, after all, a fact that children #ot throu#h this eriod +ith 0uch 0ore craftiness in #eneral than #ro+n5u s. *ny+ay, 3 +as no lon#er a child. 1his 0ust have "een at the end of GH$? 3 +as fourteen years old. -or e2a0 le, +hen the riest +ho tau#ht us Latin and >reek asked 0e: .*h, youGre fro0 Paris. What arishU.73 ans+ered i00ediately, like this, s0artly, +hich really +asnGt o"vious @0y arents +ouldnGt have kno+n if 3 had asked the0C: .1he arish of 4aint -erdinand5des51ernes.. -ortunately, he didnGt kno+ the riest. 1hat +ould have caused 0e trou"le. 1he sus icion +as there nevertheless, 3 0ust say, "ecause 0y arents had an accent. ;ay"e 3 could have assed, "ut +ith 0y arents it +as harder. 6<, +e +ere in the Cantal. 1he at0os here +as stran#e, very anti54e0itic, o enly anti54e0itic. Marc 4.* 3 enlisted as a volunteer. 3 +ent "ut they sent 0e a+ay, sayin# that the 'uota had "een filled. 1+ice like that, 3 donGt kno+, they didnGt +ant 0e. Later, +hen the e2odus started, 3 +anted to leave. 6nly, 3 had the feelin# that 3 +ouldnGt #et far and that they +ould catch 0e on the +ay. 4o 3 said to 0yself: 3tGs "etter to stay ho0e. 3 returned ho0e. Little "y little, +e started or#ani=in# ourselves. 1hat is, even durin# the +ar, at least at the "e#innin#, you could #et "ooks at the li"rary. Later on, they closed it. D $%& D 1o earn a livin#, +e started 0akin# little urses at ho0e for a erson +ho #ave us +ork. Later, on ;ay 1H, 19H1, all forei#ners received a su00ons to a ear. We didnGt kno+ +hat to do. We #ot the su00ons at seven or ei#ht oGclock at ni#ht, to a ear the ne2t day at ei#ht oGclock in the 0ornin#. We didnGt even kno+ +ho to ask for advice, +hat to do, if +e should #o or not. 3 said to 0yself: .3G0 not #oin#.. 3 had 0y +ife and dau#hter to +orry a"out. .;ay"e theyGd take it out on the0.

But +here could +e hideU. *t that ti0e, +e didnGt have so 0any contacts +ith -rench eo le. 1oday itGs different. 4o 3 +ent. 3t +as too late to #et a+ay. 1hey told 0y +ife to #o #ather the necessary thin#s. 1hey didnGt tell us +here +e +ere #oin#, and they sent us to Beaune5la5Iolande. Oo+n there, the first +eek, +e learned +hat it 0eant to "e hun#ry. Later, +e could receive little acka#es. What kind of food did +e #etU 1+ice a day, a sou of +hite "eets. *nd one loaf of "read for ei#ht of us. 1o divide it, +hat did +e doU * little scale +ith ieces of +ood and strin#? if there +as an e2tra iece of "read for one erson, they took it a+ay to #ive to so0e"ody else. Later, they sent us to 4olo#ne, su osedly to +ork on the a"andoned far0s. 3 +as 0isera"le, "ecause they had started allo+in# visits fro0 +ives, fa0ilies, and 0e, it +as Eust 0y turn to have a visit +hen, +ithout notice, they send 0e to 4olo#ne. We +ere #uarded "y -rench olice0en. 1hey let us "uy food fro0 the easants. We +ere a"le to +rite, and +hen the +ives found out +here +e +ere, they ca0e, they +ere allo+ed in. 6nce 0y +ife ca0e to visit +ith 0y dau#hter. We +ere afraid "ecause +e kne+ at that ti0e: roundu s, other roundu s, had already started. 1he olice rotated every 0onth, and they too +ere tryin# to #et food to send acka#es to their fa0ilies. 4o +e had a certain freedo0 of 0ove0ent. We took the0 to the far0s and they could "uy food to send. 1here +ere #uards in front of the far0s. 1he olice0en lau#hed if so0eone esca ed. But not the #uard, "ecause he +as unished or fired. 3n short, +e sa+ that the situation couldnGt #o on like that. 3 esca ed. 3 +as lucky, "ecause only a +eek after 0y esca e, all of those fro0 Beaune5la5Iolande +ere de orted. D $%B D Ao+ did 3 esca eU 3 +ent to this far0, several 0iles a+ay, to #et food. 3 struck u an ac'uaintance +ith a #a0ekee er. We started talkin#. Ae needed shirts, he didnGt have enou#h fa"ric? "ecause, at that ti0e, to "uy a shirt or so0ethin# else, you needed cou ons. 4o 3 +rote to 0y +ife, she "ou#ht so0e shirts, sent the0, and he #ot 0e so0e food. 8 . . .9 1o esca e, you had to #o to 6rlLans to take the train to Paris. But the train +ent throu#h 6rlLans at nine oGclock in the 0ornin# and roll call for us +as at ei#ht? if anyone +as 0issin#, they +ould call 6rlLans. 4o0eone e2 lained ho+ to do it. 3 donGt re0e0"er the na0e of the station, "ut you had to +alk all ni#ht to #et there. 3 left +ith a friend at ten oGclock at ni#ht. We #ot to the station a"out five in the 0ornin#. *t ):$%, there +as a train, and, +hen they 0ade the roll call do+n there, +e +ere already in Paris.

CLet Us !(en&e Our Jewish 1rothersC

&he stru!!les o3 the /esistance le3t a deep trace in memories* despite a certain myth to the contrary, the Jews in 3act did not su$mit passively to !enocide. 5rom the outset o3 the Berman occupation, mutual aid or!ans were set up* in (aris, the Committee o3 the /ue melot, esta$lished $y the leadin! community wor#ers, 4undists and %e3t and /i!ht %a$or "ionists 3unctionin! in semisecrecy, providin! solidarity and assistance <canteens, clinics, 3inancial help, contacts, 3alse papers, etc.=.81(9 s 3or the Jewish Communists, $y the summer o3 78M>, they too or!ani@ed nei!h$orhood committees, !roups o3 women and youn! people, !athered in the Solidarity movement. &hey would supply the /esistance with some o3 its 3irst 3i!hters the 3ollowin! year.8 1$9 nd despite the silence o3 the 2o33icial2 versions, we now #now that the activists o3 the M.A.I. <Immi!rant %a$or=, composed mostly o3 Jewish Communists 3rom eastern ,urope, especially (oland <alon! with Spanish, Italian, and rmenian activists=, 3ormed the van!uard o3 the armed 81(9 *dler, 5ace P la perscution, . 1)B.

81$9 3"id., . 1K1ff.? ;aurice IaEsfus, %) n prochain la rvolution* %es communistes 1ui3s immi!rs dans la tourmente stalinienne, 78:>R78MC 8Ne2t /ear the Ievolution: 300i#rant ,e+ish Co00unists in 4talinist 1or0ent, 19$%J19H)9 @Paris: ;a=arine, 19B)C, . 1()ff. D $%9 D stru!!le a!ainst the Fa@is, in (aris as well as in %yon, Breno$le, Marseille, and &oulouse.8 1H9 (olitically and !eo!raphically, 4ernard (. and Maurice F. 3ollowed analo!ous itineraries* their trou$les 3irst too# them to the %yon su$ur$, where they 3ound each other, in the summer o3 78M;, in the same networ#s. 5irst they $elon!ed to Jewish youth !roups a33iliated with the Communist party and naturally went 3rom the G.J.J. <Gnion o3 Jewish .outh, one o3 the components o3 the Solidarity movement= to the G.J./.,. <Gnion o3 Jews 3or /esistance and Mutual id=, when the latter was 3ormed in the summer o3 78M: to provide a wider, united $ase 3or Jewish resistance. Hence3orth, the new or!ani@ation !ave priority to speci3ically Jewish pro$lems and led to the 3ormation o3 a $i! 2national2 movement.81)9In his memories, 4ernard (. spea#s very lucidly o3 a 2#ind o3 excitement o3 the special activity o3 each !roup. 4ecause the G.J./.,. corresponded to a return to nationalism. &hou!h not "ionism, it was nevertheless an assertion to the e33ect* let us aven!e our Jewish $rothers. mo$ili@ation, as the Soviet Gnion mo$ili@ed .iddish writers.2 3 had an education that +as "oth Fionist and ;ar2ist, since, in Poland, 3 had "een active for 0any years in the Aasho0er AaFaGir 0ove0ent. 3 read a lot as soon as 3 started readin# -rench. 1his +as in GH% and GH1. 3 read a lot of "ooks on the -rench Ievolution, +hich led 0e to discern arallels +ith the Bolshevik Ievolution. 1he >er0an54oviet act had already occurred, "ut that didnGt kee 0e fro0 ree2a0inin# 0y assu0 tions. 3t +as a urely intellectual rocess that led 0e to try to #et close to the Co00unists. 1o #et close to the Co00unists, in Ioanne, there +asnGt 0uch choice, 3 didnGt have 0uch, three or four Co00unist ,e+s, so they +ere re uted to "e, +ho ke t their distance fro0 the co00unity. 3 0ust say fro0 afar they didnGt see0 to "e such sterlin# Co00unists. /ou 0ustnGt for#et that the Co00unist arty +as outla+ed, so that +as the only contact 3 could have. 4o 3 0ade contact +ith those ,e+s, all of +hose activity 81H9 *dler, 5ace P la perscution, . (%$J(%H? IaEsfus, %)an prochain la rvolution, . (%1J(11. . 1H(ff., 1&Kff. 81)9 3"id., . 1H9? *dler, 5ace P la perscution,

D $1% D consisted of a cautious +ait5and5see. 3 0ust say that that corres onded to the #eneral +ait5and5see attitude of the 0aEority of the Party at that ti0e, "et+een the Pact and GH1. 3 +as lookin# for a chance to act, "ut 3 didnGt find any i00ediate o ortunities +ith those ,e+ish Co00unists of Ioanne. 4o 3 started on 0y o+n. *ny+ay, act is a very #rand +ord. 3 +rote a little ne+s a er and roduced t+enty co ies "y hand. 3 0ust have ut out three or four issues, +hich +ere ro"a"ly full of 0istakes. 3 distri"uted the0 in 0ail"o2es, and 3 think 3 #ave a co y to one of the ,e+ish Co00unists 3 +as in touch +ith. Because of this .initiative,. he ut 0e in touch +ith one of his authorities in Lyon. ./ou took the initiative aloneU. *lone, a"solutely alone. 1his +ait5and5see attitude didnGt satisfy 0e. 3t +as a"out ;arch or * ril of

GH1. 1here +as in articular the +atch+ord of 0akin# eace +ith the >er0an eo le "y #oin# over the heads of the leaders. LetGs say that 3 never e2 ressed an o inion, "ut 3 never 'uite understood +hat that 0eant in ractice. 3 have an e2cellent 0e0ory. 3 a0 tellin# you this "ecause it left a 0ark on 0e. 3 canGt for#et it. 3t +as ,une (1, the date of the >er0an invasion of Iussia. 3t +as a 4unday. We +ere to#ether +ith a co0rade fro0 Lyon, 3 can tell you his na0e, heGs +ell kno+n, I. Ae +as there to try to e2 lain to us +hat 0akin# eace +ith the >er0an eo le over the heads of the leaders +as all a"out. *nd Paulette ca0e in. Paulette +as the +ife of the Co00unist in +hose house +e +ere #athered. *nd she said: .1he >er0ans have attacked the 4oviet UnionR. 1hat ended that: the 0eetin# +as adEourned. Ae +as a "it shee ish. Ae e2 lained that the +orld is dialectic. Oialectic e2 lains a lot of thin#s. 3n short, the "usiness of 0akin# eace +as over. 3 donGt re0e0"er very +ell any0ore +hat 3 +as doin# "et+een GH1 and *u#ust of GH(. Co0rades fro0 Lyon ca0e to Ioanne. 1he +atch+ord +as no lon#er the sa0e: it +as +ar a#ainst the occu ier. But +e still +erenGt doin# anythin#. Ourin# that ti0e, 3 +as +orkin# as a far0er "ecause 3 didnGt have any a ers. 3 +ent under#round in ,uly of GH(. 3 had 0y first for#ed iden5 D $11 D tity card 0ade. *t that ti0e, you could "uy cards in every to"acco sho . 3 filled it out as an *lsatian and used a false sta0 3 0ade +ith a childGs rintin# set. *lsatian for 0y accent, of course. 3 #ot in touch +ith the first #rou s of youn# ,e+s attached to the ,e+ish or#ani=ation, the 6.,.,. +hich later "eca0e the U.,.I.:. * +hile later, 3 found 0yself a ointed to lead that #rou of youn# ,e+s. 3t +asnGt yet the 4outhern Fone? it +as only Lyon. We rinted tracts, and +e distri"uted the0. We +rote #raffiti +ith chalk. 1hey +ere already "e#innin# to look for the first recruits to #o into the co0"at #rou s, for ar0ed stru##le. * fello+ like 4i0on -ried, +ho +as #uillotined in Lyon in GH$, 3 think, ca0e fro0 that first #rou . 3t +asnGt a very heroic act, "ut a useful act. Ae +as cau#ht stealin# food ration cards in city halls. *nd he +as #uillotined. 3n that first #rou , there +as L., +ho is still around? there +as 4i0on -ried. /ou could say that +as the leadershi . 1here +as -red, a =oot5suiter, a terrific #uy, +ho Eoined the -.1.P.81K9 very 'uickly. Ae stu idly #ot hi0self killed in the fi#hts for the Li"eration of Paris. 1here +as C., +ho Eoined the -.1.P. AeGs alive. 3 think heGs still a Co00unist. 1here +as N., +ho also +ent to the fi#htin# #rou s and the -.1.P. /es, they +ere all ,e+s. *s for 0e, 3 still had olitical +ork, u"lishin# tracts and then u"lishin# a ne+s a er, .oun! Com$at . 1he ne+s a er "e#an u"lishin# in GH$, 3 think, the sa0e ti0e the U.,.,. "eca0e the U.,.I.:. 3 think there +as a connection +ith the dissolution of the Oomintern and +ith that kind of e2cite0ent for the s ecial activity of each #rou . 8 . . .9 We recruited es ecially, thou#h not e2clusively, a0on# ,e+s. Ourin# GH( and the "e#innin# of GH$, +e s read ra idly, and +e had #rou s of youn# ,e+s throu#hout Lyon and its environs. -ro0 the "e#innin# of GH$, 3 started travelin# to or#ani=e #rou s in >reno"le, ;arseille, Nice, 1oulouse, Peri#ueu2, and Li0o#es. -ro0 GH$ on, 3 canGt say recisely +hen, there +ere chan#es in the leadershi of the U.,.,. With the "i# do+nfalls in Paris, 81K9 -.1.P: -rance51ireur et Partisan, the Iesistance 0ove0ent led "y the Co00unists.

D $1( D and the dan#er for the leadershi of re0ainin# in Paris, the 0ost cele"rated 0e0"ers of the ,e+ish or#ani=ation ca0e to the 4outhern Fone. * +hole tea0 ca0e +ith Iayski. <o+alski +as one +ho ca0e. 3 think heGs livin# in 3srael no+. :arlier he had #one to Poland. 1hen he left there at the ti0e of the out"reak of anti54e0itis0.81&9 *t the sa0e ti0e, 3 had a chance to 0eet once or t+ice +ith the erson in char#e of ;.6.3., +ho +as IayskiGs su erior. 4o, +ith the arrival of the Parisian #rou , the +hole structure of our or#ani=ation +as chan#ed in the direction of #reater vi#ilance. Vi#ilance as re#ards security. We +ere an under#round or#ani=ation, ursued "y the >er0ans. 1hatGs one thin#. But also vi#ilance over ideolo#ical urity. 1hat +as co ied fro0 the artyGs or#ani=ation. 1hey a ointed eo le res onsi"le for the cells. 1hey started checkin# eo lesG ersonal "io#ra hies. 1hat vi#ilance +ent too far, e2tendin# even to fa0ily and ori#ins. 3t +as olitical vi#ilance. -or e2a0 le, if eo le started in the *.,.,81B9 you couldnGt #ive the0 res onsi"ilities "ecause they +ere considered to "e under 1rotskyite influence. 3n short, +hat 3 0ean is that it +ent "eyond the 'uestion of security. 3 had a hard ti0e s+allo+in# that. 3n short, +e had so0e oints of disa#ree0ent. We didnGt really click +ith -eld. *t any rate, 0y 0ain activity +as editin# .oun! Com$at, travelin#, liaison +ith the rovinces. Besides, at the "e#innin# of GHH, 3 +as re0oved fro0 Lyon and sent to ;arseille. 1hat +as after the *0erican landin# in 3taly, after the landin# in Corsica, 3 "elieve. 1hey redicted there +ould "e a landin# in the south "efore the landin# in the north, and +e had to stren#then the leadershi of the 0ove0ents, that is, of the Party, in the =ones +here the *0ericans +ould a ear first. 3n ;arseille, 3 #ot in touch +ith the adult ,e+ish or#ani=ations, erha s it +as the ;.6.3., to coordinate activities. *nd 81&9 ;ost of the leaders of the ;.6.3. @;ain dG6euvre 300i#rLe, a Co00unist or#ani=ation for 0i#rant +orkersC, did indeed return to their ho0eland after the Li"eration and then ca0e "ack to -rance, es ecially in the +ake of the +ave of anti54e0itis0 in 19KB in Poland. But :douard <o+alski did in fact re0ain in Poland, accordin# to the testi0ony of Louis >rono+ski5Brunot, collected "y IaEsfus, %) n prochain la rvolution, . $H)J$H&. 81B9 /outh or#ani=ation. D $1$ D in ,une, ri#ht after the landin#, they told us: ./ouGre #oin# "ack to Lyon.. 3 +as then +ith 0y +ife. 4he +asnGt yet 0y +ife, "ut +e +ere livin# to#ether. 4he had co0e to Lyon in Oece0"er of GH$. 4he +as 0y liaison and 'uite naturally. . . . *ny+ay, +e +ent "ack to#ether on ,une &. 3 al0ost #ot 0yself arrested "y the >esta o +hen 3 arrived in Lyon. 3 +as arrested in a roundu +hile #ettin# off the train. 3 +as usually 'uite careful. 3 looked around "ut didnGt see anythin#. 1hen a #uy in civilian clothes ca0e u to 0e, a -rench0an of the P.P.-., 3 donGt kno+. Ae said to 0e: .Please follo+ 0e.. 3 had a ers as a li"eral arts student or so0e such #i00ick. 3t +as at the railroad station of Brotteau2. ;y +ife +as +ith 0e. 4he started #ru0"lin#. Ae said: .Listen, itGs an identity check.. -inally he sa+ her73 tell you this "ecause itGs i0 ortant for +hat co0es later. 3t +as three in the afternoon. Ae took 0e to a Ied Cross hut, to+ard Brotteau2. 1here +ere a"out fifty of us there, #uarded +ith su"0achine #uns. 4ince 0ornin#, they had "een 0akin# roundu s "ecause so0e #uy, 3 donGt kno+ +ho, had thro+n a #renade. 3t +as the day after the landin#, donGt for#et. 1hey took 0y a ers. 1he first thin#, 3 +ent to the "athroo0 to eat all the little a ers on 0e that 0i#ht have "een at all co0 ro0isin#. What are +e +aitin# forU 1he arrival of the doctor for the

0edical checku . 3 took that to 0ean de ortation. 1here had "een roundu s at all the railroad stations and es ecially at Perrache. 1herefore the doctor +as late. Ourin# this ti0e, 3 started talkin# +ith the fello+ +ho had arrested 0e, this #uy +ho +orked for the >esta o. Ae #ave 0e so0e advice: .3f you +ant 'uiet, co0e +ith us to Ooriot, youGll "e fine.. 6<, 3 +ent alon# +ith the #a0e: 3 listened to +hat he said, ho+ they could +in. . . . *nd the ti0e assed. 3n the 0eanti0e the doctor still hadnGt sho+ed u "ecause he +as "usy in Perrache. *nd there +as only one doctor, "ut 3 #uess 3 +as Eust lucky. 1hey decided: ./ouGre #oin# to s end the ni#ht in the de ot of 4aint5,ean.. 4o they honed for the Lyonnais "uses to take us to the de ot. 3 donGt kno+ if it +as sa"ota#e or "ad +ill, another hour, hour and a half, assed "efore the "us ca0e. 3t ca0e fro0 Perrache half full, so there +asnGt roo0 for every"ody. D $1H D 3 +as already in the car to "e taken to the de ot of 4aint5,ean. 1hey +ere "e#innin# to release certain cate#ories, eo le +ho +orked for the railroad factories, +ho had certificates and therefore +orked for the >er0ans, or heads of lar#e fa0ilies. 3 had nothin# to lose. 3 +ent to the +indo+ of the car. 1here +as the "oss +ho had all the a ers. 3 said to hi0: .Listen, 0y +ife is re#nant and if 3 donGt co0e "ack, sheGs #oin# to "e sick.. *nd on the side, thirty feet a+ay fro0 hi0, +as the fello+ +ho had arrested 0e and +ho had seen 0y +ife. Ae said: ./es.. *nd the other 0an understood that he sa+ she +as re#nant. 4o then, listen to this, he took 0y a ers, +hich +ere of course for#ed? they +erenGt the a ers 3 had 0ade 0yself, they +ere a little "etter than that. *nd he said to 0e: ./ouGre +hatU /ou do +hatU. .3G0 a student.. .4tudent of +hatU. .Li"eral arts.. .What artsU. 3 shru##ed 0y shoulders. ./ouGre -rench at leastU. 30a#ine that, #iven 0y accent. 3 Eust shru##ed 0y shoulders a#ain. *nd he had 0y card, on +hich 0y life de ended. Ae says: .>et outR. 3 #ot out of the car and took "ack 0y a ers. 1hen 3 took to 0y heels "ecause there +as a curfe+. 3 cau#ht a trolley that +ent to OLcines, for the +orkers on the ni#ht shift. * +orker #ave 0e a ticket "ecause you had to have s ecial tickets. 3n short, an hour after the curfe+, 3 arrived at OLcines, to >a"riel, +hose only concern +as to kno+ +hether 3 had "een follo+ed. Ae +as ri#ht, of course. *ny+ay, 3 had enor0ous luck. 3 had enor0ous luck "ecause, as 3 think a"out it today, 3 should have "een dead for forty years already. Maurice F.* /es, the census +as taken in GH1, "efore the >er0ans attacked Iussia. We didnGt kno+ ho+ to react. We discussed ;ar2is0, +e liked to "e to#ether, +e en#a#ed in ro a#anda a#ainst the i0 erialist +ar, "ut +e didnGt kno+ ho+ to react a#ainst the occu ier. 4o +e +ent to "e recorded and once you had the sta0 . . . 1hin#s +ent on like that until ,une of GH1, +hen Iussia entered the +ar, at +hich ti0e the +hole olicy, our olicy, D $1) D chan#ed. Work started co0 letely different7instead of Eust talkin#, +e started actin#. 1hat +as in the Co00unist arty. We +ere in a cell or#ani=ed "y four, five, si27all ,e+s. 3t +as deli"erate "ecause, in #eneral, they al+ays for0ed se arate cells. When ,e+s entered the youth 0ove0ent or the Party, you kno+, they didnGt s eak -rench very +ell. 1hey did 0uch "etter a0on# the0selves. *t that ti0e, 3 didnGt kno+ of any other cell than the ,e+ish cells. We tried to +ork? +e started distri"utin# tracts. 1hat +as a co0 letely different +ork. 1here +erenGt any -rench0en in the first #rou s.

8 . . .9 3n -e"ruary of GH(, +e left for Lyon. 3 had "een su00oned to the refecture, and they +anted to take a+ay 0y naturali=ation. ;y +ife ushed 0e to leave and so did 0y arents. 3 left for Lyon, in the free =one. 3n the free =one, 3 re0ained -rench. 3n Paris, 0y 0other, 0y t+o sisters, and 0y "rother +ere de orted on ,uly 1K, 19H(. *ll that re0ained +as 0y father, +ho left on ,uly 1H or 1) to co0e to 0e in OLcines, near Lyon. Ae ca0e to Eoin 0e. 3n OLcines, +e lived to#ether, in the sa0e house, +ith 0y father, 0y in5la+s, and 0y +ifeGs t+o "rothers. ;y 0other +as de orted in GH( +ith 0y "rother and t+o sisters. 3 re0ained alone +ith 0y father. 3n Lyon, +e continued to +ork. 3 #ot in touch +ith P., then +ith Charles L., +ho +as called P0ile. Ae +as a very skillful s eaker? he +as very ca a"le. 1here +as Aenri L., Charles B., Aenriette, :rnest. 1hat +as the first #rou . 1hey started or#ani=in# the youth in Lyon. 3 +as assi#ned OLcines. We rinted a0 hlets ourselves, at -redGs house. 6ur +ork consisted 0ainly of ro a#anda and 0ilitary trainin#. 1hey +ere re arin# eo le to Eoin the -.1.P. 1here are 0any eo le like Charles +ho Eoined the -.1.P. We had one +o0an friend, Pierrine, yes. We didnGt even kno+ if that +as her real na0e. 1here +as P. 7he "eca0e the leader of the +hole 4outhern Ie#ion. Ae also lived in OLcines. 1hey kne+ 3 +as in OLcines, "ut they didnGt kno+ +here he lived. 1hen, ri#ht on the eve of the Li"eration, 3 +as denounced and they took 0y father, 0y 0other5in5la+, and 0y t+o "rothers5in5la+ fro0 our house. 6ne of the0 ca0e "ack, the D $1K D youn#er one. *t the a#e of eleven, he +as the youn#est de ortee fro0 -rance. 8 . . .9 1here +ere cases +hen the olice hel ed us. -or e2a0 le, a olice ser#eant +as in front of the trolley and +hen he sa+ a ,e+ #et off, he told hi0 to #o "ack. ;oreover, 3 have an interestin# case to tell re#ardin# that olice ser#eant. 3t +as the last year of the +ar, ri#ht "efore the Li"eration of OLcines. 1here +as a +o0an +ho lived +ith the >er0ans, and the ;a'uisards,8199 friends, ca0e and threatened the +o0an. 4he started shoutin#: .Ael , sto , thiefR. 1he olice ser#eant ca0e. Ae ordered the0 to sto . 1hey didnGt sto and he dre+ his revolver and killed one of the0. 4u"se'uently, at the Li"eration, the sa0e ;a'uisards ca0e and arrested hi0. 3 thou#ht that olice ser#eant had done a lot to hel ,e+s and others so 3 o+ed hi0 so0ethin#. 3 +ent to free hi0. 3 +ent to a lot of trou"le? 3 had to fi#ht to #et his freedo0. 3 thou#ht 3 o+ed hi0 so0ethin#, not for 0yself, "ut as a ,e+ and as a 0an. * 0onth "efore the *llies entered Lyon, there +as the u risin# at Villeur"anne. 1hat 0ust have "een the end of *u#ust GHH. We occu ied the skyscra ers. We fou#ht. *nd, as the >er0an ar0y +as retreatin# after the landin# at ;arseille, +e +ere o"li#ed to #ive +ay to the >er0ans. We +ere the ones +ho li"erated OLcines.

Miracles
How did the survivors escape persecutionE &hey are still ama@ed at it today. I3 they express their !ratitude 3or 5rench 3riends who !enerously a!reed to help them, o3ten at !reat peril, almost all the survivors ultimately rec#on that they owed their salvation to chance, to luc#, luc# $orderin! on the miraculous. An such and such a day, some policeman came to warn them that it was $etter not to stay home in the next 3ew hours, since there was !oin! to $e a roundup* 2%oo#, I have an order to arrest you. I)ll say I didn)t 3ind any$odyI2 Ar <as Mathilde /. tells= some policeman, apparently inadvertently, covered over the 2Jew2 on the identity card with his 3in!er6 or even some Berman soldier, to whom 8199 1ranslatorGs note: -rench Iesistance fi#hters.

D $1& D you had dared to spea# Berman, too# pity6 or you mana!ed to tric# some 5rench militiaman <li#e 4ernard (.=. So many survivals, so many miracles. Here is how Mathilde /., who hid in a villa!e o3 the Cantal, escaped arrest. s she recalls the episode, she truly relives the events, the !estures, the words, the thou!hts, and even the perception o3 the landscape in a time that $ecomes almost unmovin!, suspended. 6ne day, they arrested all the ,e+s of the villa#e, ri#ht in the 0iddle of the 0ornin#. 6ne of the dau#hters of a colla"orator ca0e to school sayin# to so0e"ody: .1his 0ornin#, they arrested all the ,e+s of the villa#e. or .1heyGre #oin# to arrest all the ,e+s of the villa#e.. *nd then itGs the intensity of . . . 3 donGt kno+ +hat. 1his 0echanis0, 3 really +ant to call it denial, "ut really you 0ustnGt sho+ anythin#. 3 didnGt sho+ anythin#, "ut 0ore than that, 3 didnGt feel anythin#7consciously felt nothin#. 1hat didnGt "other 0e. *nd 3 kne+ that, in the 0ornin#, 0y father +as su osed to co0e #et 0y "icycle either to retend to #o to +ork or to #et cheese. 3 left school, and the "icycle +as in front of the door. 3 didnGt reali=e +hat 0i#ht have ha ened to 0e. 3 took 0y "icycle and +ent ho0e. *nd as usual, 3 sto ed at all the far0s alon# the +ay, to ask if there +ere e##s, 0ilk, cheese, +hatever you could i0a#ine findin# and never did find, "ut +hich you did find nevertheless fro0 ti0e to ti0e. *nd 3 sto ed. While 3 +as askin# a +o0an if she had any e##s, 3 +as a+are that 3 had the handle"ars of 0y "icycle in 0y hands and that 3 shouldnGt have had the0, that 0y father should have co0e to #et the "icycle. *nd +hile 3 +as askin# her if she had any e##s, 3 +as thinkin#: .Well, 0y arents have "een arrested, o"viously, since the #irl said to the other one that they arrested all the ,e+s this 0ornin#. 4o, 3G0 alone. What a0 3 #oin# to doU. Ieally, in a flash: .What a0 3 #oin# to doU 3G0 #oin# to try to #o find 0y aunt in the Vaucluse. 4o, 3Gve #ot to shift for 0yself to find so0e 0oney for the tri .. ;y 0ind +as +orkin# to fi#ure out ho+ to #et 0oney for the tri . *"solutely no e0otion. Nothin#. U until the 0o0ent +hen, a roachin# the house, 3 sa+ 0y father, and then and there 3 D $1B D started cryin#. U until then, 3 hadnGt felt anythin#. Nothin# "ut ractical thin#s. Later, they told 0e that the o+ner of the house +here +e +ere livin#, a 0arvelous house in an a"solutely s endid landsca e overlookin# the distant 0ountains of the Cantal7it +as very "eautiful, there +as a #reen 0eado+7so, the o+ner had #one to #et the olice to tell the0: .3 donGt understand, you arrested all the ,e+s "ut you didnGt arrest 0ineR. *nd a0on# those olice0en +as one +hose little #irl 0y 0other had taken for a +alk Eust "y chance. Ae ans+ered: ./ou tell 0e that those are ,e+s, "ut 3 donGt kno+ anythin# a"out it. 3 donGt have any roof..

Mournin&
&he miracle, alas, didn)t always ta#e place. +e #now the 3i!ures today, than#s to the la$ors o3 Ser!e Olars3eld* o3 the :>>,>>>R::>,>>> Jews in 5rance 1ust $e3ore the war <78>,>>>R;>>,>>> 5rench Jews, 7:>,>>>R7M>,>>> 3orei!n Jews=, close to K>,>>>, that is, ;C percent, perished. &hose who disappeared include C9,C>> 3orei!n Jews and ;M,C>> 5rench Jews. &he latter included K,>>> children o3 3orei!n parents and K,>>> naturali@ed 5rench citi@ens.8 (%9In other words, 7> percent o3 5rench Jews and M> percent o3 immi!rant Jews were victims o3 !enocide.8(19 Memories indicate an immeasura$le void. &here is practically no 3amily that was untouched* almost always, several close relatives died, plus all those who stayed in (oland and the other homelands. &he survivors su33ered a trauma that cut their lives in two* when memory o3 the catastrophe, o3 the arrest o3

loved ones returns, it is once a!ain stupor, the sense o3 a rupture, a tearin! apart, somethin! un3inished. %i#ewise, the children o3 deportees who could tal# to Claudine 'e!h a3ter 3orty years o3 silence and con3ess their private $rea# constantly repeat the same lament, li#e a tra!ic re3rain* 2I didn)t say !ood-$ye.28((9 8(%9 4er#e <larsfeld, 'ichy- uschwit@* %e rWle de 'ichy dans la solution 3inale de la question 1uive en 5rance, 78M:R78MM 8Vichy5*usch+it=: 1he Iole of Vichy in the -inal 4olution of the ,e+ish Muestion in -rance9 @Paris: -ayard, 19B)C, . 1&9J1B1. 8(19 3"id.? and *dler, 5ace P la perscution, . (9. 8((9 Claudine Ve#h, I -idn)t Say Bood$ye. 8Je ne lui ai pas dit au revoir 9. Postface 3ntroduction "y Bruno Bettelhei0 @London: Cali"an Books, 19BHC. D $19 D It)s the same laceration that Bolda /. recounts at the time o3 her hus$and)s arrest* /ou had to re#ister at the co00anderGs office. 3 didnGt let 0y hus"and #o. 3 took his identity card and 3 +ent +ith 0ine and his. 3 co0e to Iouen. 1hey re#istered 0e and that +as that. 1hen they couldnGt find 0y card. 1hey looked and didnGt find it. 4o they sent olice to :l"euf to arrest 0e and take 0e to the co00anderGs office. 1he olice +ere 0y hus"andGs "est friends. 1hey used to eat and drink in 0y house. 1hey ca0e in the 0ornin#, very early. 3 +as still slee in#. ;y hus"and +ent out. 1+o olice0en ca0e. .We have to e2a0ine your +ifeGs identity card.. 3 thre+ on 0y dressin# #o+n. 1hey said to 0e: .Unfortunately, ;ada0e I., +e didnGt co0e to #et the identity card, +e ca0e to #et you.. *nd 0y hus"and cried out: ./ou ca0e to #et 0y +ifeU What has she doneU 1heyGre not takin# +o0en yetR Why are they takin# youU Oid you do so0ethin# in PolandU Were you a Co00unistU. 1hey forced 0e to #o. 3 #ot dressed. 3 +anted to take the child @;adeleine +as si2 0onths old at the ti0eC, "ut 0y hus"and didnGt +ant 0e to. 1he t+o "oys had already left for school. 3 asked er0ission to #o say #ood5"ye to the children. ;y hus"and +ent to #et the0 at school. 1hey +ere cryin#. *ll the eo le +ho sa+ the olice takin# 0e insulted the0: .What do you +ant +ith that +o0anU 4he never hurt any"odyR. 3 said to the olice0an: ./ou ate +ith 0y hus"and, you drank +ith 0y hus"and, 3 set the ta"le for you.. 1hat +as in GH%. 1hey +erenGt yet takin# +o0en at that ti0e. 3 ca0e to the co00anderGs office. ;y hus"and tele honed to ask the0 to release his +ife. Ae said that he +anted to #o in her lace. 1hey ans+ered hi0 that his +ife +as #oin# to return and that +hen they needed hi0, they +ould take hi0. 8 . . .9 We had a do#. AeGd "ark +hen a child assed "y. But +hen the olice sho+ed u at the door, he didnGt "ud#e. Ae re0ained silent. 1here +ere t+o e2its. When the do# "arked, D $(% D 3 said: .*vro0, #o out the "ack and #o to 4u=anneGs house.. 3 didnGt kno+ they +ere olice, and 0y hus"and +as at ho0e.

.Unfortunately, I., itGs you +eGve co0e to #et. /ou tele honed that +e should release your +ife and take you.. 3 "e##ed? .Listen, youGre 0y hus"andGs "est friends. /ou ate and drank in 0y house. /ou kno+ heGs sick. /ou can say he +asnGt there.. ./ou +ant the0 to shoot us instead of your hus"andU. ;y hus"and #ot dressed, and they took hi0 a+ay. 1hat +as in 19H(. 1hey took hi0 to Orancy . . . &he days o3 the %i$eration $rou!ht with them an indescri$a$le $urst o3 1oy in u!ust and Septem$er o3 78MMHshort-lived 1oy that would $e shattered when the survivors, alon! with the rest o3 the world, discovered the horror o3 the Fa@i camps. In truth it was $ut a hal3-revelation, 3or, more or less consciously, they suspected, they #new, that horror. 4ut then the emaciated s#eletons o3 survivors returned and told o3 it, and the photos were pu$lished, and the 3ilms showin! the heaps o3 corpses at uschwit@, the piles o3 shoes and eye!lasses, the crematoria. nd there was the waitin!, the lon!, intermina$le, desperately 3utile waitin!, the piti3ul lines at the Hotel %utetia8($9in search o3 news o3 those who had disappeared. Fothin!, no one. .ou waited, however6 you #ept on waitin!, stu$$ornly, silently clin!in! to a 3utile <thou!h unspea#a$le= hope. .ou watched 3or the mailman, the sound o3 3ootsteps on the stairs6 in the street, you rushed toward a stran!er $ecause you thou!ht, in the distance, you reco!ni@ed a pro3ile. Mute !rie3 that you didn)t tal# a$out even with those who were close to you $ecause you #new that the hope was mad, that the return o3 those who disappeared was unli#ely, more and more mad, more and more unli#ely with the passin! o3 the months and the years. 4ut you still waited, you waited incessantly, 3or the rest o3 your li3e. &his 2unspea#a$le secret,2 this waitin!, never 3ailed to disappoint and inevita$ly recurred. It !ave rise to uncannily similar 3ormulations. Mathilde /.* 3 drea0ed of that aunt 3 loved so 0uch, +ho +as a very i0 ortant fi#ure for 0e in 0y childhood. 3 drea0ed for years and 8($9 * lar#e hotel in Paris +here the survivors of concentration ca0 s +ere #athered after their return in the s rin# of 19H). D $(1 D years, and, every no+ and then, it still co0es "ack to 0e. 3tGs a recurrin# drea0: 3 enter her a art0ent and sheGs there @that a art0ent +here 3 lived +ith her durin# the +arC. 4heGs there, yet, at the sa0e ti0e, 3 kno+ it canGt "e. 3n the drea0, thereGs so0ethin# of a dou"t a"out that ossi"ility, so that it +onGt "e so ho eless on +akin#. Mournin! was impossi$le, 3or it was denied in its proper time. In a way, the survivors continue to live in an extension o3 the moment when they couldn)t say !ood-$ye. How could the process o3 mournin! $e done without #nowin! when and how loved ones died, when there is no tom$, no $ody, and no traditional 3uneral ritesE Hence, one encounters a 3ixation on the past, the perception o3 the present 2throu!h a special prism,28 (H9and this intermina$le waitin! mixed with a sense o3 !uilt. A3 what are these victims o3 Fa@i crimes !uiltyE Simply put, o3 livin! or, rather, o3 survivin!. &he uneasiness is especially stron! in those who were children at the time and lost their parents* they have a sense o3 owin! their lives to them a second time, o3 havin! survived only at the cost o3 their parents) sacri3ice. Similar 3eelin!s are expressed $y those who remem$er the 3amily they le3t $ehind, in (olandH3amily who were trapped $y the !enocide.

Mathilde /.* We had to #o "ack to Paris in 6cto"er 819HH9. Ieturnin# to Paris +as also so0ethin# +onderful. 1o return to Paris +as another ,uly 1H, another landin#. 3t +as +onderful, e2ce t that 0y aunt, 0ean+hile, had "een de orted. 4he +as de orted under truly senseless conditions. -irst, she stayed in Paris lon#er than +e did. 4he didnGt +ant to leave. 3n retros ect, 3 understood +hy. 3 understood later on that 0y aunt +as involved in the Iesistance. 4he had a friend +ho lived do+nstairs fro0 her, a doctor and a Co00unist. 3 understood "ecause 0y aunt used to ty e thin#s all day lon# on the ty e+riter. 3 #uess she 0ust have "een 0akin# a0 hlets. 1hen, at a certain 0o0ent, they crossed the line of de0arcation and +ent to the free =one. *nd the eo le +hose house they +ere hidin# in +ere denounced, or they +ere denounced the0selves. 8(H9 Ve#h, I -idn)t Say Bood$ye, . 1&1. D $(( D 4he stayed in Orancy for several 0onths73 kno+ the date she arrived and 3 sa+ in <larsfeldGs "ook the date the convoy that took her to Orancy left. 4he +asnGt very old, fifty so0e, "ut she had dyed her hair. 3 think that her hair turned +hite durin# those 0onths in Orancy, and 3 su ose she +as ut into the #as cha0"er al0ost i00ediately "ecause of that. 6<, +hen +e returned, she +asnGt there any0ore, and +e kne+ that she had "een de orted. We har"ored va#ue ho es? 3 0ust say that 3 never really 0ourned for that aunt. 3 think, "esides, that nothin# is harder than to 0ourn for so0eone +hose "ody you havenGt seen. What 0ore can 3 tell youU /eachin! the end o3 her memories, Mathilde /. returns to her parents 3rom (oland. &heir story had inspired the openin! o3 her narrative, $ut they had almost $een 3or!otten since. nd this return ta#es the 3orm o3 a 3uneral litany, a monotonous enumeration o3 the dead* memory itsel3 $ecomes a memorial. ;y fa0ily in Poland +as entirely. . . . ;y #randfather, 0y #rand0other, ninety years old, +ere . . . accordin# to different versions, either de orted to 1re"linka or shot. 1hat uncle 3 talked a"out Eust no+, +ho +as a doctor in the Warsa+ #hetto? his son +ho +as half5,e+ish +as also shot in the #hetto. Ais +ife, +ho +as a Christian *r0enian, +ent 0ad as a result of those t+o deaths. 4he thre+ herself into the Vistula. . . . 4o it #oes, athetic stories, "ut thatGs reality. 4everal of 0y fatherGs sisters +ere killed "y the >er0ans, one in 1re"linka, the other, no one kno+s +here. 4he +as in Bialystok? she had returned to ,udais0. Ieally, itGs a fa0ily that +as snuffed out. 6n 0y 0otherGs side, 3 talked a"out that uncle +ith "ri#ht yello+ #loves and a cane +ith a kno": he and his +ife died in the Warsa+ >hetto. +ith /o$ert S., we 3ind the same mor$id preoccupation, tin!ed with a sense o3 uneasiness at the idea that he couldn)t !et all the mem$ers o3 his 3amily out in time. t the same time, this man, who evinced such admira$le moral ri!or and humanist ideals in the course o3 his memories, questions himsel3 in an!uish* Can we, must we, 3or!iveE D $($ D Fot 3or!et, $ut 3or!iveE &his pro$lem o3 the relationship $etween ethics and memory still !naws away.

When the +ar +as over, 3 +anted to kno+ +hat had "eco0e of 0y arents in Poland. 4o 3 +rote a letter to the Polish e0"assy, and they confir0ed that 0y arents died in the cre0atoriu0, at *usch+it=. 1his ha ened on a 1hursday 0ornin#, at ten oGclock. 1he ost0an "rou#ht 0e the letter, and tears ran do+n 0y face as 3 read it. *t the sa0e 0o0ent7youGd say the devil lays these tricks, unthinka"le tricks, on you7there +as a >er0an risoner +ho +as +orkin# on a far0 +ho Eust sho+ed u +ith a "ad tooth. Ae ca0e in, sat do+n. 3 had Eust read the letter, and 0y first i0 ulse +as to take the force s and, +ithout #ivin# hi0 a shot, ull the tooth so heGd cry out in ain. 1ellin# it 0akes it endure, "ut the thou#ht assed 'uickly. 3 said to 0yself: Brute, +hat do you "la0e hi0 forU Bein# a Na=iU 3t 0ay hurt you that he killed your arents, "ut if you co00it the "ar"aris0 of ullin# the tooth +ithout a shot, youGre a "ar"arian like hi0. /ou are no "etter than he. 3 ulled 0yself to#ether. 3 #ave hi0 a shot, then did the o eration. 3 +ouldnGt have done it "etter for 0y o+n father. *nd +hen 3 finished, 3 said to hi0 in >er0an: ./ou see, 3 #ot a letter that confir0s the death of 0y arents, dead in the cre0atoriu0.. 3 +aited. 3f he had said so0ethin# to try to clear hi0self, 3 +ould have unched hi0 in the face. 3 +as a"solutely sure of that. -ortunately, he +as rudent? he "o+ed his head and left. 3 never sa+ hi0 a#ain 8lon! silence 9. 3 asked 0yself the 'uestion: 3f 3 had seen 0y arents die, +ould 3 have "een a"le to for#ive so easilyU Because 3 "ear for#iveness inside 0e, "ut not for#ettin#. /ou can for#ive? you can never for#et those thin#s. But 3 +onder: 3f 3 had +itnessed 0y arentsG death, +ould 3 have had the stren#th to for#iveU 3 ad0it that, even no+, 3 donGt have the ans+er, and 3 think that 3Gll die +ithout ans+erin# the 'uestion.

-hosts
s the narrative draws to a close, when there is nothin! more to say $ecause their previous lives really seem 3inished, they !o $ac# a!ain, D $(H D to another come$ac#* that o3 survivors who helped them uncover some traces o3 those who disappeared <a date, a meetin!, some in3ormation a$out the way they died= or told the tra!edy they went throu!h. Survivors emer!e as !hosts 3rom another world. &he one .aco$-Jacques %. met ri!ht a3ter the war revealed stran!e coincidences to him. His memories un3old with episodes em$edded within other episodes, and shi3t 3rom third person narratives to 3irst person identi3ication with those recalled. 6ne day, 3 had a client at 4Vvres5Ba"ylone7you kno+U 1hereGs the Aotel Lutetia. 3t +as ri#ht after the Li"eration. 3 +as assin# "y the Aotel Lutetia, and a #irl +as starin# at 0e. 4he asked 0e: .Oo you s eak PolishU. ./es.. .6h, 3G0 saved, 3G0 saved.. .WhatGs #oin# onU. We +ent into a cafL and she told 0e a story like this. Aer father lived on a 0ain street in Warsa+, not in the #hetto. 1hey had a clock sho , a "i# one. 3 +as the only dau#hter, and 3 +as already in 0y last year of la+ school +hen the +ar "roke out. 6n the first day the >er0ans sent lanes to "o0" Warsa+, 0y 0other ha ened to "e in the street? she +as killed. 3 donGt have a 0other any0ore, she said to 0e, and she sto ed. 4he couldnGt talk any0ore. .:asy,. 3 said to her. 4o the day ca0e +hen +e had to #o to the #hetto. We had a little 0oney "ut the 0erchandise7+e hadnGt hidden it7the >er0ans took everythin#. We found a hole +ith so0e other ,e+s. 3 didnGt s eak /iddish, very little any+ay. What could +e doU 1hey thou#ht and thou#ht, and they found out that you

could #et for#ed a ers, identity cards +ith certificates of "a tis0, all that, "ut it +as very e2 ensive. ;y father said to 0e: .Listen, 0y child, 3 +onGt survive the +ar "ut 3 +ant to save you. 1ake this 0oney. /ouGre to #o to this lace 3 kno+. 1heyGll 0ake you an identity card and a certificate of "a tis0, and youGll #o to +ork. 3 donGt kno+ ho+, "ut youGll survive the +ar.. 3 didnGt +ant to, 3 didnGt +ant to. 1hen 0y father died too. 3 +as alone, all alone. 3 took the 0oney 3 had. 1hey 0ade a ers for 0e? that +asnGt easy. No+, +hat did 3 doU 3 looked for D $() D +ork. *s a housekee er. 4he found it ri#ht a+ay. 1hey sent her to a Polish lady. * "i# +o0an +ith three or four children. 3 didnGt see the hus"and there. 3n the 0ornin# 3 started +orkin#, "ut the +o0an looked at 0e sus iciously. 4he never did that, you understandU *t ni#ht, she +as already sure 3 +asnGt Polish: .Co0e, 0y dear, youGre7@she says the Polish na0e, 3 donGt re0e0"er any0oreC like 3G0 a "allerina at the Warsa+ 6 eraR /ou think 3G0 #oin# to kee ,e+ish "lood in 0y houseU >et out at onceR. 3t +as already ni#ht, ei#ht oGclock. What could 3 doU 3 left. 3n the 0ain entrance, there +as a #uard, a caretaker: she o ened her door and then she closed it. *nd all of a sudden, a Polish olice0an assed in the street, and she cried out: .Co0e here, thereGs a ,e+ish +o0an +ho +ants to hide in 0y houseR. 6<, she +ent +ith the olice0an. 3n the 0iddle of the street, the olice0an sto ed and said: .;y >od, Eust like 0y dau#hter, Eust like 0y dau#hter. 4he +as killed in a "o0"in# t+o days a#oR. .4o, ;onsieur, that "ein# the case, ho+ can you turn 0e over to the >esta oU. .No, 3 +onGt #ive you to the >esta o. We have to think so0ethin# u . AereGs +hat 3G0 #oin# to say: 3 +as assin# "y, there +as a scuffle, there +as shoutin# and cryin#. 3 +ent "ack to ask +hat +as #oin# on. *nd the +o0an said to 0e: she stole a +atch, so0ethin#. *nd then one of her children ca0e and said: here, ;a0a, 3 found the +atchR 3 have to take you to the olice station. 3Gll tell that story.. Ae +ent +ith her to the station. Ae told this story. 4o the chief said: .But +hy did you "rin# her hereU. .WhyU Because thereGs a curfe+. 4heGs a roud Polish +o0an. *s soon as she +as sus ected of a theft, she didnGt +ant to stay +ith her "oss any0ore. 4ince thereGs a curfe+, 3 thou#ht she could s end the ni#ht here, and to0orro+, she can #o +herever she +ants.. 6n the +ay a#ain, he had said to her: .;ade0oiselle, do you have any 0oneyU. .No.. .3Gll #ive you so0e. 3 donGt kno+ ho+ 0uch, "ut so0ethin#. When you survive the +ar. . . . 3G0 #oin# to tell you +hy: a0on# your o+n eo le, youGll tell the0 you found a Pole, a olice0an, +ho +as a decent erson. ;y sister lives a"out fifty kilo0eters fro0 Warsa+. 4he is a #reen5 D $(K D #rocer. /ou tell her everythin#, the +hole truth, and sheGll look after you.. 4o, she s ent the ni#ht in the olice station, and, in the 0ornin#, she +ent to the railroad station. 4he "ou#ht a ticket, and she +ent to the olice0anGs sister. 4he told her everythin#. .;ade0oiselle, 3 have to hide you in 0y house for three days. 3Gll tell all 0y nei#h"ors 3G0 e2 ectin# a niece.. 4he stayed hidden for three days, until the fourth day. 4he hel ed sell all the ti0e, throu#hout the +ar. 1hatGs ho+ she +as saved. Later on, 3 couldnGt stay there. ;y father +as dead? 0y 0other +as dead. 3 had a "rother in *ustralia. 3 +rote to hi0, and he ans+ered 0e. 3G0 +aitin# for the a ers heGs su osed to send 0e.

1here +ere other cases like that, "ut very fe+, very fe+. *fter the +ar, 3 +rote to the city hall there to ask +hat had "eco0e of 0y "rothers and sisters. 1hey ans+ered kindly: .1hey +ere taken on 6cto"er 1% or (%, 19H(, and, unfortunately, have not "een seen since. But you have a cousin +ho lived in Lu"lin. Ae left us an address in case so0eone asked for hi0.. 3 +rote ri#ht a+ay: .What do you needU. Ae ans+ered 0e ri#ht a+ay. Ae didnGt +ant 0oney. .4end 0e a ers.. *nd he ca0e. Wait, thatGs not all. What a s0all +orld it isR 3 +as in ;enton on vacation. 1here +as a "i# ark and ,e+s there +ith +ho0 3 could discuss 1al0ud, Bi"le7+ho still kne+. 1his cou le ca0e and sat do+n. 1hey +ere s eakin# Polish. 3 +as curious: Polish in ;entonU 4o 3 +as "old: .;onsieur, youGre s eakin# a lan#ua#e 3 understand very +ell.. Ae told 0e: his +ife +as ,e+ish, he +asnGt. 1hey had kno+n each other "efore the +ar, "ut not +ell enou#h to #et 0arried. 3n Warsa+, durin# the +ar, she hid in so0e hole. 4he stayed there for 0onths. *nd then, "efore the #hetto u risin#, he @her hus"and no+C hel ed her run a+ay. 3t +as very difficult. Ae had to ay off the #uards. 4he stayed +ith his fa0ily throu#hout the +ar, and after the +ar, they #ot 0arried. 1hey live in ;e2ico no+. AeGs an en#ineer. When 3 heard that she had hidden in a hole. . . . ;y cousin 3 Eust 0entioned, he also +as hidden in a hole. .;ada0e, can you tell 0e +ho you hid +ithU. .6h, yes, +ait. 1here +as D $(& D ;onsieur F. and another 0an +ith a thirteen5 or fourteen5year5old son. Ae +as called . . . oh, yes, -.L.. 1hat +as 0y cousinR 3n the sa0e hole, you reali=eU What a +orld . . . +e listen now to the voice o3 another 2!host2 who tells her own story. A3 all the people 3rom central ,urope whose memories we have !athered, she is the only one who came to 5rance a3ter the war. +ith her, we 3ind ourselves in the very heart o3 the !enocide, in (oland. nna -.* Aitler had already started. -ro0 G$B on, the Poles stood in front of stores to kee 1hey said: ./ou 0ustnGt "uy fro0 the ,e+s.. 1he o#ro0s had already started. eo le fro0 #oin# in.

When Aitler entered, in the early days, they took the 0en to +ork. 6nce, a >er0an ca0e to 0y house, in the courtyard. Ae +ent to all the a art0ents and took all the 0en. ;y hus"and didnGt 0ove fast enou#h so the >er0an kicked hi0. 1he ne2t day, he esca ed. Ae ca0e "ack, sayin#: .3 donGt +ant to +ork there any0ore. 3G0 #oin# a+ay. Co0e if you +ant. 3f not, 3Gll #o "y 0yself. 3f 3 stay, 3Gll resist, and theyGll shoot 0e.. *t that ti0e, 0y children +ere very little: t+o, four, si2 years old. 3t +as cold, (& or (B de#rees "elo+ =ero. 3 didnGt +ant to #o +ith hi0 "ecause 3 had heard eo le say that they couldnGt #et throu#h, that they had to stay on the "order. ;any children didnGt have anythin# to eat, +ere fro=en. 3 said to 0yself: .Where a0 3 #oin# to #oU 3G0 #oin# to lose 0y children.. 4o 3 stayed. 3n 0y house, there +ere t+enty5 seven ,e+ish tenants. 1here +ere +o0en +ith children? one of the0 +as re#nant. 1he 0en all left to#ether. We +o0en stayed. What could +e doU * +eek later, they announced that if you had fa0ily outside of Lod=, in the country or in another city, you should #o to the0 "ecause they didnGt kno+ +hat +as #oin# to ha en in three days. What to doU 3f you had seen +hat +as #oin# on in the streetR :very"ody +as +ailin#, cryin# in the street, +ith children. 3t +as terri"le to hear that. 1here is no #ood >od. 3 +ondered +hat to do, all alone +ith three children. 3 +ent u to 0y auntGs

D $(B D house and asked her: .Where are you #oin#U What should +e doU. 4o 0y aunt started cryin# over 0e: .What did you doU Why did you let your hus"and #oU /ouGre left +ith three children, all "y yourself. We donGt kno+ +hatGs #oin# to ha en.. 4he +as yellin# at 0e, 3 didnGt kno+ +hat to do. 3 left. 3 didnGt have a lot of 0oney. We dealt in +holesale #oods. 1here +ere seasons, and +e "ou#ht inventory for the +hole season. 4o +e didnGt have 0uch 0oney left. 3 su##ested to a nei#h"or to leave +ith 0e, to #o to 0y in5la+s outside of Lod=, a"out a hundred 0iles a+ay. 1he >er0ans +erenGt there yet. 3 thou#ht that +ould "e #ood and 3 +ouldnGt "e all alone. 3t +as -riday, the last day. 1here +as a Pole +ho lived outside of Lod=, in the su"ur". Ae had a cart +ith t+o horses. 3 ut everythin# 3 could on it7linen, "lankets? the nei#h"or did too. We set out. * +hile later, the o+ner of the cart said: .We have to #o throu#h custo0s. 1housands of eo le are +aitin# to #o throu#h. 3tGs cold, the children are cold. LetGs #o "ack to 0y house. WeGll s end the ni#ht and leave to0orro+.. 1he children +ere cryin#. 1hey +ere free=in#. :ven the "irds +ere dro in# dead. Ae took everythin# 3 had ut in the cart "ack to his house, the children +ent to "ed, and 3 stood off to the side. 1hen he talked +ith the nei#h"ors and sa+ that he had taken less 0oney than the others. *"out 0idni#ht, one in the 0ornin#, he +ent to "ed, and 3 stretched out ne2t to the children to s end the fe+ hours until the ne2t 0ornin#. *fter #ettin# the children ready to leave, 3 knocked on his door: .3tGs li#ht already, +e have to leave.. No ans+er, 3 knocked three ti0es, four ti0es: .We have to leave, 3 canGt stay hereR. .3G0 not leavin#.. .WhatU 3 aid you, 3 #ave you +hat you +anted and you donGt +ant to leaveU 3t canGt "e.. .No, 3G0 not leavin#.. What could 3 doU 3 +ent out to the road. 1here +ere eo le +ho +ere #oin# "ack to Lod= "ecause thin#s had "een e2tended to three 0onths. 4o 3 +ent "ack to his house and asked hi0 to take 0e "ack to Lod=. .No. 3G0 not #oin# any+here.. 3 +ent "ack out to the road and asked so0e eo le to take 0e. 4o0eone had ity7the children +ere cryin#, it +as cold. D $(9 D 3 +ent "ack to #et 0y thin#s. Ae ke t everythin#. 4o0e of his nei#h"ors treated hi0 like a 0urderer: ./ou see a +o0an alone +ith three children and you do thatU. 4ince he +as asha0ed, he left 0e so0e "lankets and linens and he ke t all the rest. 3 said .;y tou#h luckR. and 3 returned to Lod=. 3 0et a nei#h"or, +ho took 0y acka#es. *nother erson 3 kne+ took the youn#est child ho0e to +ar0 hi0 u . *ll of a sudden, a"out ten >er0an soldiers arrived. 1hey started knockin# eo le on the head, every+here, +ith their rifles. -ortunately, +e had Eust reached the house. Ae #ave 0e tea to +ar0 0e u . 1hen 3 +ent to #et the child +ho +as +ar0ed u and had sle t. 1hen 3 +ent ho0e, to 0y house. When 3 ca0e, there +as already so0e"ody inside. 3 couldnGt #et "ack in. 3t +as all over. 3 didnGt have a ho0e any0ore. Where could 3 #o in this terri"le cold +ith 0y childrenU 1here +as a nei#h"or to +ho0 3 e2 lained: .3 donGt have a lace to live. 3 canGt #o "ack.. .3 have a nei#h"orGs key. 3f you +ant, #o in there.. 4he #ave 0e the key of the nei#h"or, +ho had left +ith five children. 1here +as a "ed, a cu "oard, a

little stove. 3 found so0e coal, a little +ood, and 3 lit a fire. 1here +as a "ucket of +ater7it +as a iece of ice. 3t +as ni#ht. 3 ut the children to "ed and 3 +ent to "ed, cryin#. 1he ne2t day, 3 asked the nei#h"or to +atch the children so 3 could try to earn a fe+ cents to "e a"le to feed the children. 3 +ashed laundry. 3 +ashed the #round. 3 +as ha y to have found that. 6n the fourth day, the nei#h"or said to 0e: .* Polish #entle0an sent "y your father5in5la+ ca0e to look for you.. *t that ti0e, ,e+s couldnGt leave any0ore. 1hey didnGt #ive the0 tickets? only Poles +ere allo+ed. <no+in# that, that 3 +as alone, 0y father5in5la+ had aid a Pole to co0e #et us and take us there, to the0. 3 +as ha y. 3 +e t +ith Eoy. 3 had to "e ready to leave the ne2t 0ornin#. Very early, it +as still dark, he "rou#ht 0e the tickets, hel ed 0e ut the "undles in the droshky, and +e left for the railroad station. 3 thou#ht he +as #oin# to acco0 any 0e all the +ay. D $$% D No. Ae #ave 0e the tickets and said: ./ouGre on your o+n.. With the children, and it +as so coldR 3 ca0e to the railroad station. 1here +ere >er0ans, ins ections. * >er0an +o0an felt 0y "a#, searched, and let 0e #o throu#h. 3 +as ha y. Behind 0e she ke t a +o0an +ith a "i# "undle fro0 #oin# throu#h. 3 #ot to the latfor0 and +hat did 3 seeU 1housands and thousands of eo le. 1hey +ere on the roof of the train, in the door+ays, on the ste s. 30 ossi"le to #et on. 1he train left and 3 +as all alone +ith the children. 4o0eone +ho +orked on the trains ca0e u to 0e, took the "undles, and asked 0e to follo+ hi0. Ae took 0e to the last train, and 3 #ot on. We left, "ut not for lon#. 1he tracks +ere "roken. We had to +alk three kilo0eters to the other station. 3 couldnGt #et there +ith all the children and the "undles. 3 rented a cart for a fe+ ennies? 3 +ent throu#h three stations like that. 3t +as cold. 1he Poles took ity. 1hey took each of the children to +ar0 u in a little cafeteria. 1hey ran +ith the0, they +ere very nice. 6ne of the0 hel ed 0e cli0" u onto the roof of the train. 3 still had fourteen kilo0eters to #o, and 3 had to chan#e trains. 3 #ot off? the latfor0s +ere cra+lin# +ith >er0ans. We had to +ait all ni#ht until the ne2t day to take another train, and +e couldnGt stay on the latfor0. What to doU 3 had an aunt +ho lived in that to+n, so 3 decided to #o find her. 4eein# children, outside, eo le +ouldnGt say anythin#: 3 left the t+o youn#er ones +ith the "undles, and 3 took the oldest one +ith 0e. 3t +as dark. 3t +as 0idni#ht or one in the 0ornin#. Winter. 3 kne+ she lived in a ne+ house. 3 +alked, 3 +alked. 3 sa+ one house. 3t +asnGt finished. 3 +ent "ack and fell into a hole. 1he child re0ained on the side. Ao+ 3 #ot out of it 3 donGt kno+. 3 #ot out and looked around. 1here +as still a lon# +ay to #o. 3 searched so0e 0ore and found the house. 3 found it "ecause he +as a shoe0aker and there +as a little si#n outside. 6nly 3 didnGt kno+ +hich door. 3 +ent into the courtyard, and 3 heard >er0ans talkin# and sin#in#. .1hatGs it, itGs all over. 3f any"ody co0es out, heGll take 0e.. 3 hid in a corner and +aited. 4o0e li#hts +ent on, and so0e"ody ca0e do+n the stairs. .3f itGs a D $$1 D >er0an, 3G0 finished. Whatever heGll do heGll do.. 3t +as 0y cousin: .What are you doin# hereU. .OonGt say anythin#. Let 0e in..

3 +ent in, she +oke every"ody u . 3 e2 lained. Aer t+o sons, +ho +ere fifteen and thirteen, +ent +ith 0e to #et the children at the railroad station, all alone a0on# the >er0ans. 3 "rou#ht the children "ack, 3 ut the0 to "ed on chairs, and 3 stayed ne2t to the0. 1he ne2t 0ornin#, the t+o "oys took 0e to the railroad station and ut 0e on the train. 3 arrived. 3t +as 4ha""at, "ut at that ti0e, no"ody cared. Pious or not, this +as +ar. 1hey kne+ 3 +as co0in#. 1hey +ere #lad a"out it, and so +as 3. 1hat lasted for a +eek or t+o, no 0ore. ;y hus"and had t+o youn#er "rothers, one fifteen, the other t+enty, +ho +orked +ith his father, a tailor for the easants. 6ne day, he said: .3 donGt +ant to +ork for stran#ersG children.. .1heyGre not stran#ers, theyGre your "rotherGs children.. What could 3 doU 3 tried to earn a fe+ cents. 3 offered to hel a dress0aker. 4he a#reed. 3 +as leased. 3 could "uy the children so0ethin# to eat. 4o0e ti0e +ent "y like that. 1he >er0ans started de ortin# eo le for la"or. 1he "rothers left. 3 did dress0akin# in e2chan#e for a sack of otatoes. But 3 didnGt +ant to stay there. 3 felt un+anted. 1here +ere three roo0s and a kitchen. 1hey closed the door of the kitchen. 1hey didnGt heat it. ;y iron "ed +as ne2t to the door. 3t +as so cold there +as ice on the +alls. 1he arents +ere in a heated roo0, and their 0arried dau#hter +ith a child in the other roo0. 3 +as in the kitchen. 3t +as so coldR 4adly received $y her 3amily, nna -. did piecewor# 3or the (olish peasants* By then, +e +erenGt allo+ed to #o 0ore than a 0ile outside the to+n. 1he last easant +here 3 +orked lived near the railroad station. 1here +ere t+o >er0ans +ho ca0e to eat in his house. 1he first day, +hen they ca0e in, they shook 0y hand. D $$( D 1hey didnGt see that 3 +asnGt Polish "ecause 3 +ore a scarf on 0y head, a lon# skirt +ith an a ron, like the other +o0en. 1he second day, the >er0an asked: .Who is that +o0an +ith the childU. ;y son had "lack curly hair, not like the Poles, +ho are "lond. 1he easant had enou#h sense to ans+er: .3tGs 0y dau#hter5in5la+, +ho ca0e to rest here for a fe+ days.. Later, he told 0e to leave "ecause he +as scared for 0e and for hi0self. Ae could "e shot. 3 took the child and left. Later, +e +erenGt allo+ed to #o out. 1he olice +ere #uardin# the street. 1here +as no +ork. 3t +as lousy. 1here +ere roundu s all the ti0e. 6ne day, 3 decided to #o to the 0arket to "uy so0e otatoes. * >er0an arrested 0e. 3 started shoutin#. ;y father5in5la+ told 0e not to #et u set, that 3 +ould only #et t+o +eeks and +ould then return. But it didnGt turn out like that. 1hey ut 0e in the olice station. 3t +as full of eo le, +o0en, #irls, 0en. * 0ilitary truck, covered +ith a tar aulin, ca0e to #et us. 1hey forced us to #et in. 1he olice +ere #uardin# us +ith rifles. When 3 sa+ that, 3 started cryin#, shoutin# that they should let 0e #o. :very"ody said: .4to itR 1heyGre #oin# to shoot all of us "ecause of youR. Because of 0eU 3 sto ed. 1hey took us to a ca0 , at 4kar=ysko, al0ost ten 0iles a+ay, and they se arated us. 1here +as 0y 0other5in5la+Gs cousin on one side and 0e on the other. 4o 3 said to 0yself: .3G0 #oin# to #o +ith her. 1hat +ay +eGll "e to#ether.. *nd 3 +ent over to her, to her side. *nd on her side, every"ody said to 0e: .Why did you co0e hereU 6ver there, theyGre sendin# eo le ho0e, "ut us theyGre takin# for la"or.. When 3 heard that, 3 +anted to #o "ack to the other side "ut there +as a soldier +ho revented 0e. 4o 3 stayed. *nd the ne2t day, they told 0e: ./ou kno+ +hat ha ened +ith the others, +here you +ereU

1hey de orted the0 all. 1heyGre #oin# to the ovens.. 1hey ut us in ca0 s. We +ere 0ay"e four hundred +o0en, se arated fro0 the 0en, not in the sa0e ca0 . We sle t on "oards ut on to of one another, +ithout anythin# at all, only on the "oards. 1hey took us to +ork, you had to +alk t+o, D $$$ D three 0iles every day to #o +ork. 4oldiers #uarded us +ith rifles, on all sides. By no+, it +as +inter. 1here +as a lot of sno+. We had +ooden clo#s, o en in "ack. 1hose +ho couldnGt +alk +ere shot. Later on, they "uilt huts. By then, there +ere fe+er eo le, 0ay"e thirty, forty +o0en in a hut. :very day, +e #ot u at si2 oGclock to #o to +ork. 6ne +eek +e +orked durin# the day, one +eek at ni#ht. :very"ody had a nu0"er. 1hose +ho tended the 0achines +ere on their feet all ni#ht lon#. When you +ere tired, +hen you closed your eyes, you +ere "eaten. 1hat +ent on for three and a half years. -or food, they #ave us sou that s0elled "ad, dry "eets. /ou couldnGt eat it. * lot of eo le #ot sick, they had diarrhea and +ere taken to the hos ital. 1hat +as the end. -ro0 the hos ital, they +ere de orted. 3 +as lucky, 3 had seven 0achines. 1here +ere "i# "arrels. /ou had to fill the0 +ith fourteen thousand ounds of stuff a day. 1he others had four or si2. 3 had sevenR 6ne day, the "oss 0ade a cross on a "arrel, and that 0eant sa"ota#e. 3 really didnGt ay attention at the ti0e. 1here +as a >er0an ins ector +ho s oke Polish. When she sa+ that, she told the Pole that 3 had co00itted sa"ota#e. @With us, there +ere so0e Poles +ho +ere 0echanics.C 1he Pole took 0e to the 0ana#er, to his office, thinkin# he +as #oin# to "eat 0e on the s ot. Ae +asnGt there. We +aited and +aited. Ae didnGt co0e. 1he Pole +as so hysterical that he took a very hard "elt and "eat 0e, shoutin#: .Oirty ,e+, you call that +orkU. 1hat hurt. 3 didnGt say anythin#, 3 cried. 1hen the "oss ca0e, and the Pole ointed to 0e and said: .1here, sheGs the one. 4a"ota#e, sa"ota#eR. Ae thou#ht the "oss +ould take 0e out and kill 0e on the s ot. But the "oss didnGt say anythin# "ecause he kne+ ho+ 3 +orked. 1he Pole +as furious. * fe+ days later, the to "rass7co00anders of the ca0 s7ca0e and "eat the Pole. *ll the ,e+s +ere ha y. Ae had "eaten 0e. No+ it +as his turn. 1+o days later, he disa eared. *t that ti0e, the Iussians +ere startin# to advance. 1hey selected eo le to send to >er0any. 3 +as in the last #rou . *s the Iussians advanced, the >er0ans #ot scared. *ll of a sudden, D $$H D they +ere there7+hile the "oss +as readin# the list of all the na0es, +e sa+ Iussian air lanes co0in#. When the "oss sa+ the0, he disa eared and +e never sa+ hi0 a#ain. * soldier took us to another lace. We had to cross a river, the Wartha. 1hey ut us in a kind of cellar. 3 donGt kno+ +hat it +as. We +ent in there like ani0als. ;en +ere rayin#, +o0en +ere cryin#. We thou#ht +e +ere +aitin# for the train: .1heyGre #oin# to send us so0e+here, +e donGt kno+ +here.. 3t +as dark? a >er0an ca0e: .:very"ody has to #et out? in five 0inutes, everyone 0ust "e outsideR. :very"ody started tra0 lin# over everyone else, over le#s, over heads. 1hey +ere scared of "ein# shot? it +as atrocious. We +ent out? +e +ere ut in #rou s of five. 1hey took us in the direction of the "rid#e. We all looked at each other: .1hatGs it, itGs over. 1heyGre #oin# to thro+ us in the +ater. 1his is the end.. But it +asnGt that. 1hey took us "ack to the ca0 . 1here +ere still "osses, olice. 1hey o ened the door: .WhatGs #oin# on, every"odyGs co0in# "ackU. When +e returned, everyone in his hut, it +as already dark. 1he li#hts +ere out and every ti0e you heard .===, ===,. it +as air lanes assin#, shra nel +histlin#. We +ere all +o0en? the 0en +ere se arate. We said: .WeGre #oin# to #o to the 0en? +eGll "e safer.. We +erenGt allo+ed to 0ove. *"out four oGclock in the 0ornin#, all at once,

everythin# sto ed. We didnGt hear anythin# any0ore. 3t +as cal0. 3t +as in ,anuary. 4o0e 0en +ho +erenGt afraid said to each other: .1his cal0, it canGt "e, +eGve #ot to #et out.. 1o #et out into the street, you had to ass throu#h seven #ates. 6ne 0an +ent throu#h a #ate, +here a soldier +as lyin#. No"ody. :verythin# +as o en. Ae looked under the "ed7he +as afraid that so0e"ody +as hidin# there. 1here +as a rifle? he took it: .WhatGs #oin# onU 1hereGs no one here.. Ae +ent throu#h all the #ates: no"ody. 4o he +ent out into the street. .Co0e on, co0e on, +eGre free, no"odyGs hereR. .No"odyU 3t canGt "eR. :very"ody +as scared. Ae ca0e "ack and started shoutin#: .Co0e out, co0e out, +eGre free, free, no"odyGs hereR. 4o0e 0en ca0e out and started shoutin# the sa0e thin#. 4o0e of the0 +ent cra=y +ith Eoy. 1hey shouted, san#. 1hey didnGt kno+ +hat to do. ,oyR D $$) D &he survivors o3 the camp o3 S#ar@ys#o were li$erated $y the /ussians and then put in other transit camps. Six months later, they were released. Where to #oU We had never #one out into the street. We didnGt kno+ +here to #o. 4o0e of us +o0en +ent out lookin# for a lace to 0ove into. We 0eet so0e Poles and +e asked the0: .Where are the ,e+s +ho ca0e out of the ca0 sU. 1hey ointed to a house the >er0ans had left. We +ent there. What did +e seeU ,a05 acked +ith +o0en, 0ay"e a hundred +o0en, one on to of the other. 3t +as so s0all. 4o +e Eust lay do+n on the #round. 1here +asnGt anythin# at all. What did +e hear at ni#htU 4o0e"ody knockin#: .6 en u or youGll all "e shotR. 6ne +o0an said: .1oo "ad, let the0 do +hat they +ant.. 4he o ened the door. 1here +ere t+o Iussian soldiers +ith rifles. 1hey ca0e in, took t+o +o0en, and +ent a+ay +ith the0. 1hey "rou#ht the0 "ack the ne2t 0ornin#. When 3 sa+ that, 3 said: .3 donGt care +here 3 #o, "ut 3G0 not stayin# here. WhoGs co0in# +ith 0eU. 1he trains +erenGt "ack on schedule yet? everythin# had "een destroyed. We left half on foot, half on the train. /ou had to Eu0 onto the 0ovin# trains. We left any+ay. We #ot to C=itloviesco, +here 0y arents +ere. 1hey +ere all de orted? there +asnGt any"ody left. 3 said: .LetGs #o to the s0all to+n. 1here are eo le +ho ca0e "ack.. 6n the +ay, 3 reco#ni=ed a +o0an 3 had +orked for durin# the +ar. 3t +as a 4unday. 3 sto ed her: .Oo you reco#ni=e 0eU. .No. Who are youU. ./ou re0e0"er your dress0aker +ho +orked for youU. .3tGs you, itGs you, youGre . . .. ./es, itGs 0e.. 4he knelt do+n and started rayin# ri#ht in front of 0e. 3ter much more wanderin!, nna -. 3inally returned to %od@. We #ot to Lod=. 3 +ent out of the railroad station, into the street. 3 didnGt reco#ni=e anythin# at all. :verythin# +as chan#ed. 3 didnGt kno+ +here to #o, althou#h 3 kne+ the city. 3 sho+ed the address. 1hey ointed the +ay. 3 +ent u to that +o0anGs house. 4he +as very co0forta"le . . . 3 +ent to look for +ork. 3 asked at the co00ittee, and they D $$K D #ave 0e an address. 3 #ot there and knocked. No"ody there. 1hey #ave 0e another address, no"ody a#ain. 3 tell 0yself, .3G0 #oin# to the #hetto, 0ay"e 3Gll find so0eone.. Who do 3 seeU * #entle0an ne2t to a door. 3s it hi0 or notU Ao+ a0 3 #oin# to askU 3tGs a Pole, a nei#h"or +ho lived in the sa0e house. 3 stood ne2t to hi0, lookin# at hi0 and said: ./ou reco#ni=e 0eU. .No. Who are youU.

3 told hi0. .6hR /ouGre. . . . 3tGs youU 1here is a nei#h"or7if you +ant to #o to her, 3Gll take you there.. 3t +as the nei#h"or +ho had once #iven 0e the keys of the a art0ent. We #o u , the door +as closed. .4he has a little "akesho ? +eGll #o there.. We +ent do+n, she ca0e out. 3 reco#ni=ed her ri#ht a+ay, "ut she didnGt reco#ni=e 0e. Ae talked +ith her, 3 stood off to the side. 3 heard everythin#. When he sa+ that she didnGt ask +ho 3 +as, he asked her: .Oo you kno+ this ladyU. .No, 3 donGt.. Ae told her 0y na0e. 4he looked at 0e and started cryin#: ./ou kno+, your hus"and +as here, dressed as a soldier. Ae said that if he didnGt find any"ody, he +ouldnGt stay, "ut he +ould send +ord fro0 +herever he +as.. When 3 heard that, 3 couldnGt "elieve it. What to doU Where to #oU 1here +as a Iussian head'uarters. 3 +ent there and asked if they kne+ the na0e, if it +as ossi"le to #et infor0ation. 1hey didnGt kno+. What could 3 doU 3Gd have to +ait, 0ay"e heGd +rite. *nd, so, every day, 3 +ent to the #hetto. nna -. received help 3rom a 2C@echoslova#ian careta#er,2 who !ot her a room and dressma#in! wor# as well. *t that ti0e, there +ere Iussian +o0en soldiers +ho had 0ilitary coats. 1hey "rou#ht the0 to 0e, and 3 0ade skirts and Eackets out of the0, +hatever 3 could. 1hey +ere ha y to "e a"le to chan#e their clothes. When there +as a iece of leftover fa"ric, they #ave it to 0e. 3 0ade 0yself a little skirt. 3 earned a fe+ cents. 3 +ent to the 0arket and "ou#ht a air of secondhand shoes, old shoes73 had still "een +earin# the clo#s. D $$& D Later, 3 had another iece of cloth left over and 0ade 0yself a Eacket. 3 had a suit, a skirt, a Eacket, shoes. 3 +as a real lady . . . :very day, 3 +ent to the co00ittee to see if 3 0i#ht not find so0eone. 6ne day, 3 sa+ a #irl 3 had +orked +ith in the ca0 , carryin# a little sack on her "ack. 4he +as cryin# her eyes out: .Aere 3 a0, 3 donGt kno+ +here to #o, 3 donGt have anythin#, 3Gve "een slee in# outside.. .1hatGs silly. Co0e +ith 0e.. 6nce +hile 3 +as +orkin# at the 0achine ne2t to the +indo+, 3 heard so0e"ody callin# 0e. 3 looked out and sa+ that nei#h"or +ith a iece of a er in her hand: ./ouGve #ot a letter fro0 your hus"andR. 3 donGt kno+ ho+ 3 #ot do+n. 1hrou#h the +indo+, throu#h the stairsR 3 donGt re0e0"er any0ore. 1here +as no address, Eust a nu0"er. .>o to the railroad station, theyGll kno+.. 3 +ent to the railroad station. 3 sho+ed the0 the letter and they #ave 0e a ticket. 3t +as ni#ht +hen 3 arrived. 1here +ere a lot of Poles travelin#, dealin# on the "lack 0arket. 3 sat on the #round +ith the0, +aitin# for da+n. * Iussian ca0e "y: .Co0e +ith 0eR. 3 looked at hi0. 3 didnGt +ant to. Ae took 0e "y the hand and ulled 0e. 1here +as a Polish a#ent across fro0 0e: .OonGt #o.

1heyGre lookin# for +o0en.. When 3 heard that, 3 ran. 3G0 still runnin#. Oay da+ned, "ut +here should 3 #oU 3 sa+ a soldier, a colonel 0ay"e: .Oo you kno+ a hos ital +here there are +ounded soldiersU. Ae sho+ed 0e the +ay. 3 #ot there. 1here +as a +all around. 3 +alked around. 3 sa+ a +ounded 0an. Ae +as +earin# a "athro"e: .Oo you kno+ this na0eU. .3 canGt tell. 1here are a lot of the0 3 donGt kno+. >o to the office, youGll find out.. 3 +ent to the office. .What na0eU. 4he looked "ut didnGt find anythin#. 3 asked her to try a#ain. 4he +as a Iussian +o0an +ho s oke a little Polish. 3 looked too, and 3 sa+ the na0e +ay D $$B D do+n at the "otto0. .>o +ith hi0.. 3 acco0 anied the soldier to the roo0 and +aited outside. Ae returned +ith a nurse. .Ae is +ounded so "ad that he canGt co0e out. >o see hi0.. 3 +ent in. 1here +ere three ro+s of "eds. 3 looked, "ut 3 didnGt see hi0. 3 looked a#ain. Ae +as +ay at the end, his head "anda#ed. Ae had "een +ounded eleven 0iles fro0 Berlin. When 3 ca0e in, he sa+ 0e. Ae didnGt ask 0e anythin#. Ae kne+ everythin#. Ae didnGt have to ask. 3 didnGt tell hi0 anythin#, he understood everythin#. nd what o3 the 3ates o3 our other charactersE 3ter the arrest o3 Bolda /.)s hus$and, she 3led to a sister-in-law, in 'iry-Chatillon, where she remained hidden until the end o3 the war. t the %i$eration, as soon as she returned to (aris, she met a returnee who, with $rutal 3ran#ness, con3irmed the death o3 her hus$and. *t the Li"eration, the Iesistance li"erated Viry. *ll the ,e+s +ho had "een in hidin# reEoiced and danced. But 3 +e t. ./ouGre reEoicin#. /ou have your children, your hus"ands. 3G0 still in the dark.. 8 . . .9 Walkin# in the street, in Paris, 3 0et one of our friends. Ae ca0e u to 0e. Ais dau#hter had "oarded in 0y house. Ae had returned. Ae said to 0e: .>olda, 3 can tell you that *vro0 +onGt co0e "ack. Ae s+elled u after t+o +eeks in *usch+it= and died. 3 "uried hi0 0yself. 3f you need a +itness for your ension, you can 'uote 0e.. She also learned what happened to Chil, her 3ormer suitor. Chil, Bolda)s and /osette)s indecisive lover, Chil, who had 3inally married /osette, also died in uschwit@. He committed suicide $y throwin! himsel3 a!ainst the $ar$ed wire.

Returns
re these evanescent traces in the memories o3 the survivors all that is le3t o3 the ori!inal worldE &o exist in memory is a 3orm o3 existence a3ter all, one that is nourished $y nostal!ia. Fot a simple re!ret over the past or a romantic sense o3 the ephemeral, it is the stu$$orn quest 3or a destroyed world. &his nostal!ia permeates memories in various D $$9 D tones, 3rom violent aspiration to modest melancholy. It is mani3est throu!hout the narratives, sometimes in pathetic e33usions, sometimes in a discreet remar# or in a si!h or in silence.

Beor!es 5.* 1hat +as 0y life. No+, +hy do 3 +ant to #o "ack thereU 3t +ould certainly #ive 0e leasure to see thin#s a#ain, to see ho+ they turned out, ho+ it is no+. /es, even +ithout contact +ith eo le. 3 +ouldnGt have contact +ith eo le 3 donGt kno+. 3 +ouldnGt even tell the0 3 +as "orn there. But 3 have an enor0ous desire to see the lace +here 3 s ent 0y youth. :ven if it doesnGt e2ist any0ore, 3 +ould reco#ni=e the lace all the sa0e. 3t could not have 0oved. :ven if thereGs a house +here there +as once a courtyard, 3 +ould reco#ni=e recisely that lace +here 0y courtyard +as. We lived there. +ith this thro$$in! su$1ect o3 return, the memories we have collected conver!e with the written memoirs that have multiplied in 5rance over the last ten years* auto$io!raphies, chronicles, testimonies. +e will present a 3ew examples o3 this a$undant literature, as a comparison and to close our tour. /eturn can $e an o$session. 5or Binette Hirt@, it is, 3irst o3 all, the return to her hometown, in this case, miens, to $e there to !reet those who disappeared in case they came $ac#* you really need an address, a 3amiliar place where you can $e 3ound.8()9 But fate can "e ironic: she could not return ho0e, for the door had "een sealed shut "y the :n#lish authorities. 4he had no+ to rove her identity after dissi0ulatin# it for 0onths. When the door +as finally o ened, +hat horror she e2 erienced at the s ectacle of death and decay: 6ne i0a#e has survived in 0y 0e0ory7of a sou tureen filled +ith s a#hetti s+ar0in# +ith +or0s, on a shelf in the kitchen. Broken ca"inets, clothes stre+n over the filthy, stained floor. 3 +ent for+ard as onto a sta#e set, +ithout reco#ni=in# anythin# e2ce t 0inute a"surd traces in so0e nook, sta##erin#. 8(K9 8&he narrator undertoo# to clean the house, to tidy it up, and 8()9 >inette Airt=, %es Hortillonna!es sous la !rYle* Histoire d)une 3amille 1uive en 5rance sous l)Accupation 8>ardens under Aail: 1he Aistory of a ,e+ish -a0ily in -rance Under the 6ccu ation9 @Paris: ;ercure de -rance, 19B(C, . 1(B. 8(K9 3"id., . 1(B. D $H% D even to reconstruct the decor she had #nown. 5or the idea is to re-create a 2pretense o3 a home,2 while waitin! 3or her parents, in the very place o3 the lost (aradise. 9 Ao e riveted us to that encounter +ith those +ho disa eared: the address of 1H Iue *l"eric5de5Calonne in *0iens.8(&9 &here is another ori!inal world, even older than the one where one was $orn* the Holy %and. 3ter livin! under several 3alse identities and even thin#in! o3 convertin! to Catholicism, Saul 5riedlZnder decided to !o to (alestine to 3ind his true identity. 5or him that provided the sense o3 a de3initive $rea# with his past and his entry into a new era. An the ship, shortly $e3ore landin!, he lost the only souvenir he had o3 his 3ather, a watch, and he interpreted this loss as a sym$olic rupture* 1here +as no +ay of recoverin# it. 1hus the 0ost "eloved 0e0ento of 0y childhood disa eared at the 0o0ent that 3 +as a roachin# 3srael, at the da+n of a ne+ life. 4y0"olically, +hat 0easured ti0e ast +as no 0ore: sy0"olically, everythin# +as "e#innin# all over a#ain.8(B9 However, in the extremely s#ill3ul composition o3 his $oo#, Saul 5riedlZnder constantly interweaves times. In a series o3 3lash$ac#s and 3lash-3orwards, he can move in a 3ew pa!es 3rom the account o3 his arrival in Israel <in 78M?= to the analysis o3 his 3eelin!s at the moment he writes <June C, 78??= to the memory o3 the Six -ay +arHthen, 3inally, to return 3ar, very 3ar $ac#, to that time with which he has not entirely $ro#en <despite the sym$ol o3 the lost watch=, that o3 his native land. &hrou!h the art o3

writin!, he also attempts to reali@e the am$ition o3 the 3amous /a$$i %oew, creator and then destroyer o3 the Bolem* to a$olish time, to achieve the 3usion o3 past and present.8(99Indeed, what did he 3ind in Israel, in his li3e $arely $e!un a!ainE (recisely 2the way o3 li3e o3 the Jews o3 (ra!ue,2 at the time o3 his childhood. 8(&9 3"id., . 1H%. 8(B9 4aul -riedl[nder, +hen Memory Comes @Ne+ /ork: -arrae, 4traus \ >irou2C, . 1BK. 8(99 3"id., . 1BJ(%. D $H1 D 3t +as in the evenin#, after lon# +orkdays in the sun, that the +orld of .yesterday. ca0e to occu y its true lace once a#ain. 6ver their "rid#e #a0e, surrounded "y the fe+ ieces of furniture and "ooks that still "elon#ed to ."ack ho0e,. our easants took on their real nature once 0ore and dro ed their 0asks, so to s eak. Aeller, -leish0an, Pra#er, or >laser see0ed to for#et the 0os'uito "ites, the drone of the s rinklers, or the s0ell of oran#e "losso0, and they 0ust all have had the i0 ression that they +ere "ack once a#ain in those lar#e, rather dark a art0ents that 3 had kno+n for such a short ti0e, "ut +hose scent, that discreet char0 0ade u of old thin#s, +a25 olished +ood, and +ell5+orn leather, 3 could still descri"e today. . . . 1he +ay of life of the ,e+s of Pra#ue of 0y childhood +as erha s futile and .rootless,. seen fro0 a historical vie+ oint. /et this +ay of life +as ours, the one +e treasured.8$%9 Some have attempted to rediscover the ori!inal world $y !oin! to loo# 3or it where it really was, returnin! to the very places where their ancestors had lived, $y a pil!rima!e, $y returnin! to the shtetl. Maurice /a1s3us had made a 3irst trip to (oland in 78:C, at the a!e o3 seven, to 4ledow, the villa!e where his mother was $orn. He was accompanyin! his parents, who had themselves $een away 3or ten years, on a visit to his maternal !randmother. His parents had already adapted to another way o3 li3e and he remem$ers with $itter irony that, durin! that 3irst trip, in spite o3 their admonitions, he was an un$eara$ly 3resh #id. 5orty-3ive years later, he re3uses to thin# o3 himsel3 as a Jew $ut he does 3eel the stran!e, almost 2mor$id2 need to ma#e the pil!rima!e* 2I)ve $een haunted $y this pro1ect 3or more than twenty years.28$19 So, in 78K>, he made the second trip. rrivin! in +arsaw, he didn)t reco!ni@e any o3 the streets he had once #nown. 4ut when someone told him that he was crossin! the $order o3 the 3ormer !hetto, he says* 2I can)t help trem$lin! and, calmly, I explain* not that I)m o3 Jewish ori!in, as I o3ten say when anyone questions me a$out that, $ut that I am a Jew. Duite simply.28$(9 8$%9 3"id., . BJ9. 8$19 IaEsfus, Duand 1)tais 1ui3 8When 3 Was a ,e+9, . (%9. 8$(9 3"id., . (19. D $H( D Averwhelmed $y emotion, Maurice /a1s3us $ecomes a Jew a!ain in another place too* at the end o3 his quest, returnin! at last to the ori!inal place, 4ledow, the 3ormer shtetl. t 3irst, the villa!e seems completely un3amiliar to him6 on enterin!, he discovers a church which he had 2thrown out o3 his memory,2 while the syna!o!ue had remained 2so present2 to him. &his unexpected landscape plun!es him into a pro3ound con3usion until, led alon! $y some reminiscence, he 3inds $oth his !randmother)s house and the child he was*

:verythin# +as clear in 0y 0e0ory. 3 re0e0"ered erfectly the "akerGs house and the "akery, the s0ell of #ood "read that drifted into the street. *ll of a sudden, 3 re0e0"ered the ond +here the Polish children had ushed 0e after thro+in# stones at 0e. 3 re0e0"ered the carts and the horses, the easant +o0en +ith scarves on their heads and you could have s+orn they +ere the sa0e ones +ho +ere strollin# in the church s'uare +here 1adeus= had arked his car. 3 felt lost near that church, a co0 lete intruder into that landsca e. . . . 3 +as hel less, already thinkin# 3 had 0ade that tri for nothin#. 1o have co0e so far and to find an une2 ected landsca e, +hat an atrocious dece tion. . . . Oes ite 0y friends +ho e2 lain to 0e that they are #oin# to in'uire since they felt 0y confusion, 3 +alk a+ay, ractically esca e fro0 the0 and here 3 a0, in the street. 1hat can only "e the side+alk on the ri#ht. Where is the houseU 3 donGt have ti0e to reflect. *l0ost a half century disa ears in a fraction of a second. 3 sta##er and lean a#ainst the +all. 4uddenly 3 "urst into so"s. 3G0 cryin# like a "a"y, 0ore nervously erha s, "ut al0ost +ithout tears. 3t hurts so 0uch to rediscover the traces of a ha y ast. *ll those old stones that kne+ 0y 0other. . . . 3 no lon#er control 0yself and 3 cry.8$$9 &o return to the shtetl* it isn)t necessary to pic# up physically and !o loo# 3or it in space6 it is enou!h to 1ourney in time and rediscover it in ima!ination. Such is the return, or pil!rima!e, o3 /e!ine /o$in, into the past* 2I remem$er a Oalus@yn that I never #new.28$H9 4he starts "y retracin# fa0ily le#ends, re roducin# tales she heard fro0 her father, 8$$9 3"id., . (()J((K. 8$H9 Ie#ine Io"in, %e Cheval $lanc de %enine, ou l)histoire autre 8LeninGs White Aorse or Oifferent Aistory9 @Brussels: Co0 le2e, 19&9C, . 19. D $H$ D enrichin! them with scenes she reinvents. History !oes $ac# to the ancestor Moshe who, durin! the massacres o3 79MK, had an epic dialo!ue with 4o!dan Chmielnic#i6 his son Jun#le, a disciple o3 the 3alse messiah Sa$$atai "evi, was sold to 4er$er pirates in Constantinople6 Shlomo, Jun#le)s !reat!randson, one o3 the three hundred disciples o3 the 4aal Shem &ov, was a sa!e who lived 3or a hundred and twenty years6 Schmil, the !reat-!rand3ather o3 /e!ine /o$in)s !rand3ather, was the musician o3 the 3amily, who once played the violin 3or Fapoleon. s 3or the author)s 3ather, he had met %enin in 78;>, leadin! the 4olshevi# army 2on a $eauti3ul white horse,2 and had conducted his own epic dialo!ue with him on the meanin! o3 the /evolution. &hen, in the course o3 her 1ourney throu!h the centuries, /e!ine /o$in stops at a certain moment. More precisely, she stops time in the year 78:7, to re-create a day in Oalus@yn. 2.es, a day in Oalus@yn, in my mother)s house.28$)9She is truly present in another world, in a period when she wasn)t yet $orn* ;ore recisely, a su00er ni#ht. 3t is very heavy. * stor0 is threatenin#. 1he +hole day has "een nothin# "ut a slo+ incandescence. WeGre stiflin#. . . . ;y 0otherGs #randfather, *vra0 Fuker, "orn in 1B)& @so he +as seventy5four years old in 19$1C "arely +orks any0ore. . . . 1oni#ht he hurries. . . . -arther a+ay on the Warsha+a >ass, 0y #randfather Iai0e ;ortre closes his candy sho . Business hasnGt "een #ood. Ae thinks 0ore and 0ore seriously of #oin# to Warsa+ +here t+o of his sons have already 0oved. . . . /es, of leavin# <alus=yn. 1oni#ht, he al0ost 0akes the decision. . . . ;y father is far fro0 havin# finished +ith his shavin# "rushes. What heat. 1he day has "een rou#h. 1he olice "roke into the cell 0eetin#. 1rue, once a#ain, they could retend that the co0rades +ere +aitin# for a haircut. . . . ;y 0other rocks 0y "rother. AeGs only a year old. 4he sin#s an old /iddish lulla"y to hi0. .Aa y is he +ho has a 0other and a little cradle.. 1en years later, 3 too +ill hear this refrain. 4he o ens the +indo+. No +ind . . .8$K9 nd there is more. t the end o3 her pil!rima!e, /e!ine /o$in reinvents history, or at least her own

history, and 3or!es a new 3ate 3or 8$)9 3"id., . K&. 8$K9 3"id., . K&J&1. D $HH D hersel3* she too is $orn in Oalus@yn <some twenty years $e3ore her real date o3 $irth= and, 3rom then on, lives the li3e o3 a shtetl !irl. &his then is the opposite o3 the survival o3 those who lived throu!h the !enocide since the issue here is a previous li3e, a pre-li3e, whose end is none other than &re$lin#a, where 2everythin! is 3inished.28 $&9 &here remains one last 3orm o3 return* the narrator a$olishes time not $y !oin! $ac#ward, 3rom the present to the past, $ut $y #eepin! that past so alive inside himsel3 that it truly lives in the present. 3ter the disappearance o3 her parents, Binette Hirt@ 3eels hersel3 to $e 2their 3ree and voluntary extension, moved $y them.28$B9 When she returned to *0iens ri#ht after the Li"eration, it +as her father +ho 0ade decisions for her: .3t +as still hi0, dead, +ho dictated that "ehavior to 0e..8$99 nd Binette Hirt@, $orn in 5rance to an assimilated 3amily, hersel3 a pro3essor o3 literature whose whole mode o3 thou!ht is rationalist, uses the metaphor o3 the dy$$u#* it is as i3 she is inha$ited, possessed $y the spirit o3 her 3ather. !ain at the %i$eration, when she returns to the little woods he had $ou!ht $e3ore the war and notes that the oa#s have $een cut down, she is !ripped $y ra!e and despair* 2My 3ather howled in me li#e a dy$$u#, and he $reathed scorn3ul attitudes into me, 3ierce words 3or which the appraisor had no use.28H%9 t the end o3 her narrative, meditatin! on her li3e and her pro3ession, she reali@es that it is the spirit o3 her parents she has attempted to instill into her role as a mother and her wor# as a pro3essor* 2Into all the youn! people that I have loved, educated, accompanied 3or a lon! or short period o3 time* my $rother, my children, some o3 my students, the dy$$u# o3 my parents has passed without my even #nowin! it rationally.28H19 nd Binette Hirt@ ends her memoirs as she had $e!un, $y !oin! quite naturally, without any transitions, 3rom the dy$$u# o3 her parents to the Winterreise, addin! a 3ew small details* she lies on the !round and listens to one o3 her son)s 3avorite pieces o3 music. &hus the chain o3 the !enerations is reconstructed to the sound o3 Schu$ert)s lieder. 2I listen to that sin!in! $lended with the piano and I curl up in my 3ather)s arms, protected 3rom the dan!er that threatens, over there ..8H(9 8$&9 3"id., . 1$$J1$H. 8$B9 Airt=, %es Hortillonna!es, . 1%H. 8$99 3"id., . 1(H. 8H%9 3"id., . 1HK. 8H19 3"id., . 1&$. 8H(9 3"id. D $H) D

REMEM1ER
-ro0 :astern :uro e to the ;editerranean countries, ,e+ish 0e0ories echo one another. Oes ite the diversity of aths and the irreduci"le uni'ueness of each e2 erience lived, individual 0e0ories relate

"asically the sa0e trials: u rootin#, 0i#rations, ersecutions, i0 ossi"le 0ournin#, e2ile. 4hared 0e0ories, sin#le and 0ulti le, 0e0ories of 0e0ories: each individual, a s okes0an for the others, "oth trans0its and contri"utes to sha e the collective 0e0ory. 3s it accidental that all 0e0ories are arran#ed accordin# to si0ilar structures, oriented to+ard the final catastro heU 1he settin# chan#es, the scene shifts over i00ense distances, "ut it is actors in the sa0e lay e2chan#in# their lines. *nd the theater is history. 1hese 0utual relays "et+een the individual and the collective underlie not only oral 0e0ories "ut also +ritten 0e0ories as indicated "y t+o very different and inde endent literary #enres that develo ed since World War 33. 6ne is the 0onu0ental enter rise of editin# the .is#er-$iher , .Books of ;e0ory,. dedicated to several hundred disa eared co00unities? the other is the a0a=in# efflorescence of auto"io#ra hies, chronicles, and narratives of authors +ho lived throu#h the dra0a of Na=i ersecutions or e2ile. 1he fashionin# of "ooks of 0e0ory "y the survivors of #enocide constitutes an event that, althou#h +idely unreco#ni=ed, is in itself historic:819 the 0ore than five hundred +orks catalo#ed to date for0 an i00ense li"rary of to0"stones. 3t D $HK D is a 0e0ory that is lar#ely s ontaneous, not su orted "y any official or state institution. Iather, it is the 0e0"ers of the associations of e0i#rants fro0 the sa0e co00unity @the %andmansha3ten C +ho have set u editorial co00ittees res onsi"le for the re aration and u"lication of each +ork. 1he role of these associations is indicated "y the #eo#ra hy of the .isher$iher : the enor0ous 0aEority @B) ercentC corres ond to +hat Poland +as "et+een the t+o +orld +ars. ;ost often, the authors of the contri"utions are not rofessional +riters "ut are either survivors +ho offer their testi0ony or si0 ly e0i#rants +ho recall the lost +orld. ;ore than a"out ten thousand contri"utors have taken u their ens.8(9 1hese "ooks of 0e0ory are not only a collective <addish. 1hey +ish to recall not only the death of the 0artyrs "ut their lives as +ell. Aence, they recount narratives, 0e0ories, and anecdotes in order to resurrect those +ho disa eared in their environ0ent, their custo0s, their daily activities, their faith, their ho es. We have in these +orks a #enuine literary #enre: it i0 oses on each of these "ooks a lan that follo+s re#ular rules, "oth the0atically and chronolo#ically, and that confers coherence and unity on the0. *t the sa0e ti0e, the authors, freely follo+in# their ersonal ins iration, the0es, and eriods, overla in the successive cha ters. :ditors 0i2 different ty es of te2ts @historical sketches, old ress cuttin#s, first erson 0e0oriesC, so that the collective 0e0ory dra+s its su"stance fro0 individual 0e0oirs and ado ts their rhyth0s and 0ove0ents. Iecently, +orks co0in# fro0 the ;editerranean co00unities and desi#ned for their descendants have also "een u"lished. Without resentin# the tra#ic and necrolo#ical character of the 0e0ory "ooks7 rather than to0"stones they are orta"le territories7they store u in a sin#le volu0e i0a#es, re0arka"le 819 1+o recent +orks, dedicated to the .is#er-4uher , resent convenient, "rief antholo#ies: *nnette Wieviorka and 3t=hok Ni"orski, %es %ivres du souvenir ? ,ack <u#el0ass and ,onathan Boyarin, 5rom a /uined Barden* &he Memorial 4oo#s o3 (olish Jewry @Ne+ /ork: 4chocken BooksC, 19B$. 8(9 Fachery Baker, .Bi"lio#ra hy of :astern :uro ean ;e0orial Books, u dated and revised,. &oledot , -all 19&9JWinter 19B%? the sa0e author co0 leted that "i"lio#ra hy in * endi2 3 of ,ack <u#el0ass and ,onathan Boyarin, . (($J(KH.

D $H& D individuals, and events +hich are resent in the 0e0ory, and trans0it a collective identity. /et another heno0enon has develo ed over these last years, the 0ulti lication of auto"io#ra hies. *s in oral 0e0oirs, the recurrent the0es echo fro0 one +ork to the other. 1hey tell of nostal#ia for the lost +orld, of tri"ulations crossin# "orders, of ersecutions and e2ile. * chronolo#ical #a , ho+ever, se arates the .i@#or-$iher fro0 the u"lished auto"io#ra hies. 1he roduction of the "ooks of 0e0ory "e#an ri#ht after the #enocide, reachin# its eak "et+een 19K) and 19&), +hile the "i# +ave of auto"io#ra hies a eared later. But "oth are literatures of testi0ony and 0ournin#: the .i@#or-$iher record the history of the 0artyrs for osterity? si0ilarly, 0ost of the auto"io#ra hies are dedicated to the 0e0ory of arents or to the education of children and resent the sa0e o"ituary tones.8$9 Ao+ever, the 0e0ory "ooks for0 a self5enclosed #enre. 1heir distri"ution e2tends only to the net+ork of or#ani=ations for0ed "y those +ho ca0e fro0 the for0er co00unities, and their lan#ua#e @Ae"re+ or /iddishC usually 0akes the0 inaccessi"le to ne+ #enerations. 6ther for0s of e2 ression +ere therefore necessary. Perha s, so0e of the auto"io#ra hies "ear +itness to a #enerational heno0enon: those +ho +ere 0arked "y the trau0as of their +arti0e childhood @like Claudine Ve#hGs or hansC have reached 0aturity. 1hirty or forty years after the tra#edy, they are the a#e their arents +ere at the ti0e, and their o+n children are as old as they the0selves had "een. Aence, a dou"le rocess is o eratin#, one of identification and a re5ani0ation of the ast and one of the irre ressi"le need to trans0it their testi0ony alon# the chain of the #enerations. No dou"t it +as necessary to +ait all these years for the +ork of 0e0ory7in this case, of 0ournin#7to "e acco0 lished. 6ne 0ay ask: Why are there so 0any corres ondences "et+een the 0e0ories of the ,e+s of eastern :uro e and those of the ;editerranean ,e+s +hen their ori#inal 0ilieus and their aths see0 so differentU *ll of the0 left their native land and 8$9 Cf. Lucette Valensi, .-ro0 4acred Aistory . . . ,. and Nathan Wachtel, .Ie0e0"er . . . ,. in History and nthropolo!y , 19BK. D $HB D kne+ e2ile, "ut the for0er also suffered, directly, the shock of #enocide. 3f e2ile see0s co00on lace, #enocide is a uni'ue event in history and the 0e0ories of those +ho have survived are 0arked "y tra#ic tones and "y the i0 rint of i0 ossi"le 0ournin#. But those +ho +ere not touched "y the Na=i threat also incor orate the Shoah into their 0e0ory and inscri"e it in their o+n ast Eust as @and even 0ore thanC the 4 anish :2 ulsion at the da+n of the 0odern a#e "eca0e a the0e of reference for ,e+ish collective 0e0ory. 1hus, 0ulti le 0e0ories, *shkena=ic and 4e haradic, conver#e to for0, +ith nuances and variations, a sin#le collective 0e0ory. -or the ,e+s, +hether fro0 the east or the +est, share a co00on historical e2 erience: an e2ile distinct fro0 all other e2iles. *lready in their countries of ori#in, fro0 the Baltic to the ;editerranean, they +ere in a state of e2ile. 1hus their resent e2ile is an e2ile of the second order, an e2ile +ithin an e2ile. Nostal#ia for lost *ndalusias is #rafted onto the initial dis ersion and takes u the relay of nostal#ia for ,erusale0, so tenaciously roclai0ed throu#hout the centuries. Profound 0e0ory, foundin# 0e0ory7it is no less. Before they 0i#rated, these ,e+s "elon#ed to cultural 0inorities +here they +ere i00ersed, des ite internal diversities, as into a totality in +hich their "ein# assu0ed 0eanin# and confronted the do0inant societies. 4o often hostile, those societies fostered ,e+ish difference and the ,e+sG sense of their o+n identity. Beyond the attach0ent to the native land, this identity +as "ased on the identification +ith a shared historical fate, that of the ,e+ish Oias ora, and on the 0illennial loyalty to the sa0e reli#ious faith. Loyalty here coincided +ith

0e0ory, +hich the Bi"le co00ands as an a"solute duty: @a#hor , re0e0"er.8H9 ;ost ,e+ish holidays 7it has often "een 0entioned7are 0ost essentially the co00e0oration of #reat events of sacred history: the :2odus fro0 :#y t, the #ivin# of the 1orah at ;ount 4inai. 1hese ."asic e2 eriences of ,udais0. are defined as 0anifestations of >od in history? "y re licatin# the0 in the resent, 8H9 Cf. /osef Aayi0 /erushal0i, "a#hor @Ne+ /ork: 4chocken Books, 19B9C. D $H9 D 0e0ory is converted into faith and ho e.8)9 ,e+ish theolo#ical thou#ht has consistently 0aintained the tensions entailed in "elief in the divine resence7+hich is "oth rescri tive and savin#7"y orientin# the0 to+ard a future in +hich the o0ni otence and transcendence of >od on the one hand and 0anifestations of divine o+er and hu0an freedo0 on the other, +ould "e reconciled. Within the totality of ,udais0, the a+areness of the inco0 leteness of history leads to the re'uire0ent of rede0 tion and 0essianic e2 ectation. 3s it accidental that the recurrent the0es @Paradise Lost, :2ile, IeturnC that su ly the "asic fra0e+orks of oral as +ell as +ritten 0e0ories coincide +ith e0inently "i"lical the0esU ;ust +e inter ret the0 as the e2 ression of a collective unconsciousU 1his unconscious +ould "e nothin# else "ut the internali=ation of a culture: the +itnesses +hose voices +e have listened to, althou#h often detached fro0 reli#ion, are 0ore or less er0eated +ith a tradition of +hich "i"lical teachin# is an essential co0 onent. :ven +hen this culture has +eakened or co0"ined +ith that of another lan#ua#e @>er0an, Iussian, or -renchC, so0ethin# re0ains of it, transcendin# acculturation and assi0ilation. *nd this ulti0ate re0nant is 0e0ory. * 0e0ory co0 osed insolu"ly of uni'ue 0e0ories of articular rivate details and the #eneral cate#ories that su"su0e the0 and #ive the0 0eanin#. 3ndividual 0e0ory is e0"edded in a lon# history fro0 +hich it derives structures and intelli#i"ility. Conversely, collective 0e0ory is fed "y individual 0e0ories, even follo+in# their +anderin#s and internal rhyth0s. 1hese overla in# e2chan#es #enerate a 0ulti le 0e0ory that #ives to ,e+ish identity in our ti0e a foundation that is "oth ancient and rene+ed. 1his 0e0ory, henceforth 0arked "y the trau0a of #enocide, e0er#es fro0 the 0ost tra#ic event in secular history. Ao+ does it fit in +ith traditional ,e+ish 0e0ory, defined "y the faithfully rene+ed reactuali=ation of the events of holy historyU 1he 0e0ories +e have heard "elon# to a seculari=ed 0e0ory. 1hey do cul0inate in a +aitin# and "ear the i0 rint of nostal#ia 8)9 :0il -ackenhei0, Bod)s (resence in History* Jewish 33irmations and (hilosophical /e3lections @Ne+ /ork: Aar er 1orch"ooks, 19&$C. D $)% D "ut theirs is the "anal nostal#ia for the ori#inal +orld and the senseless +aitin# for those +ho have disa eared. No trace of a 0essianic ho e re0ains in these narratives7e2ce t, for so0e, in the e'ually secular for0 of the return to the Land of 3srael. 6f course, the seculari=ation of ,e+ish 0e0ory is the result of an already ancient rocess, +hich +as +idely develo ed in the country of ori#in "efore the de arture into e2ile. But, in the history of ,e+ish 0e0ory, it is clearly #enocide that cataly=es a radical "reak: Ao+ can theolo#y account for *usch+it=U Ao+ can the resence of >od in history "e reconciled +ith that a"solute evil, the 4hoahU .3t is not stran#e,. notes :0il -ackenhei0, .that, until recent years, ,e+ish theolo#ical thinkin# o"served an al0ost total silence on the 'uestion of the Aolocaust..8K9 3f *usch+it= is an un recedented event, evil in history is not ne+, and catastro hes have not "een lackin# in the fate of the ,e+ish eo le: at least the victi0s of Wor0s and ;ayence or those of the 3n'uisition

had the choice "et+een conversion and death and could ho e that their 0artyrdo0 testified to their faith. .3n *usch+it=, on the contrary, there +as no choice, youn# and old, "elievers and non5"elievers +ere 0assacred +ithout discri0ination. Can there "e a 0artyr +here there is no choiceU.8&9 3n *usch+it=, >od +as no lon#er resent in history, and, for the ;essiah, it +as too late.8B9 *re +e a"andoned then in theolo#ical silenceU Perha s. But #enocide 0akes 0e0ory7even seculari=ed 0e0ory7into a duty 0ore sacred than ever. 1he Na=is reduced their victi0s to anony0ous nu0"ers, transfor0ed their cor ses into s0oke, did their "est to +i e out all traces of their e2istence, even their 0e0ory: as if they had never "een. Conversely, +ith the +ill of survival, the denial of *usch+it= is the safe#uard of 0e0ory. 1he +itnesses +e have heard iously recall +hat +as7all that +as7+ith o"sessive care, so that +e too can trans0it the echo 8K9 3"id., . 1()J1(K. 8&9 3"id., . 1$%. 8B9 Cf. 3"id., . 1$B, 1)(, co00entin# on Plie Wiesel, %es (ortes de la 3orYt 81he >ates of the -orest9 @Paris: :ditions du 4euil, 19KHC. D $)1 D of their voices to the sentinels +ho +ill co0e after us. *nd +hat those voices re eat over and over, stu""ornly, indefati#a"ly, is the "i"lical i0 erative, the essential and ever5 resent o"li#ation: @a#hor , re0e0"er. D $)$ D desi&ner= 4eventeenth 4treet 4tudios com5ositor= Presti#e 1y o#ra hy teFt and dis5la)= Be0"o 5rinter= 1ho0son54hore, 3nc. 2inder= 1ho0son54hore, 3nc.
Preferred Citation: Valensi, Lucette, and Nathan Wachtel. Jewish Memories. Berkeley: University of California Press, c1991 1991. htt :!!ark.cdli".or#!ark:!1$%$%!ft&'(n")c1!