Formation Damage Mechanism & Treatment Strategy

The productivity / injectivity of the reservoir may decrease due to many different reasons. Out of those causes, the formation damage is the most important one. There are many mechanisms, which occur separately or simultaneously to generate formation damage. The understanding of those probable mechanisms are very important in order to take steps to prevent the occurrence or to remove the damage. The different formation damage mechanisms and their treatment strategy are as follows: a) Fines Migration: Movement of detached particles along with produced fluid in the porous reservoir may reduce the effective permeability of the reservoir. The particles can bridge across the pore throats in the near- wellbore region causing formation damage and reduce the well productivity. When the damaging particles come from the reservoir rock, they are usually referred to as fines. Migrating fines can be a variety of different materials, including clays (typical size less than 4 m) and silts (silicates or alumino silicates with sizes ranging from 4 to 64 m). Kaolinite clays are considered to be some of the more common migratory clays. Damage from fines is located in the nearwellbore area, within a 3- to 5-ft radius. Damage can also occur in a gravel pack.

The low strength formation or loosely cemented grain can be controlled with help of bridging effect and presence of high conductivity path which will reduce the drag velocity on the grains. In these conditions the gravel pack or the fracturing with TSO (tip screen out) properties may be helpful. In the sandstones, blocking due to migrated fines can be treated with acidizing with the deep penetrating acid which can dissolve the fines. The conventional mud acid (HF + HCl) and hydrofluoric acid etc. are generally used as the treatment fluid. In limestone or carbonate reservoirs the HCl is mostly used to remove the fines and clear the near wellbore damage zone. Because the fines are not dissolved, but are dispersed in natural fractures or the wormholes that are created, N2 is usually recommended to aid fines removal when the well has a low bottomhole pressure. b) Swelling clay: The salinity of the fluid in contact with the clay plays a major role. Some clays are swelling in nature with change in the salinity of the fluid. Clays may change volume as the salinity of the fluid flowing through the formation changes. The most common swelling clays are smectite and smectite mixtures. Smectite swells by taking water into its structure. It can increase its volume up to 600%, significantly reducing permeability. Clays or other solids from drilling, completion or workover fluids can invade the formation when these particles are smaller than the pore throat openings. Any subsequent increase in flow rate through the invaded zone will force a high concentration of particles into the rock matrix, which may prove damaging to the reservoir if there is any sudden change in the fluid salinity later on.

The presence of the Smectite and Montmorillonite clay in the formation rock, necessitates the precaution against the clay swelling. The salinity of the external or internal water which may come in contact with the clay surface is very important as lower salinity value than required may cause the swelling of these clay particles. Therefore the salinity of the external injected water or liquid should be kept high enough to prevent the swelling. The removal of smectite is usually accomplished with HF or fluoboric acid, depending on the depth of penetration. The fluoboric acid is suitable for deeper penetration. In the event of very deep clay-swelling problems (more than 2 ft), the best treatment is usually a fracture to bypass the damage, as the matrix treatments will not be able to remove the damage to that deep penetration.

c) Induced Particle Plugging: In addition to naturally occurring migrating particles such as clays and fines, many foreign particles are introduced into the formation during normal well operations. Drilling, completion, workover, stimulation, and secondary or tertiary

production operations can cause the injection of extraneous particles into the formation. These foreign or external particles may plug the pore spaces, which creates obstruction to the fluid flow and thereby decreases the productivity or injectivity. Particle damage from injected fluids happens in the near-wellbore area, plugging formation pore throats. Problems include bridging of the pores, packing of perforations and the loss of large amounts of high solids fluid into natural fractures or propped fracture systems.

Prevention is better than Cure

The generation of the induced particle plugging should be avoided as much as possible by using treated and clear fluid, which is to injected in the formation. The brine filtration

systems may be useful to get the cleaner fluid without any external impurities which can plug the pore spaces. The other objective should be to prevent or improve the job procedure or activity which may induce particle plugging. Removal of the mud cakes especially in the open hole horizontal wells are very important. As, it may not allow the whole horizontal section to contribute to production.

Generally in the vertical wells the mud cakes may be removed by pressure drawdown. But in horizontal wells the necessary drawdown is very difficult to achieve on any section other than heel. In these conditions the treatment of the whole section with help of Coiled Tubing may be beneficial. In case the formation is damaged by the induced particle, then the studies should be carried out to find out the nature of the particle which has plugged the formation pores and accordingly proper treating fluid should be injected which can dissolve those particles. Hydraulic fracturing may also be helpful to bypass the near wellbore damage area. d) Asphaltene and Sludge deposition : Organic skin damage in oil producing wells is a major factor in the loss of productivity. Asphaltene deposition in the formation creates a

barrier for the transportation of the crude oil to the tubing. Organic damage may occur naturally or through various intervention practices used in the wells. Asphaltenes are heterocyclic unsaturated macromolecules consisting primarily of carbon, hydrogen, and minor components such as sulfur, oxygen, nitrogen and various heavy metals. These higher molecular weight components of crude oil are in equilibrium at normal reservoir condition. As crude oil is produced this equilibrium is upset by a number of factors such as,

temperature decline, pressure reduction, addition of miscible gases and liquids, acidizing, hot oiling and other oilfield operations. Flocculation of asphaltene in paraffinic crude oils is known to be irreversible. This is the major cause of irreparable arterial blockage damage to the flow of petroleum fluids. Due to their large size and their adsorption affinity to solid surfaces flocculated asphaltenes can cause irreversible deposition. The two primary

mechanisms for asphaltene flocculation and deposition are depressurizing the oil and mixing of solvents with reservoir oil during enhanced oil recovery (EOR). Acid treatments are frequently accompanied by the appearance of organic sludge that, if not controlled, plug perforations and reduce production. It is commonly accepted that this organic sludge results from the incompatibility of asphaltenes with acid.

Removal treatments for asphaltenes use aromatic solvents such as Xylene and toluene or solvents containing high percentages of aromatics. Solvent soak time, heat and agitation are important considerations for treatment. The compatibility of the acid with the crude oil should be checked in order to minimize the chances of occurrence of sludge formation. Proper antisludge material is required to be added to prevent its occurrence.

e) mulsion: A crude oil emulsion is a dispersion of water droplets in oil. Produced oil-field emulsions can be classified into three broad groups: Water-in-oil (W/O) Oil-in-water (O/W) Multiple or complex emulsions The water-in-oil emulsions consist of water droplets in a continuous oil phase and the oil-in-water emulsions consist of oil droplets in a water-continuous phase. In the oil industry water-in-oil emulsions are more common (most produced oilfield emulsions are of this kind) and therefore the oil-in water emulsions are sometimes referred to as "reverse" emulsions. Multiple emulsions are more complex and consist of tiny droplets suspended in bigger droplets which are suspended in a continuous phase. For example, a water- in-oil-inwater (W/O/W) emulsion consists of water droplets suspended in larger oil droplets which in turn are suspended in a continuous water phase.

In-situ emulsification has been experienced in some of wells and is causing formation damage in the porous media. Emulsification Is believed to be initiated by the presence of natural emulsifying agents which are present In the oil. Naturally occurring emulsifiers in the crude oil include the higher boiling fractions, like asphaltenes and resins, organic acids and bases. These agents are slightly soluble In the oil phase and are attracted to the water phase causing reductions in interface tension between the water and the oil. This results in a film forming about the dispersed water particle causing the particle to remain isolated and inhibits coalescence into larger particles which would more readily separate and destabilize the emulsion. Viscosity of emulsions can be substantially higher than the viscosity of either the oil or the water. This high viscosity causes the blocking of the pore spaces by creation of immobile fluid and decreases the formation permeability. In the high water cut wells and cyclic steam injection wells the chances of emulsion formation in much more. Demulsification is the breaking of a crude oil emulsion into oil and water phases. The in-situ demulsification can be obtained by injection of chemical demulsifier in the

formation or by increasing temperature with presence of low shear.

Figure:SEMmicrographsof the porousrocktakennearto the core inlet imageon the grainscale, (b) zoomedimage

(a)

!) Scale: Scale is a solid mineral deposit usually formed from produced salt water. Because water constantly dissolves and deposits solids, scale is an endless problem in the petroleum industry. Scale occurs in primary production wells, secondary wells, injection wells, disposal wells, and pipelines that connect wells to tank batteries. Wherever water production occurs, a potential for scale formation exists. Mixing of incompatible waters causes the minerals in solution to form an insoluble precipitate. Some scale, such as calcium carbonate, develops quickly but is relatively easy to treat. Barium sulfate is typically slower to form, but it is more

difficult to treat. The effect these scales have on a well depends largely on their location and the amount deposited in the system. Scales can restrict and completely choke production in the tubing, in the flowlines, at the sandface, or in the perforations. Scales can deposit in fractures and formations that are distant from the wellbore.

Chemical scale inhibitors control the deposition of scale by either interacting with the microscopic scale surface and altering the crystal structure as it is forming or by sequestering the ions (calcium and barium) that precipitate as scale. Numerous chemical additives are effective at preventing scale precipitation such as Polyphosphates and phosphate esters, Slowly soluble polyphosphates, Phosphonates, Polyacrylic acid and other carboxylic acidcontaining polymers, etc. Different solvents are used for dissolving the various kinds of scales depending on their generating source. Most used solvents are HCl and EDTA (ethylene diamene tetra acetic acid). These scale inhibitors and dissolvers are used by different means such as Placement during a stimulation treatment, Squeeze treatments/Chemical Placement Technique (CPT) or Continuous injection.

g) "acteria: The effects of indigenous and introduced microbes and their role in oilfield formation damage is less well understood compared to the other mechanisms. Bacteria can grow in many different environments and conditions: temperatures ranging from 12F to

greater than 250F [ 11 to >120C], pH values ranging from 1 to 11, salinities to 30% and pressures to 25,000 psi. Bacteria are classified as follows: Aerobic bacteria are bacteria that require oxygen. Anaerobic bacteria do not need oxygen (in fact, their growth is inhibited by oxygen). Facultative bacteria can grow either with or without oxygen because their metabolism changes to suit the environment. They usually grow about 5 times faster in the presence of oxygen.

The combination of the various microbial populations often result in the precipitation of insoluble metal sulphides, biopolymer and/or hydrogen sulphide production, with loss in production or injection rates. The bacteria most troublesome in the oilfield are sulfatereducing bacteria, slime formers, iron-oxidizing bacteria and bacteria that attack polymers in fracturing fluids and secondary recovery fluids.

Figure: Different kinds of bacteria on the rock samples

Formation damage due to bacteria is more dominant in the wells with waterflood. Bacterial

growth may take place either on the injection well sandface or in the formation itself, and the pore plugging mechanism maybe caused either by the larger cell population or by the byproducts of bacterial metabolism. Temperature is one of the major controls on the growth of bacteria and their by-products. The greatest risk of microbial formation damage within the reservoir would occur in those areas at 30 0C. The type of mineral present has a significant effect on plugging characteristics of the rock formation due to bacteria. Bacteria have affinity with a negative charge toward any particular mineral and their subsequent accumulation around that mineral in the pore space. Bacteria uses negative charge for attachment to nutrient source, i.e., magnesium, calcium, and iron thereby reducing the permeability in

nearby areas of these minerals. Bactericides are also used commonly to control these bacteria. Iron- oxidizing bacteria are aerobic and convert iron from the ferrous (Fe2+) to the ferric (Fe3+) state. To alleviate some of the damaging effects of bacterial colonies, the main objective is to either control the nutrients or eliminate the oxygen. EDTA is mostly used to control the metal nutrients by chelating them that will be released by ionization into the porous media. Elimination of oxygen from the injected fluid entering the porous media is very important. Aeration sources like leaky pumps must be eliminated completely by introducing oxygen excavenger, repair of air leaks, and avoiding unnecessary agitation of fluid. All nutrients, such as sugar rings, starches, cellulose, etc., as a source of nutrient for bacterial growth should be eliminated. Some amount of bactericide in proper doses with due care and consideration should be used to the toxicity of such agents. Aldehyde-based compounds could prove useful in this regard.

h) #ater "loc$: Poor gas flow performance following well operations such as drilling, completions and workovers was recently observed in some wells in a gas field. Loss of aqueous fluids during these operations causes a ring of high water saturation around the wellbore. This can potentially reduce gas flow into the well, and this phenomenon is called "Waterblocking." Water blocking is a significantly problem where the in situ water saturation is

less than "irreducible" water saturation. Water blocking is a transient

phenomenon. The duration depends on reservoir properties, amount and type of fluid lost, gas flow rate, and the pressure drawdown in the reservoir.

Figure:WaterBlocks :

Increasing the water saturation from 20% to 35% decreases the relative oil permeability from 90% to 30%, respectively Lower permeability reservoirs will have more significant water-block problems. This is due to the smaller volumes of gas flow, leading to longer times for the water-block to clean up. Poor gas production from tight rock following a water- base fracture treatment is often attributed to water block. In water-wet rock, capillary \ forces resist brine displacement from the matrix into the fracture. Water block occurs if the drawdown pressure gradient in the formation near the fracture face does not exceed the rock capillary pressure sufficiently for gas to flow. These \damage conditions usually occur when: (1) the pore throats are very small, (2) the injected water in the pores of the rock was untreated (to reduce surface tension), and (3) the bottom hole pressure is low.

Clean up of water block occurs as gas flows past this high liquid saturated region and removes liquid by displacement and mass transfer. Any loss in gas well recovers in two deliverability

phases. The first phase corresponds to fluid displacement ("flowback

period") and lasts for a few days at most. The second phase is slower and can last several months. Removal of water from gas wells has often been handled with acid and alcohol solutions or acid and mutual solvent solutions. These systems attempt to reduce the surface tension of the injected water which is trapped in the pores of the rock. In some cases, treatment of the well to reestablish gas saturation and provide energy can be

accomplished by injecting either gaseous nitrogen or liquid carbon dioxide. Removal of a water block can be accomplished using a surfactant or alcohol applied as a preflush to reduce surface tension, followed by a post flush of N2 or CO2 to remove the water from the near-wellbore area and reestablish gas saturation. Once the water has been mixed with the surface-tension-lowering materials, removal is easier.

i) #ettability Alteration: Wettability is preferential sticking of the liquid on the solid surface. If a drop of a liquid is placed on the surface of another Immiscible liquid or on the surface of a solid that it cannot dissolve, it may spread out into a thin film or it may remain in the form of a drop or a thick lens (Hausler,1978). If the drop of liquid spreads, it wets the surface; if the drop of liquid does not spread, it does not wet the surface. The surface free energy of the two phases and the interfacial tension between them determine whether the liquid spreads or remains in a deformed drop. Formation plugging can be caused by liquid (or gas) changing the relative permeability of the formation rock. Relative permeability can reduce the effective permeability of a formation to a particular fluid by as much as 80% to 90%. The wettability and related relative permeability of a formation are determined by the flowing- phase quantity and by coatings of natural and injected surfactants and oils. Most of the formation rocks are water wet and the alteration of the wettability leads to oil wet. When a surface of a pore passage is oil-wet, more of the passage is occupied by the bound oil (thicker monomolecular layer), and less of the pore is open to flow than in a water-wet pore.

Wettability alteration damage is removed by injecting (mutual) solvents to remove the oilwetting hydrocarbon phase and then injecting strongly water wetting surfactants. Again, a surfactant by itself will not work. The oil phase, which is usually precipitated asphaltenes or paraffins, must first be removed with a solvent. (The same applies to an adsorbed oleophilic surfactant.) Then, a strongly water-wetting surfactant can be injected and adsorbed onto the rock minerals. This reduces the tendency for new hydrocarbon precipitates to stick to the mineral surfaces and oil-wet them again. For retrograde condensation problems, the most appropriate treatment technique is the injection of neat natural gas in a periodic huff and puff operation. Condensate is picked up by the gas and transported into the reservoir. Reprecipitation requires the retrograde of the process after several months of production.

6. Origins of Formation Damage & Remedial Measures

Formation rock gets damaged during its life by various known / unknown activities and controllable / uncontrollable reasons. In order to reduce the chances of occurrence of the formation damage, it is very essential to analyze each activity carried out in the well during different period of well life. The analysis of these various activities will allow

understanding of the conditions and causes, which may lead to damage. This will help to improve the activities so as to minimize the chances of occurrence of formation damage. The understanding the formation damage origin is very critical to allow the

formation to produce to its maximum capacity. a) Formation damage during drilling: Drilling is the first well operation, which brings

formation in contact with foreign material. This is also the first instance, in the life of a well, of formation damage. The formation is exposed to drill bit and drilling mud. To over come inflow of formation fluids and to lay down a thin, low permeability filter cake on the walls of the hole, the pressure of the drilling mud column must exceed the pore pressure by atleast 200 psi. The horizontal drilling requires more concern for formation damage, as it makes the formation to be exposed to mud for longer period requiring more time drilling within the targeted productive formation than do vertical wells. Under pressured reservoirs are also significantly more susceptible to formation damage.

Filter cake Fracture Plugging

Well bore cross section

Pore Plugging

Shallow matrix damage

Fig.: Drillingdamage Formation damage during drilling activity can be characterized by mainly two Processes:
Invasion of Mud solids: Mud solids play a major role in the successful and safely completion of the drilling of the well. There objectives are to balance the reservoir pressure thereby preventing the chances of Blow out and to create filter cake at the formation face thereby reducing the filtrate losses in the formation. But these mud solids can progressively fill the porosity of the reservoir rock if forced into the pay zone. Subsequent attempts to start production or injection at moderate or high flow rates may cause these materials to bridge and severely decrease the permeability of the near-wellbore area. Such damaging processes are usually limited to the first few inches around the wellbore (an average value of 3 in. is commonly used), but the resultant permeability reduction can be as high as 90%.

Invasion of Mud filtrate: Sometimes higher values of filtrate invasion may result from the deliberate choice of high penetration rates. The liquid phase of a drilling fluid also contains many potentially damaging compounds. Because filtrate invasion can be deep drilling filtrate damage can be one of the most important causes of production impairment. The severity of this damage depends on the sensitivity of the formation to the filtrate. High-permeability clean sandstones undergo more invasion than low

permeability reservoirs but are more likely to be less affected when their connate water is chemically compatible with the filtrate.

Fig.: Formationdamagecausedby differentzonesof mudinvasion

There are several mechanisms by which mud solids or filtrate may reduce well productivity. These are summarized as follows:
i) Water Block: Invasion of large volume of mud filtrate can generate waterblock near wellbore region. The capillary pressure plays important role in the generation of waterblock. Water block may be avoided by the use of oil muds, provided no water is in their filtrates under bottom hole conditions. As use of oil based mud (OBM) is not applicable in all type of reservoir and in some cases it may be damaging, therefore during water base drilling fluid the objective should be to minimize the filtrate loss to the pay zone. This can be achieved only by effective filter cake at the formation face. ii) Swelling and dispersion of indigenous reservoir clays by the mud filtrate: Nearly all sands and sandstones contain clays that are either detrital or digenetic or both which

profoundly influence the permeability of the rock. The action of aqueous filtrates on indigenous clays can severely reduce the permeability of the rock, but only if the clays are located in the pores. The decrease in permeability at low salinities is caused by the displacement and dispersion of the clay or other fines from the pore walls by the invading fluid and by subsequent trapping at the pore exits. Swelling of the clay can be controlled by maintenance of compatible salinity. The salinity of the injected fluid should be more than the formation fluid. At salinities less than 20 g/l the clays become unstable (i.e. dispersed). ate of reduction of salinity should be gradual to minimize the formation damage

due to salinity change. iii) Penetration of the formation and plugging of its pores, by particles from the mud: Mud particles can only penetrate the formation during the mud spurt period, before the filter cake is established. Once the filter cake is fully formed, it filters out the finest colloids because of its structure and very low permeability (around 10 3md). The permeability may continue to decrease, but the decrease will be caused not by particles passing through the cake, but by transport and re-arrangement of particles already carried in by the mud spurt.

Fig.: Structureof external(a) and internal(b) mudcakes

Most of the impairment caused by particle invasion is concentrated in the first few millimeters of the rock. The way to control mud particle damage is to minimize the mud spurt by ensuring that enough bridging particles of the right size are present in the mud.

Fig. Effectof mudcake

To be effective, the primary bridging particles must be not greater than the size of the pore openings and not less than 1/3 that size, and there must be a range of successively smaller particles down to the size of the largest particles in the colloidal fraction. The greater the amount of bridging particles, and the lower the permeability of the rock the quicker the particles will bridge, and the smaller will be the mud spurt. Particle penetration of 2 to 5 cm is observed. The invasion of mud solids can be avoided using underbalance drilling. Underbalance drilling in horizontal wells and in under pressure wells are very useful in avoiding chances of formation damage. The need is felt to get clean brine in which the presence of unwanted solids should be less. To achieve it the brine filtration system may be proved useful iv) Polymer invasion: During the drilling process many additives are added to the drilling fluid for different purposes. Some of these additives are polymers and they may cause damage in adverse condition if proper care is not taken during selection of the additives and their composition.

The damage during drilling process is mainly of shallow depth only. The near wellbore damage is mainly choking of pores with fines or indissoluble mud cake. To remove this kind of damage the acidizing is the most useful technique. Any one of the different kinds of acidization technique such as matrix acidizing , acid washing, acid spotting ,etc. should be used according to the formation rock and degree of damage. In sandstone the mud

acid proves to be effective one , as HF present in mud acid dissolves the clay and silica particles and thereby removes the choking. It also helps to remove the unremoved mud cake. In carbonate formation the use of HCl proves to be effective.

Damage mechanism Particle invasion Swelling and dispersion of indigenous reservoir clays by the mud filtrate Mutual precipitation of soluble salts in the filtrate and formation water Slumping of unconsolidated sands Water block Emulsion block

%emedial measures Matrix acidization, Perforation, Hydraulic fracturing Matrix acidization Matrix acidization Sand consolidation techniques, Frac and Pack Surfactant treatment, Matrix acidization Surfactant treatment, Matrix acidization

b) Formation Damage During &ementing: Cementing is the process of mixing a slurry

of cement and water and pumping it down through steel casing to critical points in the annulus around the casing or in the open hole below the casing string. The cementing activity consists of mainly two injection processes: Injection of Washes and spacers - The duration of a cementing job is short compared with the duration of drilling through a pay zone. The objective of injection of washes and spacers is removal of drilling mud, which is necessary for improving cement

bonding. But this injection may exacerbates formation damage through either increased fluid loss or incompatibility problems with cement washes and spacers. Injection of cement slurry - The broad particle-size distribution of cement grains, together with the use of high-efficiency fluid-loss agents, results in limited particle and filtrate invasion of cement slurries. However, there are cases where large permeability impairments can occur. Calcium ions liberated by cement particles are quickly exchanged on clays near the wellbore, and the resulting modification of the filtrate composition makes it a perfect destabilizing fluid in terms of dispersing ability. Cement filtrate that comes into contact with connate brines that contain high concentrations of calcium can provoke the precipitation of calcium carbonate, lime or calcium silicate hydrate. Over dispersed slurries (with no yield value) promote the rapid separation of cement

particles at the bottom and water at the top of the cement column. A large invasion of free water will most likely take place, and the resulting water blockage may be significant. Loss of cement to the natural fracture system is a catastrophic problem when using a cased and perforated completion through formations with natural fracture systems. In side-by-side well comparisons, cement loss in natural fractures in the pay zone has been shown to decrease production to the point where the zone cannot

flow effectively. Once cement is lost into the fracture system, hydraulic fracturing or sidetracking and redrilling the well are the best alternatives. In some carbonate formations, acid fracturing may be beneficial.

The differentdamagemechanismsin cementingoperationsare as follows:i) Fines migration from the cementslurry into the formation : The fines present in the cement slurry may migrate into the formation during the cementing operation, if sufficient mud cake is not present. These fines can block the pores and can lead to formation damage. ii) Precipitationof solids from the cement within the formation : Cementing operations produce two distinct generation of aggressive alkaline fluids which can permeate into and react with the formation adjacent to the cement rock interface. They are, invasion filtrates which are forced from the liquid cement into formation during cement pumping and setting shut-in and cement leachates evolve & diffuse /advect away from the well bore as the set cement equilibrate with aqueous formation pore fluids. These invading cement filtrate and leachates are the potential source of formation damage. Ca(OH)2 present in the filtrate may allow the precipitation of calcium silicate. Because the cement slurry always contain additive ,they also play a role in the formation of precipitate particles during cement filtration. iii) Differential dissolution of reservoir minerals leading to fines migration : The cement has a very high pH (>12) and a high concentration of divalent ions. The high pH tends to cause clay and fines to be released and to migrate into pore threats, where they cause damage. The cement filtrate may cause growth of large calcium carbonate crystal in a pore opening and additional loose fines on the pore wall, indicating a potential pore plugging problem. Some SBR latex cement slurries, commonly used for gas control, may cause severe formation damage due to latex deposition in the formation. Because of the limited solubility of SBR latex, the damage could be permanent.

Though the chance of damage during cementing operation is very slight, it should be given proper care. To prevent the possible formation damage during cementing operation, the presence of sufficient and proper mud cake is essential. The mud cake helps to keep the cement filtrates away from the formation, which are the major culprit for formation damage. Fluid loss from spacers and cement slurries is reduced when a competent drilling mud filter cake is present on the formation face. The addition of KCl to spacers or cement slurries will help to reduce or eliminate formation damage. A non damaging, fluid loss additive, such as PVA or HEC, is used to minimize filtrate leakoff from the cement slurry. The proper selection of the additives is necessary, as they play major part in further reactions. The use of seawater should be given care.

The chances of damage during the cementing operations are very less, as normally the presence of mud cake during drilling prevents further damage but lack of care may damage the formation. Normally it is also damaging in shallow depth only.

Damage mechanism

%emedial measures

Fines migration from the cement slurry into the formation

Precipitation of solids from the cement

Matrix acidization, Perforation, Hydraulic fracturing Matrix acidization ,Perforation

within the formation Precipitation of expansive secondary minerals following reservoir mineral dissolution Matrix acidization

c) Formation Damage during &ompletion & #or$o'er (perations:

Formation damage caused by drilling and cementing processes is normally of a shallow penetrating nature. However, poor completion and workover fluids and practices may cause considerable damage to a formation long after the formation was drilled, cemented and perforated. Many forces tend to change the natural virgin permeability of producing formation during initial completion and /or workover operations. Operations considered to be completion or workover functions include the following:

i) ii) iii) iv)

Perforating casing, Under-reaming pay zone for gravel packing, All workover operations in which a producing zone must be Killed, All workover or completions operations in which well bore Fluids are lost to the formation.

Perforating process initiates the flow of formation fluid to the wellbore. Perforations are the entry point from the formation to the wellbore, and all flow in a cased, perforated completion must pass through these tunnels. Generally the perforating process if treated as a good sign, as it starts the production. But the negligence during perforation may lead to formation damage and thereby reduce the productivity. Perforating mildly overbalance always forces formation and gun debris into perforation walls and decreases the permeability near the perforations. The overbalance / under balance, perforation diameter, perforation

penetration, perforation density, etc all should be adequately given proper attention. The formation around the perforation get crushed and compacted by perforating process.

Perforations may be plugged with shaped charge debris and solids from perforation fluids. These pulverized, compacted rock and charge debris may block the natural pore spaces in the formation. The extreme overbalance perforation generates more chances of damage as the invasion of perforation fluid! it"s filtrate and solid particles can cause problem such as clay swelling, solid plugging and water blocks, etc.

Fig.: Damageduringperforationdueto overbalance

The workover process makes the wellbore condition more or less like the drilling condition. Definitely the contact area between the formation face and the wellbore fluid is less, but then also the chances and mechanism of formation damage are as same as during drilling process. The loss of filtrate and the fluid particle invasion may lean to formation damage and therefore care should be paid during workover operation to avoid the damage. During the performance of such operations, many conditions exist that can cause the

formation damage of one or more of the forms. The different mechanisms are as follows: i) Hydration and swelling of clay minerals: During workover/completion jobs the fluid filtrate enters in the formation and if the percentage of clay (mainly montmorillonite) is more then selling of clay minerals may occur. Due to less salinity of the fluid also the swelling or hydration becomes severe. The hydrated and swelled clay minerals choke the

pore spaces.

ii) Movementand pluggingby clay size particlesin the formation : The solid particles in form of invaded fines from filtrate or insitu formation fines may be generated during the job and can choke the pore spaces. Due to inefficient cake formation and extreme overbalance condition, the fines present in the fluid may enter in the formation and thereby causing damage. Due to change in chemical environment of the fluid inside the formation there may be generation of the fines inside the formation. iii) Emulsion and water blocks due to lost wellbore fluid: If the fluid loss during the job is not controlled then large amount of the fluid loss can be accumulated near wellbore in the formation. This accumulation of large volume of water and filtrate may lead to formation of water block. The presence of filtrate may form emulsion if the favorable conditions for emulsion formation exist. iv) Relativepermeabilityeffects : The presence of large volume of water or filtrate, due to lack of sufficient cake formation, the relative permeability of oil changes and the wells doesn"t produce even after perforation and wor#over job. v) Precipitationof scales : There are many additives added in the fluid for different purposes. In adverse conditions the precipitation of scale may be generated, which causes damage to the formation. The presence ofasphaltene, wax and resin may the condition sever and increase the chances of scale formation. The chemical incompatibility of the fluid with formation rock and formation fluid also tends to form scales and lead to formation damage. To save the formation against damage during workover and completion job many precautions are necessary. The care on every job detail during the execution of the job is necessary. Depending on the job objectivity and the type of fluid used, well productivity damage during workover and completion can be minimized by: i) ii) iii) Using chemically compatible fluid, Cleaning the fluids by filtration on the surface, Providing adequate fluid-loss control with agents that bridge on the surface of the formation and that easily dislodge or dissolve when the well is put on production, iv) Minimizing fluid loss by establishing a small pressure differential between the wellbore and the formation, v) Cleaning the injection string of pipe with acid/solvent mixtures and mechanical Scraper

vi) vii)

Using bottom hole filters (if necessary, in conjunction with surface filters). Perforating at efficient overbalance condition or in Underbalance condition.

Its normally seen that after perforation the well doesn"t produce. The most likely culprit is formation damage. The different remedial measures depending upon cause of damage and degree of damage are as follows:

Damage mechanism Hydration and swelling of clay minerals Movement and plugging by clay size particles in the formation Plugging by invading materials from the wellbore fluids Emulsion and water blocks due to lost wellbore fluid Relative permeability effects Precipitation of scales Plugged perforations due to improper perforating conditions

%emedial measures Matrix acidization, Hydraulic fracturing, Clay stabilization Matrix acidization ,Clay stabilization Matrix acidization Surfactant treatment, Matrix acidization Surfactant treatment Acidization Acidization, Perforation

d) Formation Damage During Sand &ontrol operations: Most high permeability unconsolidated and loosely consolidated sandstone formations require sand control measures. The most widely used sand control technique is gravel pack completions. The gravel packed completions are designed to allow the soft formations to produce sand free and the productivity of the well is also maintained. However many gravel packed wells produce sand free hydrocarbon but suffer reduced

productivity as a result of formation damage induced by current gravel pack completion practices. Gravel packing slightly damaged formation or damaged caused during gravel packing operations can result in long term detrimental effects on production. Major sources of damage in gravel packs are: Improper placement of the gravel pack (perforations remain empty or the annulus between casing and screen is incompletely filled), allowing perforation filling by formation sand, pack fluidization and subsequent intermixing of sand and gravel in the case of pressure surges Damage by unbroken gels or formation particles during placement as a result of incomplete perforation cleaning Invasion by loss-control materials (LCM) Thread dope, paint, rust and polymer residues forced between formation sand and the gravel pack during placement Inadequate gravel size, leading to gravel-pack invasion by formation fines during production Screens with slots too large (do not retain gravel) or with slots too narrow that become plugged and reduces production.

The mechanismsof formationdamageduringsandcontrolare as follows: i) Pore plugging by solids: Gravel size selection is most important in gravel packing procedure of sand control. Inefficient gravel size may lead to pore plugging or perforation plugging. In gravel packing, plugging of the pack may occur from formation and well bore. The gravel pack can also

gradually fill the formation sand.

Mud solids deposited by the under reaming fluid can also

decrease the permeability. If the properties related to filtrate and bridging agent of the gravel packing fluids is not analyzed carefully, they can be proved harmful also, similar to the drilling fluid during drilling process. Poor quality gravel and dirty packing fluids may prove as source of plugging. ii) Perforation plugging: In gravel pack operation all the perforations are filled with gravels. The migrated fines and smaller sand particle may plug these perforations in proper bridging effect is not generated in the gravel pack around wellbore. iii) Polymer invasion: Failure to properly prepare gravel pack carrier fluids is a major contributor to formation damage. The two primary areas of concern are microgel plugging and breaker

performance. Proper diffusion of microgels will result in an increased viscosity and ease of filtration. It is important to remember that polymers are suspended solids. Therefore, too high a level of filtration or utilization of multiple filtration cycles will remove polymer, which could result in poor performance. Inadequate breaker performance is a major cause of formation damage.

In order to minimize the chances of the formation damage during sand control operation following important points should be carefully analyzed: i) Gravel size selection is the most important part of success of any gravel pack operation. Proper size of the gravel provides better bridging effect and controls the sand and fines migration. ii) Pickling the work string prior to gravel packing is the most efficient method for eliminating pipe dope deposition as a potential formation damage mechanism. iii) Prior to gravel packing, the perforations must be completely open in order to effectively place, gravel in the perforation tunnels. Both washing and surging techniques are adequate for removing bulk formation damage existing in perforations. iv) The fluid composition used during the job execution should be compatible with the formation rock and should be capable of handling fluid leakoff property.

The main cause of damage during sand control are plugging due to solids.

The remedial measures are as follows: Damage mechanism Fines migration Perforation plugging Polymer invasion %emedial measures Acidization, Clay stabilization , Frac & Pack , Acidization with foam based fluids Acidization Surfactant treatment, Matrix acidization

e) Formation Damage During Production: In production phase, though the formation does not come in contact with any external agent, it may be damaged due to intrinsic changes only. Major constituent of production are formation rock and formation fluid. Their mechanical and chemical properties are very important for optimum production without any problem. Any adverse property can lead to formation damage and may reduce the productivity of the well. Major causes of formation damage during production phase can be generated by the movement of the formation fines / sands and changes in formation fluid properties. Formations that are capable of releasing parts of the matrix during production or after stimulation pose special treating

problems. Although these situations are commonly thought of as sand-control problems rather than formation damage, the effect of mobile sand and the pressure drop caused by collapsed formation tunnels closely resemble the effect of formation damage. Some reservoirs cannot be produced at high flow rates or large drawdowns without being affected adversely. Permanent damage, which cannot be removed simply by the reducing production rate, may be created. A major problem is the movement of fines in the formation in response to either flow velocity or changes in the salinity of the flowing fluid. Native silts and clays loosely attached to pore walls can be put into motion by high flow rates, especially when two or more immiscible fluids are produced at the same time. Depending on their particle size, they can either block pore throats in the vicinity of their initial location or migrate toward the wellbore. Reduction in the pore pressure during production and sometimes cooling resulting from gas expansion, results in the

precipitation of organic or inorganic materials. Generally, these deposits affect only the production string and surface equipment. However, they can reduce formation permeability. Seeds, such as high-surface-area clays, promote the deposition of organic materials (especially

asphaltenes) or the precipitation of supersaturated salt solutions. Common scales are calcium carbonate and calcium sulfate. Problems associated with the deposition of elemental sulfur, sodium chloride and barium sulfate have also been experienced. Commingled precipitation of asphaltene and calcium carbonate is common. Retrograde condensation and bubble point problems are relative permeability blocking problems. Retrograde condensation is the condensation of a liquid from gas. When this happens, the relative permeability to gas can be reduced substantially. In oil reservoirs produced below the bubble point pressure, free gas is formed, which reduces the relative permeability to oil.

Thefollowingmechanismsare responsiblefor damageduringproduction : i) Fines migration : The production rate and rock matrix strength are important factors in the fine generation during production. The increased production rate, crossing the critical

velocity of formation fines generation, may generate the formation fines and cause pore blocking. Presence of Kaolinite or fibrous illite clay or some feldspars (nonclays) enhances the chances of fines generation and their movement inside the formation. Brine changes may trigger fines movement. To minimize chances of fines generation, the production rate or flow rate should be controlled and should not be allowed to cross the critical velocity of formation fines generation. If the formation matrix strength is too low and the formation is weak then proper sand control technique may be used for controlling the fines movement and their generation. ii) Scale deposition : The scale deposition in the formation may cause pore space reduction. Calcium carbonate scale may form at any pressure drop, either in the formation or tubulars. It may form quickly and can sharply limit production, especially at gravel-pack interfaces or near perforations in wells with high drawdown across the perforations. These are more common in earlier stages in some fields when the pressure drop is more severe. Effective and proper inhibitors in sufficient amount should be used in the well to prevent the scale deposition. Scale inhibitor should be used in the wells according to the type of scale expected. iii) Paraffin, Wax& Asphalteneformation: Paraffin and Wax deposition in producing string is common problem, but skin damage from their deposition may also occur. If Cloud point of oil is near the

reservoir temperature, then the chances of formation damage sue to them increases. Pressure drop may also trigger paraffin drop out. It may disappear if well is shut in for several days. The precipitation of asphaltene may be triggered by destabilization of maltene resins caused by acid contact, out gassing, shear in pumps, electrically charged metal surfaces, temperature reduction and CO2. The asphaltenes are adsorbed on the formation rock surface. Generation of paraffin can be prevented with help of inhibitor squeeze. Treatment with downhole heat- generating processes also helps if the well is a good producer. The solvent soaks may also be used. The reservoir pressure maintenance helps wax and asphaltene generation. As their generation is controlled by many different mechanism and therefore its prevention is not so easy. But, treatment with aromatic (cyclic ring) solvents such as xylene or toluene and some surfactants are useful for dispersion of the asphaltic mass. iv) Wettability alteration : The absorbed asphaltene layer induce wettability alteration of the oil bearing formation. The injection of incompatible surfactants can also alter the wettability of the formation rock. These can be prevented by using the surfactants only after compatibility studies. v) Condensate banking: In gas reservoirs with significant condensate yield and relatively high dew point pressure, the condensate baking may occur. It will reduce relative permeability to gas thereby reducing the production of the gas. This kind of problem arises with age of the well due to decrease in pressure of the reservoir. It can be controlled using minimum production drawdown and effective pressure control of the reservoir. vi) Gas breakout: Gas breakout may occur in the wells having downward coning of preexisting gas cap and increased near wellbore gas saturation. This increase in gas saturation near the wellbore does not allow the oil to produce at its previous rate. This problem arises with drop in reservoir pressure when pressure decreases below the oil bubble point pressure. It can be controlled using minimum production drawdown and effective pressure control of the reservoir. vii) Emulsion generation: The in-situ emulsion may be generated with presence of injected emulsifying agents (incompatible surfactants) or natural emulsifying agents if other conditions such high shear rate, water, etc. are already present. This emulsion will have higher viscosity compared to both crude oil and water, which will decrease the productivity of the well. Emulsion formation can be minimized with control on the causes of emulsion formation, i.e. formation fines / silts and surfactant which resides at the interface.

The remedial measures for the damage occurred during production process are as follows:

Damage mechanism Fines migration Scale deposition

Paraffin, Wax & Asphaltene formation

Wettability alteration Liquid block Condensate banking Emulsion generation !)

%emedial measures Deep penetrating acid treatment, Clay stabilization Acidization Surfactant treatment, Solvent treatment Surfactant treatment, Solvent treatment Surfactant treatment Hydraulic fracturing Solvent / Demulsifier treatment (% Methods :

Formation Damage During #ater In)ection And Di!!erent

Success of a water injection scheme and other Enhanced Oil recovery (EOR) methods

depends on being able to inject sufficient quantity of injection water into zone of interest and successful implementation of job. The injection well may not produce the desired result due to lack of injectivity caused by formation damage. The other EOR methods such as steam injection, polymer injection, insitu combustion, carbon dioxide flooding ,etc may also not give expected result due to formation damage caused by these processes itself if proper care is not taken in the selection of method and execution and implementation of the job. The different mechanisms ,which can affect the result of the water injection and different EOR methods by damaging the formation are as follows:

i) Solid invasion : If gradual reduction in injectivity is observed it may be attributed to plugging of formation face by suspended solids in injection water. These solids can be formation fines and clays, suspended solids, silt or carbonates fines from injection water source, bacteria, corrosion products from surface or injection equipment or generation of insitu solids by adverse chemical reactions between blended injection fluid or chemical decomposition or degradation of injection water. ii) Fines migration : Sandstone formations which may contain high percentage of

loosely attached and mobile clays exhibit critical interstitial velocity at which insitu fines may occur. The dislodging of fines in the fluid stream by high water injection velocities may plug the formation. iii) Clay swelling: If swelling clays are present in the formation i.e. smectite clay then the absence of proper salinity can result in clay swelling. iv) Clay deflocculating: Clay deflocculating can also be the cause of injectivity

impairment in formations with no swelling clays, which is due to abrupt contact of with fresh water or sudden salinity changes or shocks or sudden increase in pH level. v) Formationdissolution: Target zones may include water soluble materials such as

highly hydratable clays, anhydrites, halites etc. Partial or complete dissolution or softening of these constituents by sustained aqueous contact may lead to migration or release of insoluble fines which were previously immobilized in an encapsulated state. These materials carried by injection water into the formation may cause plugging thereby impairing injectivity. vi Skim oil entrainment : Oil entrapped in injection water is a major source of potential impaired injectivity, which is due to high saturation of hydrocarbon liquid entrapped in the porous media around an injector to ensure that a continuous oil phase with finite relative permeability and mobility is obtained. vii) Biologically Induced Impairment : Injection water, whatever the source, contains

bacterial agents. Bacterial problems associated with water injection can be associated with the growth of both aerobic ( oxygen requiring) and anaerobic (non O 2 requiring) bacteria in surface facilities, pumps, tubing, downhole equipment as well as within the formation itself. viii) Sand influx : It is observed that sand in injection wells remains stable till injection continues. The moment injection is stopped due to disruption in power supply or some other reason, there is sudden decline in the pressure in the tubing because of which

sand has the tendency to flow back into the wellbore. Presence of suspended solids/oil in such situation brings the injectivity down. ix) Chemical adsorption/ Wettability alterations : The injection water contains chemical

additives such as de-emulsifiers and surfactants used to inhibit emulsion formation or allow the separation of the produced crude oil from the total fluid stream. In addition it may include corrosion inhibitors, scale inhibitors, etc. These chemicals are highly polar and may have a tendency for physical adsorption on both sandstones and carbonates. The adsorption of these chemicals may cause : Reductions in permeability. Alterations in wettability (generally to a more oil-wet state).

x) Formation of insoluble scales and Emulsification: Carbonate and sulphate based scales are commonly encountered in water injection operations. Emulsion formation is caused by simultaneous formation of oil and water in porous media. xi) Precipitate formation : Injection water may react adversely with formation water and form insoluble carbonate, sulphates or iron based precipitate which can plug the target zone.

The important properties, which should be given, care to prevent the damage to the formation during water injection are as follows: I Ii Iii iv) Total dissolve solids (Salinity and type of ions) pH and state of oxidation of brine Presence of Bacteria Additives,

Lack of proper preventive measures causes formation to be damaged by the job and then the effectiveness of the job decreases very much. To restore the potential of the water injection potential the efficient remedial measures are necessary. The remedial measures for the damages done during water injection according to the different damage mechanisms are as follows

Damage mechanism Solid invasion Fines migration Clay swelling Clay deflocculating Formation dissolution Skim oil entrainment Biologically Induced Impairment Sand influx Chemical adsorption/ Wettability alterations Formation of insoluble scales and Emulsification Precipitate formation

%emedial measures Acidization, Hydraulic fracturing Acidization ,Clay stabilization treatment High saline fluid Surfactant treatment, Clay stabilization treatment Acidization, Hydraulic fracturing Surfactant treatment Biocide treatment Sand consolidation treatment Surfactant treatment Surfactant treatment, Solvent treatment Acidization

g) Formation Damage During Stimulation Treatment: The objective of well stimulation is to improve existing well productivity. If the well problem is accurately diagnosed and the treatment is well designed and executed, the net effect will be improved productivity and satisfactory economic payout. If the damage aspects dominate, however, the treatment may result in no change in productivity or even a decline. Sometimes lack of proper care leads to further damage after job also. Acids have been widely used for increasing or restoring the permeability of formations Acid reactions can produce several side effects that can decrease formation permeability if the acid composition is not properly analyzed /designed. During acid treatment following mechanisms are responsible for formation damage: i)External particle intrusion : If the wellbore is not cleaned properly before the acid job, i.e. in absence of tubing pickling, the external damaging particles may enter into the formation thereby creating much more problem. If the tubing rust or iron enters with acid in the formation then it may lead to generation of sludge, which can increase the value of skin. Dirty

tubing strings can also be a source of damaging materials. ii)Finesmigration : The excess and high concentration of acid may dissolve matrix and matrix cement. Therefore, mineral grains may be liberated and can migrate to plug pores. It may also lead to collapse of the formation. iii)Reaction and precipitation: The acid reaction with the formation rock minerals are very complex and the secondary & tertiary reaction and byproducts may generate formation damage in place of stimulation. iv)Sludge formation: Precipitation of colloidal materials from asphaltic crude oils may form during acidizing and can plug the formations. These sludges, which form in presence of asphaltenes, resins, paraffin waxes, and other high molecular weight hydrocarbons, when pH of the crude oil is reduced by acid contact. v) Emulsion formation: The additives / surfactant present in the acid formulation may result in formation of emulsion. The presence of formation fluid, acid composition and generated formation fines may enhance the chances of emulsion formation. vi)Wettability alteration: The surfactants present in the acid composition, especially corrosion inhibitor may change the wettability of the formation to oil wet. vii)Water Block: Excess injection of the acid volume in the formation fluid during acid treatment may lead to formation of water block near wellbore and cause formation damage. vii)Iron ion precipitation: Formation damage from ferric hydroxide precipitation is a potential problem in any acidizing treatment. Acid readily dissolves iron scales in pipe and attacks iron containing minerals in the formation under treatment. The proper laboratory studies while selecting the acid composition are essential so as to control the occurrence of these mechanisms. Along with acid composition the job execution also plays major role in the success of the stimulation job.

The different remedial measures for different kind of damage mechanisms causing damage duringacid treatmentare as follows:

Damage mechanism Fines migration Reaction and precipitation Sludge formation Emulsion formation *+ Formation damage Diagnosis

%emedial measures Clay stabilization, Hydraulic fracturing Hydraulic fracturing, Acidization Solvent treatment Surfactant treatment, Solvent treatment

To understand the nature and cause of formation damage, the correct diagnosis of the problem is necessary. It helps to design proper effective treatment to solve the problem. Diagnosis of the formation damage can be done with help of many different procedures and available data. Well performance curves or production history of specific well can provide clues to help define the problem. Comparing the actual well performance with the expected normal production performance for that type of operative reservoir drive mechanism can be very helpful to figure out the cause of production decline. The production trend and the information about

activities done on

the well gives information, whether production decline is normal

reservoir pressure depletion or it is due to formation damage or to mechanical problems in the well bore such as sand production or in effective artificial lift.

The well completion reports or workover reports may also give many helpful information.

S,I-: The value of skin is mostly used measure to quantify the extent and severity of the formation damage. The higher positive value of the skin indicates the higher level of

formation damage.

Fig.: Effectof Skin on production

F.(# FFI&I -&/: Flow efficiency can be also used to describe wellbore damage. It is the
ratio of the theoretical pressure drop if no skin had been present to the actual pressure drop measured during the test. FE= P (zero skin) / P (actual)

P% SS0% T%A-SI -T A-A./SIS

Transient pressure testing has been used for many years to define various reservoir characteristics. Several ways to identify, and quantify, formation damage in producing wells are available from analysis of this type of test. The value of skin or extent of formation damage may be measured with help of pressure transient analyses. There are many tests, which can be utilized. The choice of test depends upon the practical limitation and suitability. The different kinds of tests are as follows:-

i) Drawdown test: In a drawdown test, a well that is static, stable and shut in is opened to
flow. But getting initial stable pressure and later const. Flow rate is difficult.

ii) shut in,

"uild up test: In a build up test, a well which is already flowing (ideally at constant rate) is and the downhole pressure measured as the pressure build up. The difficulty is to

get const. Rate production prior to the shut in and the production is lost while well is shut in. the practical advantage is that the const. Flow rate condition, in the second half, is more easily achieved (since the flow rate is zero).

iii) In)ection test:

An injection test is conceptually identical to a drawdown test, except that flow is into

the well rather than out of it. It is easier to control the injection rate than production rate. But, the properties of the injected fluid play a major role if it is different from original reservoir fluid.

iv) Fall o!! test: - A fall off test measures the pressure decline subsequent to the closure of an injection. It is conceptually identical to a buildup. Similar to injection test, in it also the earlier injected fluid plays a major role.

-odal Analysis
Nodal analysis is another tool, which can be used to identify the presence of formation damage and quantify the effect of the damage on the production rate as well. By definition, nodal analysis is a systematic approach to the optimization of oil and gas wells by thoroughly evaluating the complete Producing system. Each component of the producing system, including the reservoir, wellbore, and surface facilities, is considered. Once a well"s optimum producing rate is determined! problem wells! producing below this rate can be recognized. This reduced productivity can be a result of many factors, but nodal analysis allows for evaluation of each component of the producing system separately ad therefore can isolate the source of the problem.

Production logging
The production logging proves to be helpful in further defining the cause of formation damage. The production logs, such as flow meter and grandiomanometer are normally used to determine the flow profile of the perforated zone. By analyzing the flow profile, intervals that are contributing little or no fluid can be identified.

.aboratory Studies
Laboratory studies in view of formation damage are done to understand the factors responsible for damage, identification of damage mechanisms and remedial measures. The studies about the rock mineralogy, formation fluid and their compatibility with other fluids and additives help to diagnose the damage and to identify a suitable remedial measure. The different laboratory studies which can be used to identify the nature of the damage, damage mechanisms and factors responsible for damage are as follows:

X-Ray Diffraction Analysis

(b)ecti'e -Qualitative and semi-quantitative analysis of rock and clay mineralogy Applications -The knowledge of composition of rock and clay mineralogy helps to understand the probable causes of formation damage. -The clay mineralogy can give information about the effect of different fluids, which come in contact with rock. -It helps to decide the acid formulation.

Scanning Electron Microscope Analysis

(b)ecti'e -To get a view of framework grains, cements, matrix and porosity. -To get view of distribution of clay particles and other fines within the pore spaces.

Applications -To understand the cause of damage -Treatment design

Solubility Test
(b)ecti'e -To study solubility of rock formation in different acid formulations -Filterate analysis for Iron content Applications -To decide acid formulation & acid additives -Treatment design

Core Wettability Test

(b)ecti'e study Wettability of core samples Application -It helps to decide acid additives.

Immersion Test
(b)ecti'e -Study Effect of 2% KCl Kerosene, 15% HCl on formation chips Application -Treatment design -Acid additives

Sludge Test
(b)ecti'e -Study for sludge forming tendency of crude oil with treatment acid formulation -Solubility of sludge with different solvents Application -Treatment design -Acid additives

lus! Test "it! #ndamaged Core $lug

(b)ecti'e -Develop Acid Response Curve Application -Treatment design

Damage E%posure
(b)ecti'e -Exposing restored core plug to specified drilling / completion fluid. -Determine damage permeability Application -Treatment design