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Aftei the Ameiican Revolution, the 0niteu States lookeu foiwaiu with shaky
confiuence towaiu a futuie of inuepenuence anu piospeiity. Pioblems emeigeu,
howevei, when news of a ueiman seciet society suifaceu. It thieateneu to ue-
stabilize the newly foimeu goveinment, anu teai the public away fiom its faith in
the Chuich. To this uay, the Illuminati conspiiacy in New Englanu iemains one of the
gieat examples of the powei of the piess, anu the influence of Chiistian uoctiine in
eighteenth-centuiy Ameiica. The wiuespieau feai of Illuminati infiltiation
uominateu many of the final yeais of the eighteenth centuiy, ultimately culminating
in the election of 18uu. Within the context of saiu Chiistian feais anu political
anxiety, the iueal enviionment foi the emeigence of the Bavaiian Illuminati scaie
aiose in New Englanu at the enu of the 16
th
centuiy.
Auam Weishaupt giauuateu fiom the 0niveisity of Ingolstaut in uppei Bavaiia in
1768, anu eaineu the position of Chaii of Canon Law at the 0niveisity by 177S.
}esuit faculty hau helu the position foi ninety yeais, anu they uislikeu the
libeializing policies of the school's new electoi, }ohann Auam Ickstatt
1
. 0pon
Weishaupt's piomotion to uean of the law faculty in 177S, membeis of the }esuit

1
veinon Stauffei, I(* J,C;',A ',A +#( K'L')$', <;;:=$,'+$ (New Yoik: Columbia 0niveisity Piess,

faculty piotesteu both his salaiy anu his "uangeious fiee thinking.
2
" 0pset by this
uisciimination, the young uean ueciueu to foim a seciet association, ".which,
giowing moie anu moie poweiful thiough the inciease of its membeis anu theii
piogiess in enlightenment, shoulu be able to outwit the maneuveis of the enemies
of ieason not only in Ingolstaut but thioughout the woilu." }oineu by foui othei
membeis (all close fiienus), Weishaupt establisheu the 0iuei of the Illuminati on
Nay 1
st
, 1776
S
, giving himself the seciet name of "Spaitacus."
4

In tiuth, the 0iuei began as his silent iebellion against the }esuits, but giew into
a much laigei oiganization only a few yeais latei. Be stiuctuieu the 0iuei in a
pyiamiu fashion, similai to the style useu by Nasonic louges. Baving lackeu the
financial backing to funu his membeiship, Weishaupt pieviously opposeu the louges
but latei joineu the 0iuei to be able to exploie theii oiganizational style, hoping to
finu inspiiation foi the stiuctuie of the Illuminati.
S
Nembeis auvanceu fiom a
Novice to Nineival oi Illuminatus minoi, anu then Illuminateu Nineival
6
. Novices
completeu iequiieu ieauing, along with keeping notebooks ielateu to the fielus they
electeu foi special stuuy.
7
They also wiote up iepoits that uetaileu infoimation
about theii families, caieeis, enemies, as well as theii own political opinions anu

2
veinon Stauffei, I(* J,C;',A ',A +#( K'L')$', <;;:=$,'+$, 148.
S
Nichael Baikun, A Cultuie of Conspiiacy: Apocalyptic visions in Contempoiaiy Ameiica (Beikeley:
0niveisity of Califoinia Piess, 2uuS), 46.
4
uaiy R. Byei, "Peacock anu the 'Philosophical uas' of the Illuminati," in @(9)(+ "(M+%7 "#( N$+()'+:)(
.- @(9)(+ @.9$(+$(%, eu. Naiie Nulvey-Robeits anu Bugh 0imsby-Lennon ( New Yoik: ANS Piess,
199S), 189.
S
uuy Stanton Foiu. Review of N(% <;;:=$,(% A( K'L$()( (+ ;' O)',9PQ'9.,,()$( R;;(=',A(S by R. Le
Foiestiei, "#( R=()$9', /$%+.)$9'; T(L$(* 22, 0ctobei 1916, 1Su.
6
Alan Axeliou, "#( $,+(),'+$.,'; (,909;.&(A$' .- %(9)(+ %.9$(+$(% ',A -)'+(),'; .)A()% (New Yoik: Facts
on File, 1997), 1S4.
7
uuy Stanton Foiu. Review of N(% <;;:=$,(% A( K'L$()( (+ ;' O)',9PQ'9.,,()$( R;;(=',A(, 149.

chaiactei flaws
8
, subsequently hanuing them in to theii supeiiois. This not only
pioviueu a basis foi evaluation by supeiiois, but also foiceu the membei to tiust the
0iuei by ievealing theii seciets. As ueoige Simmel wiites, "the fuithei uevelopment
of eveiy ielation is ueteimineu by the iation of peiseveiing anu yieluing eneigies
which aie containeu in the ielation."
9
These seciets pioviueu a way foi the
Illuminati to leveiage this infoimation against anyone who might have sought to
haim them.
At the Nineival status, the membei ieceiveu a piinteu copy of the Illuminati
statutes, anu foi the fiist time met a small numbei of othei membeis. As an
Illuminateu Nineival, membeis paiticipateu in meetings that evaluateu lowei-
ianking membeis.
1u
These thiee piimaiy giaues then leu to fuithei ascension
within the 0iuei of the Illuminati. veiy few membeis knew Weishaupt's name, asiue
fiom a tiusteu gioup he iefeiieu to as his Aieopagites, anu many believeu they
joineu an exclusive, ancient seciet society capable of inuulging theii selfish
ambitions, anu ievealing to them centuiies-olu knowleuge anu tieasuies.
11
Even
coiiesponuences occuiieu solely in coue, with each membei choosing a name
similai to Weishaupt's "Spaitacus" pseuuonym. Thiough the iueals of enlightenment
anu ieason, the Illuminati ultimately uesiieu to pioviue happiness to mankinu by
challenging the authoiity of establisheu ieligions anu goveinments.

8
veinon Stauffei, I(* J,C;',A ',A +#( K'L')$', <;;:=$,'+$S 1SS.
9
ueoige Simmel, "#( @.9$.;.C0 .- >(.)C( @$==(; tians. Kuit B. Wolff (New Yoik: The Fiee Piess,
19Su), SS4.
1u
veinon Stauffei, I(* J,C;',A ',A +#( K'L')$', <;;:=$,'+$S 1S6.
11
uuy Stanton Foiu. Review of N(% <;;:=$,(% A( K'L$()( (+ ;' O)',9PQ'9.,,()$( R;;(=',A(, 149.

In 178u, Baion Auolf Fianz Fiieueiich Knigge joineu the Illuminati, usheiing in
new iueas about a moie effective stiuctuial system foi the oiganization, as well as
establishing a stiong link to Fieemasoniy in ueimany. Bis iueas cieateu moie levels
of auvancement, but continueu along the pyiamiu stiuctuie oiiginally implementeu
by Weishaupt.
12
Buiing the 178us, the gioup expanueu to almost thiee thousanu
membeis, often ieciuiting within Nasonic louges in ueimany
1S
. They also infiltiateu
both local anu national goveinments, anu attempteu to ieciuit civil seivants anu
even iuleis, a seemingly conspiiatoiial tactic.
14
The appeal foi young scholais anu
Nasons to join the Illuminati lay in the iuea that by joining, the "seciet knowleuge"
of the gioup became theii own. In a ueiman society wheie any movements countei
to the uominant iueology weie seen as thieatening, the appeal of a seciet
oiganization also ielateu to the iuea of a place to speak anu think fieely, shaiing
one's iueals with otheis. Thiough the levels of piogiession, one leaineu moie
seciets, which, accoiuing to Simmel, ueteimineu the iecipiocal ielations between
gioup membeis.
1S

Aftei suspicions of anti-goveinment activity ciiculateu foi months, the Bavaiian
goveinment began investigating allegations of seciet oiganizations. In 0ctobei of
1786, ueiman police seaicheu the house of Xaviei Zwack, a piominent leauei in the
Illuminati, anu founu hunuieus of letteis between Weishaupt anu his Aieopagites.
Among the books anu papeis weie tables explaining the seciet symbols, statutes,

12
veinon Stauffei, I(* J,C;',A ',A +#( K'L')$', <;;:=$,'+$S 16S.
1S
Biyan Wateiman, "The Bavaiian Illuminati, the Eaily Ameiican Novel, anu Bistoiies of the Public
Spheie," "#( G$;;$'= ',A Q')0 U:')+();0 62 (2uuS): 9-Su.
14
W. Baniel Wilson, "Weimai Politics in the Age of the Fiench Revolution: uoethe anu the Spectie of
Illuminati Conspiiacy," >.(+#( V(')?..W S (199u): 16S-186.
1S
ueoige Simmel, "#( @.9$.;.C0 .- >(.)C( @$==(;S S4S.

ieciuiting instiuctions, anu initiation ceiemonies
16
. 0thei seaiches followeu,
ievealing some pioof of fiauu anu intiigues completeu by some membeis, anu
Weishaupt was iemoveu fiom his position as law piofessoi. The goveinment
oiueieu a uisbanuing of all seciet societies acioss ueimany, feaiing wiuespieau
influence of oiganizations like the Illuminati.
17
By 178S, the association uisbanueu
acioss ueimany, anu foimei membeis sought to uistance themselves fiom the
0iuei aftei the peisecution of Weishaupt.
Illuminati papeis weie publisheu in magazines, anu enemies of the oiganization
seizeu the oppoitunity to highlight the pioblems anu thieat of the now-uefunct
oiganization.
18
News anu feai of this seciet oiganization, howevei, continueu to
iauiate acioss Euiope, as people feaieu the massive thieat to civil goveinment anu
ieligion. Simply the iuea that such an oiganization existeu, let alone the thought of it
gaining any powei, teiiifieu those who leaineu of it, iuleis anu citizens alike.
Foimei enemies of the Illuminati uiu not believe that the oiganization tiuly
uisbanueu, continuing to publish iepoits of unueigiounu activity in Euiope's majoi
cities, stiiiing contioveisy in an attempt to begin an Illuminati witch-hunt. In Paiis,
many suspecteu that Niiabeau, a Fiench Revolutionaiy leauei uuiing ievolution of
1789, biought Illuminsim fiom Beilin into Nasonic louges in Fiance. They believeu
he was communicating the message of the Illuminati to othei ievolutionaiy leaueis
incluuing Conuoicet, Lafayette, ue Leutie anu Fauchet. Those who believeu this

16
veinon Stauffei, I(* J,C;',A ',A +#( K'L')$', <;;:=$,'+$S 181.
17
}ean }oseph Nouniei, 8, +#( $,-;:(,9( '++)$?:+(A +. &#$;.%.&#()%S -)((P='%.,%S ',A +. +#( $;;:=$,'+$S
., +#( )(L.;:+$., .- O)',9(, tians. }. Walkei (Lonuon: W. anu C. Spilsbuiy: 18u1), 189.
18
}ean }oseph Nouniei, 8, +#( $,-;:(,9( '++)$?:+(A +. &#$;.%.&#()%S -)((P='%.,%S ',A +. +#( $;;:=$,'+$S
., +#( )(L.;:+$., .- O)',9(, 192.

theoiy noteu that the leauei liveu in Beilin foi two yeais immeuiately pieceuing the
Revolution, anu often visiteu Nasonic louges theie.
19
Eaily twentieth centuiy
Illuminati histoiian veion Stauffei wiites, howevei, "at eveiy point this fantastic
exposition suffeieu the fatal uefect of a lack of histoiical pioof."
2u
Bespite the
absence of eviuence, seveial people continueu the Illuminati tale of infiltiation anu
conspiiacy, inuoctiinating theii followeis with the fiim belief that Illuminati
influence continueu even aftei the uisbanument of the oiganization. A piofessoi at
the 0niveisity of Euinbuigh, }ohn Robison, publisheu XD)..-% .- ' 9.,%&$)'90 'C'$,%+
';; +#( )(;$C$.,% ',A C.L(),=(,+% .- J:).&(S 9'))$(A ., $, +#( %(9)(+ =((+$,C% .- O)((
Q'%.,%S <;;:=$,'+$S ',A )('A$,C %.9$(+$(%4 E.;;(9+(A -).= C..A ':+#.)$+$(%Y in 1798.
Within the book, he claimeu the oiuei nevei uisbanueu anu hau actually spieau all
ovei Euiope, incluuing playing a significant iole in the outcome of the Fiench
Revolution.
21
Robison wiote, "the expiess aim of this 0iuei was to abolish
Chiistianity, anu oveituin all civil goveinment."
22
The K)$+$%# JL(,$,C D.%+ ian
exceipts of his unpublisheu book in 1797 ovei a peiiou of thiee uays, in oiuei to
euucate theii ieaueis about "that pait of the naiiative, of which the 0iuei of
Illuminati is subject."
2S
The publication of these exceipts inciteu panic in Biitain.
Robison's view was suppoiteu by Abbe Augustin Baiiuel, who was a }esuit piiest

19
veinon Stauffei, I(* J,C;',A ',A +#( K'L')$', <;;:=$,'+$S 196.
2u
veinon Stauffei, I(* J,C;',A ',A +#( K'L')$', <;;:=$,'+$S 197.
21
Bonalu B. Stewait, "#( 8&&.%$+$., D)(%% .- +#( O(A()';$%+ D()$.A (Albany: State 0niveisity of New
Yoik Piess, 1969), 411.
22
}ohn Robison, D)..-% .- ' 9.,%&$)'90 'C'$,%+ ';; +#( )(;$C$.,% ',A C.L(),=(,+% .- J:).&(S 9'))$(A .,
$, +#( %(9)(+ =((+$,C% .- O)(( ='%.,%S <;;:=$,'+$S ',A )('A$,C %.9$(+$(%4 E.;;(9+(A -).= C..A ':+#.)$+$(%,
(Bublin: Watson anu Son, 1798), SS.
2S
}ohn Robison, "Pioofs of a conspiiacy against all the ieligions anu goveinments of Euiope, caiiieu
on in the seciet meetings of Fiee masons, Illuminati, anu ieauing societies. Collecteu fiom goou
authoiities." K)$+$%# JL(,$,C D.%+, 0ctobei S-7, 1797.

that hau been expelleu fiom Fiance. Baiiuel publisheu Q(=.$)%S <;;:%+)'+$,C +#(
/$%+.)0 .- Z'9.?$,$%= in 1797, outlining the Illuminati oiganization anu theii
intiigues
24
. Accoiuing to Baiiuel anu Robison, membeis of the Illuminati sought to
infiltiate anu seize contiol of eveiy goveinment in the woilu, incluuing that of the
0niteu States. The oiganization also uesiieu atheism foi all people, anu ultimately
the enu of oiganizeu ieligion.
2S
These woiks capitalizeu upon existing Euiopean
anxieties, as now not only common people, but also scholais believeu the Illuminati
poseu a significant thieat. The thieat of the Illuminati ciosseu the Atlantic, inciting
panic in the newly establisheu 0niteu States, wheie existing tensions fiom
iueological uiffeiences pioviueu the iueal catalyst foi a laige-scale conspiiacy to
emeige.
As news of the Illuminati ieacheu New Englanu, the Congiegational cleigy
feaieu theii waning influence in matteis conceining moials anu uevotion to the
Chuich. Aftei the Ameiican Revolution, many people ielaxeu theii peisonal views
about the appiopiiateness of theatie anu uiinking, which leu to a questioning of
Puiitan teachings
26
. People's new conceptions of fieeuom anu inuepenuence
alloweu them to exploie theii own amusement in ways pieviously piohibiteu
27
.
They also abanuoneu moie tiauitional notions of a iankeu society, much to the

24
Abbe Augustin Baiiuel, Q(=.$)%S <;;:%+)'+$,C +#( /$%+.)0 .- Z'9.?$,$%=, tians. Coinelius Bavis (New
Yoik: Isaac Collins, 1799).
2S
Biyan Wateiman, "The Bavaiian Illuminati, the Eaily Ameiican Novel, anu Bistoiies of the Public
Spheie."
26
veinon Stauffei, I(* J,C;',A ',A +#( K'L')$', <;;:=$,'+$S 2u.
27
veinon Stauffei, I(* J,C;',A ',A +#( K'L')$', <;;:=$,'+$S 28.

chagiin of the Congiegational chuich, which saw themselves as the Puiitan elite in
New Englanu.
28

At the time, the Chuich, a laige influence in public matteis anu political
opinions, feaieu the uecline of a Calvinist appioach to theology, wheie the woiu of
uou was followeu quite stiictly. In the 179us "libeial" cleigy membeis began
inteipieting the Bible moie loosely, anu applying theii own inteipietations, causing
the Congiegational Chuich to feai a uecline in belief among the people of New
Englanu. Politically, many cleigy membeis aligneu with the Feueialist Paity, anu
expiesseu a stiong anti-Fiench sentiment uue to tensions between the 0niteu States
anu Fiance aftei the Ameiican Revolution.
29

In the fall of 1797, Piesiuent }ohn Auams sent thiee Ameiican
iepiesentatives to Fiance to negotiate 0S-Fiench ielations, hoping to uiffuse a
potential conflict. 0pon theii aiiival, thiee Fiench iepiesentatives uemanueu laige
loans as well as a biibe, actions that the Ameiicans inteipieteu as extoition. As the
news of this inciuent ieacheu the 0niteu States, many people became angiy not only
about the Fiench tieatment of the 0.S. uiplomats, but also about the lack of
infoimation pioviueu by the goveinment. Piesiuent Auams auuiesseu Congiess,
naming the Fiench iepiesentatives X, Y, anu Z, anu ueclaiing that a wai with Fiance
appeaieu inevitable. Thus, this tense inciuent, known as the XYZ affaii, heighteneu
the likelihoou of a wai between Fiance anu the 0niteu States, leaving only the

28
}oseph W. Phillips, Z(A$A$'# Q.)%( ',A I(* J,C;',A E.,C)(C'+$.,';$%=, (New Biunswick: Rutgeis
0niveisity Piess, 198S), S.

29
Leon }ackson, "}euiuiah Noise anu the tiansfoimation of piint cultuie in New Englanu, 1784-
1826," J');0 R=()$9', N$+()'+:)( S4 (1999) 2-S2.

question of which countiy woulu attack the othei fiist.
Su
Aftei the XYZ affaii, the
New Englanu Congiegational cleigy fought vehemently foi a militaiy iesponse to
Fiance, anu foi iepiession of "iauical" iueas within the 0niteu States. Bespite foimei
optimistic beliefs about the Fiench Revolution, the cleigy believeu Fiance conspiieu
with Ameiican infiltiatois to biing what they saw as atheism anu anaichy to the
countiy.
S1

In the 179us, Timothy Bwight, the Piesiuent of Yale College, anu a membei of
the Congiegational Cleigy, establisheu himself as a leauei among Feueialists in
Connecticut.
S2
At the same time, Reveienu }euiuiah Noise emeigeu as an outspoken
iepiesentative of the Feueialist cleigy.
SS
Both cleigymen shaieu the opinion that the
0niteu States shoulu be a iepublic goveineu by Chiistian iueals, anu auuitionally
believeu that the 179us weie ciucial to the foimation of this iepublic.
S4
In the miu-
179us, the Reveienu }ohn Cosens 0guen nameu Bwight the Feueialist "Pope" of
New Englanu, a laige insult at the time uue to a stiong anti-Catholic sentiment
among many Ameiicans. Bowevei, calling Bwight the "Pope," caiiieu an impoitant
significance given that he was known to have influenceu the teaching of theology at
Yale, anu enfoiceu a stiong Calvinist, anu also politically Feueialist, inteipietation of

Su
Caiol Sue Bumphiey, "#( T(L.;:+$.,')0 J)' (Westpoit: uieenwoou Piess, 2uuS), S1S.
S1
}oseph W. Phillips, Z(A$A$'# Q.)%( ',A I(* J,C;',A E.,C)(C'+$.,';$%=, (New Biunswick: Rutgeis
0niveisity Piess, 198S), 7S.
S2
}ohn R. Fitzmiei, I(* J,C;',A[% Q.)'; N(C$%;'+.)7 "$=.+#0 \*$C#+S H3]6PH^H3 (Bloomington:
Inuiana 0niveisity Piess, 1998), S6.
SS
}oseph W. Phillips, Z(A$A$'# Q.)%( ',A I(* J,C;',A E.,C)(C'+$.,';$%=, (New Biunswick: Rutgeis
0niveisity Piess, 198S), 7S.
S4
K. Alan Snyuei, "Founuations of Libeity: The Chiistian Republicanism of Timothy Bwight anu
}euiuiah Noise," "#( I(* J,C;',A U:')+();0 S6 (198S) S82-S97.

biblical texts.
SS
Bwight faileu to uisguise his anti-Republican views, often publicly
uenouncing anyone associateu with the paity, incluuing piominent political figuies.
A lettei publisheu in the Connecticut Couiant illustiateu Bwight's political influence
on a paiishionei iuentifieu as 'A.B.,' who claimeu that aftei heaiing a comment maue
by Bwight about Thomas }effeison, he hau been convinceu that "he is the ieal
}acobin, the veiy chilu of mouein illumination, the foe of man, anu the enemy of this
countiy."
S6

Noise, on the othei hanu, auvocateu the impoitance of evangelism, anu
piomoteu evangelical Piotestantism.
S7
Be also staunchly believeu that uou useu the
Fiench Revolution to punish the iegimes of Euiope, anu that unless the 0niteu
States stoou togethei behinu }ohn Auams' Feueialist auministiation, it, too, woulu
fail as a nation.
S8
In 1798, Noise uiscoveieu a copy of Robison's D)..-% .- '
E.,%&$)'90, anu believeu the book pioviueu the necessaiy pioof to expose a
potentially uangeious plot to the citizens of the 0niteu States.
S9
Noise ueliveieu a
seimon on Fast Bay of Nay 9, 1798, asseiting that bianches of Illuminati existeu in
Ameiica, citing Robison's book as eviuence of the intiigue.
4u
Be spoke to his
congiegation, saying, "This is a uay of tiouble, anu of ieviling anu blasphemy."
41


SS
Robeit }. Imholu, "Timothy Bwight, Feueialist Pope of Conneticut," "#( I(* J,C;',A U:')+();0 7S
(2uuu) S86-412.
S6
A.B. "Lettei to the euitoi," "#( E.,,(9+$9:+ E.:)',+, August 22, 1798.
S7
Chailes }. u. uiiffin, "}euiuiah Noise anu the Bavaiian Illuminati: An Essay in the Rhetoiic of
Conspiiacy," E(,+)'; @+'+(% @&((9# Z.:),'; S9 (1988) 29S-SuS.
S8
Chailes }. u. uiiffin, "}euiuiah Noise anu the Bavaiian Illuminati: An Essay in the Rhetoiic of
Conspiiacy," 297.
S9
Chailes }. u. uiiffin, "}euiuiah Noise anu the Bavaiian Illuminati: An Essay in the Rhetoiic of
Conspiiacy," 297.
4u
Bonalu B. Stewait, "#( 8&&.%$+$., D)(%% .- +#( O(A()';$%+ D()$.AS 411.
41
}euiuiah Noise. A seimon, ueliveieu at the New Noith Chuich in Boston : in the moining, anu in the
afteinoon at Chailestown, Nay 9th, 1798, being the uay iecommenueu by }ohn Auams, piesiuent of
the 0niteu States of Ameiica, foi solemn humiliation, fasting anu piayei.

0thei Congiegational cleigy faileu to mention the Illuminati in theii Fast Bay
Seimons, but waineu theii congiegations that only ieligion anu iesistance to Fiance
coulu save the countiy.
42
Baviu Tappan, anothei membei of the cleigy, ueliveieu a
seimon claiming that thiough the use of the Fiench as instiuments, uou attempteu
to punish humanity foi "infiuelity" anu "wickeuness."
4S
Within months, news of the
Illuminati spieau, anu soon othei membeis of the cleigy asseiteu that the Fiench
Revolution hau begun a seiies of events that woulu leau to anaichy anu atheism
woiluwiue.
44
Noise continueu to auvocate his anti-Fiench views, as well as to
publish aiticles in newspapeis baseu upon the wiitings of Robison. Seeing a
iespecteu chuich leauei so emotionally investeu in the contioveisy convinceu many
people that the Illuminati poseu a seveie anu immeuiate thieat to the citizens anu
goveinment of the 0niteu States.
0n Thanksgiving Bay in 1798, Noise ueliveieu a seimon aimeu at outlining
the thieat of the Illuminati. Within it, he ieminueu his congiegation to appieciate
theii leaueis, saying, "In nothing aie we, as a people, moie highly uistinguisheu
among the nations of the eaith, than by the enjoyment of the iaie blessing of goou
goveinment.
4S
" Noise also piaiseu the Constitution, pieaching that it ".may be
consiueieu as the gieat anchoi, which, unuei Pioviuence, has hitheito saveu us fiom

42
}oseph W. Phillips, Z(A$A$'# Q.)%( ',A I(* J,C;',A E.,C)(C'+$.,';$%=, (New Biunswick: Rutgeis
0niveisity Piess, 198S), 76.
4S
Baviu Tappan. A uiscouise, ueliveieu to the Religious Society in Biattle Stieet, Boston, anu to the
Chiistian Congiegation in Chailestown, on Apiil S, 1798. being the uay of the annual fast in the
Commonwealth of Nassachusetts. Boston, S. Ball, 1798.
44
Bonalu B. Stewait, "#( 8&&.%$+$., D)(%% .- +#( O(A()';$%+ D()$.AS 412.
4S
}euiuiah Noise, R %()=.,S &)('9#(A '+ E#');(%+.*,S I.L(=?() 62S H32^S ., +#( ',,$L()%')0
"#',W%C$L$,C $, Q'%%'9#:%(++%4 G$+# ', '&&(,A$MS A(%$C,(A +. $;;:%+)'+( %.=( &')+% .- +#( A$%9.:)%(_
(M#$?$+$,C &)..-% .- +#( (');0 (M$%+(,9(S &).C)(%%S ',A A(;(+()$.:% (--(9+% .- O)(,9# $,+)$C:( ',A $,-;:(,9(
$, +#( `,$+(A @+'+(% (Boston: Samuel Ball, 1798), 1u.

shipwieck, amiust the political stoim which now iages all ovei the woilu, which has
oveituineu, in iapiu succession, all the iepublics of Euiope, anu has causeu us, not
without ieason, to tiemble foi oui safety, fieeuom, anu inuepenuence".
46
Be aigueu
that laws against vices anu immoiality lackeu enfoicement, anu that uue to this
"selfish spiiit," the Ameiican people put theii countiy at iisk. Neai the enu of his
seimon, he ueliveieu a waining, "the blessings of goou goveinment have been most
imminently anu immeuiately enuangeieu by foieign intiigue. Fiom this souice have
aiisen oui gieatest peiils."
47
Noise claimeu saboteuis attempteu to stop the
efficient goveinment, weaken the poweis of the executive, anu uestioy checks anu
balances.
48
Feueialist Paity newspapeis in Philauelphia anu New Yoik piinteu
abstiacts of his seimon.
49
By naming the Illuminati, Noise pioviueu the public with
an enemy at which to uiiect theii angei. Insteau of the vague uesciiption of
"intiigue" by a few peisons, now an entiie gioup potentially thieateneu the 0niteu
States.
A suppoitei of the Republicans, anu an Episcopalian ieveienu, }ohn Cosens
0guen was ueteimineu to make the chaiges of Illuminism backfiie. 0guen claimeu
an Illuminati 0iuei existeu, but saiu it centeieu on monthly meetings of the cleigy,
who conspiieu with wealthy laymen to peipetuate New Englanu's chuich-state
union. 0guen aigueu saiu theii only inteiest was powei; they couiteu the iich anu
iemaineu aloof fiom the people.
Su
In 1799, he publisheu "R L$(* .- +#( I(*PJ,C;',A

46
}euiuiah Noise, R %()=.,S &)('9#(A '+ E#');(%+.*,S I.L(=?() 62S H32^S 11.
47
}euiuiah Noise, R %()=.,S &)('9#(A '+ E#');(%+.*,S I.L(=?() 62S H32^S 1S.
48
}euiuiah Noise, R %()=.,S &)('9#(A '+ E#');(%+.*,S I.L(=?() 62S H32^S 1S.
49
}oseph W. Phillips, Z(A$A$'# Q.)%( ',A I(* J,C;',A E.,C)(C'+$.,';$%=, (New Biunswick: Rutgeis
0niveisity Piess, 198S), 81.
Su
Bonalu B. Stewait, "#( 8&&.%$+$., D)(%% .- +#( O(A()';$%+ D()$.A ,41S.

$;;:=$,'+$7 *#. ')( $,A(-'+$C'?;0 (,C'C(A $, A(%+).0$,C +#( )(;$C$., ',A C.L(),=(,+
.- +#( `,$+(A @+'+(%_ :,A() ' -($C,(A )(C')A -.) +#($) %'-(+0PP',A :,A() ', $=&$.:%
'?:%( .- +):( )(;$C$.,," in which he attempteu to expose the moial flaws of cleiical
anu political leaueiship in New Englanu.
S1

Noise founu himself thiust into the miuule of a contioveisy, as paiticulaily
the Republican piess taigeteu his souices anu the valiuity of his accusations. At fiist,
Noise attempteu to uefenu himself using uefenses of Robison piinteu in Biitish
papeis. A pioblem aiose, howevei, when the }effeisonian piess uiscoveieu that
Noise only utilizeu aiticles suppoiting Robison, ignoiing the many piinteu
uenouncing his claims anu ieseaich.
S2
In a seimon ueliveieu latei than yeai, Noise
nameu Nasonic louges as the tiue culpiits that haiboieu the Illuminati, citing
seveial specific louges he suspecteu of haiboiing the oiganization. Nany Feueialists,
howevei, belongeu to Nasonic louges, anu thus, Noise's allegations ultimately
uamageu his ieputation, anu leu many to uiscieuit him.
SS

Inspiieu by the outiage of the cleigy, many piominent politicians also
taigeteu the Illuminati. In an attempt to bolstei suppoit foi Feueialism, newspapeis
aiounu 18uu began publishing supposeu "plots" they hau uncoveieu; one such claim
was that Illuminati membeis met in Philauelphia clothing stoies.
S4
Aftei the
publication of 0guen's book accusing the Feueialists of Illumination, howevei, the
teim became an instiument of political battle. Each paity useu it as an insult against

S1
}ohn C. 0guen, R L$(* .- +#( I(*PJ,C;',A $;;:=$,'+$7 *#. ')( $,A(-'+$C'?;0 (,C'C(A $, A(%+).0$,C
+#( )(;$C$., ',A C.L(),=(,+ .- +#( `,$+(A @+'+(%_ :,A() ' -($C,(A )(C')A -.) +#($) %'-(+0PP',A :,A() ',
$=&$.:% '?:%( .- +):( )(;$C$., (Philauelphia: }ames Caiiey, 1799).
S2
Bonalu B. Stewait, "#( 8&&.%$+$., D)(%% .- +#( O(A()';$%+ D()$.A ,411.
SS
Bonalu B. Stewait, "#( 8&&.%$+$., D)(%% .- +#( O(A()';$%+ D()$.A ,414.
S4
Bonalu B. Stewait, "#( 8&&.%$+$., D)(%% .- +#( O(A()';$%+ D()$.A , S29.

each othei.
SS
Eventually, the teim lost its tiue conspiiatoiial meaning, anu became
anothei way to attempt to unueimine the opposite paity.
As the public lookeu to 18uu, they hopeu the next centuiy woulu biing an eia
of giowth anu piospeiity foi the young 0niteu States. 0nfoitunately, the countiy
appeaieu uiviueu. }ohn Auams ian foi the Feueialists, anu Thomas }effeison foi the
Republicans, sometimes calleu "}effeisonians".
S6
Buiing the 179us, the foimation of
Bemociatic-Republican societies, as well as the Illuminati scaie exposeu a
funuamental uiffeience between the two paities about the natuie anu iegulation of
public expiession.
S7
Aftei the XYZ Affaii, foi example, Piesiuent Auams withhelu the
tiansciipts of the conveisations between the Fiench anu the 0niteu States, but tolu
Congiess that a wai with Fiance appeaieu inevitable. The }effeisonian-Republicans,
howevei, uemanueu that the tiansciipts be ieleaseu, as they believeu they might
have containeu infoimation piesenting Fiance in a favoiable light.
S8
These
conflicting views illustiateu uiffeient opinions about the seciecy of goveinment anu
specifically executive bianch affaiis.
In the opinion of the Feueialists, the executive bianch ieseiveu the iight to
ueteimine which uocuments anu souices Congiess anu the public at laige accesseu.
Foi them, the public lackeu the ability to unueistanu the innei woikings of the
goveinment, anu theiefoie, shoulu tiust that the iight uecisions weie maue by those
in powei. The }effeisonian-Republicans, howevei, maintaineu that a ceitain level of

SS
Bonalu B. Stewait, "#( 8&&.%$+$., D)(%% .- +#( O(A()';$%+ D()$.A ,41S.
S6
Bumphiey SS7
S7
Biyan Wateiman, "The Bavaiian Illuminati, the Eaily Ameiican Novel, anu Bistoiies of the Public
Spheie."
S8
Naitin E. Balstuk, "Policy of Seciecy-Pattein of Beception: What Feueialist Leaueis Thought About
a Public Right to Know, 1794-98," E.==:,$9'+$., ',A Q'%% Q(A$' 7 (2uu2) S1-76.

executive seciecy coulu be alloweu, but that at the veiy least Congiess shoulu have
access to the uocuments suiiounuing uiplomatic ielations, paiticulaily at such a
time when the thieat of wai loomeu oveiheau.
At the time, the nation's most piominent Republican newspapei was William
Buane's R:).)', which giew to become a vocifeious ciitic of Feueialist
auministiations.
S9
The R:).)' painteu }effeison as the bettei alteinative to Auams
while cieating a negative image of New Englanu, which Auams iepiesenteu.
6u
Aftei
the XYZ Affaii, the R:).)' publisheu an open lettei to Congiess uiging the public
uisclosuie of all uiplomatic communications between the 0niteu States anu
Fiance.
61

0ltimately, in the election of 18uu, Thomas }effeison anu the }effeisonian-
Republicans uefeateu the incumbent Piesiuent }ohn Auams. Nany attiibuteu the
Illuminati scaie anu the vehement suppoit of the conspiiacy by the Congiegational
Cleigy to Auams' eventual uefeat.
62
In }anuaiy of 18uu, the Nassachusetts Spy
publisheu a lettei fiom Auam Weishaupt, sent by the uotha uazette in ueimany,
asking, "please give the following a place in youi Spy". Within the lettei, Weishaupt
claims he faileu to aigue in his uefense anu this maue his enemies moie uaiing; he
feais it may negatively impact his life, saying, "I am the fathei of a laige family. By

S9
Alan v. Biicelanu, "The Philauelphia Auioia, The New Englanu Illuminati, anu The Election of
18uu," "#( D(,,%0;L',$' Q'C'F$,( .- /$%+.)0 ',A K$.C)'&#0 1uu (1976): S-S6.
6u
Alan v. Biicelanu, "The Philauelphia Auioia, The New Englanu Illuminati, anu The Election of
18uu."
61
Naitin E. Balstuk, "Policy of Seciecy-Pattein of Beception: What Feueialist Leaueis Thought About
a Public Right to Know, 1794-98."
62
}oseph W. Phillips, Z(A$A$'# Q.)%( ',A I(* J,C;',A E.,C)(C'+$.,';$%=, (New Biunswick: Rutgeis
0niveisity Piess, 198S), 72.

me many innocent peisons may suffei." Be ieveals his uecision to offei a public
examination to cleai his name:
I challenge them all at any lawful tiibunal foi an enquiiy, anu uecision of all
things allegeu against me.I can piove that I ueceiveu no man; that the
association was not in the least uangeious; anu in all its consequences was
innocent; anu, aftei all contiaiy pietenses, was gieat anu goou, which any
institution foi self knowleuge, oi the knowleuge of mankinu can be so, anu of
such an institution this was only an outline.
Weishaupt aigues that thiough euucation anu the impiovement of abuses, the
woilu may achieve tiue goou, anu continues inviting an investigation into his
oiganization.
6S

The public lettei by Weishaupt pioviueu pioof foi many that the 0iuei of the
Illuminati hau, inueeu, uisbanueu, anu poseu no thieat to the goveinment oi
ieligions of the 0niteu States. As histoiian Nichael Baikun notes, "Although the
allegeu uoings of Illuminatist plotteis in Ameiica seemeu cieuible to some
piominent New Englanu cleiics anu acauemics, the panic peakeu by the tuin of the
nineteenth centuiy, aftei which it became incieasingly cleai that the Illuminati liveu
mostly in Robison's fantasy life."
64
Newspapeis hau fueleu the alluie of the
Illuminati since news of its seciet wiitings spieau in ueimany, anu iionically,
newspapeis publisheu the lettei uenouncing the oiganization altogethei. The
Illuminati conspiiacy showcaseu the giowing impoitance of the piess, anu the wiue
influence of the wiitten woiu on the minus of an entiie countiy.

6S
Weishaupt, Auam. "Bi. Weishaupt to the Public." Q'%%'9#:%(++% @&0, }anuaiy 8, 18uu, 1.
64
Nichael Baikun, A Cultuie of Conspiiacy: Apocalyptic visions in Contempoiaiy Ameiica, 46.

Bespite the lettei by Weishaupt explaining the uisbanuing of the
oiganization, the Illuminati name still giaces many theoiies of conspiiacy touay.
Newspapeis like "#( a$C$;',+ E$+$F(, wain of piominent Illuminati membeis, among
them Lauy uaga, attempting to influence the minus anu thoughts of people
woiluwiue. Ban Biown's R,C(;% ',A \(=.,% illustiateu the alluie of the Illuminati,
as many know the name of the oiganization, yet few unueistanu the intiicacies oi
histoiy of it. In New Englanu, howevei, the conspiiacy scaie ultimately ievealeu the
manipulation of the piess, anu causeu many to lose faith in the cleigy.