How Gravity Works The Nature of Dark Matter ‘The Reason why Spiral Galaxies Are Spiral Shaped Why the Earth is Boiling Hot ‘The Cause of Permanent Magnetism How the Earth's Magnetic Field is Generated Maurice Cotterell A cion9 ica ne MET © 2007, 2004 200 Mais Cone SarspeUKi@an cam . Revised. February 2009, May 209, Anzst 2009 Introduction i A New Look at Electromagnetic Ra How Gravity Waves Propagate Helically ‘The Archimedes Serew Proof that the Hydrogen atom Radintes EM Energy A New Look at Matter ii Construction of a theoretical atom Construction of the Neutron—the most undervalued discovery inthe history of science A New Atomie Theory i The New Atom ‘Synopsis—How Gravity Works iv Viow The Hydrogen Atom Generates Fclically Polarised EM Radiation (overview) 1 Te Inductance Cycle 2 “The Capacitance Cycle 3 “The Motor: Generator Feet between Neighbouring Atoms 4 Determinant ofthe Gravitational Constant 5 Gravitational Encrgy output of an Atom—the Atomic-Amplifer Eficet ‘Conclusion ‘The Gravitational Fores s/t ‘The Reesons why the aiom is Stable s/t ‘The Effect of Gravity on a Falling Object © ‘The Nature of Dark Matter (I 7 ‘The Reason why Spiral Galaxies are Spiral The Nature of Dark Matter (I) 8 ‘The Reason Why the Earth's core is Red-Hot 9 ‘The Cause of Permanent Magnetism 10 How the Earth's Magnetic Field is Generated ul References, Epilogue 131s Summary—How Gravity Works ‘This explanation of the graviavonal meckamism provides a causal mechanism that reconciles physical phenomena with Newton's equation forthe fore of Gravity. Itexplans the reason why the gravitational fore is proportional to the masses of the attracting bolies and why the force decreases in accordance with a square knw scale, The Gravitational constant is dined. The reason why abjeci are caried to Earth atthe same speed is explained, Thereason why objects aovelerate to Earth in accordance with a square law scale (9.806 m [32 fi] 3°) isexplained. The natureof so-called Dark Matter is explained. The reason why spiral galaxies are spiral shaped is explained. The reason why the Farts core is red-hot is explained. The ease of permanent magnetism is explainedand how the Eart's magnetic Heldis generatedis explained Conclusion, [Gravity] The hydrogen atom generates helically polarised electromargnetic radiation (gravity radiation) from polar regions thet bomiards neighbouring aloms drawing them towards the source of the radiation, Gravity radiation then causes the neighbouring atom to spin axially (the motor effect). That atom, in turn, generateshelically polarised electromagnetic encray (ihe generator effect), Both stoms spin axially in ihe same direction. Henee, the gravitational forees from both ators pull inthe same direction and the forces are additive,Introduction A New Look at Electromagnetic Rac m All atoms radiate electromagnetic energy. [Supporting evidence: on March 9th, 2008. the UK research establishment Rutherford Appleton Laboratory publicly announced that ‘all atoms radiate electromagnetic energy’ (Sunday Times)]. This explanation proposes that’ Atomic Radiation’ differs from lower frequency man made electromagnetic energy (radio ‘waves) in that it propagates helically through space, figure i How Gravity Waves Propagate Helically ‘Man-made’ lesiromagnetic waves (radio waves) travel through space with the electric and magnetic components displaced by 90°. a) and b) The electric wave travels vertically and the magnetic wave travels horizontally away from, the transmitting antenna. c) However, it iS here proposed that, “atomic electromagnetic radiation’, generated within a spinning atom, radiates helically. d) Shows the helically polatised electromagnetic’ waves that radiate from the hydrogen atom. When this radiation bombards heighbouring atoms the neighbouring aiom is sucked towards the radiating ator, like water is drawn along thelength ofan Archimedes screw (6) helical, radiation ppatem, expected from the polar regions of an snaaly ‘spinning stem Schomatic showing the expected. dstnbution of lestomagnctic energy fromaradi anean / Yv spinning @ ~ rom lecttic x magnetic wave wave direction oftravel direction of travel 4) The spinning of the atom causes the electromagnetic Wave to propagate helically through space. This radiation strikes neighbouring atoms, drawing them towards the source of the radiation, Thereis no known way of measuring helically polarised electromagnetic (gravity) radiation, which explains why gravity Sannotpresently bemeesured Proof that the Hydrogen Atom Radiates EM Energy) The “Archimedes Screw’ 6) Tho Archimedes Serow 1) in 1999, Bre D. Isaacs, of Nhe tlehande oft heel i an nly fon of wast || incident x-Ray fell brates eat gis tuned watet travels up pump, invente he * Technologies. New Jersey the screw thread ino te Greek scientist ater igelier™ vt a team af Archimedes (287-212 Scientits from Northeastem BO) to raise water forthe Universiiy’ [Reston the purposes of irigation The Enropean’ Synchroton Earliest pratotype was Facility (Grensbte} and the made of ‘a wooden log ‘Canadhan National Research Carved wit ahelicl sere Counc (Onawal shone. x slong thelensthof is outer rays at _nillimetre-thick crystal of uiracpure ice. The So fac ncateed ite rf ys, ike those observed when overlappins fighn "waves imefere wilh Sheath. Thecarved log was then inserted into a tightly fitung eylindor When ene cnd-of the tube 13 Submerged ia water aid the Tog tumed inside the || Hycrogen Gravity-ay each other ear crests and patie inde. waters aried irowshs adding and slene te lene of theo cancelling iy the belies (osancones opps fren although it Si re991 1-33 591061 cars tht waters bin wo) "proving “that hyde Reipu || © mtr EneA NewLook AtMatter In the 1920s, when the Nebel Prize-winning physicist Emest Rutherford set down his theory on atomic structure, itll seemed quite straightforward; the smallest bundle of matter was the ‘atom’ that was comprised of positive charges in the nucleus, which he called protons, and negative charges that orbited the nucieus, electrons. Different fundamental materials (elements) were distinguished by the numbers of protons and. electrons, for example calcium was found to have 20 protons and 20 orbiting electrons which Rutherford illustrated ike this, (figure it); Rutherford’ caly ator fucleut compersing Protas (postiveckarges) @ Sd ® But later experiments showed the weight of the nucleus to be twice as heavy as Rutherford had initially proposed. This meant that there had to be yet another undiscovered particle —one that had no electric chhorge—inside the nuclei, By 1932 the Bntish Chemist James Chadwick had identified the missing particle and named it the ‘aewtron, because it appeared to have no electrical charge. Rutherford redesigned his atom to include the missing neutrons. d) He found no problem i accommodating the electrically neutral neutron into his existing model and simply illustrated his new ‘complete atom’ showing the neutrons, like small billiard balls, le the nucleus. This illiard-bal’ perception of the neutron would in time be seen as the greatest scientific ‘Gaestruchin dha Renestidd Alon misconception of the twentieth-century, one that would deny the discovery of gravity for generations. | Kuheftts eas nm, 2, ceicted pots lia to come. Moreover, Rutherford’s new model, | Calcium, eontsinng 20 posiave protons (sown in to aveepod by seienceoday ais to explinwhy the a2 mga dese) Th ely, dso negative eleccronsdo not simply get sucked into the | sleeteally neutral neurons (blue) wow alse showe as Fosttivenucteus thus annihilating theatom, or why | Persmetilina al comers ie the positive protons simply donot springapart, their | Sireshowniedhnediagnam), Positivecharges repelling each other. ‘Rutherfords fst atom 0 describe the som featured cals protons an electron Construction of the Neutron—the most undervalued discovery inthe History ofscience In the 19605, experimenters using atomic particle accelerators smashed together 2 neatrons, as though they were boiled eggs, and were amazed to finish up with 2 positive particles, 2 negative particles and 2 particles that appeared to do. nothing, €ntinentrinos: meaning that each neutron must consist of 3 particles 1 positive, Tnegativeand | neutral antineutrino. But, they argued, "it dict really matter anyway, because positive cancels out negative and therefore the neutron is still ‘overall electrically neutral". So they simply filled-in Rutherford's {yt 12H0s he ilar pe petra neutron billiard-ball with one positive charge and one negative postivepartcleand one negativeparele charge and, in so doing, missed the chance to redefine the atom, figureii