Research Ethics

CHAPTER ONE

AN INTRODUCTION TO ETHICS AND RESEARCH ETHICS

In this chapter, the author will give an overall scope on Research Ethics. This chapter consist of introduction to ethics and research ethics and objectives o the !roject, h"!othesis and si#ni icance o stud". To start with, the author leans towards the definition of ethics and research ethics as the most frequently terms to discuss in this dissertation.

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&rie Introduction to Ethics

This study will illustrate on Research Ethics by focusing on the use of the animal in experimentation. Discussing about ethics or morals, people would thin about the rules of distinguishing between right and wrong. !ccording to "xford English Dictionary #$ixth Edition%, ethics means &system of moral principles' rules of conduct(. Ethics is derived from the )ree ethos meaning moral values, ideas or belief of a group, community or culture. The field of ethics, also called moral

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philosophy, involves developing, defending, and recommending concepts of right and wrong behaviour.

The ,i ipedia states that ethics #from the !ncient )ree

& ethikos(,

meaning &arising from habit(% is a ma-or branch of philosophy, and the study of value or quality. It covers the analysis and employment of concepts such as right, wrong, good, evil, and responsibility encompassing right conduct and good living in ethics. It is significantly broader than the common concept of analy.ing right and wrong.

The most common way of defining ethics/ &ethics are nor's or conduct that distinguish between or acceptable and unacceptable behaviour(. ! society may have particular legal rules that govern particular behaviour, but ethical norm tend to be broader and more informal than laws. !lthough society use laws to enforce widely accepted moral standards and ethical and the legal rules use similar concepts, it is important to note that ethics and law are not the same. !n action may be legal but unethical or it may be illegal but ethical. ,e can also use ethical concepts and principles to critici.e, evaluate, propose, or interpret laws. Indeed, in the last century, many social reformers urged citi.ens to disobey laws in order to protest what they regarded as immoral or unfair laws. 0eaceful civil disobedience is an ethical way of expressing political viewpoints.

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!nother way of defining 2ethics2 focuses on the disci!(ines that stud" standards of conduct, such as philosophy, theology, law, psychology, or sociology. 3or example, a 4medical ethicist4 is someone who studies ethical standards in medicine. 3urther, one may also define ethics as a 'ethod) !rocedure) or !ers!ective of decides on how to act and for analy.ing complex problems and issues. 3or instance, in a complex issue li e global warming, one may ta e an economic, ecological, political, or ethical perspective on the problem. !n economist might examine the cost and benefits of various policies related to global warming while an environmental ethicist could examine the ethical values and principles at sta e in the issue.

5any different disciplines, institutions, and professions have norms for behavior that suit their particular aims and goals. These norms also help members of the discipline to coordinate their actions or activities and to establish the public2s trust of the discipline. 3or instance, ethical norms govern conduct in medicine, law, engineering, and business. Ethical norms also serve the aims or goals of research and apply to people who conduct scientific research or other scholarly or creative activities, and there is a speciali.ed discipline, research ethics, which studies these norms.

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Research Ethics

$cience, represents a forth way of nowing. $cience is a logical system that bases nowledge on direct, systematic observation. $tanding apart from faith, the wisdom of &experts,( and general agreement, scientific nowledge rests on

empirical evidences, which means information that we can verify with our senses. 5eanwhile, 78E$9":s+ define science as/
$cience signifies the enterprise whereby man ind, acting individually or in small or large group, ma es an organi.ed attempt, by means of the ob-ectives study of observed phenomena, to discover and master the chain of causalities' bring together in a coordinated from the resultant sub*systems of nowledge by means of systematic reflection and conceptuali.ation, often largely expressed in the symbols of mathematics' and thereby furnishes itself with the opportunity of using, to its own advantage, understanding of the process and phenomena occurring in nature and society.

Every scientist gives impartial description of world as science aims for ob-ectivity, a state of personal neutrality in conducting research. ;ecause the purpose of science is to upgrade the human condition, the conduct of science is wor from the point of ethical standard. <uestions arose' what is the purpose of the study, what are accepted standards for the conduct of this research, and what can be done in promoting research performance=
+

The 7nited 8ations Educational, $cientific and 9ultural "rgani.ation #78E$9"% officially founded on +>?@. The definition of science is clarified in the Recommendation on the $tatus of $cience Researcher #+>A?%.

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In the "xford !dvanced Bearners Dictionary #+>>+% it is clearly stated that research as a careful study or investigation, especially in order to discover new facts or information/ medical, scientific, historical, etc. !s the professionals in control, scientists have a unique accountability with thoughtful advocacy of their research and ethical awareness of their own performance and behaviour. In the area of research ethics, scientists carry duty towards the public that permitting them privilege to conduct research, to private and public funders who expect that the research will be conducted with integrity and followed by production of scientific data.

Researcher must protect the privacy of everyone involved in research pro-ect. This last promise can be difficult to eep, since researcher sometimes comes under pressure #even from the authority% to disclose information. Therefore, researcher must thin carefully about their responsibility to protect the sub-ect. In fact, ethical research requires the informed consent of participant, which means that sub-ect understand the responsibilities and ris s that the researcher involves and agree*before the wor begin. !nother important guideline concerning the funding, for example researcher must never accept funding from an organi.ation that see s to influence the research result for its own purposes. They must also avoid conflict of interests that may compromise the integrity of their wor .

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Citality of ethics in research is rationale as first some of these norms endorse the aims of research) such as nowledge, truth, and avoidance of error. 3or example, prevention against fabricating, falsifying, or misrepresenting research data props up the truth and avoids error. $ince researcher often involves a great deal of cooperation and coordination with many different people in different disciplines and institutions, many of these ethical standards promote the values that are essential to collaborative wor ) such as trust, accountability, mutual respect, and fairness. 3or example, many ethical norms in research, such as guidelines for authorship, copyright and patenting policies, data sharing policies, and confidentiality rules in peer review, are designed to protect intellectual property interests while encouraging collaboration. 5ost researchers want to receive credit for their contributions and do not want to have their ideas stolen or disclosed prematurely.

Research groups are an elemental form of scientific collaboration and nowledge production. Their members wor face*to*face, sharing wor space,

materials, technologies, ob-ectives, hypotheses and, to a significant degree, a professional reputation and fate. 7nderlying the social solidarity and substantive focus of research groups are structural forces that separate the interests of leaders from members, spar competition alongside cooperation, complicate mechanism of control, and offset participatory decision*ma ing with autocracy.

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In addition, many of the ethical norms help to ensure that researchers are held accountable to the public% 3or instance, federal policies on research misconduct, on conflicts of interest, on the human sub-ect protections, and on animal care and use are necessary in order to ma e sure that researchers who are funded by public money are accountable to the public. Then, ethical norms in research also help to build public support for research. The public, whose taxes fund much of the scientific wor s, more eager interested if they can trust the quality and integrity of research.

$cientist exposed in the media extremely as a series of sensationali.ed discoveries by conflicts and scandals certainly confusing the public and bringing the public to demands careful examination of science. Eowever, here it comes the standards of conduct that include much more than -ust avoiding behavior. This is when ethical guidelines will wor s as the protection of human participants in research.

5any of the norms of research promote a variety of other important moral and social values, such as social responsibility, human rights, animal welfare, and compliance with the law, health and safety. 3ailure to follow ethics in research can significantly harm the human, animal sub-ects and the public. 3or example, a

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researcher who construct data in a birds tagging may harm or even ill the bird, and a researcher who fails to abide by regulations and guidelines relating to animal right may -eopardi.e his health and safety of the students. The answers to these questions are important to conserve our native birds, and the places where they live.

Researchers who loo for these answers often concern the safety and the value of individual birds or groups of birds. "ne of the ways is to attach bands or tags to the birds #researchers who use bands to study birds are called 4banders4%. Eere again, people will whine of either the tags and bands hurt the birds or not. There is no scientist that manipulates their study sub-ects in any ways without much thought and concern. Every researcher at each country must have their proposed protocol approved by their Institutional !nimal 9are.

;ut quite apart from the regulations and laws, good science requires that animals under study are interfered with as little as possible. !nd that is on top of the personal ethical decisions that each researcher must ma e about their comfort level with any action ta en #or not%.

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Objectives o the Project

This pro-ect is underta en with the intention to evaluate student:s awareness on the ethics of animal experiment. !s come along ob-ectives of the research as follows/

i. To measure levels of students: ethical sensitivity with regards to animal experimentation.

ii. To explore the Islamic perspective of animal experimentation.

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H"!othesis

!s come to an end of this dissertation, the author will analyse the following hypothesis/ 7nderstanding on the use of animals in research influence students: moral approval towards animal research. !t least these findings will demonstrate in extended for chronology of documents that have been illustrated in this study.

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Si#ni icance o the Stud"

Batterly, the author will point out the importance of ethics in the conduct of research' researchers will then adopt specific codes, rules, and policies related to the research disciplines. This which will then lead to impartial in experimental design, data analysis, and data interpretation/ openness and transparency during peer review, process on decision ma ing, grant rewarding, expert testimony, and other aspects of research is guaranteed where ob-ectivity is expected or required.

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Conc(usion

This study on Research Ethics is hoped to give insight to both human and animal in the value of morality. 3rom the research, the connections of these two perspectives depend to each other. It is also aim to create awareness among researcher involved G directly and indirectly G in science and ethics. $ubsequently, in 9hapter Two we will discuss profoundly about research ethics on the case study of animal experimentation.

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CHAPTER T.O

RE/IE. O0 1ITERATURE

,e had been right through general overview of research ethics in chapter one. 0ersistently, this chapter will loo those research ethics in depth about animal used. This will includes diverse approaches to the histor" o the use o ani'a( in research% The history of research ethics was started by !ristotle as the means for exploring the chronology of documents developed to protect animals: right and animals: sentience. 5oving on, in this chapter the author will analyse some of the documents that are' Princi!(e o Hu'ane Techni2ue) the 3uide or the Care and Use o 1aborator" Ani'a(s and Ani'a( .e( are Act%

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Histor" o Ani'a( Science

This fraction will draw on diverse approaches to the history of animals in science, and to the origin of experiments in science and animal in research.

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E4!eri'ents in Science

&Theory without experiment is empty' experiment without theory is blind.( 1

;esides, in 5acmillan Dictionary of the Eistory of $cience also states that the precise role of experiment in relation to the theory remains a matter of philosophical #and historiographical% dispute. Thus in the +Ath century attac on scholastic science an experimentalist rhetoric was extensively deployed. ;ut the extent to which leading scientist such as )alileo #+@D?*+D?1% actually performed the experiments they described is doubtful. 9ertainly, )alileo had generally low opinion of Isense: in comparison with Ireason:' and he seems to view experiments as essentially demonstrative, or at best corroborative, of true theories rather than as genuine tests, let alone sources of them.

!s expounded in 5acmillan Dictionary of the Eistory of $cience, an experiment is a designed practical intervention in nature/ its upshot is socially contrived set of observation, carried out under artificially produced and deliberately controlled, reproducible conditions. Experiment:s core is the notion that the condition for producing a given effect can be separated into independently variable factors. The crucial assumption is the factor studied and represented in experimental design as independent and dependent variables retain their identities whether or not other conditions are held constant as in the laboratory.

;ynum, ,.3., ;rownie, E.J. and 0orter, R., eds.#+>F6%, Macmillan Dictionary of the History of Science. Bondon/ The 5acmillan 0ress Btd, pg. +6F.

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In this regard, it will be useful to ta e a brief loo at the revolution in +> th century. Encase, the author is not refuting of medieval worldview in scientific experiments but it would be helpful in the next section of history towards research of the animals. !s consistent to the topic*experiments in science, the author hops out from some of important philosophical presuppositions of the medieval worldview to the +>th century.

The +>th century had enormous implications when biological inquiries were immense scientific importance. !ccording to, 8iall $han s 6 the role that human and nonhuman played in these +>th century investigations into basic physiological process and why it was that experiments on animals were increasingly seen to be of great value to the promotion of human health and well*being. ;ut before doing this, it would be useful to postponement and say something about the practice of +>th century physiologist 9laude ;ernard? #+F+6*+FAF% since his wor reflects in the +>th century. ;ernard is one of the great figures in history of science through his wor that shapes the contours of scientific experiments. ,ithout doubt' even more than a century after death, his methods still a guide to experimental practices in the biomedical science.

8iall $han s #1HH1%, Animal and Science: A Guide to the Debates. 9alifornia/ !;9*9BI" Inc., pg. >@. ? ;ernard made many contributors to the biomedical science. Eis Introduction to the Study of Experimental Medicine #+FD@% is an extremely important text since it laid out the philosophical and methodological rationale for newly emergence biomedical science. Today, the !merican 5edical !ssociation praised ;ernard for establishing the basic principle that guide the practice of experimental medicine.

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In Animal and Science: A Guide to the Debates boo , the author, ;ernard believed that genuine biomedical science involved carefully controlled experiments on animals. ;esides, such experiments were directly relevant to human biology. In addition, he did deny that clinical observation that had place, in practice of medicine. In fact, he did believe that science too place not in the clinical context, but in the laboratory.

Eere, 8iall $han s examines ;ernard views about methodology science to understand the wedge that his drove between clinical medicine and scientific medicine. ;ernard states that, the business of science was in the formulation and rigorous testing hypotheses about phenomena of interest/
The experimental hypothesisK must always be based on observation. !nother essential of any hypothesis is that must be as probable as may be and must experimentally verifiable. Indeed, if we made a hypothesis which experiment could not verify, in that very act we should leave the experiment method and fall into the errors of the scholastic and ma ers systems.
!laude "ernard: #he Methodolo$y of "iomedical %esearch

!s ;ernard:s states in #he Methodolo$y of "iomedical %esearch& clinical medicine could provide the observations that prompted the formulation of hypotheses, but it could not, in the nature case, be the context within which hypotheses were tested. The clinical setting does not permit the adequate control of
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Ibid, pg. +H1.

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experimental variables and typically it is not a setting in which, for ethical reasons, those variables can be manipulated. ;ut if the biomedical researcher is to conduct controlled experiments, it must be carefully manipulating variables of interest, and there must be appropriate sub-ects.

9oming to this, there is no escaping fact that the biomedical science that emerged in the +>th century, based on physics and chemistry and deeply rooted in animal experimentation, revolutioni.ed medicine. It was in the nineteenth century, which the claim gradually evolved that animal experiments are not performed simply for the sa e of human clinical benefits. #heir pain is our $ainD. The human benefit from animal experimentation must be placed in the utilitarian hopper, along with the pain of animal suffering.

"n the other hand, these enormous implications in experimental practices and the complexity of issues surround the animal research. Even if animal suffer pains, animal experimentation has been crucial in science development. 0erhaps the benefits of animal experimentation are so great that they are outweigh the pain and suffering of the animal sub-ects. !s these events are crucial, they are being parted into the next segment' animals in research. 9oming up in the next segments, we will loo at some examples to illustrate some evidences to show that development research depends on animal experiments. *%$%*
D

Ani'a(s in Research

Ibid, pg. +HH.

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9oncerns about the use of animals in science have existed for almost as long as animals have been used to better understand the wor ing of the human or animal body. In order to understand the basis of today:s attitudes to the use of animal and philosophical debate, it is useful to have gratitude towards the history of animal*based research. Eere, we will start tracing out some of debates that are generated by the scientific study of animals.

It is worth adding that the various religious doctrines and philosophical theories often give contradictory implication for our appreciation of the status of nonhuman animals in relation to us. !pparently, 8iall $har s in Animal and Science: A Guide to the Debates examines influential views emanating from medieval Europe. 5ore specifically, $har s#1HH1% in his boo discusses issues relating to the nature of science, the rise of biomedical sciences in the +D th and +Ath century, and the consequences of evolutionary biology in the +>th and 1Hth century for appreciation of the place of animals in nature and our relations to the other species.

In approaching these matters, David De)ra.iaA states that !ristotle #6F?G 611 ;9% influentially argued that animals, having sense of perception but lac ing reason, fall below human in natural hierarchy and are therefore appropriate
A

De)ra.ia, David #1HH1%, Animal %i$hts: A 'ery Short Introduction. "xford/ "xford 7niversity 0ress, pg. 6.

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resources for human purposes. ;ecause of animals lac

rational souls, he

contended, our dealings with them are not a matter of -ustice. 9losely related to this is about !ristotle:s philosophy of nature to confront the relationship between matter and formF. !ristotle contended that in nature, we are never find matter on its own or form on its own. Everything that exists in nature is a unity of matter and form and !ristotle designated it as a substance. Eumans are one type of substance, mice another. $pecies differences reflect a difference with respect in the form of shaping matter.

3or !ristotle, everything in nature had a natural end, function, or purpose determined by its form. Let !ristotle differentiated between organic and inorganic beings through the idea of souls. ;ut !ristotle recogni.ed important between living things, and so distinguished between three types of soul>.

Cegetative souls conferred upon ob-ects possessing them a simple capacity of life' sensitive souls conferred a capacity for life and sensation* nonhuman animals have sensitive souls. 3inally rational souls conferred upon their possessors a capacity for life, sensation, and thought. Eumans were said to have rational souls, and !ristotle defined humans as rational animal. Right here, in these influential ideas from ancient )ree thought, we see the origins of the philosophical distinction between humans and nonhuman animal that would influence much subsequent thin ing on these matters.
(iall Shanks: Animal and Science )*++*,

F >

-p.cit., 8iall $han s #1HH1%, pg. @. Ibid, pg. D

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!ristotle also held that men are naturally superior to women, due to men:s allegedly superior reasoning ability, and that some humans G stronger in body than in mind G are naturally suited to be slaves +H. !t this -uncture, we must also say something about the relations between humans and nonhuman animal in !ristotle:s thought. 3or there is the seed of idea in some interesting ways in the medieval thought and !ristotle himself saw the implications in this way++.

It is clear that the rule of the soul over the body, and the mind are rational element over the passionate, is natural and expedient' whereas the equality of the two or the rule of the inferior is always hurtful. The same holds good of animals in relation to men' for tame animals have better nature than wild, and the tame animal are better off when they are ruled by man... !gain, the male is superior, and the female inferior' and the one rules and the other one is ruled... ,here then, there is such a difference as that between soul and body, or between man and animals... the lower sort are by nature slaves, and it is better for them as for all inferior that they should be under the rule of a master... !nd indeed the use made of slaves and tame animals is not very different' for both with their bodies minister to the needs of life...
%e$an and Sin$er: Animals %i$hts and Human -bli$ation )./0/,

!mong the ancient )ree s, dissenting voices included those of 0ythagoras #c.@DHGc.?FH ;9%, who believed that animals may be former humans reincarnated, and Theophratus, who thought animals were capable of some degree reasoning +1.

+H ++

-p.cit., De)ra.ia, David #1HH1%, pg. 6. -p.cit., 8iall $han s #1HH1%, pg. A. +1 -p.cit., De)ra.ia, David #1HH1%, pg. 6.

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9oncurrence to this, ,i ipedia "nline Encyclopaedia+6 stated that it is in Dth century ;9 )ree philosophy that we first concerned for the treatment of animals. 3our schools of thought were influential in !ncient )reece/ animism, 1italism, mechanism, and anthropocentrism.

The philosopher and mathematician 0ythagoras, who has been called the first animal rights philosopher, was the central figure within animism. Ee urged respect for animals, because he believed that humans and non*humans had the same ind of soul. The souls were indestructible, made of fire and air, and were reincarnated from human to animal, or vice versa, the so*called transmi$ration of the soul. 0ythagoras believed that &there is one spirit which pervades, li e a soul, the whole universe and also ma es us one with irrational animals.( ;ut most subsequent ,estern philosophers and theologians have concurred with !ristotle thesis that animals exist for the use of human, who alone are rational+?.

3or !ristotle, animals were of fundamental philosophical importance' he was the first to attempt the creation of a taxonomical categori.ation and hierarchy. !ristotle recogni.ed some similarities between human and non* human species and he developed a sort of 4psychological continuum4, recogni.ing that human and nonhuman animals differ only by degree in possessing certain temperaments and that some non*humans possess analogous intellectual capacities to humans. Let, !ristotle claimed that the powers of rational thought and understanding were reserved to humans. !ristotle argued that humans were the &masters( in his created hierarchal
+6

http/MMen.wi ipedia.orgMwi iM!ttitudesNtoNanimalsNinNtheNancientNworld, access on 1Hth of 5ay 1HH>. +? -p.cit., De)ra.ia, David #1HH1%, pg. 6.

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structure based upon the foregoing notion. !gainst 0ythagorean ideas, !ristotle argued that nonhuman animals had no interests of their own, ran ing far below humans in the )reat 9hain of ;eing, or scala naturae, because of their alleged irrationality.
Attitudes to animals in the ancient 2orld 3ikipedia -nline Encyclopedia

9onsistent with treatment of animals, in ,i ipedia

+@

the earliest references

to animal testing are found in the writings of the )ree s in the second and fourth centuries ;9E. !ristotle and Erasistratus #6H?*1@F ;9% were among the first to perform experiments on living animals. 3or instance, 8uffield 9ouncil on ;ioethics+D indicated that animal research continued to be underta en in some societies over the next 1, HHH years and formed part of the systematic scientific enquiry carried out in the Roman Era #c.@+H ;9*?@@ !D% and in early !rabic medicine #from the fall Rome until the +@ th century%. The notable physician )alen+A of the 1nd century !D, for example, argued that vivisection was the only way to reveal the function of biological structures. Bi e in other fields of Islamic science, 5uslim physicians and doctors developed the first scientific methods for the field of medicine. This included the experimentation, clinical trials and animal testing. !s such as, it is thought that the doctor and the philosopher !l*Ra.i # nown by Europeans as Rha.es% #c.F@?*>1@%

+@ +D

http/MMen.wi ipedia.orgMwi iM!nimalNtesting, access on Fth of January 1HH>. 8uffield 9ouncil on ;ioethics #1HH@%, 8uffield 9ouncil on ;ioethics Report/ #he Ethics of %esearch 4sin$ Animals& pg. +@. +A )alen #+1>*c.1HH !D%, a physician in second*century Rome, dissected pigs and goats, and is nown as the 4father of vivisection.4 Ee used apes to prove his theory that veins carry blood rather than air.

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tested treatment on animals to evaluate their efficiency and their side effects. !l Ra.i, as the researcher #see Architect of the Scientific #hou$ht in Islamic !i1ilisation+F% recommended using control for clinical research.
If you want to study the effect of bloodletting on a condition, divide the patients into two groups, perform bloodletting only on one group, watch both, and compare the results.
Abubakar Mohammad Ibne 5akariya %a6i

In the +Hth century, !l*Ra.i+> introduced controlled experiment and clinical observation into the field of medicine, and re-ected several )alenic medical theories unverified by experimentation. In medicine, !l*Ra.i wrote several valuable boo s, in which addition to his innovative research papers included )ree and Indian science. "ne of his most famous boo s' !l*Eawi is the largest !rabian medical encyclopedia in which !l*Ra.i gathered abstracts ta en from )ree and !rab physicians. Then, he added to them the results of his experiments as well as his own views.

In treaty, from Al7%a6i: A Great Arab Epidemiolo$ist Al7%a6i 8 His 9ife #ime Achie1ements1H the most highly regarded wor is his boo on small pox and measles which he distinguished clinically. The treatise on small pox and chic en
+F +>

http/MMwww.isesco.org.maMenglishMpublicationsM!rchitectsM0>.php. access on +6th of !pril 1HH>. In his Doubts about Galen, !l*Ra.i was also the first to prove both )alen2s theory of humorism and !ristotle2s theory of classical elements false using experimentation. 1H !rish, 5O. $., !ri- 5.O. $. and !li, ;.!. #1HHD%, Al7%a6i: A Great Arab Epidemiolo$ist Al7%a6i 8 His 9ife #ime Achie1ements. In the Journal of the International $ociety for the Eistory of Islamic 5edicine #JI$EI5%, Col. ?/ Istanbul/ 8obel 5atbaacPlP , pg. @?.

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pox, the liber depestilentia, is extremely original and based on direct experience and observation from which he drew very perceptive emphasis on clinical methods. Ee used to stress the importance of practice, expertise and experimentation in the treatment of patients. Ee also compounded new medicines and tested them on animals before prescribing them to human beings.

0ersistently, !l*Ra.i was the first who founded the experimental science in the medicine1+. Everybody recogni.ed Eippocrates as the first true epidemiologist since he clearly distinguished diseases which were epidemic and those which were endemic meanwhile, )alen11, as a physician of truly modern idea of disease concept. Eowever, the world is unaware from the fact that !l*Ra.i, a great !rab clinician was also the great epidemiologist. Ee is the one who described all of the basic tools of modern epidemiologist in his boo i.e. !l*-udri wal Easba and !l* Eawi.

Revealing interesting differences among its representatives, ,estern modern philosophy #the era steaming from Descartes in the +Ath century through the late nineteenth century% largely upheld the view of human supremacy, reflecting the influence of its dominant religion, 9hristianity16. The controversy surrounding animal testing dates bac to the +Ath century #discuss before !ristotle%. In +D@@, the
1+ 11

Ibid, pg. @@. )alen described role of three factors responsible for disease, vi.. predisposing, exciting, and environmental factors 16 -p.cit., De)ra.ia, David #1HH1%, pg. ?.

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advocate of )alenic physiology Edmund "25eara said that 4the miserable torture of vivisection places the body in an unnatural state.4 "25eara and others argued that animal physiology could be affected by the pain during vivisection, rendering results unreliable. There were also ob-ections on an ethical basis, contending that the benefit to humans did not -ustify the harm to animals. Early ob-ections to animal testing also came from another angle such as' many people believed that animals were inferior to humans and so different that results from animals could not be applied to humans.

"n the other side of the debate, those in favor of animal testing stated that experiments on animals were necessary to advance medical and biological nowledge. During the +>th century there was a dramatic increase in scientific exploration in ;ritain and elsewhere. The study of evolution, and the natural sciences, often involved animal research. In 3rance, a tradition of experimental physiology, involving large numbers of sentient animals, was initiated by 3ranQoise 5agendie #+AF6G+F@@% and his most famous pupil 9laude ;ernard #+F+6GAF%1?. 9laude ;ernard, nown as the 4prince of vivisectors4 and the father of physiology founded the first anti*vivisection society in 3rance in +FF6. ;ernard famously wrote in +FD@ that 4the science of life is a superb and
da..lingly lighted hall which may be reached only by passing through a long and ghastly itchen4. !rguing that 4experiments on animals ... are entirely conclusive for the toxicology and hygiene of man...the effects of these substances are the same on man as on animals, save for differences
1?

-p.cit., 8uffield 9ouncil on ;ioethics #1HH@%, pg. +A.

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in degree,4 ;ernard established animal experimentation as part of the standard scientific method.
History in Animal #estin$ 3ikipedia -nline Encyclopedia*

!s ;ernard:s stated' even if animal suffers pain, animal experimentation has been essential in biomedical sciences. !ccording to 8iall $har s #1HH1% the +>th century physiologist 9laude ;ernard advocated a deterministic, mechanical view of biological systems inspired in experimentation. $omehow' in the arena of modern science, the greatest contribution to understanding of animals was the +>th century wor of 9harles Darwin, who demonstrated that humans evolved from other animal species1D. Ee is also argued powerfully, if less influentially, that animals: and human: capacities differ largely in degree and not in ind. ;ased on observation, Darwin contended that many animals possess general concepts, some reasoning ability, rudiments of moral sentiments, and complex emotions. ,hile scientists have largely ignored these Darwinian claims until quite recently, the theory of evolution especially in combination with modern genetics has made the assertion of some unbridgeable cognitive gulf dividing humans and other animals much more difficult to sustain1A

;asically, animals have been used throughout the history of scientific research #see History in Animal #estin$*0%.
1@ 1D

-p.cit., ,i ipedia on !nimal Testing. -p.cit., De)ra.ia, David #1HH1%, pg. D. 1A Ibid, pg. D. 1F -p.cit., ,i ipedia on !nimal Testing.

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In the +FFHs, Bouis 0asteur convincingly demonstrated the germ theory of medicine by inducing anthrax in sheep. In the +F>Hs, Ivan 0avlov famously used dogs to describe classical conditioning. Insulin was first isolated from dogs in +>11, and revolutioni.ed the treatment of diabetes. "n 8ovember 6, +>@A, a Russian dog, Bai a, became the first of many animals to orbit the earth. In the +>AHs, antibiotic treatments and vaccines for leprosy were developed using armadillos, then given to humans. The ability of humans to change the genetics of animals too a large step forwards in +>A? when Rudolf Jaenisch was able to produce the first transgenic mammal, by integrating D8! from the $C?H virus into the genome of mice. This genetic research progressed rapidly and, in +>>D, Dolly the sheep was born, the first mammal to be cloned from an adult cell.

Eere, I indicate our historical s etch has far examined not only the ,estern tradition but also in Islamic civili.ation. In the long course of the 1H th century itself, animal research continued to be great importance in the biomedical sciences. !s in the +>th century, public concern about the practice was allayed by claims about the enormous medical benefits and the author has scrutini.ed these claims. The opinion here is that though animal experiments are not scientifically useless, it certainly not as useless as some opponents of animal research suggest*claims about the enormous medical value of this ind of experimentation are complex claims that are hard to evaluate.

!s emphasi.ed, the scientific and ethical reasons for using animal in scientific research have changed little from the first experiments in ancient )ree s.

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Research Ethics

8atural philosophers and physicians of those times wanted to increase their nowledge about the way in which complex organisms such as humans and animal functioned. They valued the pursuit of nowledge for its own sa e and sought to understand how and why the body malfunctioned, to learn about the development of disease and the effect of in-ury, and to discover better treatment and cures. !wareness of biological similarities between humans and other animals, they hypothesised that many findings about specific mechanisms or processes in animal could be applied to humans.

*%*

Research Ethics on Ani'a(s

Eistory of the use of animal in research have revealed that, although having criticise against animals: right, animals ma e better research sub-ects. !fter identify the history of animal based research, it is also useful to identify with underlying ethical attitudes. !s highlighted in introduction from the historical perspective of using animal in experiments, here we start to get the first whiffs of some of the serious dilemmas and controversies that are generated by the scientific study of animals.

$ome of those who study animal cognition are impressed by the apparent cognitive similarities between human and chimpan.ees. These similarities, they are alleging, confer moral status on the chimpan.ees*because they can suffer, they

* 1D *

Research Ethics

should not be treated illogically or by chance. ;ut for other researchers, noting further biological similarities, allege that these similarities are precisely what ma e chimpan.ees useful for research aimed at ending human suffering.

*%*%$

The i'!ortance o ani'a(s in research

This section considered a few examples of biomedical 1> and behavioural research6H, two of ma-or areas of animal use today. In this discussion, the term Ianimal research: will used broadly to include several different ventures. Reversed to documentation of historical s etch, David De)ra.ia #an author of numerous articles in philosophy and ethics -ournal, and is also co*editor of "iomedical Ethics% stated that, animal research emerged as a scientific activity in the early nineteenth century.

Due to that, animal research carve up into two subtypes/ see ing new nowledge of biological process and function #basic research% and studies see ing new medical, veterinary, or biological nowledge in order to promote the health of humans, animals, or the environment #applied research%. !nother ind of research, testing, evaluates chemical and other products for safety. 3inally, animals may be
1>

;iomedical research #or experimental medicine%, in general simply nown as medical research, is the basic research, applied research, or translational research conducted to aid the body of nowledge in the field of medicine. 6H ;ehavioral science encompasses all the disciplines that explore the activities of and interactions among organisms in the natural world. It involves the systematic analysis and investigation of human and animal behavior through controlled and naturalistic experimental observations and rigorous formulations.

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Research Ethics

the uses of educational purposes, for example, in surgery practice, dissection 6+ and science pro-ect.

,e begin in with basic or curiosity driven research, which see s to understand why animals are used in research. 5ichael !llen 3ox 61 summari.ed briefly reasons why scientists use animals in research. These are follows/

#a% !nimals have &a much simpler life space( than humans' they are less complex in many ways G both constitutionally #that is organic system% and psychologically. #b% !nimal usually have a shorter life span,( a factor of great importance where the transmission of genetically determined traits is of vital interest. #c% "ne can control the animal:s environment more easily than that of the human, reducing the number of variables that we have to ta e into account. #d% "ne can use large numbers when one uses animal as compared to human. #e% "ne can use animal for critical experiments that is, experiments which it would be unethical to perform on people. #f% "ne can use animals as models for human system and their response.

3luctuated, we might say that animals are used in research to study living system according to the requirement of scientific study to understand such systems and to apply this nowledge to alleviating human and animal problem, specifically
6+

Dissection #also called anatomi.ation% is usually the process of disassembling and observing something to determine its internal structure and as an aid to discerning the functions and relationships of its components. 61 3ox, 5ichael !llen #+>FD%, #he !ase for Animal Experimentation: An E1olutionary and Ethical :erspecti1e. Bondon/ 7niversity of 9alifornia 0ress, pg. >?.

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Research Ethics

disease and behavioural disorder. 3or example, in the beginning to discover or developing a new drug to treat idney disease, which might affect the heart or blood pressure the only way to find out if it has such unforeseen effects is to test it on a living being. $ome of the research findings have immediate and directly applicable results, whereas others contribute primarily to the scientific body of nowledge.

Towards this goal, biomedical research has included the use of animals as one component of research to understand, treat, and cure many human and animal diseases. In addition, animal resemble humans in various degrees according to species and in relation to the system or type of reaction under investigation. 5any animal diseases are closely related or identical to their human counterparts 66. Disease itself, cause a staggering amount of suffering and death in both people and animals. !s a result, human society has committed itself to alleviating the suffering caused by disease.

This answered why scientists study animals to understand human disease. They do so because people are vulnerable to many of the same or similar diseases as animals. Eumans have D@ infectious diseases in common with dogs, @H with cattle, ?D with sheep and goats, ?1 with pigs, 6@ with horses, and 1D with fowl. #$ee Science& Medicine and Animal% ,e have lived with and among these animals
66

Robert ,. Beader #+>DA%, #he ;inship of Animal and Human Diseases in 3ox, 5ichael !llen #+>FD%, Ibid, pg. >?.

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Research Ethics

for thousands of years, so it was not surprising that we are susceptible to some of the same parasites, viruses, and bacteria as animals, including some that can be transmitted between animals and people such as rabies and malaria.

!nimal research is also important in another type of research, called basic research. !s 8uffield 9ouncil on ;ioethics6? address that, the scientific uses of animals and the implications for welfare in four different contexts/ basic research' animals as models for human disease' pharmaceutical research and development' and toxicity testing. ;asic research experiments are performed to further scientific nowledge such as, the study of bird habitat is underta en primarily to increase our nowledge of the animal ingdom. "ther areas of basic research see to improve understanding about fundamental of biological processes. The goal of basic research is to understand the function of newly discovered molecules and cells, strange phenomena, or little*understood processes. $ome of this nowledge may eventually lead to application from which humans benefit directly.

!nimals in the study of human disease are used for the study of diseases affecting animals and humans to learn about causal factors, development and infectivity, and to explore therapeutic and preventative strategies. #$ee human disease as described under the sub-ect matters on how animals are used in research to study living system% Baboratory animals are not only crucial in understanding diseases' they are also essential in evaluating the safety of drugs, vaccines, food
6?

-p.cit., 8uffield 9ouncil on ;ioethics #1HH@%, pg. F@.

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Research Ethics

additives, household products, wor place chemicals, cosmetics, water and air pollutants, and many other substances.

Eere, the use of animals within the pharmaceutical industry is an essential part of the research and development process for new medicines. Toxicity studies that involve animals play an important role in the safety assessment of compounds such as medicines, household chemicals, agrochemicals and industrial chemical. 9hemicals are assessed for their potential to cause irritation, physiological reactions, cancers and effects on fertility. $pecified doses and exposures of the chemicals are given to animals, from which information regarding safe human dose and exposure levels is then extrapolated. !ccording to 8uffield 9ouncil on ;ioethics6@ rats and mice are most commonly used in toxicology #A? percent of procedures%. "ther tests involve non*rodent species such as fish, rabbits, chic ens, dogs and primates.

!s illustrated in this fragment, animals are essential in scientific research, medicines development and safety testing. They are necessary to understand the body in health and disease, and to develop new and improved medical treatments. Eere, we describe a range of different scientific uses for animals. !nimals are only used when the answers to scientific questions cannot be obtained in any other way. ;roadly spea ing, animals are used in research when it is necessary to see what happens in the whole living body. !ll in all, animal research incorporates to a
6@

Ibid, pg. +@6.

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Research Ethics

fraction of all biomedical research but their uses are not underta en lightly. ;oth the potential scientific and medical benefits of the research, and the possible suffering of the animals used, are weighed up carefully before any animal research pro-ect can be proceed.

*%*%*

Ethica( A!!roaches to the Use o Ani'a(s

The debate about research involving animals is often reduced to the question of defining the moral status of humans, and animals. Ethical theories for animal*based research have lagged behind those of human medical ethics, partially because of the focus on human research ethics following the experiments during $econd ,orld ,ar6D.

!t that time, experiments were being carried out, some of them lethal, on human beings who had been imprisoned and then forced to serve as sub-ects solely on the basis of race, religion, or mental development. ;y the end of the war, these views were actively being challenged. These were clear cases where no one could portray scientific research as a disinterested search for nowledge, unrelated to ethical values or social agendas. In the wa e of such tangible examples, many scientists found it were necessary to generali.e notion in their roles to incorporate
6D

$econd ,orld ,ar was a global military conflict which involved a ma-ority of the world2s nations, including all of the great powers, organi.ed into two opposing military alliances/ the !llies and the !xis. The start of the war is $eptember + +>6>, with the )erman invasion of 0oland and subsequent declarations of war on )ermany by most of the countries in the ;ritish Empire and 9ommonwealth, and by 3rance. In +>?@ the war ended in a victory for the !llies.

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Research Ethics

both of the empirical and the ethical issues inherent to science. During that time, there is no accepted comprehensive moral theory pertaining to animal experimentation.

!nimal research emerged as a scientific activity in the early nineteenth century. 0artly in response to the pioneering wor of 3rancoise 5agendie and 9laude ;ernard of 3rance, the anti*vivisection movement was born in nineteenth* century England. Despite a long history, organi.ed opposition to animal research did not halt whether nonhuman animals are -ust mere machines or not. This is because many nonhuman animals behave in ways that indicate they can suffer pain. !ccompanying the rise of utilitarian moral theory in the early nineteenth century, a theory based on the moral relevance of pleasure and pain that was a growing concern for animal pain. !ccording 8ail $har s in Animal and Science, nonhuman animals: minds may differ from humans: minds in many ways, but as long as they can experience pain' this appears to be a morally relevant cognitive commonality.

!s we all now' there is something special about humans, and all humans possess some morally vital property that all animals lac . There is a hierarchy of moral importance with humans at the apex, followed by primates and then other mammalian species such as pigs, dogs, rats and mice and other vertebrates such as .ebra fish, with invertebrates #for example fruit flies% and single*celled creatures arranged towards the bottom. There is no categorical distinction between human

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Research Ethics

and non*human animals, that they are moral equals. In truce, this question of moral status is neither consideration of the relative moral status nor reference to the evolutionary order or uses of animals in other contexts. Thus, the question of the permissibility of animal experimentation, or of any other use of animals should be settled in a helpful manner.

5orally relevant features instead of a promising approach is to as what features of humans and animals can qualify them as moral sub-ects, imposing constraints or limits on how they may be treated. In 8uffield 9ouncil on ;ioethics Report, they assumed that there are some species that should never be used for any purposes, or that the acceptability of using species depends on how closely related they are to human in evolutionary terms. Then, we turn to the question of deciding how, with regard to the possible or certain benefits of research. $uch characteristics should be ta en into account in moral decision ma ing/ through weighing of factors #for example, the degree of suffering experienced by animals versus the value of benefits of research% or through the generation of absolute prohibitions #for example, that no research should be underta en on animals that are capable of higher cognitive capacities, such as the chimpan.ees, regardless of the benefits. ! consequentialist view weighs all costs against all benefits while a deontological view lays down particular prohibitions.

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Research Ethics

In human and veterinary medicine, causing a pain or suffering in a patient is considered unethical unless it is for the direct benefit of that patient. 3or instance, The Royal $ociety6A indicates one view is that each animal has the right to life and humans should not ta e such right away from it. It is not entirely clear whether the proponents of such a view would grant rights to every organism that showed signs of reacting to maltreatment.

8evertheless, they would argue that rights to good treatment, once granted, must be respected. "thers would argue that while granting rights to animals is inappropriate because human:s rights are firmly embedded in a social context. Eumans have responsibilities for animals in their care and should ensure that their welfare is good. ;oth of the rights and the responsibilities arguments are sometimes ta en as absolutes, over*riding all other moral claims. Eowever, this could also be the case for the moral argument for supporting animal experiments because of their medical potential benefits.

$o the degree of suffering might be expressed as low, medium or high and the li ely scientific and medical benefit might be similarly classified. Research that involves low suffering to the animals and was li ely to be highly beneficial would generally be regarded as acceptable. Research that involves medium suffering but only a medium chance of generating a beneficial outcome would probably be
6A

9ouncil of the Royal $ociety #3ebruary 1HH?%, The 7se of 8on*Euman !nimals in Research/ ! )uide for $cientist& pg. +H.

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Research Ethics

deemed unacceptable * but clearly this -udgement will depend on a consensus view derived from a -udgement by those responsible bodies for granting approval to research pro-ects.

3or example, in drug development, many thousands of compounds may need to be tested in order to develop a new drug. This means that in some cases the research may not be successful, and may seem futile, whereas in fact such wor is essential in refining nowledge. Therefore, it is important when considering the ethical -ustification of the use of animals in research is to reali.e that the development of a successful drug such as insulin or the antibiotics may result in saving many millions of human and animal lives.

In !nimal Rights/ ! Cery $hort Introduction, David De)ra.ia explains the capabilities of animal and highlighting the gap between how we ought to treat animals and the often poor reality how we treat them. Therefore the ey issue with animals is whether their moral status precludes or limits their use in research regardless of potential benefits. Bi ely in 8uffield 9ouncil on ;ioethics Report occurrence a strong animal right:s view re-ects the harming of some individuals for others: benefit. This position roughly precludes the use of animals in research.. It allows #+% research that does not harm on animal sub-ects at all and #1% therapeutic veterinary research G that is, research that is the best interests of the animal sub-ects themselves.

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Research Ethics

! strong animal*rights view might accept one further category of animal research. !t first glance, it appears that equal consideration would support non* therapeutic animal research posing only minimal ris to sub-ects. ,hile strong animal*rights advocates accept equal consideration, it is possible that they would re-ect the imposition of even very small nown ris s on animal in healing research.

,hether or not a strong animal*rights view would accept the minimal*ris standard for animals, another equal consideration theory, utilitarianism, clearly does. They accept animal research posing more than minimal ris so long as the promised benefits. 8ow utilitarians who apply their theory correctly typically assert that very little animal research is -ustified. $till, because they allow some non* therapeutic research that falls into the present category of more than minimal ris s, utilitarians such as 0eter $inger arrive at a position that is notably different from that strong animal:s rights theorist such as Tom Regan.

3or instance, 0eter $inger author of the enormously influential boo Animal 9iberation& bases his view of animal protection on utilitarianism, a view that emphasi.es on the consequences of moral action. $inger argues that nonhuman animals should not be eaten, ept in .oos, or, under most conditions, used in research. Eis argument for animal protection is based on his belief that animals are

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Research Ethics

capable of experiencing pain and pleasure #sentient% and thus have an equal interest in their own lives.

In contrast, Tom Regan #+>FF%, author of #he !ase for Animal %i$hts& ta es a deontological approach to the welfare of animals. Deontologists base their ethics on conformity to rationally derived rules rather than on the consequences of an action. Regan believes that nonhuman animals that have certain capacities #beliefs, perceptions, memory, sense of the future, sentience, emotions, and psychological identity% are the &sub-ects of a life.( These two schools of thought however dominated contemporary philosophical discussion over the moral status of an animal.

*%+

An Is(a'ic Pers!ectives to5ards Ani'a( E4!eri'entation

Religion and philosophy leads with the diverse basis of the traditional thin ing about animals: moral status. It is worth noting that throughout the world, both of which have interacted with science in shaping conceptions of what sorts of beings animals are6F. In addressing these and other related issues, it would be helpful to begin with an Islamic view of research ethics. The following s etch

6F

-p.cit., De)ra.ia, David #1HH1%, pg. 6.

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Research Ethics

#which influenced by !dnan " tar6> and especially Raghloul?H% is quite compressed and therefore is necessarily selective in identifying principle sources of Islamic perspectives and attitudes about animal.

In addition, it is important to highlight some history of Islamic science. 9onsistent with it according to 5acmillan Dictionary of the Eistory of $cience, Islamic science is a vital and intimate part of European history of science. $uch central believes of Islam itself for example, a special concern with nowledge or <ilm is deeply rooted in the Islamic Tradition. It derives from the central believes that )od #!llah% is un nowable. To now !llah, one must study his Isigns:

#ish=r=t%, i.e. the natural world. 0erception of 8ature is regarded as a necessary prelude to mindfulness of !llah. Therefore the pursuit of nowledge is equated with faith and religous duty. 3or this reason, epistemology had a central position in Islamic philosophy in terms of a concern with the question of the source of nowledge, whether in a reason or relevance, and in the manner of its acquistion.

It was also reali.ed that both of the extend and the quality of nowledge was determined by the means through which it was attained. That is, all nowledge
6>

!dnan " tar #+>@D% writes under the pen name of Earun Lahya. Ee is a world*renowned man of ideas and dedicated his life to telling of the existence and oneness of !lmighty !llah, to disseminating the moral values of the <ur:an, to the intellectual defeat of materialist and atheist ideologies. Ee can be reached from his site, Harun >ahya: An In1itation to the #ruth #http/MMwww.harunyahya.comMindex.php.% ?H Dr. Raghloul #+>66% can be reached from his site, http/MMwww.elnaggar.r.comMenMindex.php. Dr. Raghloul Ragheb 5ohamed El*8aggar is the 0rofessor of )eology, Eead, 9ommittee on $cientific 8ations in the )lorious <ur2an S 0urity $unnah $upreme 9ouncil for Islamic !ffairs, 9airo, Egypt. The site shows the contributions of Dr. Raghloul in the scientific notions in the )lorious <ur2an S 0urity $unnah and his writings in intellectual S political matters.

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Research Ethics

was relatived to man:s nature. ,ide*ranging and broad nowledge could only be attained when its instrument was fully uunderstood. 3or this reason, physcology and medicine too on a uniquely privillaged position in the Islamic pantheon of sciences. This is further reflected in the leading role of the physicians*philosopher #hak?m% in an intellectual activity, as exemplified by !l*Ra.i #Rha.es%, Ibn $inT ?+ #!vicenna%, Ibn Tufayal?1 #c.+++H*++F@%, Ibn Rushd?6 #!verroUs% and many other.

!s an imperfect instrument, man could only approximate broad nowledge by aquiring and amassing information as a corporate endeavour. This can be achieved by not only through boo s, but by systematic observation of the world around him. To synthesi.e such nowledge, enourmos encyclopaedias of science and medicine were prepared. 3or example, in his al7H=2? #the 9ontinens% Rha.es gave the previous )ree , $yrian, Indian, 0ersian, and !rabic views for each disease. Ee compared them with own clinical observation, and then expressed a final opinion.

In Islam all nowledge was regarded as science, and no branch of science was left untouched or unexplored. The sciences were generally classified into two branches. The first was the revealed sciences # al7<ul@m al naAliyyah%, the source of

?+

Ibn $inT is a physicians G philosopher * scientists prepared two encyclopedias. Eis OitTb ash*$hifT #The ;oo of Eealing% covered philosophy and the sciences. Eis monument OitTb al <TnVn fi:t*tibb #The 9anon of 5edicine% was a definitive wor that it dominated the teaching of medicine in Europe until the +Ath century. ?1 $panish*5uslim physicians ?6 Ibn Rushd #++1D*++>F% is a $panish*5uslim astronomer and philosophers

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Research Ethics

which were found in the Buran. They were attainable through a tradition #Sunnah% deriving from the 0rophets who was forst transmitted them. These included theology #kal=m%, -urisprudence #fiAh%, mysticism #tasa22uf%, and philology for the correct reading and understanding of the Buran, and so on. The second branch was the rational or the intellectual sciences #al7<ul@m al <aAliyyah% which consist of nowledge distilled by reason, reflection and observation. This was further subdivided into the mathematical and the physical sciences.

!pparently, "iomedical %esearch Ethics: An Islamic 'ie2CC stress out that Islam puts emphasis on see ing nowledge and benefits from it. !s Islam

encourages accuracy in conducting research, which values should be added, than there is no consideration for nowledge that provides no utility. Raafat L. !fifi?@ states that the teaching of Islam covers all the fields of human activity. !s Raafat stated in'

!nother understanding of ethical guidelines of research can be derived from the purposes and principles of the Islamic law # ShariDa%. The instructions, which cover everyday activity is called $hari:a. The sources of $hari:a are primary and secondary sources. The primary sources in a chronological orders are/ the Eoly <uran' The $unna #Eadith%, which are the authentic traditions and sayings of the 0rophet 5ohamed #peace be upon him%' Igma:, which is the unanimous opinion of Islamic scholars or !:imma' and !nalogy #<ias%, which is a reasoning used to rule on events not mentioned in the <uran and $unna by matching procedures of similar
??

Raafat L. !fifi. #1HHD%, "iomedical %esearch Ethics: An Islamic 'ie2 E :art .. In International Journal of $urgery, Col. ?/ 9airo/ Elsevier Btd., pg. 6. ?@ Ibid, pg. +.

* ?+ *

Research Ethics

or equivalent events. The secondary sources of $hari:a are/ Istihsan #the choice of one of several lawful opinions%' views of 0rophet:s companions' current local customs if lawful' public welfare' rulings of previous divine religions if not contradicting the primary sources of $hari:a.

!nother understanding noted in is of ethical guidelines of research that derived from the purposes and principles of the Islamic law #$hari:a%. Islamic law based on a complete system of morality that can provide a moral context in medicine from legal perspectives. In a 5uslim community, a researcher should observe that research and the procedures that followed are within the context of $hari:a. !t all, morality and ethics in Islam are absolute and divine of sources.

*%+%$

Ani'a( in 6uran and Sunnah

!nimal have been created with a specific purpose, either to benefit human beings directly, or as symbols for people to ponder over )od:s greatness #!n*8oor 1?/?@%. The existence of animals is the proof for the very existence of )od #see !n* 8oor 1?/?@%.
6UR7AN CHAPTER *,8 An9Noor :The 1i#ht; /erse ,-8 !llah has created every moving #living% creature from water. "f them there are some that creep on their bellies, some that wal on two legs, and some that wal on four. !llah creates what Ee wills. CerilyW !llah is !ble to do all things.

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Research Ethics

The <ur:an invites man to contemplate the cattle, sheep, horses, camels, mules, and other domestic animals, the birds of the s y, and all the innumerable species and genera that they comprise #see La*$een 6D/A+%.
6UR7AN CHAPTER +<8 =a9Seen /erse >$8 Do they not see that ,e have created for them of what "ur Eands have created, the cattle' so that they are their owners.

The way in which the birds fly and stay in the air is a sign of )od in which there is guidance for human ind #see !n*8ahl +D/@%.

6UR7AN CHAPTER $<8 An9Nah( :The &ee; /erse -8 !nd cattle Ee has created for you )men,/ from them ye derive warmth, and numerous benefits, and of their )meat, ye eat.

This encompassing that each animal has been created with a specific purpose, either to benefit human beings directly, or as symbols for people to ponder over )od:s greatness. The animal world too has its own rights, -ust li e that of the human world. !nimals have similar characteristics, peculiarities, temperaments, and consciousness of their own. They have the ability to experience what we consider to be morally relevant states of consciousness such as pain, distress, fear, anxiety, loneliness, boredom, -oy, and pleasure.

5any animal species other than mammals share abilities we thought made human ind singular, such as communications, using and ma ing tool, love and

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Research Ethics

nurturing a partner and family. Eumanity has been observed in most species. This modern ethological finding is reflected in the concept of animals in <uran as community #ummah% -ust li e man ind is' see !l*!nXaam #D/6F%.
6UR7AN CHAPTER <8 A(9An?aa' :Catt(e; /erse +@8 !nd cattle Ee has created for you )men,/ from them ye derive warmth, and numerous benefits, and of their )meat, ye eat.

*%+%*

Is(a'ic Ethics on Ani'a(

Islam has strictly prohibited tampering with the lives of animals and inflicting torture upon them -ust for the sa e of fun. 0rominently from Eadith !t* Tirmi.i, the 0rophet 5uhammad $.!., prohibited the setting of animals so as to fight one another #as a sport%. The birds, which are flying beauties, are not to be harmed for the sa e of fun, since the 0rophet said, &! sparrow that was illed -ust for fun would on the Day of Judgment complain #to )od% against the person who did so, -ust for fun and not for any material gain.(

!nother possible need as in <uran guides the use of animals as gentle, respectful, and humane as possible. The Eoly <uran is primarily a scripture of guidance, and not a boo of any physical or social sciences. It provides broad

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Research Ethics

guidelines concerning the spiritual and material aspects of life. 5odern animal rights activists should, perhaps, ta e a leaf out of the <ur:an:s outline for the goal of a society that is mar ed by greater compassion for every living thing, as the <ur:an spea s of the sanctity of life.

!s a 5uslim itself, they should conscious that it is inhuman, impious, and un-ust to treat animals with cruelty. ,hile using animals for the service, man should not unnecessarily hurt or harm them. In 5uslims guidance itself, Islam made indness to animals as a part of its faith and cruelty to them become a sufficient reason for a person to be thrown into Eell?D.

The Conce!t o Ste5ard 5en are put on earth also to manage all the resources on )od:s behalf. The wrongful dominion of, cruelty to, and exploitation of animals by man create a moral ruin. Euman responsibilities to animal beings are to feed them, protect them, and use them in suitable ways with indness. !ll creation, living and non*living, participates in the divine eternal plan and, therefore, merit appropriate care and attention from the humans who are commissioned to tend it.

The <ur:anic theology mandates the use of animals that is as gentle, respectful, and humane as possible. ! 5uslim reali.es that it is inhuman, impious,
?D

In Islam, the aim for purpose of this life which is a test and a means of ma ing provisions for the life hereafter. Becture on Animal Ethics by $iti 8urani 5ohd 8or, Ouala Bumpur #1HH>%

* ?@ *

Research Ethics

and un-ust to treat animals with cruelty. The human being has been authori.ed to press into his service all the living creatures li e all other ob-ects of nature. ;ut a 5uslim is not required to place the life of animals on an equal or higher plane than the lives of fellow humans. !ny experimentation solely for reasons of luxury is forbidden in Islam.

!s a 5uslim, they believe that all living things have intrinsic value. 8ot only instrumental value to one another and to human, they also have value in and of themselves. !s for that, animal suffering must be ept to a minimum. ! 5uslim researcher should use the minimum number of animals and treat them as humanely as possible.

Experiments should be designed to minimi.e animal suffering. ,here there is a choice of animals to be used he should choose lower animals in preference to the higher. 5an' as moral beings should not countenance suffering on the part of animal except when it serves a clearly defined, higher purposes such as saving of precious life. In general, animal experimentation should ta e place when and where there are no other alternatives.

*%,

Use o Ani'a( 1aborator" Ani'a( Toda"

* ?D *

Research Ethics

Today geneticists generally study fruit flies, roundworms, and .ebra fish. 0hysiologists study mammals, mostly mice and rats but also rabbits, cats, dogs, pigs, sheep, goats, mon eys, and chimpan.ees?A. Experimental animals often ept in confined quarters, cut open, infected with disease organism, fed unhealthy diets, and in-ected with assorted chemicals. $ometimes the animals suffer and sometimes the animals die. !nd sometimes they are healed, albeit often of disease or in-uries induced by the researcher in the first place.

8ot surprisingly, some observers have reacted with extreme sympathy and have called better treatment of animals used in research. This &animal welfare( movement has, in turn, spawned the more extreme &animal right( movement, which asserts that animals, especially mammals have rights as important and as deserving of regard as those human. Thus, to ill an animal, whether for research, food, or fur, is the moral equivalent of murder. Eowever, it has also led to panic*stric en in class animal dissections, the destruction of research records, and the theft of research materials #including animal%. This attitude has led to important reforms in the treatment of animals, to the development of several alternatives to use animals in research, and to considerable reduction in the number of animals used in research.

?A

Easton, Thomas !. #1HH@% #akin$ Sides: !lashin$ 'ie2s on !ontro1ersial Issues in Science& #echnolo$y 8 Society. Iowa/ 5c)raw Eill, pg. 1>+

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,hile proper care of animals used in research has been an ongoing priority for the ma-ority of the scientific community, and there have been some instances of mistreatment of animals in research laboratories. !s a consequence of these occurrences, as well as pressure from animal protection groups and the public, government enacted laws and policy to regulate the care and use of laboratory animals. In the following sections, the author will argue on the development of selected documents in rules and regulation. This is to give more stress to the value of animals in research and to approve the best guideline towards the use of animals in experimentation.

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The Princi!(e o Hu'ane Techni2ue

<uestion of pain and distress in animal used for research, concerned the society especially scientific community itself. It was this concern' together with improving technique to the use of animal efficiently continued for two scientists to examine on the use the fewest animals as efficiently and humanely as possible. This approach is called the Three Rs #6Rs stand for Reduction, Re!(ace'ent and Re ine'ent% and was created in +>@?, when the 7niversities 3ederation for !nimal ,elfare #73!,% hired ,.5.$. Russell and R.B. ;urch to produce a report on experimental methods. Russell and ;urch visited laboratories throughout the 7nited Oingdom for 1 years and in +>@> they have published a boo entitled #he :rinciples of Humane Experimental #echniAue, which introduced the concept #of it%.

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!s has been noted, Russell and ;urch recommended reducin# the number of animals used in experiments to the minimum number required to obtain statistically relevant data. Re inin# of technique or procedures to reduce pain and distress in experimental sub-ects and provide their well*being based on their behavioral needs. Re!(acin#' or in other word, an alternative is used to describe any changes of experiments involving whole animals i.e. computer model program or in*vitro models li e tissue and cell culture when possible. ;ased on recommendations data acquired in the course of their study, and they predicted that implementation of the 6Rs would enhance the scientific value of experiments.

The Royal $ociety?F signified that the use of animals is not permitted where a replacement alternative is available. 5eans, when there is no replacement alternative is available, and then experimental protocols should be refined in such a way as to reduce any pain or suffering to a minimum, using for example, analgesics and humane end*points. Refinement of experimental methods, for instance through adequate post*operative care, good housing, and improved anesthesia and analgesia has been standard practice in biomedical research for many years.

3inally the number of animals used should be reduced to the minimum consistent with achieving the scientific ob-ectives of the study. The numbers needed will depend on the variability of the animals, the minimum si.e of any
?F

-p.cit., 9ouncil of the Royal $ociety #3ebruary 1HH?%, pg. ++.

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statistically significant difference between treatment groups and the chances of obtaining misleadingly negative conclusions. 7sing animals of similar age, weight, genetic composition and so forth can reduce variability of the animals. ;est use of the animals can be obtained by appropriate experimental design and by correct statistical analysis of the data. 3ailure to use good design will result in more animals being used than it is necessary.

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The 3uide

The )uide for the 9are and 7se of Baboratory !nimals #& The 3uide(% was first published in +>D6 as a manual for institutions that use animals in research. The )uide must followed by researchers and facilities funded by 8ational Institutes of Eealth #8IE%. It serves as the basis for inspection standards for such groups as the !ssociation for the !ssessment and !ccreditation of Baboratory !nimal 9are ?> #!!!B!9%, an independent, and peer review accreditation agency. )uide published by the 8ational Research 9ouncil and the Institute for Baboratory !nimal Research #IB!R%, is not only the basis for !!!B!9 but it is also a central part of 0ublic Eealth $ervice 0olicy on the humane care and use of laboratory animals.
?>

!!!B!9 monitors animal care and accredits research institutions on a voluntary basis by evaluating laboratories every 6 years to ensure scientists comply with the guidelines set forth in the Guide. !!!B!9 International is also now accrediting research and testing programs throughout the world.

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*%,%+

Ani'a( .e( are Act

The first federal law regulating animal research was the Baboratory !nimal ,elfare !ct #!,!% passed by 9ongress in +>DD. This public law regulated the transport, sale, and handling of animals and provided for licensing of animal dealers to prevent pet theft and their sale to research facilities. The original act covered dogs, cats, nonhuman primates, guinea pigs, hamsters and rabbits. The passage of the !,! was also stimulated by public outrage. It was aroused in +>DHs by the depiction of 9ife maga.ine that graphically documented starving dog research, and the practice of pet theft for sale to research facilities. It protects all species of animal in all types of research within the exception of rats, mice, birds bred and agricultural animals used for production purposes. This includes .oos, circuses, research labs, hospitals, businesses, federal agencies, dealers, breeders, etc.

In +>F@, the !,! was amended to provide the formation of Institutional !nimal 9are and 7se 9ommittees #I!979% to review research proposals involving animal and to oversee institutional animal care and use programs. The 0ublic Eealth $ervices #0E$% 0olicy on Eumane 9are and 7se of Baboratory !nimals and the )uide also address the formation, duties and membership of the I!979.

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*%-

Conc(usion

This chapter discussed on some examples to demonstrate some evidences to show that development in scientific nowledge depends on animal experiments. It is illustrated that evaluation regarding research and the complexity of the issues cover animal experimentation. In writing the historical portions of this dissertation, the author nevertheless tried to record some of great causation for historical evolution. !s giving more focus to the value of animals in experimentation, the scientific community must continue to stress out the benefits of using animals in research and the role of scientists in protecting and regulating the welfare of laboratory animals. !ll in all, the previous stage showed the importance of historical development that is significant for modern science. !pproaching these substances, the next step is to put in enough detail of process in order to grasp the finding towards hypotheses.

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CHAPTER THREE

AETHODO1O3=

9hapter two and three encompass the research ethics in animal experimentation. It has been analy.ed that the impotency in one side and the other on controversies amongst animal experimentation. ;ut this is deliberate. There were so many strong views about animal research that the author felt it was more constructive in the long run to give an account of field study rather than own opinion. Entailing to this, this chapter will go ahead for research 'ethodo(o#", resu(t, research (i'itation, and conc(usion of the chapter.

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+%$

Research Aethodo(o#"

! research method is a systematic plan for conducting research. Research methodology focuses on the instruments that measure these constructs. Eere, the author mixed several methods*according to a selected sample and a case study on the use of animal in experimentation. It on all sides of implementation in analy.es student:s understanding towards the use of animals in research. This requires researcher to choose ex post facto #or after*the*fact research% as a type of research method. !s ex post facto ta es measure only once, no control variable is attempted. Therefore, no causal relationship can be tested. This is for the reason that is much simpler to conduct and respondents can be more easily accessed.

3urthermore, there are wide varieties of ways in which data can be collected in ex post facto research. 3or instance, data can be collected via survey or observation. Cia survey, data for this study had been collected by questionnaires.

+%$%$

Surve" Research

! survey is a research method in which sub-ects respond to a series of statements or questions in a questionnaire or an interview. $ometimes survey

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provide clues about cause and effect, but the author yield descriptive findings, painting a sample of selected student:s view on issue of research ethics.

Sa'!(e

! survey targets some population of first year students who ta e Introduction to $cience and Technology $tudies course. Eowever, handling all +6F student overwhelmed although all +6F student been distributed the question whereof only ?? is to be returnedW 3ortunately, there is an easier way that yields accurate results/ the collected of data from a sample of ?? students, a part of population that represent the whole. ;y that, in reaching this conclusion the author is ma ing a -udgement about all students of $cience and Technology $tudies course #the population% from analy.ing some of the students #sample%.

Eere, there are still pragmatic reasons why a sample should be ta en rather than a complete population. ;udgets and time constrain is common problem in doing research. $ame goes to author because can:t afford the time and money to do a census, i.e. distributed questionnaires to every single students in the course. The irony of it is that sometimes sample can be accurate than all students. ! small group of students in tutorial class and closely supervised can do a better -ob than a large group of poorly coordinated by researcher. 9oming to this, it also helps the author to analy.e in detail for answers.

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6uestions

Eandling sample is the first step in carry out a survey. ;esides, it also needs a plan for as ing questions and recording answers. This survey used questionnaires for this purpose. <uestionnaire is a series of written questions which a researcher presents to sub-ects. The author, as common place use a self*administered survey and as ed students to complete the form and send it bac . 0resenting a self*administered questionnaire with a small number of students #not less than 6H students% in tutorial class is practical so that sub-ects can respond as they choose and the author can probe with follow*up question. This is an advantage for the author whereas once the students are unclear of anything in the questionnaire they immediately see clarification from researcher.

;y getting respondents to complete the questionnaires at the front, researcher found that this is the best method of data collection' from the point of view helping better response rate, and also in terms of accuracy of results. This is because the author found that the students are more difficult to refuse when the researcher physically present.

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Research Ethics

In this way, researcher managed to maintain the motivation and co* operation of the students. $elf*administered questionnaires had been completed in the presence of researcher. 3or this, students had been given selected articles that represent the comments of leading scientist, technicians, and social commentators. Then, students have to give respond by analysing the opposing viewpoints and fill in blan s in the box that been given #table +%. This requires students to argue issue between Iyes: and Ino: after read the articles then students considered to comments via students: critical thin ing s ills. I$$7E/ Is the use of animal in research -ustified= Issue LE$ 8" 5ar 5atfield summari.ed the Research attorney that $teven Ra

summary history of protests against the use maintains

current

animal

of animals in research and argues protection laws do not adequately that research community needs to protect animals used in medical play greater part in and other research and that, for communicating the benefits of society to be virtuous, it must animal use and the commitment recogni.e the rights of animals not of researchers and themselves regulating to to be sacrificed for human needs. the protecting +.

welfare of laboratory animals

1.

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6.

Tab(e $8 Surve" 2uestions

+%$%*

Usin# Avai(ab(e Data8 Secondar" and Historica( Ana("sis

This study is not based on empirical wor at all but contributes through the systematic and detailed analysis of existing texts. 3or this, the author applied secondary analysis by ma ing use of existing data. This method is easier than first methodology for this study' collecting data first hand, and it allows the study of historical issues.

+%*

Resu(t

<uestionnaires which have been given to students used an open*ended format that allows sub-ects to respond freely, expressing various shades of opinion. ;ut at the end, the author found that the drawbac of this approach is that the author has to ma e sense out of what can be a bewildering array of answers.

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+%+

Research 1i'itation

This pro-ect will stress on explaining the history of the use af animal in research starts from !ristotle. $econdly, the choronicle of documents developed in order to protect animals: right. In depth, the discussion will evaluate awareness among first year students ta ing Introduction to $cience and Technology $tudies course on their understanding regarding animal experimentation. +%, Conc(usion

Reaching out development and enumeration of hypothesis, the research methodology describes the data that it used and the methodology adopted. In sei.ing of hypothesis towards animal use in research influence moral -ustification in students, the device is given emphasis here. 9ollectively in methodology chapter, it ta es account into three ma-or consideration' research methodology, result and research limitation. The research methodology includes sampling method and the sample itself. It is very important to note that by referring to this section, readers can verify findings in this study. Encounter to this, the next chapter has considerable depth in sorting out prior to data analyses of student:s moral -ustification in ma ing decision.

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CHAPTER 0OUR

0INDIN3S

In the previous chapter it was mentioned that this study featured from hypothesis that had been made. ;y loo ing from a methodological perspective, the way in which the result will be disseminated is directly related to the hypothesis. This issue form the general focus of this study. Thus, the step of analy.ing is a part of evaluating awareness among students and their understanding regarding animal in research. 3urther, this chapter will organi.e discoveries from the pro-ect into four portions that are' result, analysis, discussion and the conclusion.

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,%$

Resu(ts

In this fragment, the results that are new

nowledge to readers are

presented. Results are briefly explained and presented through charts.

!s stated in the previous chapter, students have to reproduce in order to learn what it is made up of opposing viewpoints by filling the given box. The reading represented the comments of leading scientist and social commentators reflect of viewpoints. They have been selected for their liveliness and substance because of their value in a debate framewor . Eere, the author presumed that students: answers had been influenced by their reading on article' Ta ing $ides/ 9lashing Ciews on 9ontroversial Issues in $cience.

9onducted in 7niversity of 5alaya, the study was primarily a review of ?? surveys targeting students' both female and male. Results of survey were obtained from ++ male and 66 female students. #see chart +%

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Gender

Fem ale Male

9hart +

3actors related to listed instrument include the reading from selected articles and the questions used. 3actors related to the respondents including gender, educational bac ground and practical experiences. These imply that direct comparisons of surveys results can be made from different course ta ing by the students. Eowever, result of these surveys also suggests that many factors may influence attitude of the students and effect on advantage and disadvantage of using animal in research.

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S tudent'sbackg round

S& T m ajoring Elective course

9hart 1

The factors that may affect outcome of surveys are both related to the instrument used and to the respondent. 3rom the answers, among the list of factors that they may have been influenced is given from question associated with the use of animals in research. This is because factors may be relevant in a few answers on advantage or disadvantage.

3inding of advantages in using animal in research as such' demonstrate animal research was important for bioscience research and it was essential for medical research. This indicated an exception results from an article such as &anti1i1isection and animal ri$ht $roupsD campai$n that animal experimentation is scientifically has ne1er produced any medical benefit ( which is ta en from the briefing for subtopic entitled/ The !natomy of 9ampaign. The article illustrated on

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the mainstream antivivisection and animals: rights group campaign very actively. 9ome in so far that some of these campaigning organi.ations ta e a dogmatic line, and argue that animal experimentation is scientifically invalid and has never produced any medical benefit

Entailing to this, most students state that a refined and relatively unexplored morality is what scientist say, request, and research. $trengthening such ethical structures is the hard necessities of producing research instrument, materials, and reagents. It acquires the tacit and sentient nowledge which is essential for their use. 3acing this, students proposed the advantage of animal experimentation that the leaders or government must identify the imperative of animal use and research hard wor towards resolve the crisis.

Totting up from the answers, here I:ll indicate some of leading ideas from students that bring us to the issues highlighted. The device is given emphasis in the survey. $tudents mostly have attitudes towards the welfare of animals. These attitudes were divided into their two constituent component that is emotional #emotional empathy with animal% and cognitive #believe in sentience of animals%. 3or example, in answering towards disadvantage of animal experimentation, the most two common answers are &animal have a rights to live their live( or &the lives of animal have intrinsic value. This shows that the students tend to believe in sentient of animal.

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$econdly, in emotional empathy with animal' that most female students merely answered were &animal suffer in pain( or &animal are sub-ected to pain or distress unrelieved by drugs for the purposes of research or testing( and &many experiments are painful or produce fear, anxiety or depression( or &it is cruelty because animal are suffer.

!nswering to animal welfare' rights to live ethics, legislation, abuse that formed an important basis for understanding animal experimentation. These answers shape up and arguably still form an important basis for awareness of animal experimentation. The problems of morals or any significantly related to sentient of animal gave impact in students: awareness. The female students have significant higher level of emotional empathy with animals than the male students.

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Ana("sis and Discussion

In analy.ing results from actual data, the author will ta e account of hypothesis towards animal use in experimentation that influences moral -ustification in students. 3or the analysis, the author draws upon a qualitative study of ?? students, where female and male were interviewed together about their ways of understanding towards animal use in research.

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!mong others, this analysis concludes that to an understanding in animal experimentation, there is no extent impotency carried out by students. $tudents rely on strong decision ma ing after referring to the Iyes: reading to differentiate from second arguments on Ino: reading. ,ithout letting the main ideas in running, most female students is more critical than male students. ;elow is an example of answer from one of the female students/ &!nimal deserves the right to stay alive. $cientific experiments hurt the animal and they can surely feel the pain. This should be ta en into consideration. 0ain is pain, whether it can be inflicted on man or beast.(

9ollectively, it ta es into account one of the ma-or considerations that is moral -ustification. !s indicated from students: answers, ma-ority of them thought that animals used in research can suffer painful and classified for disadvantage figure. This most common type ob-ection to animal experimentation answers was related to whether animal that can experience pain and suffer which was derived from various information gathered among those disadvantages.

,e will not say more about it here, save to note that without a qualitative analysis, claims about the benefit of the use of animal in research will be substantiate, one way or the other. 3or propagandists on either side of the fence, this doesn:t matter. ;ut for those who concerned with the ethics of the practice, especially for those guided by utilitarian principle, this will be important issue.

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9onsequently, many factors influence the outcome of surveys on how the students view the use of animals in research. $ome aspects are related to the instrument used, whereas others are related to the characteristics of respondent. There are discrepancies between what students consider on essential tool for development of treatment for human disease and what students feels is morally permissible. ! lower proportion of female than male, accept the use of animal in research

This implies factor related to respondent. The first that highlighted is confidence in science. It seems that this survey implies that students are capable of differentiating issues, even if they do not understand technical detail. It has been shown that attitudes towards the use of animal in research were more related to empathy toward animals than the confidence in science. "ne way or another, it was opposed when some of the student are confidence in science as the best predictor of attitudes to animal research.

In education factors, which contain detailed of answers leading to the discovery of ways to prevent there are difference between ma-oring course ta ing compared to ma-or in $ST, 0hysics, 9hemistry, ;iology, )eology and 5athematics. ;iology ma-oring was however positively associated with approval of the use of animal in research.

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$omehow, there:s still students: answer involved extensive prediction of animal use in research. $eemingly, students tend to guess any answers that logically rational. This shown that the nowledge or interest about the use of animal leads to verify between different perspectives. ,hereas some students are interested in animal experimentation, others have not formed a view prior to being questions. Their answers in the basis of running totally afford impressions or response on the spot #spontaneous thoughts in the student:s mind at the time questioning #survey%.

The last factor that is related to respondents: answers is the practical experience. ;y right, some of respondents come from various departments in science faculty. 3ew students have practical experience wor ing with laboratory animal. The experience of the use of animal through research or study is generally positively associated with acceptance of animal research.

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Conc(usion

!s many surveys dealing with how people view the use of animals research have been carried out in a past few decades, the surveys remar that there were numerous and contradictory implications for our appreciation of the status of animals in relation to ourselves. It is noticeable in this chapter when the author examines influential views derive from students awareness. $o an assessment of

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these issues are potentially huge tas historically as well as future perspectives.

could include among other thing and

SUAAAR=

In sum, the basic issue here depict interaction between animal and us #human%. !ll of these conditions for relation are uncontroversial. ;ut a further condition, which is controversial, animal that had been used by human' in general, the benefit of animal for human being had been -ustified. 9ontroversy surrounds

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this in last clause, to clarify the way humans treat the animal and one important condition is to accept some level of morals2 right.

This is a complex and extensive issue indeed. In apart, here we have discussed on the use of animal in experimentation. 3or the beginning, the history of animal based research has been outlined. Eere, only a few fruition of research are given, in order to give a bac ground to the timeframe for the debate of the use of animals in science. !longside are given some of the ey ethical attitudes about the use of animals. It should be clear that almost the outset that scientist have concerned themselves with discussion of the &rightness or wrongness( the use of animals and in considering what conditions should be placed on the use of animals for scientific purposes.

Then, chapter two explores the exceptionally complex issue of animal research. It confronts such issues as these/ whether there is degree of harm to animal sub-ects beyond which it is unethical to go' and how promising a proposed experiment must be to be ethically defensible. Representing the position of many researchers, the author clearly states that morality requires society to recogni.e the rights of animals for not to suffer at all for the benefits of humans. Therefore, scientists should always find alternatives modes of the research.

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Research Ethics

$tretching out here, the purpose of biomedical research and testing is to understand the living body and what goes wrong in disease, and to develop safe and effective ways of preventing or treating those diseases. !nimals are crucial in all stages of this underta ing, not -ust in safety testing. Even though important, the use of living animals is -ust one of three main research methods in medicine and biology@H. The non*animal techniques are/

in vitro techniques, involving the study of isolated molecules, cells and tissues #which may come from humans, animals, micro*organisms or even plants%. This gives useful information about interactions between molecules, within or between cells, or about organ function.

study of human beings and populations. Research on human sub-ects can give very useful information about the body in health and disease, and about the distribution of diseases in society, but is limited by what is considered ethical.

In addition, use of computers and other high tech equipment can improve the efficiency of animal, non*animal or human research techniques. ! wide range of materials may be substituted for animals in teaching. !udiovisual aids and computer*based programs allow the students to see the effects of manipulating

@H

http/MMwww.understandinganimalresearch.org.u MaboutNresearchMtheNresearchNprocess, #he %esearch :rocess: #he (on7animal #echniAue browsed on +1th 3ebruary 1HH>.

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various organ systems. 5any of the computer programs are interactive, allowing the students to participate in the experiments.

The welfare implications for animals used in research are varied as the benefits. In appropriately conducted purely observational research of animals in their natural habitat there are no negative effects at all. ,hether or not animals used in laboratories experience pain, suffering or distress depends on a range of different aspects/ of the animal2s environment. In all inds of laboratory*based research there are contingent factors, arising from the conditions of transport, breeding, housing, and handling.

Then, there are may be effects associated with procedures connected directly to specific elements of the experimental design. 3or example, the ta ing of a blood sample is a typical procedure that is applied to many research animals. !nimals that are used as disease models are li ely to experience the symptoms typical for the disease. ,hether the animals experience pain, suffering and distress associated with experimental procedures it is highly variable and depends on standards of handling and husbandry and whether or not the experiment permits the use of pain relieving medicines and anesthetics.

!lthough we have not underta en an extensive review of the literature, it appears that there is a relative scarcity of systematic reviews and meta*reviews that

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address the question of the scientific validity of animal experiments. 9are needs to be ta en in interpreting their findings. "ne analysis which has received considerable attention appeared to Iover*sample: the difficulties, examining primarily scientific areas in which the development and use of animal models has proved problematic.

;y contrast, areas in which extrapolations have proved relatively straightforward seem to attract little or no comments about the predictive value of the animal studies, as the results are simply reported and used. $temming partly from this difficulty, we are aware that data emanating from reviews of the validity of animal experiments have been interpreted and used in different ways by both opponents and proponents of the scientific validity of using animals.

RECOAAENDATION

In a nutshell, the author would li e to stress that though animal experiments are not scientifically counterproductive, the gigantic medical value of experimentation are multifaceted claims that are firm to appraise. 3or example, given the widespread nature of the practice, you cannot simply point to a few rules and regulation #or textboo % successes #or failure, for that matter% to establish the issue one way or another. ,hat is needed and what is virtually present in

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discussion of this pro-ect is a careful examination of the practice of animal experimentation, in proper historical context, and with due care to weigh up all the factors underlying the advance of the science experimentation.

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