Human Physiology Final Exam- Themes Local and Central Control CNS (brain stem and spinal cord)

monitor interaction of our many bodily systems ensuring our survival overall and coordinate the whole body system. However the CNS does not have the capacity or mechanisms to maintain/monitor everything at all times (to much traffic). Therefore we have local tissue control systems present in a variety of systems which work both independently and in cooperation or competition (override) with the CNS. Examples 1) Active skeletal muscle

2) Local and central regulation of contractility Direct nervous innervation (both PNS & SNS) controls the cardiac myocyte contraction by dephosphorylation and phosphorylation, respectively. Endothelial cells lining the heart also release endothelin to increase contractility of the heart. 3) Renin is released by the juxtaglomerular apparatus in the kidney. This is controlled centrally by SNS innervation and locally via delivery of NaCl (by distal tubule) to the macula densa.

Functional Segregation / Compartmentalization Living organisms are compartmentalized on not only the cellular level but also tissue and organ levels. Functions are segregated to each compartment so that each part will be specialized to the function that it is assigned. Due to the complexity of the different tasks that need to be carried out in the human body, various systems are separated into functionally distinct areas performing different functions. The body will not be able to operate as an open pit where all tasks must be accomplished. Examples 1) Cardiovascular system Cardiovascular system is a closed system which is made up of 2 pumps and different pipes. It is compartmentalized based on its function. Veins and arteries are composed of different ratios of cell types to give different them characteristics. Vein is more compliant, so it doesnt change its pressure as much with the increased volume, therefore suitable for storage. Artery is less compliant, so it changes its pressure a lot with the small increase in volume, therefore suitable for transport. Also each pump ejects blood into different systems (systemic or pulmonary).

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3) The retina is functionally segregated. The fovea has a high cone density and is responsible for high visual resolution. The rest of the retina has a high rod density which receives information on brightness.

Significance The functional seg area allows for a specific area to carry out a specific task Cell Asymmetry Cells are asymmetrical in their direction of transporters, channels and other cellular characteristics to create directionality of movement of various substances. Without asymmetry it would be very difficult and inefficient for biological transport.

Examples 1) Late distal tubule in Kidney Principle cells have Na+ and K+ channels on luminal side and Na+/K+ ATPase on basolateral side to regulate Na+, K+ ionic balance. Intercalated cells have H+ pump (actively excreting H+ions) on luminal side and Na+/K+ ATPase on basolateral side to regulate H+ ion. 2) Neurons An AP can propagate in both directions, but to ensure we dont get the propagation in the wrong direction, neurons have speci fic transporters and pumps on each sides. Axons have voltage gated Ca2+ channels to cause release of Ach into synaptic cleft while, dendrites have Ach gated Na+ channel to open Na+ channel and continue the signal down the neuronal cell. AP which is propagated towards the cell body will not be transferred across synaptic cleft because theres no Ca2+ channels located in the cell body, therefore no Ach released. While Axon ends do not have any ligand gated Na2+ channel to propagate signals backwards. 3) Lumen of intestine High concentration of symporters on the apical side allows glucose to enter the cell by secondary active transport. Once its in the cell it can move by facilitative diffusion into the endothelial cell of the blood vessel and then into the lumen of the blood vessel. The asymmetrical placement of symporters on the endothelial cells of the lumen allows for unidirectional movement of glucose uptake. Positive Feedback Positive feedback enables body systems and pathways to self-amplify a signal to cause explosive changes in short time. You need a negative system to shut this down so that the system does not go out of control. Once positive feedback is initiated, an event will be stimulated which will increasingly repeat and repeat until a final signal result has been achieved and the body can return back to homeostatic conditions. Examples 1)

2) Long term potentiation Glutamate binds to NMDA receptor which allows an influx of calcium into the cell. Increased intracellular calcium signals vesicles to insert more AMPA receptors which are glutamate gated Na+ channel onto cellular membrane. This causes EPSPs of the post synaptic cell also intracellular calcium triggers NO production which promotes the release of more glutamate per AP from the presynaptic cell. These mechanisms increase signal and sensitivity. 3) Gastric Acid & Enzyme release

pH sensed by Chemo Rc in stomach pepsinogen release from chief cells pepsinogen converted to active pepsin digest protein into AAs AAs stimulate G cell to release gastrin stimulate parietal cells HCl release in stomach pH This signal amplification allows rapid change in stomach pH aiding digestion.

Negative Feedback c) Negative feedback is a control mechanism in which is initiated if some factor becomes excessive or deficient and it will perform a series of changes which will return the altered factor back to normal levels in order to maintain homeostasis. Examples:

Time Scales Short time scales allow us

Examples: 1) Regulating free H+ ions Buffer action is in ms- sec time scale, because buffers (bicarb, protein, and phosphate) in plasma simply bind the free H+ ion to minimize the impact from acidosis. Lungs action takes mins-hours to regulate [H+]. It changes CO2 concentration by changing ventilation rates. Its still a temporary solution to problem, because it lacks the power to return system to normal (only stabilization). Kidney acts on hours-days time scale, and its a powerful regulator due to its ability to excrete H+ and bicarb from the body. It actually fixes the problem of acidosis this process s efficiency since each stage of compensation, can attempt to correct the problem while minimizing change in pH long enough for the next successive system to take effect never leaves the body defenseless 2) MAP

High pressure Baro Rc sends AP signal to brain stem changes SNS and PNS activity accordingly direct neural innervation changes HR, contractility, SV, and CO according to SNS and PNS signals alters MAP (ms-sec) MAP Signals from high and low pressure Baro Rc signal the brain stem inhibits ADH release from hypothalamus decrease ADH vasodilates vasculature TPR MAP (hours-days) 3) Growth hormone