COMPLEX NUMBERS

When we are solving quadratic equations with real roots, the roots of the equations exhibit three cases: two distinct real roots, a double root or no real roots. To accommodate the case of no real roots, i.e., to provide solutions to those quadratic equations, the concept of complex numbers was invented. One may expect that as complex numbers are never encountered in our daily routines, the studies of complex numbers are impractical. However, complex numbers are actually extremely useful tools in many applications like factorization and proofs of trigonometric identities. In this set of notes, we will illustrate the basic concepts and some of the applications of complex numbers with examples.

1. Basic Terms and Concepts

As noted, the interests in complex numbers originated from studies of the roots of quadratic equations. As an illustration, consider the equation x 2 + 1 = 0 . This equation does not admit real roots because for all real number x, x 2 + 1 0 + 1 = 1 > 0 . Yet, if we set i = 1 , then i 2 + 1 = 1 + 1 = 0 is a root of the equation.

Definition 1.1. (Imaginary unit)

The imaginary unit is defined by i = 1 .

Based on the imaginary unit, we develop a set of numbers called the complex numbers. The general form of a complex number z is z = a + bi, where a and b are real numbers.

Definition 1.2 (Real and imaginary parts of a complex number)

For a complex number z = a + bi, where a, b

, a is called the real part of z and b is called the

imaginary part of z. These are denoted as Re(z) = a and Im(z) = b respectively.

Illustration. If z = 3 + 5i, then the real part of z is 3 and the imaginary part is 5. We write Re(z) = 3 and Im(z) = 5.

Illustration. All real numbers x can be represented in the form of a complex number by setting a =
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x and b = 0. Hence, numbers.

, where

represents the set of real numbers and

the set of complex

In particular, if Im(z) = 0, then z is a real number. On the contrary, if Re(z) = 0 and Im ( z ) 0 , z is called a purely imaginary number.

In general, we cannot compare complex numbers with each other as in real numbers. For example, we say 6 > 4, but we cannot say which of 6i and 4i is larger or smaller. However, we can say that they are unequal. In fact, two complex numbers are said to be equal iff both their real parts and imaginary parts are equal.

2. Arithmetic Operations

Basic arithmetic operations on complex numbers include addition, subtraction, multiplication and division. For two complex numbers z1 = a1 + b1i and z2 = a2 + b2i , we have
z1 + z2 = ( a1 + b1i ) + ( a2 + b2i ) = ( a1 + a2 ) + ( b1 + b2 ) i , z1 z2 = ( a1 + b1i ) ( a2 + b2i ) = ( a1 a2 ) + ( b1 b2 ) i ,

z1 z2 = (a1 + b1i )(a2 + b2i ) = a1a2 + a1b2i + b1a2i + b1ib2i = a1a2 + a1b2i + a2b1i + b1b2i 2 = (a1a2 b1b2 ) + (a1b2 + a2b1 )i, and if z2 0 ,

z1 a1 + b1i ( a1 + b1i )( a2 b2i ) ( a1a2 + b1b2 ) + ( a2b1 a1b2 ) i = = = 2 z2 a2 + b2i ( a2 + b2i )( a2 b2i ) a2 2 ( b2i ) =

( a1a2 + b1b2 ) + ( a2b1 a1b2 ) i = a1a2 + b1b2 + a2b1 a1b2 i.

a2 2 + b2 2 a2 2 + b2 2 a2 2 + b2 2

Example 2.1.

Suppose zk = 3 k + 2 k i for k = 0, 1, 2, . Evaluate

k =0

zk .

Solution.

Evaluating the real and imaginary parts separately and applying the formula for geometric series, we have

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zk = ( 3 k + 2 k i ) = 3 k + i 2 k =
k =0 k =0 k =0 k =0

1 1

1 1 1 3 2

i=

3 + 2i . 2

Example 2.2.

Suppose zk = ak + bk i for k = 1, 2, where ak , bk

. Let z1 = 3 z2 and z1 = (1 + 2i ) . Find a2 and b2 .

4

Solution.

We shall evaluate z1 first:

4 2 2 2 z1 = (1 + 2i ) = (1 + 2i ) = (1 + 4i + 4i 2 ) = (1 4 + 4i ) = ( 3 + 4i ) = 9 24i + 16i 2 = 9 24i 16 = 7 24i 2 2

Then, 7 24i = z1 = 3 z2 = 3 ( a2 + b2i ) = 3a2 + 3b2i . Equating the real and imaginary parts, we have
a2 = 7 and b2 = 8 . 3

Example 2.3.

Express the complex number

1 + i tan in the general form. 1 i tan

Solution.

1 + i tan (1 + i tan )(1 + i tan ) 1 + 2i tan + ( i tan ) 1 tan 2 + 2i tan = = = 2 1 i tan (1 i tan )(1 + i tan ) 1 + tan 2 12 ( i tan )
2

1 tan 2 + 2i tan 1 tan 2 2i tan = = + = ( cos 2 sin 2 ) + 2i sin cos 2 2 2 sec sec sec = cos 2 + i sin 2

Exercise

1.

Express

1 in the general form. cos i sin

2.

Suppose z = a + 2i is a root of the equation x 2 + 6 x + k = 0 , where both a and k are real. Find a
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and k.

3. The Argand Diagram, Modulus and Argument

Maybe it is too abstract to just talk about complex numbers. A better understanding of this number system can be obtained by drawing diagrams. In this section, we will discuss the Argand diagrams of complex numbers. The Argand diagrams are also of core importance in the application of complex numbers on some geometry problems.

An Argand diagram consists of two axes: a horizontal one, like the x-axis in the rectangular coordinate system, called the real axis, and a vertical one, like the y-axis, called the imaginary axis. The point (x, y) in an Argand diagram represents the complex number x + yi.

In figure 1, the complex numbers represented by the points A, B, C and D are 1 + i, 2 3i, 3 2i and -3 + i respectively. By convention the number zero is represented by the origin O. Another way to interpret Argand diagrams is by way of vectors. For example, the complex numbers mentioned above are said to be associated with the vectors OA , OB , OC and OD respectively. Readers might have noticed that 1 + i + 2 3i = 3 2i, which in the notation of vectors is represented by OA + OB = OA + AC = OC .

Im 3 2 D A 1

-4

-3

-2

-1

0 -1 -2

4 Re

C -3 B -4

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From the perspectives of the Argand diagram and vectors, we can define some more properties of complex numbers. The length of the vector in the Argand diagram, r, is called the modulus of the associated complex number, while the angle the vector made with positive real axis, , is said to be an argument of the complex number. Hence we have, if z 0 ,
x + yi = r = x 2 + y 2 , x = r cos and y = r sin .

An immediate result of the above is that tan =

y . x

Since cos = cos ( + 2k ) and sin = sin ( + 2k ) for any integer k, there are infinitely many possible values for the argument of a complex number. And this leads to the following definition.

Definition 3.1.

The principal value of the argument of a complex number z = x + yi is the angle such that r cos = x , r sin = y and < .

We usually denote the principal argument by Arg z, and the set of arguments by arg z = Arg z + 2 k .

Example 3.1.

Find the modulus and the principal value of the argument of the complex number 1 + i.

Solution.

We now have x = y = 1. Hence, modulus = r = 12 + 12 = 2 .

3 y in the interval ( , ] . We and Besides, tan 1 = tan 1 1 has only two possible values, 4 4 x 3 3 have r cos = 1 = x and r sin = 1 = y , but r cos = 1 x and r sin = 1 y . 4 4 4 4
Hence, the principal value of the argument of the complex number 1 + i is

Exercise

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1.

Find the moduli and principal arguments of the following complex numbers: (a) 3 +i

(b) 1 3i (c)
3 3i

(d) sin i cos , where 0 . 2

2.

(a) Evaluate cos + i sin cos + i sin . 6 6 3 3

(b) Suppose z1 = cos . Draw the points Z1 and Z 2 , 6 6 2 2 representing z1 and z2 respectively, on the Argand diagram. What is the relationship between OZ1 and OZ 2 ?

+ i sin

and z2 = cos

+ i sin

4. Other Forms of Representation

The concepts of modulus and argument are important in dealing with representations of complex numbers. In this section, we will introduce the polar form and the exponential form, both of which are associated with representing complex numbers in terms of their moduli and arguments.

The Polar Form

Definition 4.1. (The polar form)

Suppose r and are respectively the modulus and argument of the complex number z. Then the polar form of z is r ( cos + i sin ) , or abbreviated as rcis .

Illustration. The polar form of the complex number 1 + i is

2 cis

2 cos + sin , or in short, 4 4

Example 4.1.

Express, in polar form, the following complex numbers:

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(a)

3 +i

(b) 1 + sin i cos for

3 . 2

Solution.

(a) Let z = 3 + i . Then r =

( 3)

+ 12 = 3 + 1 = 2 . 1 5 (rejected) or = 6 6 3

tan =

Hence, the polar form of z is rcis = 2 cos + i sin . 6 6

(b) Let z = 1 + sin i cos . Then,
z = 1 + cos i sin = 1 + 2 cos 2 1 2i sin cos 2 2 4 2 4 2 4 2 = 2 cos cos i sin = 2 cos cos + i sin . 4 2 4 2 4 2 4 2 2 4 2 4

3 , we have , i.e., 2 cos 0 . Therefore, the polar 2 2 2 4 2 2 4 2 form of z is 2 cos cos + i sin . 4 2 2 4 2 4 Since

The polar form of representation is especially useful when we perform multiplication and division of complex numbers.

Theorem 4.1.

Let z1 and z2 be two complex numbers. Then for arg ( zi ) 0 , 1. 2.

z1 z2 = z1 z2 and arg ( z1 z2 ) = arg ( z1 ) + arg ( z2 ) .

If z2 0 ,

z z z1 = 1 and arg 1 = arg ( z1 ) arg ( z2 ) . z2 z2 z2

Proof. Let z1 = r1cis1 and z2 = r2 cis 2 be the polar form representations.

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For property 1, using the above notations,

z1 z2 = r1 ( cos 1 + i sin 1 ) r2 ( cos 2 + i sin 2 ) = r1r2 ( cos 1 cos 2 + i sin 1 cos 2 + i cos 1 sin 2 + i 2 sin 1 sin 2 ) = r1r2 ( cos 1 cos 2 sin 1 sin 2 ) + i ( sin 1 cos 2 + cos 1 sin 2 ) = r1r2 cos (1 + 2 ) + i sin (1 + 2 ) = r1r2 cis (1 + 2 ) .

Hence, z1 z2 = r1r2 = z1 z2 and arg ( z1 z2 ) = 1 + 2 = arg ( z1 ) + arg ( z2 ) .

For property 2, let z1 ' =

z1 . Then using the results of the above proof, we have z2

z z1 z2 and arg ( z1 ' z2 ) = arg ( z1 ') + arg ( z2 ) = arg 1 + arg ( z2 ) . z2 z2

z1 ' z2 = z1 ' z2 =

On the other hand, z1 ' z2 =

z1 z2 = z1 . Hence, z2

z 'z z z z1 = 1 2 = 1 and arg 1 = arg ( z1 ' z2 ) arg ( z2 ) = arg ( z1 ) arg ( z2 ) . z2 z2 z2 z2

Q.E.D.

Definition 4.2. (The exponential form)

Suppose r and are respectively the modulus and argument of the complex number z. Then the exponential form of z is rei .

Theorem 4.1. can be applied to the exponential form easily with the law of indices. For property 1, by definition 4.2, z1 z2 = r1e1 ir2 e2 = r1r2 ei(1 +2 ) . Hence, z1 z2 = r1r2 = z1 z2 and
arg ( z1 z2 ) = 1 + 2 = arg ( z1 ) + arg ( z2 ) Similarly, for property 2, z z z1 r1 = = 1 and arg 1 = 1 2 = arg ( z1 ) arg ( z2 ) . z2 r2 z2 z2

z1 r1ei1 r1 i(1 2 ) = = e . So, z2 r2 ei2 r2

Theorem 4.2.

1. 2.

ei + e i = 2 cos . ei e i = 2i sin .
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Proof. For property 1, ei + e i = ( cos + i sin ) + cos ( ) + i sin ( ) = 2 cos .

For property 2, ei e i = ( cos + i sin ) cos ( ) + i sin ( ) = 2i sin . Q.E.D.

Example 4.2.

Simplify the fraction

1 + sin + i cos . 1 sin + i cos

Solution.

Notice that i sin + i cos = cos + i sin = e 2 , 2 2

i sin i cos = cos i sin = cos + i sin = e 2 . 2 2 2 2

Hence,
i i 2 4 e + e 4 2 e i 2 cos 2 i 1 + sin + i cos 1 + e 2 4 2 = = =e i 1 sin + i cos i i i 2 2i sin 1 e e 2 4 e 4 2 e 2 4 4 2 cos i i ii 2 4 i 2 2 2 =e i cot = e e 2 cot =e 2 4 2 4 i sin 2 4 = ei( ) cot = cot cis ( ) . 2 4 2 4
i 4 2

Exercise

1.

Simplify the fraction

3 + 3 3i . 1 i

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2.

Prove that ( cos i sin ) = cos 3 i sin 3 .

3

5. Complex Conjugates

Definition 5.1. (Complex conjugate)

Suppose z = a +bi is a complex number, where a, b as z = a bi .

. Then the complex conjugate of z is defined

Thus the complex conjugate of a complex number is the mirror image of the original number across the real axis. There are some nice properties associated with complex conjugate pairs.

Theorem 5.1.

For any complex number z, we have 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.

z = z. arg ( z ) = arg ( z ) . z + z = 2 Re ( z ) . z z = 2i Im ( z ) .

zz = z .
2

z = z.

Proof. The theorem follows easily from the definition and its proof is left as an exercise.

Q.E.D. An implication of this theorem is that if z is real, then z z = 2i Im ( z ) = 0 . Likewise, if z is purely imaginary, then z + z = 2 Re ( z ) = 0 . The converses of these are also true, with the only exception that the number zero is real but 2Re(0) = 0. These facts are often useful in proving some of the properties of some numbers in questions.

Example 5.1.
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Suppose w = 1 and z = w +

1 . Prove that z is a real number. w

Solution.

By property 5 of theorem 5.1, we have ww = w = 12 = 1 . Hence, w =

2

1 as w 0 . Therefore, w

z = w+

1 = w + w = 2 Re ( w ) must be a real number. w

Theorem 5.2.

For complex numbers z1 and z2 , we have 1. 2. 3. 4.

z1 + z2 = z1 + z2 . z1 z2 = z1 z2 . z1 z2 = z1 z2 .

z1 z1 = , if z2 0 . z2 z 2

Proof. The proofs of the first two properties are left as an exercise.

For property 3, we let z1 = a1 + b1i and z2 = a2 + b2i . Then z1 = a1 b1i and z2 = a2 b2i . Hence,
z1 z2 = ( a1 b1i )( a2 b2i ) = ( a1a2 b1b2 ) ( a1b2 + a2b1 ) i = ( a1a2 b1b2 ) + ( a1b2 + a2b1 )i = ( a1 + b1i )( a2 + b2i ) = z1 z2 .

For property 4, using previous results,

z z z2 1 = z2 1 = z1 . z2 z2

And the theorem follows. Q.E.D.

Example 5.2.

Let z = x + yi. If z 6 = 5 and z = 5 , find the possible values of x and y.

Solution.

From property 5 of theorem 5.1 and property 3 of theorem 5.2,

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52 = z 6 = ( z 6 ) z 6 = ( z 6 )( z 6 ) ,
2

25 = zz 6 z 6 z + 36 = z 6 ( z + z ) + 36
2

= 52 6 2 Re ( z ) + 36.

Hence, 12 Re ( z ) = 36 x = Re ( z ) = 3 . On the other hand, 5 = z = x 2 + y 2 = 32 + y 2 . Thus, y 2 = 52 32 = 42 . The possible values of y are therefore 4 .

We started our discussion of complex numbers on solving algebraic equations. In fact, there is a nice relationship between the complex conjugates in solving equations.

Theorem 5.3.

If z is a zero of a real polynomial (polynomial with real coefficients), then so is z .

Proof. Suppose z is a zero of the real polynomial an x n + an 1 x n 1 +

a0 . From property 3 of theorem

5.2, ( z ) = z z
k

z = zz

z = z k for positive integer k. Besides, since the ak s are real, we

n 1

have ak = ak . Then,
an ( z ) + an 1 ( z )
n

a0 = an z n + an 1 z n 1 + = an z n + an 1 z n 1 +

a0 = an z n + an 1 z n 1 + a0 = 0 = 0

a0

Thus, z is also a zero of the polynomial. Q.E.D.

This theorem implies that for a real polynomial, either both members of a complex conjugate pair are the zeros, or both are not. In fact, a real polynomial can only have an even number of complex zeros.

Example 5.3.

Given that 3 + i is a root of the equation x 4 5 x3 + 10 x 2 + ax + b = 0 , where a and b are real numbers. Find a and b.

Solution.
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Since 3 + i is a root, its conjugate, 3 i, is also a root. By factor theorem, x 4 5 x3 + 10 x 2 + ax + b is divisible by both x (3 + i) and x (3 i), i.e., by ( x 3 i )( x 3 + i ) = x 2 6 x + 10 .

Upon long division by x 2 6 x + 10 , the remainder of x 4 5 x3 + 10 x 2 + ax + b ( a + 26 ) x + ( b 60 ) . Thus, we have a + 26 = 0 and b 60 = 0, i.e., a = 26 and b = 60.

is

Exercise

1.

Prove theorem 5.1.

2.

Prove the first two properties of theorem 5.2.

3.

Let k be a real constant and z be a complex number with z = 1 . Prove that z + k = kz + 1 .

4.

Given that 1 + 3i is a root of the equation x 4 + 3x 2 + ax + b = 0 . Find a and b and factorize x 4 + 3x 2 + ax + b .

6. De Moivres Theorem

Performing multiplications and divisions on complex numbers can be very tedious and errorprone, as we have to deal with both the real and imaginary parts. If we employ the polar form and exponential form, the operations will be much simpler. Furthermore, if the operations involve rational powers of complex numbers, the operations can be eased with the De Moivres theorem.

Theorem 6.1. (De Moivres Theorem for Integral Index)

For any integer n, ( cos + i sin ) = cos n + i sin n .

n

Proof. We shall prove the theorem for non-negative n by induction first. For n = 0 or 1, the result is

obvious.

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Suppose for n = k, ( cis ) = cisk . Then when n = k+1, by theorem 4.1,

k

( cis )

k +1

= ( cis ) cis = cisk cis = cis ( k + 1) .

k

So, by mathematical induction, the theorem is true for all non-negative integer n.

For negative n, let n = m . So m is positive. Then,

( cis )

= ( cis )

( cis )

1 cis0 = = cis ( 0 m ) = cis ( m ) = cisn . cism cism

Thus the theorem is true for all integer n. Q.E.D.

Example 6.1.

Redo Example 2.3 using De Moivres theorem.

Solution.

If cos = 0 , then = k +

. Hence, we have tan = , cos 2 = cos ( 2k + ) = 1 and

sin 2 = sin ( 2k + ) = 0 . So,

1 + i tan = 1 = cos 2 + i sin 2 . 1 i tan For cos 0 ,

1 + i tan (1 + i tan )( cos ) cos + i sin cos + i sin = = = 1 i tan (1 i tan )( cos ) cos i sin cos ( ) + i sin ( ) =
1 cis 2 = cis = cis ( cis ) = ( cis ) = cis2 cis ( ) cis ( )

= cos 2 + i sin 2 .

The De Moivres theorem for integral index is often used in proving trigonometric identities. In fact, many identities can be proved with the help of some direct results of the theorem: for z = cis , zn + zn 1 = cisn + cis ( n ) = 2 cos n , zn 1 = cisn cis ( n ) = 2i sin n . zn
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Example 6.2.

Show that cos 5 = cos5 10 cos3 sin 2 + 5cos sin 4 . Hence prove that cos 5 = 16 cos5 20 cos3 + 5cos .

Solution.

According to the De Moivres theorem, ( cos + i sin ) = cos 5 + i sin 5 . However, by the
5

binomial theorem,

( cos + i sin )

5 2 3 4 5

= cos5 + 5cos 4 ( i sin ) + 10 cos3 ( i sin ) + 10 cos 2 ( i sin ) + 5cos ( i sin ) + ( i sin ) = cos5 + 5i cos 4 sin 10 cos3 sin 2 10i cos 2 sin 3 + 5cos sin 4 + i sin 5 .

Equating the real parts of both equations, we get cos 5 = cos5 10 cos3 sin 2 + 5cos sin 4 .

Hence, using the identity sin 2 + cos 2 = 1 , we have

cos 5 = cos5 10 cos3 sin 2 + 5cos sin 4 = cos5 10 cos3 (1 cos 2 ) + 5cos (1 cos 2 ) = 16 cos5 20 cos3 + 5cos .
2

Example 6.3.

Let z = cis . By using the relations z + sin 2 cos 4 =

1 1 = 2 cos and z = 2i sin , deduce that z z

1 1 1 1 cos 6 cos 4 + cos 2 + . 32 16 32 16

Solution.

Substituting with the given relations,

1 1 ( 2i sin ) ( 2 cos ) = z z+ z z 64sin 2 cos 4 = z 6 + 2 z 4 z 2 4 z 2 + 2 z 4 + z 6
2 4 2 4

= ( z 6 + z 6 ) + 2 ( z 4 + z 4 ) ( z 2 + z 2 ) 4 = 2 cos 6 + 4 cos 4 2 cos 2 4.

Hence,
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sin 2 cos 4 =

1 1 1 1 cos 6 cos 4 + cos 2 + . 32 16 32 16

The De Moivres theorem can be generalized to rational index.

Theorem 6.2. (De Moivres Theorem for Rational Index)

For any positive integer n,

( cis ) n = cis
where k = 0, 1, 2, , n 1.

2 k + n

Proof. We let rcis = ( cis ) n , where r is the modulus of the complex number. Then

r n cisn = ( rcis ) = cis . Taking the modulus on both sides, we get r n = 1 , i.e., r = 1 as r must be
n

positive. So cis = cisn , implying cos = cos n and sin = sin n . 2 k + , i.e., n

Therefore, n = + 2k , where k = 0, 1, 2, , n 1. Thus, =

( cis ) n = rcis = cis

2 k + . n Q.E.D.

Furthermore, if m and n are relatively prime integers and n is positive, we have

( cis )
where k = 0, 1, 2, , n 1.

m n

1 2k + m = ( cis ) = ( cism ) n = cis n m 1 n

With the De Moivres theorem for rational index, we can easily evaluate the nth roots of complex numbers without dealing with tedious multiplications. We will illustrate this with an example.

Example 6.4.

Find the cube roots of the complex number 1 + 3i .

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Solution.

First of all, we transform the complex number into its polar form: 1 3 1 + 3i = 2 2 + 2 i = 2cis 3 .

Thus,

(1 + 3i )
for k = 0, 1, 2, i.e.,

1 3

3 3 = 2cis = 2 3 cis = 2 3 cis 3 3

1 1

2 k + 3

1 + 3i

1 3

= 2 3 cis

or 2 3 cis

1 7 13 . or 2 3 cis 9 9

The nth roots of the number 1 are given the special name the nth roots of unity.

Definition 6.1. (nth roots of unity)

The n distinct roots of the equation z n = 1 are called the nth roots of unity.

Suppose w is a nth root of unity. Thus wn = 1 = cis0 . Hence, w = cis = 0, 1, 2, , n 1. Furthermore, if w 1 , 1 + w + w2 +

wn 1 = wn 1 0 = =0. w 1 w 1

2 k + 0 2 k , where k = cis n n

Example 6.5.

Factor the polynomial z 7 1 into a product of linear and quadratic polynomials with real coefficients.

Solution.

The roots of the equation z 7 1 = 0 are the 7th roots of unity: 1, cis Then,
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2 4 6 8 10 12 , cis , cis , cis , cis and cis . 7 7 7 7 7 7

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2 4 6 8 10 12 z 7 1 = ( z 1) z cis z cis z cis z cis z cis z cis 7 7 7 7 7 7 2 4 6 6 4 2 = ( z 1) z cis z cis z cis z cis z cis z cis 7 7 7 7 7 7 3 3 2 k 2 k 2 k 2 z cis = z 1 + 1 . = ( z 1) z cis ( ) z 2 zcos 7 7 7 k =1 k =1

Exercise

1.

Solve the equation z 4 + 4 z 2 + 5 = 0 .

2.

Find the fourth roots of the number

3 i .

3.

By considering the real parts of the equation cos 2n + i sin 2n = ( cis )

2n 2n2k cos 2n = ( 1) C2 sin 2 k . k cos k k =0 n

2n

, prove that

7. Applications

As shown in the last section, complex numbers find their use in proving trigonometric identities. Besides, it is also useful in solving geometry problems. This application arises from the geometric representation of complex numbers on the Argand diagram.

For instance, the complex number z = x + yi can represent the vector OZ = xi + y j . On the other hand, the resultant vector from the subtraction of vectors can also be represented by the subtraction of the corresponding complex numbers. The modulus of the resulting complex number is the length of the resultant vector and the argument represents the angle between the resultant vector and the x-axis.

In this section, we will illustrate the applications of complex numbers with a couple of examples.

Example 7.1.
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If the points A1 , A2 , B1 and B2 are associated with the complex numbers a1 , a2 , b1 and b2 respectively, express the angle between the line segments A1 B1 and A2 B2 in terms of a1 , a2 , b1 and b2 .

Solution.

Refering to Figure 2,

angle between line segments A1 B1 and A2 B2 = = 1 2 = angle between A1 B1 and x -axis angle between A2 B2 and y -axis = arg ( a1 b1 ) arg ( a2 b2 ) a b = arg 1 1 a2 b2

y A1 A2

B2 B1

1
x

Figure 2

Example 7.2.

Let O = (0, 0) and A = (6, 8). Prove that for every point P (other than O and A) on the circle represented by x 2 + y 2 6 x 8 y = 0 , we have OP PA .

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Solution.

Let p = x + yi. Then OP is represented by p and PA is represented by p (6 + 8i). Then, following from the result of Example 7.1, OP PA angle between OP and PA is

or

3 2

3 p arg p ( 6 + 8i ) = 2 or 2 p is purely imaginary p ( 6 + 8i ) Notice that p p p p x + yi x yi + + = + = p ( 6 + 8i ) p ( 6 + 8i ) p ( 6 + 8i ) p ( 6 + 8i ) ( x 6 ) + ( y 8 ) i ( x 6 ) ( y 8 ) i = Hence, OP PA . 2 x ( x 6 ) 2 y ( y 8) i 2 p p p + = 2 Re p ( 6 + 8i ) = 0. p ( 6 + 8i ) p ( 6 + 8i )

( x 6 ) + ( y 8)
2

2 ( x2 + y2 6x 8 y )

( x 6 ) + ( y 8)
2

= 0.

We conclude this set of notes with a discussion on the triangle inequality, a well-known theorem which can be readily applied to complex numbers as well.

Theorem 7.1 (Triangle Inequality)

For any two complex numbers z1 and z2 , we have z1 + z2 z1 + z2 . Equality holds iff Z1 , Z 2 and O are collinear, and Z1 and Z 2 are on the same side of O.

Proof. In a triangle Z1Z 2O , the sum of lengths of any two sides is greater than the length of the third side, i.e., we have Z1O + Z 2 ' O Z1Z 2 ' , where equality holds iff Z1 , Z 2 ' and O are collinear, and Z1 and Z 2 ' are on the opposite side of O. In terms of complex numbers,
z1 + z2 ' z1 z2 ' .

Taking z2 ' = z2 , we have z1 + z2 z1 + z2 = z1 + z2 . Note that Z 2 , Z 2 ' and O are always collinear and Z 2 and Z 2 ' are on the opposite side of O. Hence, equality holds iff Z1 , Z 2 and O are
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collinear and Z1 and Z 2 are on the same side of O. Q.E.D.

In fact, for n 2 , we have z1 + z2 + on n and theorem 7.1.

+ zn z1 + z2 +

+ zn . This follows from induction

Example 7.3.

Suppose wn z + wn 1 z 2 +

+ wz n = 1 for some w such that w 1 . Prove that z >

1 . 2

Solution.

Suppose z

1 , applying the Triangle Inequality, 2

1 = 1 = wn z + wn 1 z 2 + = wn z + wn 1 z 2 + + wz n wn z + wn 1 z 2 + + w zn = w z + w
n n 1 2

+ wz n +w z
n

z +

1 1 1 1 1 1n + 1n 1 2 + + 1 n = + 2 + 2 2 2 2 2 1 1 1 n 1 2 2 = = 1 n < 1. 1 2 1 2 which is a contradiction. Therefore, we must have z > 1 . 2

1 2n

Exercise

1.

For each of the following conditions, find the locus of z (take z = x + yi): a. b. c. z ( 2 + 3i ) = 6 . 2z 1 is purely imaginary, where z . 3z + 1 3
z 1 = z + 1 + 1.

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2.

Prove that ABC XYZ iff

a b x y a b x y = = or . c b z y c b z y

3.

Suppose z0 , z1 , , zn 1 are complex numbers such that zk = cis Prove that for any complex number z,

2k for k = 0, 1, , n 1. n

zz
k =0

n 1

n.

8. Solutions to Exercise

Arithmetic Operations 1.
cos + i sin .

2.

Since a + 2i is a root of x 2 + 6 x + k = 0 , 0 = ( a + 2i ) + 6 ( a + 2i ) + k = ( a 2 + 4ai + 4i 2 ) + ( 6a + 12i ) + k

2

= ( a 2 4 + 6a + k ) + ( 4a + 12 ) i. Equating the real and imaginary parts of both sides, we have a 2 4 + 6a + k = 0 and 4a + 12 = 0. Therefore, a = 3 and k = 13.

The Argand diagram, modulus and argument 1. (a) modulus = 2, principal value of argument =

(b) modulus = 2, principal value of argument =

. 3 . 4 .

(c) modulus = 3 2 , principal value of argument = (d) modulus = 1, principal value of argument =

2.

(a) i (b) OZ 2 is obtained by rotating OZ1 by

about O anticlockwise.

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Other forms of representation 1. Converting to the polar form and applying theorem 4.1, 1 3 6 + i 6cis 2 2 3 + 3 3i = 3 = = 3 2cis 1 1 i 1 3 2cis 2 i 4 2 2 7 = 3 2cis . 12 4

2.

Converting into the exponential form,

( cos i sin )

i ( ) i ( 3 ) = cos ( ) + i sin ( ) = e = e = cos ( 3 ) + i sin ( 3 ) = cos 3 i sin 3 . 3 3

Complex conjugates 1. Applying property 5 of theorem 5.1,

z + k = ( z + k ) z + k = ( z + k )( z + k ) = zz + k ( z + z ) + k 2
2

= z + k ( z + z ) + k 2 1 = 1 + k ( z + z ) + k 2 z
2

= 1 + k ( z + z ) + k 2 zz = ( kz + 1)( kz + 1) = ( kz + 1)( kz + 1) = kz + 1 .
2

2.

Since 1 + 3i is a root, 1 3i is also a root. Then x 4 + 3x 2 + ax + b is divisible by

2 x (1 + 3i ) x (1 3i ) = x 2 x + 10 .

and b = 30. Thus, x 4 + 3x 2 + ax + b = ( x 2 2 x + 10 )( x 2 + 2 x 3) = ( x 1)( x + 3) ( x 2 2 x + 10 ) .

However, x 4 + 3x 2 + ax + b = ( x 2 2 x + 10 )( x 2 + 2 x 3) + ( a 26 ) x + ( b + 30 ) . Hence, a = 26

De Moivres theorem 1. First, consider the equation as a quadratic equation in z 2 , i.e., ( z 2 ) + 4 z 2 + 5 = 0 . Then by the
2

quadratic formula, we get z 2 = 2 + i or 2 i . So the roots of the equation are the square roots of the complex numbers 2 + i and 2 i. Applying theorem 6.2 to find these square roots, we get z = 5 4 cis1.34 or 5 4 cis1.80 or 5 4 cis4.48 or 5 4 cis4.94 .
1 1 1 1

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2.

Note

3 1 3 i = 2 2 2i = 2cis 6

. Hence,
1 4

(
for k = 0, 1, 2, 3. Thus,

3 i

+ 2 k = 2 cis 6 4
1 4

(
3.

3 i

1 4

11 23 35 4 4 = 2 4 cis or 2 4 cis or 2 cis or 2 cis 24 24 24 24

1 1 1 1

cos 2n + i sin 2n = ( cis ) = Ck2 n ( cos ) ( i sin )

2n

2n

2nk

.
2 k 1

k =0

2n cos 2n + i sin 2n = C2 k ( cos ) k =0 n

2k

( i sin )

2n2k

2n + C2 k 1 ( cos ) k =1 nk n

( i sin )

2 n 2 k +1

2n 2k 2n2k = C2 ( 1) k cos sin k =0

+ i C22kn1 cos 2 k 1 sin 2 n 2 k +1 ( 1)

k =1

nk

Equating the real parts on both sides, cos 2n = ( 1)

k =0 n nk 2n 2k 2n2k C2 = ( 1) C22kn cos 2 n 2 k sin 2 k . k cos sin k k =0 n

Applications 1. (a) (b) x 2 + y 2 4 x 6 y 23 = 0 . 2z 1 is purely imaginary iff z , z 0 , and 3z + 1 3 4 ( 3x 2 + 3 y 2 + x ) 2z 2 x + 2 yi 2 x 2 yi 2z 2z + + = 0 = 2 Re = = 2 2 3 z + 1 3z + 1 3z + 1 ( 3x + 1) + 3 yi ( 3 x + 1) 3 yi ( 3x + 1) + ( 3 y ) 1 Thus 3x 2 + 3 y 2 + x = 0 excluding the points ( x, y ) = , 0 or ( 0, 0 ) . 3 (c) From the definition of modulus, we have

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( x 1) + yi ( x 1)
2

= ( x + 1) + yi + 1

+ y2 =

( x + 1)
2

+ y2 +1

( x 1)

+ y 2 = ( x + 1) + y 2 + 2
2

( x + 1)

+ y2 + 1

( x + 1) + y 2 2 16 x 2 + 8 x + 1 = 4 ( x + 1) + 4 y 2 .
4 x + 1 = 2 Thus, the locus of z is 12 x 2 4 y 2 3 = 0.

2.

Note that ABC XYZ

AB XY = and ABC = XYZ . However, CB ZY

x y AB XY a b a b x y = = = = , CB ZY cb cb zy z y x y a b ABC = XYZ arg . = arg c b zy These two conditions together implies Hence ABC XYZ iff
a b x y a b x y = = or . c b z y c b z y

a b x y a b x y = or = . c b z y c b z y

3.

The key to this problem is to use the formulae for geometric series to obtain
2 k i n

e
k =0

n 1

2 i 1 e n 1 e 2 i 11 = 2 = = = 0. 2 2 i i i n n n 1 e 1 e 1 e

With this and the triangle inequality in mind, we have

zz
k =0

n 1

= z e
k =0

n 1

2 k i n

= z e
k =0

n 1

2 k i n

i1 = z e
k =0

n 1

2 k i n

ie

2 k i n

2 k 2 k 2 k n 1 n 1 i i i = z e n ie n = ze n 1 k =0 k =0

i 2k n ze 1 k =0
n 1

ze
k =0

n 1

2 k i n

n = z e
k =0

n 1

2 k i n

n = 0 n = n.

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