The Napoleonic Wars 17991815 Took place against the First, Second and Third coalition at different time

periods. The second coalition was made up of Russia, Great Britain, Austria, Portugal, The Ottoman Empire and the Kingdom of Naples During this period the very definition of war was to change, and move towards modern warfare warfare was no longer the sport of kings, instead it moved towards conscription and the idea of total war and the entire nation in arms. Rifles Example of changes at the beginning, army uniforms were bright but at the end of the war, the colours of the uniforms darkened and this was the beginning of military camouflage. By 1808 Napoleon seemed to be the master of Europe however he then made some vital mistake s which led to his downfall: Dethroning King Charles IV of Spain he made his brother Joseph Bonaparte King, causing a revolt + guerrilla war in Spain During the Peninsular war (1808-1813) the Spanish Guerillas aided by British troops under Wellington and Portuguese allies drove the French out and eventually invaded southern France. Napoleon decide to invade Russia in 1812 with an Army of 500,000 men and although he defeated the Russians at the battle of Borodino in 1812 and took Moscow he was forced to retreat due to weather, costing him most of his army. Surrounded by enemies on all sides with his best troops dead Napoleon was forced to abdicate in 1814. Napoleon staged a daring return to power and tried to reverse the outcome of the war at the battle of Waterloo (18 June 1815). Waterloo was a bloody battle which saw his remaining elite guard destroyed and Napoleon exiled to St Helena from where he was never to return, marking the end of the Napoleonic wars.

The Battle of Trafalgar 21st Oct 1805 France and Britain had been at war with each other for a while, in 1802 both countries signed a true but neither expected it to last Russia Austria and Britain formed the third coalition against in July 1805, which started when France wouldnt decolonise Haiti which the British were against.

So Napoleon readied his ships and an army to invade Britain, believing that he would crush the Royal Navy. However when the French left the Spanish Mediterranean port on 21/10/1805 they saw the Royal Navy and turned back to port. This left their vessels vulnerable and enabled the British to cut the French and Spanish line of battle leading to most of their ships being captured or destroyed. But Nelson (leader of the British attack) was killed by a Frenchmen. English had to take a vital decision allowing the win Significance: Proved British had great army and boosted moral Malthusianism In the late 18th century/early 19th century, there was a lot of economic opportunity e.g expansion of cottage industry = couples marry earlier = have more children = population rise English clergyman Thomas Malthus predicted in his Essay on the principle of population that natural checks on population growth (e.g. war, poverty, famine + infant mortality) would become less significant and that the pop. of the world would grow way beyond the amount of nourishment available, e.g. food supplies would grow 1-2-3-4 and pop would multiply 1-2-4-6-16-32. Rise of pop put a lot of pressure on the land and a lot of land holdings were small and profitably farming had not yet existed. However on the other side of the argument, people had already started to limit the size of their families and Malthus did not take into account the rise of agricultural productivity. Ester Boserup Did not think about the growing use of contraception James Boswell English writer did. The three-field crop rotation system Agricultural growth which had been steady until the 14th century slowed down until the mid-15th century due to the Black Death but once the population began to grow the plots that had been abandoned were ploughed once more. The three field system left about a third of the land fallow (unplanted) to make sure it could replenish its fertility during growing season increasing agricultural yields This method was used in bigger plots, and this method was also an example of how farming techniques and tools improved during the 15th century. This method remained the same until the 19th century which shows its significance in modern European history. Industrialisation Took place in the first half of the 19th century

By definition is the social and economic ch+ange that transforms a society from an agrarian one to an industrial one. Society changed from rural or urban, workers moved to cities (urbanization) where money was made from manufacturing The reason that this time period was seen as a revolution was due to the developments made in this time, especially in manufacturing which allowed quicker + cheaper ways of manufacturing. There were also more efficient ways of doing things (e.g. steam engine) using new methods and materials This and gains made from imperialism led to Britain becoming the most advanced nation in the world There are two major schools of thought in this field; one is that by increasing employment and lowering prices of goods = immediately improved the way ordinary people lived. And the other is that industrial capitalism was making living conditions worse for workers due to the no. of people depending on wage labour increasing faster than job possibilities and pay. The Congress of Vienna 1814-1815 After Napoleons defeat, the Third Alliance countries came together to re-establish peace in Europe in the hope that by forcing a treaty upon France they could prevent Europe from having a revolution in France/elsewhere Britain got Nepal Russia got given Poland Prussia got Italian peninsula The countries making this treaty held quite conservative values, hence the Congress represented a conservative standing against liberalism (which implied the absence of government constraints that could interfere with the individual), nationalism and so forth. They made ethnic and national reforms in the name of popular sovereignty for example creating strong Border States (e.g. the Netherlands). Back to the old ways monarchy resorted, Pope = more power Concert of Europe meetings in future, talk about issues The significance of this was that the members of this treaty signed an agreement which enforced a collective security system that would prevent anyone ever from building such a large European empire. Prince Klemens von Metternich First an Austrian ambassador He was known for his great power of observation and agreeable manner; he rose to power through the series of conflicts between Austria and France. He was even sent by the Austrian emperor to

represent Austria and face Napoleons threats and ambitious plans where he was made a prisoner was war in 1809 during the Great War between Austria and France. He was made a Prince due to how he diplomatically dealt with Napoleon when Austrias empire was greatly reduced in size, and did not give in to Napoleons wills and instead went to war with France. He was known was being one of the best diplomats of his times, especially at the congress of Vienna where he ensured peace and preserved harmony. He was the leading statesman of Europe due to how he solved difficult issues like ones of German and Italian affairs. However his downfall was his support of autocracy when the general political development in Europe was towards democracy. The Great Reform Act 1867 Compared to the first voting reform act in 1832, this reform act had more of an impact due to the fact that in 1832 members of the parliament were reluctant to make extreme changes because of opposition. The growing no. of middle-class voters wanted to end imbalanced aristocratic influence in politics hence supported the suffrage Gladstone, liberal leader, knew that the great social forces were for increasing the suffrage however he only wanted artisans and skilled workers to be allowed the vote but not all males, hence freedom in moderation. The conservatives feared that this would lead the liberals to gain more support therefore the leader of the party, Disraeli proposed that the vote be given to each head of a household which doubled the number of eligible voters in Britain. This however still left Britain short of universal male suffrage The significance of this was the impact it reformed voting rights as the working class majority were given more rights but on the other hand women were still not included in this bill. Official nationalism
Official nationalism is promoted through federal and state governments, via legalized social policies promoted into law. Popular nationalism however is promoted informally by members of the state through common interests and is not part of formalized processes. This was the popular form of nationalism in the 19 century. Because nationalism in itself was so popular during this time period, it meant that the empires in this era had to convert to nationalism due to the threat of popular nationalism. This was significant because nationalism did not bode well with the imperialism which some of these empires (e.g. Russia, Britain, Japan) followed. This led to the destruction of polyglot (Multilanguage) empires like Russia or rendered the monarchy virtually useless (like with Britain and Japan).
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Giuseppe Garibaldi