How Professional Sports Franchises Use Social Media To Increase Fan Identification

Running heau: FRANCBISES 0SE S0CIAL NEBIA T0 B00ST FAN IBENTIFACTI0N
Bow Spoits Fianchises 0se Social Neuia to Boost Fan Iuentification

Stephen App
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about.mestephenapp
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FRANCBISES 0SE S0CIAL NEBIA T0 B00ST FAN IBENTIFACTI0N

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Abstiact
Fan iuentification - an acauemic concept iooteu in social iuentity theoiy - has been wiuely
stuuieu since the 199us. Bowevei, ieseaich on the concept has been slow to evolve with
new technology anu meuia platfoims available to fans following theii favoiite teams. With
this in minu, a stuuy was conuucteu to iuentify potential ieseaich topics foi fan
iuentification ieseaicheis. Twelve telephone inteiviews weie conuucteu with piofessional
spoit fianchise social meuia maiketeis acioss the countiy fiom Najoi League Baseball
(NLB), the National Bockey League (NBL), anu the National Football League (NFL). Spoit
maiketeis weie askeu how awaie they weie about the concept of fan iuentification, what
stiategies they hau foi engaging fans on social meuia anu the social meuia tactics they useu
to caiiy out theii iespective stiategies. 0veiall, spoit maiketeis iepoiteu low levels of
awaieness about the concept of fan iuentification, social meuia stiategies that uiffeieu by
social netwoik, anu a vaiiety of social meuia tactics useu to caiiy out each stiategy,
incluuing social meuia loyalty piogiams, a focus on using images, tangible social meuia
spaces, anu playei Q&A sessions. Futuie fan iuentification ieseaich topics,
iecommenuations foi acauemic ieseaicheis, anu implications foi othei spoit social meuia
maiketeis aie incluueu.
!"#$%&'() Fan Iuentification, Social Neuia, Social Iuentity Theoiy


S
"#$%& '( )'*+&*+,

Intiouuction
Puipose of Stuuy
Significance of Stuuy
Theoietical Fiamewoik
Liteiatuie Review
Fan Iuentification
Consequences of Fan Iuentification
Anteceuents of Fan Iuentification
Reseaich Questions
Nethou
Finuings
Awaieness of Concept
Fianchise 0se of Social Neuia
Level of Success
Implications
Conclusion
Refeiences


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0n the fiist seiies of a Sunuay Night Football game against the San Fiancisco 49eis in
0ctobei 2u1S, Bouston Texans quaiteiback Natt Schaub uioppeu back to pass. Schaub
intenueu to thiow the football to his wiue ieceivei, Anuie }ohnson. 0nfoitunately, it was
completeu to Tiemaine Biock of the 49eis, who piomptly ietuineu the inteiception foi a
49eis touchuown. It was the fiist of thiee inteiceptions Schaub thiew that game, a 27-7
Texans loss, anu the fouith stiaight game in which he thiew an inteiception that was
ietuineu foi a touchuown, the fiist time that hau happeneu in National Football League
(NFL) histoiy (ESPN, 2u1S). Latei that week, Schaub calleu team secuiity anu the NFL aftei
he iepoiteu multiple fans uiiving by his house anu invauing his piivacy. Repoits claimeu
that fans paikeu in his uiiveway anu yelleu expletives at the beleagueieu quaiteiback
(Bavis, 2u1S).
What is it that makes some spoits fans so emotional, loyal, anu occasionally vulgai in
the name of a game. Why aie some fans content to sit anu calmly watch a spoiting event
while otheis stanu, clap, anu yell with painteu faces anu baie chests that spell the team
name. The answei, accoiuing to acauemic ieseaich, may veiy well be the concept of fan
iuentification.
ueneially, fan iuentification is the level that a fan feels a psychological connection to a
team oi spoit (Bietz-0hlei & Lantei, 2uu8). It has also been uefineu as the level of peisonal
commitment anu emotional involvement a fan has with a team (Sutton, NcBonalu, Nilne, &
Cimpeiman, 1997). Fan iuentification, which has its ioots in social iuentity theoiy, is a
iesult of seveial potential psychological, enviionmental, anu team-ielateu factois, anu has
been linkeu with seveial elements of consumei behavioi, such as buying team appaiel anu

S
game uay tickets. Simply put, the moie a fan iuentifies with a team, the moie time anu
money a fan is likely to spenu on that iespective team.
In iecent yeais, many of these highly iuentifieu spoits fans have tuineu to social meuia
to follow theii favoiite spoits fianchise. Social meuia is omnipiesent in populai society
touay, anu especially among spoits fans. The peicentage of auults using social meuia has
iisen fiom 8% in 2uuS to 72% in 2u1S (0lenski, 2u1S), while a stuuy by eNaiketei listeu
17S billion social meuia useis in 2u1S, an inciease of 26 billion fiom 2u12 (Bennett, 2u1S).
Piofessional spoits fianchises have capitalizeu on this populaiity. NFL fianchises have a
combineu 6u million Facebook anu Twittei followeis, anu many piofessional spoit
fianchises in the 0S anu Euiope boast ovei one million social meuia followeis (Foibes,
2u1S). Among spoits fans following theii favoiite teams on social meuia, most have useu
Facebook to keep up with theii favoiite teams (Bioughton, 2u11). Nany of these fans aie
finuing that following theii favoiite team on social meuia has incieaseu theii level of fan
iuentification. Inueeu, a suivey in the SpoitsBusiness }ouinal founu that Najoi League
Baseball (NLB) anu NFL fans following theii favoiite teams on social meuia claimeu to be
moie uevoteu fans than befoie they followeu the iespective teams on social meuia
(Bioughton, 2u1u).
Neanwhile, spoiting events like Spain's 2u12 Euiopean Cup title anu Anuy Nuiiay's
2u1S Wimbleuon championship aie two of the most tweeteu events in histoiy, ianking
alongsiue woilu events like Piesiuent Baiiack 0bama's ie-election anu the election of Pope
Fiancis (0SAT0BAY, 2u1S).
Consiueiing the populaiity of social meuia among spoit fans, fianchises have tuineu
to social netwoiks foi incieasing iuentification levels among its iespective fans. These

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fianchises use social meuia to offei fans behinu-the-scenes imageiy, inciease inteiaction
with stai playeis, anu facilitate game uay expeiiences that unite fans with fellow
suppoiteis anu the team. Nany teams utilize multiple social netwoiks in this quest,
incluuing Facebook, Twittei, anu Instagiam. While each spoit maiketei's goal on social
meuia may be similai - incieasing fan iuentification - the tactics useu to ieach theii
iespective goals vaiy. To gain an unueistanuing of these vaiious tactics, the authoi
inteivieweu 12 spoit social meuia maiketeis acioss the countiy, investigating the uiffeient
stiategies anu tactics useu to inciease fan iuentification on social meuia.
30.4',& '( 5+0/6
This stuuy has thiee puiposes: (1) to uiscovei how well the acauemic concept of fan
iuentification has peimeateu the spoits maiketing inuustiy, (2) to lay the giounuwoik foi
futuie acauemic ieseaich on fan iuentification, anu (S) to seive as a piactical guiuebook foi
spoit social meuia maiketeis looking to uiscovei best piactices anu social meuia
inspiiation.
Fiistly, by inteiviewing spoit maiketeis about the concept of fan iuentification, the
authoi seeks to uiscovei how well the acauemic concept of fan iuentification is known
among spoit maiketeis. Aie spoit maiketeis awaie of the concept. Aie they tailoiing theii
social meuia content to fans in ways that have been empiiically shown to inciease the
iuentification level of fans. By leaining how much is known about fan iuentification, the
authoi can bettei concluue to which level acauemic ieseaich is being shaieu in the inuustiy
to which its conclusions apply.
Seconuly, this stuuy seeks to lay the giounuwoik foi futuie ieseaich on fan
iuentification. Inteiviewing spoit maiketeis about the social meuia tactics they use to builu

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fan iuentification will pioviue futuie ieseaich topics foi acauemic inteiest. Foi example, uo
social meuia maiketeis finu that fans on a paiticulai social netwoik engage with the team
moie than on othei netwoiks. Aie social meuia loyalty piogiams an effective way to builu
loyal fans. Bo behinu-the-scenes images of playeis builu fan iuentification bettei than
othei types of images oi text only status upuates. Acauemic ieseaich on fan iuentification
has begun to question the iole Inteinet activity has on fan iuentification. This papei seeks
to inciease acauemic inteiest on social meuia activity as ieseaich piogiesses.
Finally, this stuuy seeks to seive as a piactical guiuebook foi spoit maiketeis. Fan
iuentification has been wiuely ieseaicheu foi seveial yeais, anu the uptick in social meuia's
populaiity in spoits has spuiieu an inciease in acauemic inteiest as well. These stuuies
often incluue iamifications foi spoit maiketeis in theii conclusion, but to uate, no
ieseaichei has maue spoit maiketeis the main subject of theii stuuy. Auuitionally,
pievious ieseaich has laigely useu questionnaiies anu college stuuents as the piimaiy
ieseaich instiument anu subjects, iespectively. These quantitative stuuies offei limiteu
backgiounu infoimation on the conclusions that aie maue. 0sing inteiviews will be ciitical
to uncoveiing uetaileu insights into the thinking of spoit maiketeis as well as why ceitain
stiategies woik oi uon't woik, anu combining that inteiview uata fiom seveial spoit
fianchises into a single publication will iesult in a useful infoimation souice foi othei spoit
maiketeis looking to inciease fan iuentification foi theii iespective fianchises using social
meuia.


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527*2(21#*1& '( 5+0/6
This stuuy is significant in that it iepiesents, in many ways, the fiist oi eaily
ieseaich in thiee aieas. These incluue the ieseaich methou, the ieseaich subject, anu the
topic itself.
Fiist, this stuuy is significant in that it piesents acauemic ieseaich on fan
iuentification that is qualitative in natuie. Since ieseaich began on fan iuentification, a laige
majoiity of this ieseaich has been quantitative. Questionnaiies anu suiveys in paiticulai
have been a populai ieseaich tool, useu in ieseaich on potential motives of fan
iuentification (Fink, Tiail, & Anueison, 2u12; Wann, Tuckei, & Schiauei, 1996; Clippeit,
2u1u; Theouoiakis, Wann, & Weavei, 2u12), fan iuentification anu BIRuing anu C0RFing
(Wann, & Bianscombe, 199u), fan iuentification's impact on the intention to attenu futuie
games (Natsuoka, Chellauuiai, & Baiaua, 2uuS; Wakefielu, 199S), on-fielu success anu its
impact on fan iuentification (Fishei & Wakefielu, 1998), fan iuentification anu its iole in the
puichase of fianchise meichanuise (Kwon & Aimstiong, 2uu6), fan iuentification foimation
in miu-level piofessional spoit (uieenwoou, Kanteis, & Caspei, 2uu6), the ielationship
between meuia use anu fan iuentification (Phua, 2u1u), fan iuentification anu its iole in
fans' intentions to puichase sponsoieu piouucts (Nauiigal, 2uuu), fan iuentification anu
the neeu to belong (Theouoiakis, Wann, Nassis, & Luellen 2u12), anu the iole of similaiity
anu attiactiveness in fan iuentification with a favoiite spoits team (Fishei, 1998). This is in
staik contiast to the use of qualitative ieseaich, anu specifically inteiviews, which have
only been useu in one stuuy examining the uevelopment of fan iuentification (Lock, Tayloi,
Funk, & Baicy, 2u12). Conuucting qualitative ieseaich, anu inteiviews specifically, offeis an

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oppoitunity to ask moie flexible, open-enueu questions that elicit moie complete answeis
than is possible with closeu-enueu suivey oi questionnaiie ieseaich (Singleton, 2uuS).
Seconuly, this ieseaich on fan iuentification will be the fiist time that spoit social
meuia maiketeis, iathei than fans, aie the subject of ieseaich. To uate, fan iuentification
ieseaich has laigely focuseu on college-ageu spoits fans anu fans attenuing spoiting
events. 0nueigiauuate college stuuents specifically have been heavily ieseaicheu,
incluuing stuuies on the iole of similaiity anu attiactiveness in fan iuentification with a
favoiite spoits team (Fishei, 1998), fan iuentification anu the neeu to belong (Theouoiakis
et al., 2u12), the ielationship between meuia use anu fan iuentification (Phua, 2u1u),
potential motives of fan iuentification (Wann, et al., 1996; Clippeit, 2u1u; Theouoiakis, et
al., 2u12), fan iuentification anu its iole in the puichase of fianchise meichanuise (Kwon &
Aimstiong, 2uu6), anu fan iuentification anu BIRuing anu C0RFing (Wann, & Bianscombe,
199u).
By focusing on spoit maiketeis, iathei than fans, this stuuy will offei ieaueis a
behinu-the-scenes look into how spoit maiketeis aie appioaching social meuia with the
goal of incieasing iuentification among fans.
Finally, this stuuy iepiesents some of the fiist ieseaich on fan iuentification using
social meuia as a piimaiy meuia platfoim. As technology has impioveu, acauemic ieseaich
has piogiesseu to investigate with changing meuia platfoims. In 2u1u, Phua lookeu at fan
iuentification anu meuia use by fans, which incluueu newspapei use, television use, anu
online use. In 2u12, Lock et al. examineu the uevelopment of fan iuentification foi a new
piofessional team, anu founu that fans uevelopeu incieaseu levels of iuentification with the
team as they seaicheu foi news anu meuia on the team. Also in 2u12, Noyei examineu the

1u
impact following a piofessional baseball team on Facebook hau on levels of team
iuentification.
Asiue fiom Noyei's ieseaich on Facebook anu team iuentification, little acauemic
ieseaich has examineu social meuia as a piimaiy meuia platfoim. Examining social meuia
is ciucial when examining fan iuentification uue to the impiessive numbeis in which fans
follow theii favoiite spoits teams. By examining the way piofessional spoits fianchises use
social meuia, this stuuy will fill a gap in ieseaich anu pioviue aieas of social meuia activity
that aie fiuitful foi futuie acauemic ieseaich on fan iuentification.
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The concept of fan iuentification is iooteu in social iuentity theoiy, a concept laigely
influenceu by Benii Tajfel. Social iuentity is a pait of an inuiviuual's self-concept (Tajfel,
1978). It is the piouuct of an inuiviuual's acceptance of membeiship in a paiticulai social
gioup, combineu with that inuiviuual's inteinal value of that iespective gioup. It is
impossible foi inuiviuuals, accoiuing to Tajfel (1982), to foim self-iuentities that uo not
incluue oi aie not the iesult of gioup membeiship.
An inuiviuual giavitates towaiu a social gioup in pait uue to the uesiie to achieve a
satisfactoiy concept oi image of him- oi heiself (Tajfel, 1974). Tajfel (1974) uefineu a
gioup as an entity that is meaningful to an inuiviuual at some point in time anu is maue up
of face-to-face ielationships between multiple people. Iuentification with a gioup occuis
when the gioup's inteiests, beliefs, anu attituues align with those of an inuiviuual. These
gioups can be oiganizational gioups, age cohoits, ieligious gioups, oi, as will be exploieu
in this papei, fans of a paiticulai spoits team.

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It is thiough gioup membeiship that inuiviuuals inteinalize the values anu beliefs of the
iespective gioup as theii own, which cieates a shaieu social iuentity (Tajfel & Tuinei,
1986). This is especially tiue of those who highly iuentify with a social gioup. These highly
iuentifieu inuiviuuals accept the gioup's noims, values, anu goals. As a iesult, inuiviuuals
behave in ways that ieinfoice theii membeiship to theii iespective gioup (Nauiigal, 2uuu).
Since a laige pait of an inuiviuual's peiceiveu social iuentity is a iesult of gioup
membeiship, ceitain claims about gioup membeiship can be maue. Fiistly, an inuiviuual
will iemain a membei of a social gioup as long as membeiship in that gioup positively
contiibutes to an inuiviuual's social iuentity. Seconuly, once membeiship in a social gioup
fails to positively impact an inuiviuual's social iuentity, an inuiviuual will leave the social
gioup assuming that leaving the gioup is not an act in itself that woulu conflict with the
values of the gioup oi inuiviuual's iuentity. If leaving the gioup is not feasible, an inuiviuual
will ieinteipiet the aspects of the gioup that negatively impact the inuiviuual's social
iuentity to make them acceptable oi justifiable. Thiiuly, gioup membeiship, anu it's
peiceiveu effect on an inuiviuual's social iuentity, is only possible uue to the existence of,
anu compaiison to, othei existing social gioups of which an inuiviuual is not a membei of
(Tajfel, 1974; Tajfel & Tuinei, 1986).
The level of uifficulty in leaving oi changing social gioups can be uefineu in teims of
social mobility anu social change (Tajfel, 1974). Social mobility occuis when an inuiviuual
is easily able to move fiom one social gioup to anothei when the values anu peiception of
one gioup no longei satisfy an inuiviuual's social iuentity neeus. Social change, on the othei
hanu, occuis when the ielationship between two oi moie gioups change oi when changes
aie expecteu, feaieu, oi uesiieu. In this instance, an inuiviuual uoes not change social

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gioups, but iathei comes to teims with the changes of theii iespective gioup anu those
changes' effect on the inuiviuual's social iuentity.
A social gioup is continuously peiceiveu as being eithei supeiioi oi infeiioi to anothei
social gioup. Auuitionally, anu simultaneously, the conuitions that aie conuucive to leaving
a social gioup vaiy in uegiee. It is these two factois combineu that leau an inuiviuual to
eithei leave the gioup oi accept the change in gioup supeiioiity oi infeiioiity (Tajfel,
1974).
0ften, the conuitions that aie conuucive to leaving a social gioup aie maue up of the
values that a gioup iepiesents oi possesses. If these values align with those of the
inuiviuuals that aie membeis of the gioup, the conuitions conuucive to leaving a gioup aie
low anu gioup membeis will stay with the gioup uespite the gioup's potential status as
infeiioi to othei similai social gioups.
Foi eveiy social gioup then, it is ciucial to maintain an element of supeiioiity ovei
othei similai social gioups oi limit the conuitions that woulu likely leau to membeis
leaving the gioup foi a competing social gioup. Failuie to meet both of these conuitions
coulu leau to inuiviuuals leaving the social gioup foi anothei social gioup that will moie
positively impact the inuiviuuals social iuentity, potentially leauing to the uisintegiation of
the social gioup entiiely.
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9#* -/&*+2(21#+2'*
Fan iuentification in spoits has been stuuieu extensively since the 199us (uieenwoou &
Caspei, 2uu6; Fishei, 1998; Fishei & Wakefielu, 1998; Kwon & Aimstiong, 2uu6; Lock,
Tayloi, Funk, & Baicy, 2u12; Nauiigal, 2uuu; Natsuoka, Chellauuiai, & Baiaua, 2uuS; Phua,

1S
2u1u; Theouoiakis, Wann, Nassis, & Luellen, 2u12; Theouoiakis, Wann, & Weavei, 2u12;
Wakefielu, 199S; Sutton et al., 1997). In a geneial sense, fan iuentification iefeis to the level
that a fan feels a psychological connection to a team oi spoit (Bietz-0hlei & Lantei, 2uu8).
The concept of fan iuentification is what uiffeientiates "uie-haiu" fans fiom "faii-
weathei" fans (Wann & Bianscombe, 199u). Faii-weathei fans associate with a spoits team
uuiing peiious of success only, while uie-haiu fans, those who highly iuentify with a
paiticulai spoits team, will show allegiance foi a team uuiing goou times anu bau.
Sutton et al. (1997) iuentifieu thiee levels of fan iuentification. At the lowest level aie
social fans. These fans aie laigely fans of a spoit iathei than a paiticulai team, anu aie
vesteu moie in the enteitainment value of the competition than the outcome of the game.
They have low levels of emotional anu financial commitment to a paiticulai team. The
seconu level of fan iuentification incluues focuseu fans. These fans iuentify with a paiticulai
team uue to a ceitain combination of attiibutes that the iespective team possesses. These
fans often possess high levels of emotional anu financial commitment to the team, but often
foi shoit peiious of time that coiielate with on-fielu success. The thiiu anu highest level of
fan iuentification iefeis to vesteu fans. These fans have a stiong emotional anu financial
commitment to the team that exists on a long-teim basis. Foi these highly iuentifieu fans,
the team anu its activities take on a laigei iole in a fan's sense of iuentity.
As inuiviuuals peiceive themselves to be a highly iuentifieu fan, he oi she incoipoiates
that status into his oi hei social iuentity (Nauiigal, 2uuu). These loyal, highly iuentifieu
spoits fans view theii iespective favoiite team as an extension of theii own self-iuentity,
anu peisonally feel the successes anu failuies of the gioup (Fishei, 1998).

14
These vesteu fans feel like games aie a matchup of "us veisus them." They bask in the
gloiy of victoiy anu suffei the agony of uefeat as if it weie theii own win oi loss (Phua,
2u1u). As iuentification becomes moie uevelopeu anu impoitant to a fan, it manifests itself
in uay-to-uay behaviois (Lock et al. 2u12).
Reseaicheis have thiee main ways to measuie fan iuentification. These incluue the
Psychological Commitment to Team (PCT) scale, the Connection to Team Scale (CTS), anu
then Spoit Spectatoi Iuentification Scale (SSIS). All thiee methous have uocumenteu
ieliability anu valiuity, although the SSIS scale, uevelopeu by Wann anu Bianscombe
(199S), is the most useu scale in stuuies (Wann, 2uu6).
Reseaicheis have geneially come to two impoitant conclusions iegaiuing fan
iuentification: (1) levels of fan iuentification aie a somewhat stable constiuct, anu (2) the
levels of fan iuentification aie not iesistant to change (Wann, 2uu6). This seconu point -
the iuea that fan iuentification levels aie mouifiable - is what keeps spoit maiketeis
inteiesteu in the concept anu uiligent in cieating stiategies to inciease iuentification levels.
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ueneially, the consequences of fan iuentification can be bioken uown into thiee
sections: affective iesponses, behavioial iesponses, anu psychological well-being. 0ne
consequence of fan iuentification that appeais to be piesent acioss all thiee categoiies is
that highly iuentifieu fans have moie intense iesponses to spoit than theii lessei-iuentifieu
counteipaits (Wann, 2uu6).
Bighly iuentifieu fans possess a gieatei wealth of knowleuge than weakly iuentifieu
fans on spoits in geneial, anu moie knowleuge about a fan's favoiite spoits team in
paiticulai (Bietz-0hlei & Lantei, 2uu8).

1S
These highly iuentifieu fans aie moie likely to BIRu (bask in ieflecteu gloiy) anu C0RF
(cutting off ieflecteu failuie) than weakly iuentifieu fans (Wann & Bianscombe, 199u). In
the act of BIRuing, highly iuentifieu fans aie quick to attiibute a team's victoiy to skill,
while when C0RFing aftei a team's uefeat, a highly iuentifieu fan is moie likely to attiibute
the loss to factois outsiue the team's contiol. These outsiue factois may be a biaseu iefeiee,
bau weathei, oi simply a mattei of luck. Both BIRuing anu C0RFing seive to piotect a fan's
ego anu positive social iuentity that has been manifesteu fiom theii associateu with a
paiticulai team.
Bighly iuentifieu spoits fans have been founu to be moie emotional aftei spoiting
events. These highly iuentifieu fans aie happiei anu moie satisfieu aftei team wins (Wann,
Royalty, & Rochelle, 2uu2; Nauiigal, 199S; Wann & Schiauei 1997), anu angiiei, iathei
than sauuei, aftei a loss (Ciisp, Beuston, Faii, & Tuinei, 2uu7). Bighly iuentifieu fans have
also been founu to be moie aggiessive in natuie. Wann, Peteison, Cothian, & Bykes (1999)
founu a positive coiielation between highly iuentifieu fans anu aggiession, while Wann,
Shelton, Smith, & Walkei (2uu2) founu a similai ielationship in male spoits fans only.
Noie impoitantly to spoit maiketeis, highly iuentifieu fans aie moie likely to invest
time anu money on behalf of theii favoiite team. These fans aie moie likely to buy anu
weai team-licenseu piouucts (Fishei, 1998; Fishei & Wakefielu, 1998; Wann &
Bianscombe, 199S, Kwon & Anueison, 2uu6), watch games on television (Phua, 2u1u),
inteiact with the team online (Phua, 2u1u), attenu home anu away games uespite the
team's level of on-fielu success (Sutton et el., 1997; Fishei & Wakefielu, 1998; Shuii et al.
1998; Fink, Tiail, & Anueison, 2uu2), spenu moie money on obtain those tickets (Sutton et
al., 1997; Fink et al., 2uu2), anu buy a team sponsoi's piouuct (Nauiigal, 2uuu; Kwon &

16
Aimstiong, 2uu6). 0n the mattei of game attenuance, iuentification levels may be the most
poweiful factoi in ueciuing whethei oi not to attenu a game, ovei such factois as seeing a
stai playei oi taking auvantage of a special piomotion (Wann, 2uu6).
A*+&1&/&*+, '( 9#* -/&*+2(21#+2'*
While the consequences of fan iuentification offei positive news to spoit maiketeis, the
potential anteceuents of fan iuentification cieate a pioblem. As Theouoiakis et al. (2u12)
note, many of the anteceuents linkeu to the uevelopment of fan iuentification aie out of
maiketeis' contiol. Foi example, the most fiequently listeu ieasons foi iuentifying with a
team in a 1996 stuuy by Wann et al. weie (1) paients followeu that team, (2)
chaiacteiistics of the playeis, (S) geogiaphical ieasons, (4) fiienus followeu the team, anu
(S) team success.
Sutton et al. (1997) cieateu foui gioups of anteceuents that weie unuei manageiial
contiol. These incluueu (1) team chaiacteiistics, such as on-fielu success; (2)
oiganizational chaiacteiistics, such as a long-teim commitment to winning anu tiauition;
(S) affiliation chaiacteiistics, such as community involvement; anu (4) activity
chaiacteiistics, which is an incieaseu exposuie to meuia coveiage about the team. Like the
anteceuents submitteu by Wann et al. in 1996, these anteceuents, sans activity
chaiacteiistics, aie out of a maiketing managei's contiol.
In a 2uu6 aiticle, Wann gioupeu the anteceuents of fan iuentification into thiee
categoiies: psychological, enviionmental, anu team-ielateu. Baving fiienus anu family that
followeu a paiticulai team, as well as geogiaphical location of the team, weie placeu into
the enviionmental gioup. Chaiacteiistics of the playeis anu team success weie incluueu in
the team-ielateu gioup of anteceuents. Psychological ieasons foi iuentifying with a team

17
incluueu wanting to feel like a pait of a uistinctive gioup anu wanting to feel a sense of
unity anu cohesion with otheis.
Reseaich has inuicateu that playei chaiacteiistics may only mattei foi fans iooting foi
unsuccessful teams. In a stuuy on piofessional hockey fans, Fishei anu Wakefielu (1998)
founu that team peifoimance only impacteu fan iuentification among fans following
successful teams. Foi fans of teams that weie not peifoiming well on the ice, othei factois,
such as playei chaiacteiistics, weie moie likely to impact fan iuentification.
Two common types of playei chaiacteiistics stuuieu incluue playei attiactiveness anu
peiceiveu similaiity between a playei anu fan. ueneially, ieseaich has founu that it is the
peiceiveu similaiity between a specific playei on a team anu an inuiviuual that builus fan
iuentification moie than playei attiactiveness. (Fishei, 1998; Lock et al. 2u12).
In a stuuy in 2uuu, Tiail, Fink, anu Anueison iuentifieu nine potential motives foi high
levels of fan iuentification baseu on social anu psychological neeus. These weie vicaiious
achievement, aesthetics, uiama, escape, family, acquisition oi knowleuge, appieciation of
physical skills of the athletes, social inteiaction, anu physical attiaction to the athletes.
In a 2uu2 follow-up stuuy, Fink, Tiail, anu Anueison testeu the influence of each above
motives anu founu that while each motive, with the exception of family, was highly
coiielateu with fan iuentification, the motive of vicaiious achievement was the piimaiy
inuicatoi.
Recent ieseaich has founu that meuia use, especially of the online vaiiety, may have a
laige impact on fan iuentification. As Phua (2u1u) wiites, online activity allows spoits fan
to bonu with othei fans. This online inteiaction ieinfoices in-gioup membeiship by acting
like a socializing agent anu ieaffiims a positive social iuentity. Lock et al. (2u12) founu that

18
fans who seaicheu foi news anu meuia about theii favoiite Austialian soccei team
uevelopeu highei levels of iuentification foi that team. Similaily, Noyei (2u12) founu that
fans following a piofessional baseball on Facebook iepoiteu highei levels of team
iuentification than fans not following the team on Facebook, although uiiectionality coulu
not be claimeu.
Sutton et al. (1997) submitteu foui stiategies foi incieasing levels of fan iuentification.
These incluueu (1) incieasing teamplayei accessibility to the public, (2) incieasing
community involvement activities, (S) ieinfoicing the team's histoiy anu tiauition, anu (4)
cieating oppoitunities foi gioup affiliation anu paiticipation.
>&,&#.18 B0&,+2'*,
This stuuy seeks to gain insight fiom spoit maiketeis about thiee aieas: (1) how awaie
team maiketeis aie about fan iuentification, (2) how spoit social meuia maiketeis use
social meuia to inciease fan iuentification, anu (S) how successful those iespective social
meuia tactics aie in incieasing fan iuentification.
Regaiuing fan iuentification, this stuuy seeks to exploie what iole fan iuentification
plays in spoit maiketeis' social meuia stiategies anu tactics. Theiefoie, two ieseaich
questions weie foimeu.
+,-) .%$ /$/&" /&" (0%&1 2/&3"1"&( /4%51 16" 7%87"01 %9 9/8 :'"81:9:7/1:%8;
+,<) .%$ '%"( 16" 7%87"01 %9 9/8 :'"81:9:7/1:%8 0=/# /8 /71:>" &%=" :8 (0%&1 2/&3"1"&(? (%7:/=
2"':/ /71:>:1#;
Regaiuing social meuia use, this stuuy seeks to uiscovei the specific stiategies anu
tactics spoit maiketeis use on social meuia to inciease fan iuentification. Theiefoie, the
following ieseaich questions weie foimeu.

19
+,@) A6/1 (1&/1"B# %& (1&/1"B:"( '% (0%&1 2/&3"1"&( 6/>" %8 (%7:/= 2"':/;
+,C) A6/1 1/71:7( 6/>" (0%&1 2/&3"1"&( 5("' 1% 7/&&# %51 16"(" (1&/1"B:"(;
Regaiuing the level of success spoit maiketeis have in incieasing fan iuentification
using social meuia, this stuuy seeks to specifically leain about the vaiying levels of success
ceitain tactics have anu how spoit maiketeis aie ueteimining those levels of success.
Theiefoie, the following ieseaich questions weie foimeu.
+,D) A6/1 (%7:/= 2"':/ 1/71:7( 1#0:7/==# &"(5=1 :8 2%&" 9/>%&/4=" &"(0%8("( 9&%2 9/8( %9 16"
(0%&1 2/&3"1"&(? &"(0"71:>" 9&/876:("(;
+,E) .%$ /&" (0%&1 2/&3"1"&( 2"/(5&:8B 16" (577"(( %9 16":& >/&:%5( (%7:/= 2"':/ 1/71:7( :8
:87&"/(:8B 9/8 :'"81:9:7/1:%8;
C&+8'/
Qualitative one-on-one inteiviews weie conuucteu with 12 Ameiican piofessional spoit
fianchises. Fianchises weie chosen to iepiesent a collectively balanceu sample of social
meuia activity. Fianchises weie chosen because they (1) hau conuucteu new anu
innovative social meuia maiketing tactics that hau ieceiveu attention among maiketing anu
spoits meuia piofessionals, (2) weie baseu in uiffeient aieas of the countiy, (S) playeu in
eithei the National Bockey League (NBL), Najoi League Baseball (NLB), oi the National
Football League (NFL) - populai piofessional spoits leagues in the 0S - anu (4) weie
fianchises that collectively iepiesenteu a mix of winning anu losing fianchises. Social
meuia use by fianchises in the National Basketball Association (NBA) was iecently
examineu by Ahmau (2u12) anu was theiefoie not incluueu in this stuuy.
Fianchises weie contacteu thiough a vaiiety of methous. Foi teams of which the social
meuia managei was known, a tweet was sent on Twittei to the inuiviuual with a iequest to

2u
paiticipate in the stuuy. If neeueu, follow up tweets weie sent to the usei. In some cases,
the social meuia maiketei woulu iesponu back anu uecline paiticipation. In this instance,
the fianchise was iemoveu fiom a list of potential inteiviews, anu a new fianchise,
exhibiting similai attiibutes, was chosen. Five inteiviews weie scheuuleu using this
methouology. Five fianchises weie initially contacteu using this methou anu uiu not
iesponu.
In the event that a iespective social meuia maiketei uiu not iesponu on Twittei, oi foi
fianchises of which the social meuia managei was not known, a uoogle seaich was uone
with the phiase "|Fianchise Team Namej Neuia Relations." Fiom this seaich, contact
infoimation foi a meuia ielations staff membei was obtaineu. An email was then sent to
each meuia ielations staff-membei with a iequest to contact the inuiviuual iesponsible foi
each team's social meuia piesence.
Emails weie then sent to each social meuia spoit maiketei iequesting paiticipation in
the stuuy. If no iesponse was ieceiveu within a week, a follow up email was sent. If theie
was no iesponse aftei a seconu email, oi if a iespective social meuia maiketei iesponueu
anu ueclineu to be inteivieweu, the fianchise was iemoveu fiom the list of potential
inteiviews anu was ieplaceu by a new fianchise with similai attiibutes. This methouology
iesulteu in thiee inteiviews. Foui fianchises iesponueu to email but ueclineu to be
inteivieweu.
Finally, fianchise suggestions weie iequesteu thiough Twittei. 0nce suggestions weie
ieceiveu, tweets weie sent to the iespective fianchises with iequests to scheuule
inteiviews. Foui inteiviews weie scheuuleu using this methouology. 0ne fianchise
iesponueu on Twittei, but was unable to giant an inteiview.

21
Inteiviews weie scheuuleu via email oi Twittei. Inteiviews weie conuucteu on Skype
oi telephone, anu lasteu ioughly Su-4u minutes. Each inteiview was iecoiueu anu latei
tiansciibeu. Paiticipants weie not compensateu foi theii time.
92*/2*7,
0f the 12 Ameiican piofessional spoit maiketeis that took pait in inteiviews, five weie
fiom NLB, foui weie fiom the NFL, anu thiee weie fiom the NBL. Nine paiticipants weie
male; thiee weie female. 0n aveiage, the maiketeis inteivieweu hau been involveu
piofessionally with social meuia foi 4.6 yeais, hau been woiking in the spoits inuustiy foi
7.9 yeais, anu hau been with theii cuiient spoits fianchise foi S.S6 yeais.
A;#.&*&,, '( )'*1&4+
Reseaich question one askeu how awaie spoit maiketeis weie about the concept of fan
iuentification. An oveiwhelming majoiity of spoit maiketeis inteivieweu weie not awaie
of the concept of fan iuentification oi weie awaie of the concept but weie not awaie that
the concept hau been uefineu as fan iuentification. Nultiple spoit maiketeis misunueistoou
the concept as a new phenomenon in spoits maiketing that ievolves aiounu iuentifying an
inuiviuual fan anu cieating customei piofiles that offei spoits teams the ability to tiack a
fan's puichases anu activity, enabling fianchises to offei each fan a customizeu fan
expeiience.
0ne maiketei, who believeu fan iuentification was a concept that hei fianchise was
awaie of but woulu not be able to uefine as fan iuentification, phiaseu it,
I uon't think that a lot of teams know about the paiticulai concept. It's an intiinsic
knowleuge foi teams. I think the name is veiy acauemic. Eveiy team wants to connect
theii team with fans. You want them to buy moie meichanuise, moie tickets, anu uislike

22
oui iivals. It's stuff that as a club is oui goal, but we uon't sit uown at a table anu talk
about fan iuentification (peisonal communication, Novembei 7, 2u1S).
While the levels of awaieness about fan iuentification vaiieu among those spoit
maiketeis inteivieweu, seveial weie accuiately able to iuentify some of the potential
anteceuents of fan iuentification. Some of the anteceuents iuentifieu in inteiviews incluueu
enviionmental factois such as what spoits teams one's family was a fan of as well as the
geogiaphical location of one's upbiinging; team-ielateu factois such as winning peicentage
anu team histoiy; anu psychological factois such as a fan's uesiie to be a pait of something
biggei than themselves.
Reseaich question two askeu how spoit maiketeis integiateu the concept of fan
iuentification into theii social meuia activity. Naiketeis laigely claimeu to not ieally think
about fan iuentification when using social meuia to connect with fans. As one iesponuent
saiu, "It uoes mattei to a uegiee, but it's moie about the content that fans aie iesponuing
too" (peisonal communication, Novembei 7, 2u1S). Nany spoit maiketeis focus on using
social meuia as a tool to make a uiiect anu emotional connection to fans. As one iesponuent
saiu, "We want to get them |fansj involveu anu make them feel like they aie a pait of the
team" (peisonal communication, Septembei 24, 2u1S). Nultiple iesponuents talkeu about
the impoitance of inteiacting with fans uiiectly on social meuia, because to fans, it wasn't a
peison iesponuing back. 0ne maiketei noteu, "They liteially think that this team that they
love is iesponuing to them anu acknowleuging that they exist" (peisonal communication,
0ctobei 16, 2u1S). "The fans uon't look at the team Twittei hanule as a social meuia team,"
saiu anothei iesponuent. "They look at it as the SS guys on the fielu anu the coaching staff"
(peisonal communication, Septembei 2S, 2u1S). 0ne maiketei summeu it up by saying,

2S
"We can't just be a megaphone. We neeu to be listening to eveiy tweet that comes back to
us so we can figuie out what oui fans want" (peisonal communication, 0ctobei 24, 2u1S).
9.#*182,& D,& '( 5'12#% C&/2#
Reseaich question thiee sought to uncovei the main stiategies spoit social meuia
maiketeis hau on social meuia, anu whethei teams utilizeu a single ovei-aiching stiategy
oi multiple stiategies that vaiieu by social netwoik. Responses vaiieu, although most
fianchises iesponueu that they employ one high-level social meuia objective anu then vaiy
the stiategies useu to accomplish that objective by netwoik. "We uon't post one thing anu
blanket it acioss all platfoims," saiu one iesponuent. "We like to use each platfoim foi it's
maximum benefit" (peisonal communication, Novembei 7, 2u1S).
"We have one high-level stiategic outlook foi eveiy netwoik, anu that is fan love," saiu
anothei maiketei. "Aftei that, it ieally changes by netwoik" (peisonal communication,
Novembei 7, 2u1S). 0ne fianchise employeu what they calleu the foui pillais of social
meuia - listen, conveise, cieate, anu iewaiu - which it useu acioss eveiy social netwoik
(peisonal communication, Novembei 11, 2u1S). 0ne team's social stiategy was tieu to the
team's business objectives, which incluueu using social meuia to geneiate ievenue,
inciease sponsoiship sales, anu builu the bianu (peisonal communications, Septembei 24,
2u1S).
0ne maiketei claimeu to have an oveiaiching stiategy, but mentioneu that it
continually changeu anu evolveu as social meuia netwoiks uevelopeu anu technology
impioveu (peisonal communication, 0ctobei 11, 2u1S).
Nany of the spoit maiketeis that claimeu to have uiffeient stiategies foi each netwoik
uiu so because no auuience was the same. As one iesponuent saiu,

24
Theie aie uiehaius on Facebook, but they aie geneially moie casual. They aie happy if
we just post the game scoies. 0n Instagiam, we ieally focus on behinu-the-scenes
content.we post shots fiom the lockei ioom, shots fiom the aiena, shots fiom piactice.
Shots that fans just otheiwise woulun't be able to see. 0n Twittei, that's wheie we have
oui peisonality. I have no inteiest in boiing people anu wasting theii time (peisonal
communication, 0ctobei 16, 2u1S).
Anothei maiketei agieeu, saying his fianchise has a "no one size fits all" stiategy.
Facebook is about getting people exciteu anu pushing conveisation, wheieas Twittei is
about bieaking news. People on Twittei coulu piobably name the staiting offensive line
wheie people on Facebook want to talk about the quaiteiback only (peisonal
communication, 0ctobei 16, 2u1S).
0ne inteiviewee mentioneu that the biggest uiffeience between netwoiks was in the
amount of posting the team uiu. 0n Facebook anu Instagiam, fans ieceiveu an oveiview of
high quality content, wheieas Twittei followeis ieceiveu content thioughout the uay. "0n
eveiy platfoim, we'ie tiying to tell a stoiy. The uiffeience is in how uetaileu that stoiy gets"
(peisonal communication, Septembei 2S, 2u1S).
Reseaich question foui sought to uiscovei what social meuia tactics fianchises useu to
accomplish theii social meuia objectives. A laige vaiiety of tactics weie uiscusseu, although
a few common themes emeigeu fiom similai tactics. These incluueu iewaiuing fans,
emphasizing athletes, anu geneiating usei content.
In total, only two fianchises inteivieweu hau official social meuia loyalty piogiams.
Social meuia loyalty piogiams iewaiu fans by assigning point values to ceitain social
actions, such as liking a team's Facebook page oi ietweeting a team's tweet. As fans collect

2S
points, they can ieueem those points foi piizes, which iange fiom uiscounts on team
meichanuise oi game uay tickets to fan expeiiences, such as thiowing out the ceiemonial
fiist pitch at a baseball game oi caiiying the team flag anu leauing the team onto the fielu
befoie a game. 0ne maiketei explaineu the cieation of theii social meuia loyalty piogiam
this way:
0ui objectives weie to iewaiu people foi theii actions that they weie alieauy uoing. We
also wanteu to take oui engagement to the next level. We'ie tiying to finu that fantasy
football type uamification element foi baseball (peisonal communication, 0ctobei 24,
2u1S).
Fianchises have put a focus on giving away expeiiences thiough the piogiam that
inciease the emotional connection fans have with teams. "Running out of the tunnel with an
NFL team just uoesn't happen," explaineu one iesponuent. "Now we stait eveiy game with
that" (peisonal communication, Septembei 2S, 2u1S). 0thei piizes seek to amplify the
emotional connection between a fan anu his oi hei favoiite team. These incluue being at
the post-game piess confeience, stanuing on the fielu pie-game, getting piivate touis of a
stauium, meeting playeis, etc.
0iganizeu social meuia loyalty piogiams aie not the only way to iewaiu fans, howevei.
0ften, fianchises iewaiu fans on social meuia on a much smallei scale. 0ne fianchise
constantly monitois social meuia foi mentions of the team fiom fans attenuing theii fiist
game, oi celebiating a biithuay, oi visiting fiom anothei city, anu senus customei seivice
agents to that fan's seat to give them a piize, offei then congiatulations, anu peisonally
welcome them to the ballpaik. "We aie looking foi unique oppoitunities to make them

26
|fansj feel appieciateu," (peisonal communication, Novembei 6, 2u1S) saiu one spoit
maiketei.
Anothei fianchise occasionally gives fans piizes, such as cupcakes, foi checking into the
stauium. As the maiketei foi that fianchise stateu, "That's something that's veiy easy to
pull off anu it cieates that ueepei bonu" (peisonal communication, Septembei 24, 2u1S).
Nany fianchises focus theii social meuia effoits on theii iespective athletes. Nany spoit
maiketeis mentioneu seveial uiffeient ways they make stai athletes the focus on theii
social meuia. These incluueu uoogle+ Bangouts, Twittei anu vine Q&As, behinu the scenes
access, anu view of the playeis off the fielu.
0ffeiing fans an oppoitunity to ask questions uiiectly to playeis, thiough uoogle+
Bangouts oi Twittei anu vine Chats, is a populai social meuia tactic, accoiuing to
fianchises, because it cieates an emotional connection between a fan anu a paiticulai
playei, which has a halo effect foi the team. "The fans that have theii questions answeieu
feel a connection because a playei answeieu theii question uiiectly anu otheis see that
playei in a way that maybe they haven't yet. That biings fans a little closei to oui playeis
anu team," (peisonal communication, 0ctobei 11, 2u1S) saiu one maiketei.
Nany fianchises also focus on giving fans a look at the playeis off the fielu anu behinu-
the-scenes. 0ne fianchise uiu a seiies uuiing a iecent tiaining camp with calleu "Behinu the
Facemask" (peisonal communication, 0ctobei 16, 2u1S) wheie the team posteu inteiviews
uone with new membeis of the team so fans coulu get to know these new playeis bettei.
0ne fianchise highlights the uiffeient peisonalities of the playeis by posting pictuies of the
playeis off the fielu; one playei has a bowtie company while anothei is a pilot. Anothei
fianchise takes playeis on eveiyuay eiianus, like a tiip to the gioceiy stoie, anu inteiviews

27
the playeis about theii peisonality anu peisonal life, giving fans a glance at the playei away
fiom the playing fielu. 0ne fianchise launcheu a monthly seiies calleu "Insiue the Buuule
Confeience Calls" in which fans get to be on a confeience call with playeis anu ask
questions. "The fans ieally like having access to the playeis," saiu one maiketei. "I mean,
just think 1u yeais ago, if you wanteu to talk to a playei, you woulu wiite a lettei to the
fiont office, hope they got it, anu hope they wiote back. Now you just senu them a tweet"
(peisonal communication, 0ctobei 18, 2u1S).
While seeing anu inteiacting with athletes is a focal point of fianchises on social meuia,
it's images of the playeis anu team behinu-the-scenes that theii fans want most. "People
just ieally eat up eveiything behinu the scenes," (peisonal communication, 0ctobei 16,
2u1S) accoiuing to one spoit maiketei. In many cases, fianchises aie able to post content
that no fan oi meuia outlet has access to on theii own. "We aie the closest point of contact
to the team," saiu one maiketei. "We neeu to capitalize on that. We neeu to give oui fans
the best access possible" (peisonal communication, Septembei 2S, 2u1S). Whethei it's a
pie-game pictuie of the lockei ioom, a playei stietching on the fielu, a pictuie of an empty
aiena befoie the game, oi a pie-game huuule of the playeis, fianchises inuicateu that they
hau a gieat ueal of success with behinu-the-scenes photos on social meuia. "We want to
help fill in the stoiy that you see on Tv. It staits in the gym befoie the game, in the
clubhouse aftei the game, oi on the fielu uuiing the anthems," (peisonal communication,
0ctobei 24, 2u1S) saiu one iesponuent.
Finally, an oveiwhelming majoiity of the fianchises inteivieweu put a focus on
geneiating fan content about the team. Fianchises accomplisheu this thiough photo anu

28
viueo contests, scavengei hunts, social clubs anu suites, anu content on the main viueo
scieen of the stauium.
Nany fianchises incluueu photo oi viueo contests as pait of theii social meuia plan. 0ne
fianchise hau fans iecieate the celebiation pose of a pitchei aftei thiowing a peifect game,
anu latei challengeu fans to ieplicate the swing of one of its moie famous playeis on the
social netwoik vine. "It's always gieat when you can have fans talk about you iathei than
you talking about you," (peisonal communication, Novembei 6, 2u1S) saiu one maiketei.
0thei fianchises have iun scavengei hunts, in which fans uploaueu content to theii
social accounts upon finuing a hiuuen piece of team memoiabilia in a stauium oi aiounu
the team's home city. 0ne fianchise fioze jeiseys anu t-shiits in blocks of ice befoie theii
home openei; anothei hiu gaiuen gnomes of the team mascot aiounu the city; anothei hau
fans snap pictuies thioughout the stauium uuiing an off-season fan festival.
0thei fianchises have hau success with tangible spaces in the stauium that featuie the
social meuia content posteu by fans about the team on television scieens. The spaces seive
as the "town squaie" of the stauium, accoiuing to one maiketei, by becoming the cential
location foi the conveisation suiiounuing the game, anu offei a location foi fans to connect
with each othei in auuition to the team. Fans, exciteu about seeing theii own content up on
a television scieen, post moie often about the game, geneiating buzz foi the team. "It's
getting those people who aie socially enableu to caiiy those conveisations faithei than we
can caiiy it ouiselves anu be oui auvocates foi it," (peisonal communication, Septembei
24, 2u1S) saiu one iesponuent.
Finally, fianchises post social meuia content fiom the fans up on what's often calleu the
"jumbotion" in the stauium. Fianchises often see a laige spike in the numbei of social

29
meuia posts maue by fans when the oppoitunity to be on the jumbotion piesents itself.
"People get so exciteu that theii content makes it up to the jumbotion," saiu one maiketei,
"that they take a pictuie of theii tweet oi pictuie on the jumbotion anu then ietweet that
pictuie" (peisonal communication, 0ctobei 16, 2u1S). Anothei fianchise sees similai
iesults. "When people see whatevei hashtag we have up on the viueo boaiu, we uo see a big
spike in tweets, anu it's ieally gieat foi them to see theii content up on the boaiu"
(peisonal communication, Novembei 6, 2u1S).
=&?&% '( 5011&,,
Reseaich question S peitaineu to the most populai type of content posteu by fianchises.
Almost univeisally, fianchises iesponueu that photos weie the most populai type of
content they posteu. These incluueu infogiaphics, behinu-the-scenes content, anu photos of
the stauium. 0thei answeis incluueu access anu bieaking news.
Reseaich question 6 questioneu the methou by which fianchises measuie theii social
meuia success. While iesponses vaiieu among fianchises, auuience giowth, fan
engagement, anu geneiateu ievenue weie common themes.
Seveial teams mentioneu engagement as a key peifoimance inuicatoi foi social meuia
success. Some fianchises ieceiveu iepoits fiom theii iespective league offices that gave
each fianchise a iepoit of metiics like followei counts anu engagement iank. 0ne fianchise
mentioneu the numbei of Twittei ieplies as most impoitant. Seveial fianchises stateu that
iefeiieu web tiaffic was most impoitant to the fianchise. 0theis look at followei counts to
see if any spikes occuiieu that might be inuicative of an especially engaging piece of
content. "I like to make suie that giaph I see is always tienuing up," (peisonal
communication, Novembei 7, 2u1S) saiu one maiketei who citeu netwoik giowth as

Su
impoitant. ueneiateu ievenue thiough ticket sales on social meuia was also a common
answei. A few fianchises mentioneu ieach, oi how many people vieweu the fianchise's
content, as most impoitant. 0ne fianchise claimeu that shaies weie most impoitant, since
content with the most value was content that was passeu on. 0ltimately, says one maiketei,
"It's a blenu of ait anu science" (peisonal communication, 0ctobei 11, 2u1S). Anothei
fianchise hau a similai sentiment, "An eyeball test is ieally the best way to tell how we'ie
uoing. I can tweet something out, anu within a few minutes, I know whethei that tweet was
positive oi not" (peisonal communication, 0ctobei 24, 2u1S).
-:4%21#+2'*,
Is the concept of fan iuentification "intiinsic knowleuge" as one maiketei claimeu. The
finuings of this stuuy woulu ceitainly inuicate that it is. Consiuei that the majoiity of
fianchises inteivieweu weie not pieviously awaie of the concept of fan iuentification
befoie theii paiticipation in this stuuy, anu yet many of theii successful social meuia
stiategies anu tactics aie successful because they auuiess one of the thiee fan iuentification
anteceuent categoiies put foith by Wann (2uu6).
As explaineu eailiei in this stuuy, Wann's (2uu6) thiee categoiies of fan iuentification
anteceuents incluue psychological, enviionmental, anu team-ielateu ieasons foi becoming
a highly iuentifieu spoits fan. If we examine each of the successful social meuia tactics useu
by fianchises in this stuuy, each one cieates an effect that falls into one of the above
categoiies.
Foi example, let's examine a gioup of tactics useu by spoit maiketeis: photo anu viueo
contests, social suites anu clubs, scavengei hunts, anu jumbotion piomotions. These tactics
focus on engaging fans anu encouiaging fans to publish social meuia content about the

S1
fianchise to theii inuiviuual social feeus. If we consiuei why these tactics aie so successful
foi each fianchise, we might look to Wann's (2uu6) psychological anu enviionmental
categoiies of fan iuentification anteceuents.
Why uo these tactics woik. In each of the above tactics, fans aie encouiageu to post
social meuia content as pait of a laigei contest oi event. By contiibuting to these laigei
events, fans aie stiiving to be a pait of a gioup that is biggei than them, an element of the
psychological categoiy of fan iuentification anteceuents.
As fans seek to be a pait of something biggei, like a photo contest oi social suite
conveisation, they uploau content about theii favoiite fianchise to theii social netwoiks.
Inueeu, multiple fianchises noteu that putting fan content on the jumbotion iesulteu in a
sizable spike in fan social meuia activity. This spike in social meuia is impoitant, because
incluueu in the enviionmental categoiy of fan iuentification anteceuents is having fiienus
anu family that follow a paiticulai spoits team. When fans uploau social content about
theii favoiite fianchise to social meuia, the likely encouiage theii fiienus anu family to also
attenu futuie home games foi that fianchise anu become a moie iuentifieu fan.
If we examine the way fianchises use social meuia to spotlight theii athletes, we can
again use Wann's (2uu6) thiee categoiies of fan iuentification anteceuents to explain the
success of this stiategy. Consiuei the vaiious tactics useu by fianchises to emphasize theii
iespective piofessional athletes. Each of these tactics, incluuing uoogle+ Bangouts, Twittei
anu vine Q&As, anu viueos anu inteiviews about the playeis' off-fielu life seek to publicize
the peisonalities anu chaiacteiistics of the playeis. Boing so iesonates with fans because
they aie uiawn to the chaiacteiistics anu peisonalities of the playeis, which is a pait of the
team-ielateu anteceuent categoiy of fan iuentification.

S2
Bespite the fact that fianchises aie piouucing content on social meuia that is likely
successful in incieasing fan iuentification, it woulu be wise foi acauemic ieseaicheis to put
a gieatei emphasis on putting theii ieseaich in fiont of the spoit maiketeis theii ieseaich
benefits. Boing so woulu potentially cieate a collaboiative ielationship between spoit
maiketeis anu acauemic ieseaicheis that woulu be mutually beneficial. Foi acauemic
ieseaicheis, paitneiing with piofessional spoit maiketeis coulu give ieseaicheis easiei
access to an establisheu fan base foi futuie ieseaich, while spoit maiketeis woulu gain
valuable insight about theii fianchise's fans that the team might otheiwise not have the
talent anu iesouices to ieseaich piopeily.
Seveial topics came up uuiing inteiviews with fianchises that woulu be iipe foi futuie
acauemic ieseaich on fan iuentification anu be of inteiest to cuiient spoit social meuia
maiketeis. These incluue the change in tone on social meuia uuiing times of winning anu
losing, fiont office activity on social meuia, social meuia loyalty piogiams, anu auuience
uemogiaphics by social meuia netwoik as well as the level of fanuom on uiffeient social
meuia netwoiks.
Nany spoit social meuia maiketeis claimeu that theii fianchise's level of winning
uictateu the tone anu subject of theii social meuia posts. Nany fianchises took the position
that as theii team's success level uioppeu, they shoulu post less fiequently anu focus those
posts on the team's uiive to get bettei only. This means that as many fianchises stiuggle
athletically, fewei pieces of content aie posteu about the playeis' peisonality anu
chaiacteiistics. This stiategy uiiectly conflicts with existing ieseaich on fan iuentification.
As Fishei anu Wakefielu (1998) concluueu, factois like playei chaiacteiistics aie moie
likely to impact fan iuentification of losing teams. Fishei anu Wakefielu's ieseaich was

SS
completeu befoie the auvent of social meuia, anu the concept of fan iuentification foi
winning anu losing teams shoulu be ievisiteu, as the piessuie to publish a vaiiety of high-
quality content 247 giows foi each fianchise, iegaiuless of theii winning peicentage.
Noie than one fianchise inteivieweu talkeu about a membei of the fianchise's fiont
office that was active on social meuia, anu in paiticulai, Twittei. While not specifically a
tactic oi stiategy of the fianchise, each spoit maiketei inteivieweu spoke positively about
having a membei of the fiont office active on social meuia. As paiticipation on social meuia
by piofessional athletes, coaches, anu membeis of a fianchise's fiont office incieases,
ieseaicheis woulu be wise to examine the effects on fan iuentification this can have foi a
team. As playeis follow anu inteiact with a favoiite playei, coach, oi team executive on
social meuia, uoes theii iuentification with that inuiviuual's team giow. Seconuly, if that
playei, coach, oi executive weie to change teams via fiee agency of tiaue, woulu a fan's
level of iuentification uevelop oi giow foi that new team.
Relateuly, one maiketei spoke veiy positively of theii fianchise's uecision to make the
team's mascot active on social meuia. Nascots aie an extension of the team's bianu, can
enteitain fans uuiing game, anu maintain a positive outlook uuiing times of competitive
stiuggle. uiving mascots a moie active iole on social meuia may make it easiei foi teams to
stay positive, topical, anu likeable uuiing tough times. While not applicable foi all
fianchises, mascots, especially those who aie well known in anu aiea anu nationally, may
piove to be a positive auuition to a fianchise's social meuia aisenal. Auuitionally, acauemic
ieseaicheis may be inteiesteu to incluue the effect of a mascot on social meuia with a stuuy
on the effects of playeis, coaches, anu fiont office executives.
Anothei topic that shoulu inteiest piofessional spoit maiketeis anu acauemic

S4
ieseaicheis alike is the social meuia iewaius piogiam. Noie than one team inteivieweu
hau iecently uevelopeu a social meuia iewaius piogiam anu each fianchise spoke veiy
positively about the iesults fiom the piogiam. These social piogiams iewaiu fans foi theii
social meuia activity with uiscounts on team meichanuise, game uay tickets, anu fan
expeiiences. These types of piogiams aie likely to be successful in incieasing fan
iuentification foi a vaiiety of ieasons.
Fiistly, these piogiams incentivize fans to consume highei amounts of team content, as
fans eain ieueemable points foi inteiacting with the team on social meuia anu foi
inteiacting with team web content. This is an impoitant step in incieasing fan
iuentification. As Lock et al. (2u12) concluueu in a iecent stuuy, fans who seaicheu foi
news anu meuia about theii favoiite Austialian soccei team uevelopeu highei levels of
iuentification foi that team.
Seconuly, fans taking pait in the social meuia iewaius piogiam aie able to see a
leaueiboaiu of othei fans in the piogiam. Boing so auus a gamification element to the
piogiam anu makes fans feel like a pait of a unifieu gioup, a pait of Wann's (2uu6)
psychological categoiy of fan iuentification anteceuents.
Lastly, as fans ieueem theii points foi fan expeiiences, such as iunning out of the tunnel
with a team befoie a game, thiowing out the fiist pitch, oi meeting a playei, they make
lasting memoiies that many fianchises believe incieases the level of iuentity a fan has with
theii favoiite team.
Piofessional spoits fianchises woulu be wise to invest in these types of piogiams, anu
as they uo, acauemic ieseaicheis woulu be wise to examine theii effectiveness. Finuing out
what types of fans take pait in these piogiams, the effect this type of piogiam has on the

SS
levels of fan iuentification of paiticipating fans, anu which types of iewaius aie especially
effective in incieasing fan iuentification shoulu be of paiticulai impoitance to ieseaicheis.
Two inteiesting topics iegaiuing the uiffeient auuiences fianchises have on theii social
netwoiks emeigeu in this stuuy. The fiist auuience topic is in iegaius to age. Nultiple
fianchises noteu that theii Facebook fans weie oluei than theii Twittei followeis, while
one fianchise maue special note of the even youngei age of theii Instagiam followeis. This
is notewoithy, as ieseaich on fan iuentification has not yet examineu the iole of age.
Reseaich on age anu fan iuentification may uncovei that fans of uiffeient age gioups
inciease theii level of fan iuentification foi uiffeient ieasons oi in iesponse to uiffeient
types of social meuia content. If ieseaich weie to finu that age plays a iole in the
uevelopment of fan iuentification, fianchises woulu be moie intelligibly able to publish
uiffeient anu moie effective types of content on theii uiffeient social netwoiks.
Seconuly, multiple fianchises noteu that theii Twittei followeis weie moie investeu in
the team anu team news than theii Facebook fans. As acauemic ieseaicheis begin to
encompass social meuia into theii fan iuentification ieseaich, they might begin by
exploiing the uiffeient levels of fan iuentification in a Facebook fan veisus a Twittei
followei veisus an Instagiam followei veisus followeis on many othei netwoiks. Boing so
may uncovei than fans of fianchises follow the team on uiffeient social netwoiks
uepenuing on theii level of fan iuentification. Answeiing this question may help fianchises
uiiect social content with the goal of selling tickets oi meichanuise to the coiiect social
netwoik. Foi example, shoulu ieseaich confiim the hypotheses of seveial fianchises by
showing that fans on Twittei possess highei levels of fan iuentification than Facebook fans,
fianchises might uiiect ticket piomotions to Twittei iathei than Facebook wheie theii

S6
highly iuentifieu fans iesiue. 0i, fianchises may ueciue to post ticket piomotions on
Facebook, since fans on Twittei aie alieauy likely to puichase game uay tickets. Regaiuless
of the stiategy that might uevelop as a iesult of fuithei ieseaich, fianchises may feel moie
confiuent in theii stiategies knowing that ieseaich has been uone on the topic.
Finally, by ievisiting the theoietical fiamewoik of social iuentity theoiy, ceitain
conclusions can be uiawn about the way spoits fianchises use social meuia to engage with
fans. As mentioneu eailiei in this papei, social iuentity, the way that inuiviuuals see
themselves in society, is influenceu by membeiship in a social gioup. These social gioups
aie seen as supeiioi oi infeiioi to othei similai social gioups, anu collectively iepiesent
ceitain values anu beliefs that miiioi those of the gioup's inuiviuual membeis.
When fianchises engage with theii fans on social meuia, they aie communicating with a
social gioup (fans of the spoits team) anu ielaying ceitain values to that gioup. Whethei
fianchises focus theii social meuia effoits on making fans feel like an impoitant membei of
the social gioup (thiough small tokens of appieciation), incieasing the level of
communication among the inuiviuuals that compose the gioup (thiough scavengei hunts,
jumbotion piomotions, social meuia spaces, oi loyalty piogiams), oi by making the gioup
seem moie supeiioi compaieu to othei gioups (fans of anothei spoits team), fianchises
woik to limit social mobility; that is, the conuitions conuucive to leaving the gioup anu
becoming a fan of anothei team.
)'*1%0,2'*
As noteu in an eailiei section, theie weie thiee puiposes to this stuuy: (1) to uiscovei
how well the acauemic concept of fan iuentification has peimeateu the spoits maiketing
inuustiy, (2) to lay the giounuwoik foi futuie acauemic ieseaich on fan iuentification, anu

S7
(S) seive as a piactical guiuebook foi spoits social meuia maiketeis looking to uiscovei
best piactices anu social meuia inspiiation.
Thiough inteiviews with seveial piofessional spoits fianchises, each goal has been met.
Fianchises oveiwhelmingly inuicateu that they aie not awaie of the specific teim of fan
iuentification, even if they aie intiinsically oi miluly awaie of the oveiall concept.
The concept of fan iuentification has been extensively stuuieu since the 199us, but it is
time foi that ieseaich to incoipoiate social meuia as a meuia platfoim. This stuuy has
iuentifieu seveial uiffeient elements of social meuia that woulu seive acauemic ieseaicheis
well, incluuing ievisiting what makes fans of less successful teams moie highly iuentifieu;
the effect athletes, coaches, fiont office executives, anu team mascots on social meuia have
on fan iuentification towaius each entity's iespective fianchise; the effectiveness of social
meuia iewaius piogiams on incieasing a fan's level of iuentification foi a team; the iole age
plays in the uevelopment of fan iuentification; anu the potentially uiffeient levels of fan
iuentification fans following fianchises on uiffeient social netwoiks possess.
Finally, this stuuy pioviues piofessional spoit social meuia maiketeis with a piactical
guiuebook towaiu engaging fans on social meuia with the puipose of incieasing fan
iuentification levels. Fiom uoogle+ hangouts, Twittei anu vine Q&As, a focus on behinu-
the-scenes content, social meuia iewaius piogiams, anu in-stauium social suites, this stuuy
has uncoveieu seveial notewoithy social meuia tactics that woulu be useful to any spoits
social meuia maiketei in theii futuie enueavois.


S8
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Running heau: FRANCBISES 0SE S0CIAL NEBIA T0 B00ST FAN IBENTIFACTI0N

Bow Spoits Fianchises 0se Social Neuia to Boost Fan Iuentification

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