Using Feynman diagrams to solve the classical harmonic oscillator

Alan Thorndike
Department of Physics, University of Puget Sound, 1500 North Warner, Tacoma, Washington 98416-0380

Received 23 March 1999; accepted 22 July 1999 The method of Feynman diagrams is used to solve the classical oscillator and a coupled oscillator problem. 2000 American Association of Physics Teachers. The method of Feynman diagrams is used in quantum mechanics and quantum electrodynamics to solve problems involving perturbations ( V ) to an unperturbed system H that has been solved previously. The essential idea is to regard the perturbed system ( H V ) as evolving exactly like the unperturbed system subject to random, discrete, hits by the perturbation. In Fig. 1, H acts continuously along any line segment, and V acts discretely at the bullets. This idea stands in marked contrast to the usual interpretation of the Schro dinger equation, in which the operator H V acts continuously. My goal here is to show that exactly the same idea can be applied to the classical harmonic oscillator, and indeed to any linear system in any discipline. This serves three purposes: it illuminates an old problem from a new point of view, it illustrates Feynmans method in a case where all steps can be worked out explicitly and where the correct answer is known, and, nally, it dispels the notion that Feynmans method is special to quantum mechanics. To proceed in general terms, let X ( t ) be an abstract vector. Let H and V be square matrices, possibly complex, independent of time. Let A H V . The time-dependent Schro dinger equation can be cast in the form dX AX . dt This is equivalent to X t X t0 X t0 I 1 P t e Ht . 4

Multiplication by the matrix P ( s ) propagates the solution forward in time from X ( t ) to X ( t s ). This is all we need to evaluate a Feynman diagram. For example, in a diagram where the perturbation V acts once at time t 1 , Fig. 2, we evaluate the diagram as the matrix product P t t 1 V P t 1 t 0 . 5

To account for all single hit diagrams, allow V to act at any t 1 in ( t 0 , t ), and then sum the results by integrating with respect to t 1 . The physical dimensions of V , reciprocal time, remind us that the time integration is necessary. In this way, considering zero hits, one hit, two hits, and so on, we arrive at the Feynman sequence F t , t 0 ;0 hits P t t 0 , F t , t 0 ;1 hit

F t , t 0 ;2 hits

t t0 t t0

P t t 1 V P t 1 t 0 dt 1 ,
t

t1

P t t 2 V P t 2 t 1

V P t 1 t 0 dt 2 dt 1 ,..., which must be summed to give the nal solution: F t , t 0 F t , t 0 ;0 F t , t 0 ;1 , X t F t,t0X t0. 7

t t0

t t0 t t0 t

AX t dt

A X t0

t0

AX t dt dt

Is it obvious that this procedure gives the right answer? F t , t 0 ? e H V t t 0 . 8 One way to motivate Feynmans method is to divide the time interval ( t 0 , t ) into a large number N of discrete steps dt. Then we have the approximation for the unperturbed propagator 2 P ndt e Hndt I Hdt n . For the perturbed system, write e H V Ndt I Hdt Vdt N . 10 Expand the right-hand side as a binomial, maintaining the order of the matrices. Each of the 2 N terms can be identied with one of Feynmans diagrams. For example, consider a term with a single factor Vdt . It has the form
I Hdt N n 1 Vdt I Hdt n P N n dt Vdt P ndt , 11

t0

A t dt A t A t dt dt X t 0 .

t0

This expansion is valid even if A is time dependent. If A does not depend on time, it reduces to the compact form X t e A tt0 X t 0 , t2 e At I At A 2 . 2! 3

The matrix exp(A(tt0)) generates the state at time t, given the initial state. Our goal is always to calculate this matrix, or perhaps just one of its elements. It is usually not easy to calculate using the expansion in 3, so one uses instead various tricks for solving differential equations. We will assume that the solution for the unperturbed system ( A H ) is known and assign to it a special symbol and name, P ( t ), the propagator:
155 Am. J. Phys. 68 2, February 2000

which is the same as 5. Summing all the single V terms is analogous to the dt 1 integration of the single-hit diagrams. Similar ideas connect the zero V term to the zero-hit diagram, and the terms with m V s to the m-hit diagrams. Another way to derive Feynmans result is to dene
2000 American Association of Physics Teachers 155

Fig. 1. Diagrams for a particle subject to an external force. Time advances upward. The bullets indicate discrete hits by the perturbation V . H acts continuously along the line segments. The action of H over a time s is expressed by the propagator matrix P ( s ) exp(Hs). To evaluate a diagram is to form the matrix product of alternating P and V factors as in 5 and Fig. 2. Then integrate each diagram over the intermediate times, and add the results for all diagrams.

Y t P t t 0 X t . Then, dY W t Y t , dt where W t P t t 0 V P t t 0 . Using the expansion 2 gives Y t I

12

V , the term in the expansion with n hits by V will contain v n . The time integrals produce factors of ( t t 0 ) n / n !, so the expansion can be regarded as an expansion in v ( t t 0 ). If t is some xed time, v ( t t 0 ) will be nite, though not necessarily small. Then it will be possible, because of the n! denominators, to achieve a suitable approximation by truncating the expansion after n terms. That approximation will be valid in the interval ( t 0 , t ), but cannot be expected to represent the behavior of the system outside this interval. However, in the examples below, it is possible to sum the innite series 7, so it is not necessary to truncate the expansion, and the solutions are exact for all t. As an example of how the ideas can be applied to a classical system, consider the harmonic oscillator. Rewrite Newtons second law d 2x 2 0x dt 2 in the standard form 1, using dx / dt u , and X 17

13

x , u

AHV

0 0 1 0
t0 ,

0 2 0

0 0

18

The propagator is P t e Ht

t t0

t0

W t dt
t

t0

W t W t dt dt Y t 0 .

1 t 0 1

14

P t 0,

t0 .

19

Multiplication by the propagator, and substitution for W gives X t P tt0Y t P tt0

This is just a way of saying the unperturbed particle moves with a constant velocity. Dening P to be zero for negative values of its argument is a detail that becomes important later. Following Feynmans method, we nd: F t , t 0 ;0 F t , t 0 ;1

t t0

t0

P t t V P t t 0 dt

1 0
t

tt0 1 2 0

t0

P t t V P t t

V P t t 0 dt dt X t 0 , where use was made of the identity P s P s P ss.

t0

15

2 0

16

The expansion 15 can be found in quantum mechanics texts under the heading time-dependent perturbation theory. The terms on the right correspond to diagrams with zero, one, and two hits by the perturbing potential V . If v is a parameter that characterizes the strength of the perturbation

F t , t 0 ;2 4 0

,
t t 1 t 1 t 0

tt1 1

t 1 t 0
t t 0 3 /3! t t 0 2 /2 tt05 5! tt04 4!

t t 0 2 /2

tt0

tt04 4! tt03 3!

dt 1 20

, .

Summing these matrices produces F t,t0

cos 0 t t 0 0 sin 0 t t 0

1 0 sin 0 t t 0

cos 0 t t 0

. 21 22

This is the correct solution for the harmonic oscillator X t F t,t0X t0,

Fig. 2. Evaluation of the single-hit diagram. 156 Am. J. Phys., Vol. 68, No. 2, February 2000

as we knew it would be. However, the physical picture invoked by the diagram method hardly gives us much reason to expect the correct nal result. Consider the separate actions of P and V . Under P ( s ), the particle propagates as a free particle for a time interval s,
Alan Thorndike 156

P:

x x us uu. x0 u2 0x .

23

Under V , the particle experiences a jolt, V: 24

Fig. 3. Coupled oscillators. The center spring is taken to be the perturbation.

Each diagram is an alternating sequence of Ps and V sfree particle motion interrupted by jolts from the spring. We begin to recognize the source of the oscillation: If, just before V strikes, x is positive, then, just after V strikes, u will be negative, and so on. Of course, the actual motion is the sum of all diagrams, each having been integrated over all intermediate times. These operations smooth out the jerky behavior introduced by V into each diagram. In fact, it is the integrations that produce the correct powers of t and the factorial denominators in 20. The integrals in F ( t , t 0 ; n ), see 6, are convolutions. By taking Fourier transforms, they can be replaced by simple products. We will have use for the following transforms. In evaluating them, use has been made of the fact that the propagator is dened to be zero for negative arguments, P ( s 0) 0, 1i/, t 1/ ,
2

x1 u1 x2 u2

AHV

0 2 0 0

1 0 0 0 0 0
2

0 0 0 2 0 0 0 0 0 s/0 c 0 0

0 0 1 0

t /n! i/
n

n1

,
2

cos 0 t i /

2 0,

25 P t e Ht

sin 0 t 0 / 2 2 0, i e I iA / n
At

i I iA / 1 i I A 1 .

The transforms of 6 are F ;0 P , F ;1 P V P , F ;n P V nP , F I P V 1 P , the last line being the sum of the geometric series.1 Applying these ideas to the example, we nd P F 26

2 where 2 0 k / m , k / m , c cos(0t), s sin(0t). Notice that H, as dened here, is a bit more interesting than in the previous problem: there H represented a free particle, here it represents two uncoupled oscillators. We can move in one step to the solution, using the master equation 26, line 4, transforms from 25, and some matrix algebra. Perhaps it is enough to determine the characteristic frequencies of the coupled system, which will be the singularities of F ( ). F is singular when P is singular and when det(I PV)0. Consulting 25, 27, and 28,

0 0

0 0 0 0

0 2 0 0 c

2
c

28

0 0 s/0 c

0s 0 0

0s

P 2 2 0,

2 det I PV 0 2 2 0 2 . 29

i/ 0 1

1/ 2

2 2 2 0 0

i/ i

1 i

27 ,

It is suggestive to draw the single-hit diagram as in Fig. 4, where one upward propagating line is drawn for each oscillator. When V strikes, at time t , equal and opposite innitesimal momenta k ( x 1 x 2 ) dt are acquired by the two oscillators,

which is the transform of 21. By working with transforms, the daunting task of evaluating and summing all diagrams is reduced to the single calculation 26line 4. The singular points of F can be interpreted as the characteristic frequencies of the motion, in this case 0 . For a second example, consider the problem of two masses and three springs, Fig. 3. We can put this in standard form by letting
157 Am. J. Phys., Vol. 68, No. 2, February 2000

Fig. 4. In these diagrams for the coupled oscillator, the vertical line on the left represents the rst oscillator and the line on the right represents the second. Alan Thorndike 157

Fig. 5. Diagrams corresponding to the decomposition of V into two parts 31.

V V 1 V 2

x1 0 k x 1 x 2 / m u1 VX . x2 0 k x 1 x 2 / m u2

30

5 The characteristic frequencies of the system are the singularities of the Fourier transform of the propagator F ( ). Using 25, line 6, this amounts to setting detiI A0, which is a recipe for nding the eigenvalues of A. In these examples, at least, there is no advantage in nding the characteristic frequencies by the more roundabout method of diagrams, essentially 26, line 4. The value, and the only purpose, of the exercise is to build condence in the method by seeing that it gives the right answers to familiar problems, and to help us understand why. 6 The quantum mechanical concept that the particle explores all paths, in getting from the initial state to the state at time t, has a classical interpretation. It can be understood without reference to any perturbation. Consider a nite dimensional system and work in discrete time, as in 9 11. The n-step propagator is P n I Hdt n . 33 To calculate a particular element of this matrix, say P 21( n ), express the matrix product 33 as P 21 I Hdt 2 n I Hdt nm I Hdt ba a n I Hdt a 1 . 34

Since the momentum exchange occurs instantaneously, V is represented by a horizontal line in the diagrams. Finally, it is instructive to split the perturbation into two parts:

0 2 0

0 0 0 0

0 0 0 0

0 0 0 0

0 0 0 0

0 0 0 0

0 0 0
2

2
0

. 31

We can think of V 1 as passing momentum k x 1 dt from the rst oscillator to the second, V 2 as passing momentum k x 2 dt in the other direction. Diagrams for single hits by these perturbations are drawn in Fig. 5. But now we have two perturbations, so our physical picture is slightly different than when we considered the single perturbation V . We will have two single-hit diagrams, four two-hit diagrams, and so on. We will have some diagrams with many hits by V 1 and none by V 2 . Still, if we calculate, working with transforms, we nd F P PV 1 P PV 2 P PV 1 P PV 1 PV 2 P I PV 1 PV 2 n P I PV n P I PV 1 P . 32 This is the master equation 26, line 4, so we conclude that it makes no difference how we partition the perturbation. To repeat the main points 1 Any linear system 1 can be analyzed this way, although there may be no advantage in doing so. 2 The partition of A into H V is arbitraryrecall the choices of H for the two examplesbut it helps to choose H for which you can write the propagator exp(Ht) and its transform explicitly, and to choose V to have lots of zeros! It is an interesting exercise to let H and V switch places in the rst example. 3 Each diagram in which H acts continuously along the lines and V acts discretely at the bullets corresponds to a term in the expansions 11 and 15 of the formal solution exp((HV)t). 4 The notion that V acts in discrete hits can be reconciled with the original differential equation, 1, which says that V affects X at all times, when it is recognized that the time of the discrete hits is integrated over the continuum ( t 0 , t ).
158 Am. J. Phys., Vol. 68, No. 2, February 2000

Each of the many terms in this sum represents a path, beginning in state 1 and ending in state 2, passing through the intermediate states 1 a b m n 2. In 34 the subscripts dene a path. The product of the matrix elements determines an amplitude for the path. The summation over all intermediate states explores all paths linking 1 to 2, allowing each to contribute to the n-step propagator. The oscillator is a two-state process: 1,0 denotes unit displacement and no velocity, 0,1 denotes unit velocity and no displacement. A general state is a linear combination of these basic states,
x , u x 1,0 u 0,1 ,

35

in which we regard x and u as weights applied to the basic states. The propagator tells how to calculate x ( t ) and u ( t ) given x ( t 0 ) and u ( t 0 ), as in 23. P 21( n ) is the weight assigned to u after n steps, starting in the basic state 1,0. To calculate the propagator 34, the paths are simply all sequences of the basic states. To the question: Does the classical world really work this way, exploring all paths, with H acting continuously and V in discrete hits?, I think the best response is: No. Since the partition of A is arbitrary, we could just as well regard V to act continuously and H in discrete hits! In the coupled oscillator example we saw that different ways of partitioning the perturbation led to different momentum exchanges in the sequence of diagrams, although the nal solutions were the same. It is best to regard the method of diagrams as a technique for solving a differential equation and not a statement about how physics works. It is how physicists work.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS This note was written while I was a guest at the US Army Cold Regions Research and Engineering Laboratory, and at the Applied Physics Laboratory, University of Washington, supported by a John Lantz sabbatical fellowship. Discussions
Alan Thorndike 158

with my colleague James Evans helped to sharpen the many analogies with Feynman diagrams.
1

Convergence of the series I P ( ) V ( P ( ) V ) 2 is by no means guaranteed. Even in the simple example of the classical oscillator, the

series converges only for 0 . Nevertheless, the closed form solution 26, the last line, is valid for all . This result can be deduced without using the series of transforms F ( ; n ). P i I H 1 is the Fourier transform of exp(Ht). Therefore the transform of exp((HV)t) is F ( ) i I H V 1 P 1 V 1 I PV 1 P .

PIDGIN MATHEMATICS Anyone who has read stories about the South Seas is aware that there is a language called Pidgin English actually there are several kinds which seems at rst sight to be a clumsy and inept parody of English. It has, as a matter of fact, attained wide currency in some places, and is now recognized as being a genuine language in its own right, although somewhat limited in its vocabulary...I have often been irritated, like other professional mathematicians, by the clumsiness and departures from the accepted norm of the mathematics used by physicists and presented in books such as this one. From investigation of this and other books on physics, as well as on the mathematics of physics, I conclude, however, that physicists deal with mathematics of an entirely different kind from that used by mathematicians. In fact, it is not unfair to say that they use pidgin mathematics.
Ralph P. Boas, Jr., Review of The Mathematics of Physics and Chemistry, in Lion Hunting & Other Mathematical Pursuits, edited by Gerald L. Alexanderson and Dale H. Mugler Mathematical Association of America, Washington, 1995, p. 275.

159

Am. J. Phys., Vol. 68, No. 2, February 2000

Alan Thorndike

159