Chapter one: Roots of algebraic and

transcendental equations
1.1 equations
In this chapter methods of finding roots to various equations are
explored. Roots of an equation are defined as values of x where
the solution of an equation is true.
Equations are generally grouped into two main categories,
algebraic equations and transcendental equations.
The first type of equation, algebraic, is defined as an equation that
involves only powers of x. The following are examples of
algebraic equations:
!
" # $ % x x x +
&
! % x
x
+
&.!#
% x
'n the other hand, transcendental equations are non(algebraic
equations or functions that transcend, or cannot be expressed in
terms of algebra. Examples of such are exponential functions,
trigonometric functions, and the inverses of each. The following
are examples of transcendental equations:
cos sin % x x +
&# %
x
e +

Roots of )lgebraic and Transcendental Equations &(&
Transcendental functions may have an infinite number of roots or
may not have any roots at all. *or example, the function sin x has
an infinite number of roots with x k t , and
%,&, !,..., etc. k
The solution of algebraic equations is rarely carried out from the
beginning to the end by one method. The roots of the equation are
generally determined by one method with some small accuracy,
and then made more accurate by other methods. *or the intent and
purpose of this text, only a handful of the available methods are
discussed. They include: +escartes, Rule, -ynthetic +ivision,
Incremental -earch, Refined Incremental -earch, .isection, *alse
/osition, -ecant, 0ewton(Raphson, 0ewton,s -econd 'rder,
1raeffe,s Root -quaring, and .airstow,s methods.
1.2 Polynomials
) polynomial is defined as an algebraic equation involving only
positive integer powers of x. /olynomials are generally expressed
in the following form:
& ! &
& ! &
.... %
n n n n
n n
x a x a x a x a x a

+ + + + + +
*or these polynomials, the following apply:
2 The order or degree of the polynomial is equal to the highest
power of x and the number of roots is directly equal to the
degree or 3n4, where
n
a
is not equal to %. *or example, a
sixth degree polynomial, or a polynomial with $ n has six
roots.
2 The value of 3n4 must be a non(negative integer. In other
words, it must be whole number that is equal to 5ero or a
positive integer.
Roots of )lgebraic and Transcendental Equations &(!
2 The coefficients 6
% & ! &
, , ,.... ,
n n
a a a a a

7 are real numbers.

2 There will be at least one real root if 3n4 is an odd integer.
2 It is possible that equal roots exist.
2 8hen complex roots exist, they occur in con9ugate pairs, for
example:
& t t v u vi u x
1.3 Descartes Rule
+escartes, Rule is a method of determining the maximum number
of positive and negative real roots of a polynomial. This rule states
that the number of positive real roots is equal to the number of sign
changes of the coefficients or is less than this number by an even
integer. *or positive roots, start with the sign of the coefficient of
the lowest 6or highest7 power and count the number of sign
changes from the lowest to the highest power 6ignore powers
which do not appear7. The number of sign changes proves to be the
number of positive roots. :sing & x in evaluating
6 7 % f x
is the
easiest way to loo; at the coefficients.
*or negative roots, begin by transforming the polynomial to
6 7 % f x
. The signs of all the odd powers are reversed while the
even powers remain unchanged. 'nce again, the sign changes can
be counted from either the highest to lowest power, or vice versa.
The number of negative real roots is equal to the number of sign
changes of the coefficients, or less than by an even integer. :sing
& x in evaluating
6 7 % f x
is the easiest way to loo; at the
coefficients.
8hen considering either positive or negative roots, the statement
3less than by an even integer4 is included. This statement accounts
Roots of )lgebraic and Transcendental Equations &(
for complex con9ugate pairs that could exist. +escartes, rule is
valid as long as there are no 5ero coefficients. If 5ero coefficients
exist, they are ignored in the count. )lso, one could find a root
and divide it out to form a new polynomial of degree 3n(&4 and
apply +escartes, rule again.
Example &.(&
Example &.(!
Example &.(
Example &.(<
1. !ynthetic Di"ision
Recalling from algebra, the division of a polynomial,
6 7 % f x
, by
6x(r7 can be carried out by synthetic division.
The polynomial
& ! &
% & ! &
6 7 ....
n n n
n n
f x a x a x a x a x a

+ + + + + can
be divided by 6x(r7 as shown below:
r a
0
a
1
a
2
. a
n-1
a
n
0 rb
1
rb
2
. rb
n-1
rb
n
b
1
b
2
b
3
. b
n
R
If 3r4 is a root, then the remainder, 3R4, will be 5ero. If 3r4 is not a
root, then the remainder, 3R4, is the value of the polynomial for
f6x7 at x=r.
)fter the first division of a polynomial, divide again to find the
value of the first derivative equal to the remainder times one
factorial, R>&?.
)fter the second division of a polynomial, divide again to find the
value of the second derivative equal to the remainder times one
factorial, R>!?.
Roots of )lgebraic and Transcendental Equations &(<
)fter the third division of a polynomial, divide again to find the
value of the third derivative equal to the remainder times one
factorial, R>?.
.asically, two synthetic divisions yields the first derivative, three
synthetic divisions yields the second derivative, four synthetic
divisions yields the third derivative, and so on.
Example &.<(&
Example &.<(!
1.# $ncremental !earch %ethod
+etermine the values of
6 7 f x
for successive values 6incremented
by x 7 of x in some interval 6
min
x
to
max
x
7 to be searched until a
sign change occurs for
6 7 f x
. ) sign change occurs between
i
x
and
& i
x
+
if
&
6 7 6 7 %
i i
f x f x
+

. The sign change generally indicates a root
has been passed but could also indicate discontinuity. This process
is illustrated below in *igure &.#.
x
f6x7
x x
xi xi@&
f6xi7
f6xi@&7
*igure &.#
Roots of )lgebraic and Transcendental Equations &(#
Example &.#(&
'nce the roots have been bound by the Incremental -earch
Aethod, any of the following methods can be utili5ed in finding
the roots: Refined Incremental -earch, .isection, *alse /osition,
-ecant, 0ewton(Raphson, and 0ewton,s -econd 'rder.
1.& Refined $ncremental !earch %ethod
Bloser approximations of the root may be obtained by the refined
incremental search method. .eginning with the last value of x
preceding the sign change, use a smaller increment 6such as C&% x
7 as shown in *ig &.$ until the sign changes again. This process
can be repeated with smaller increments of x until the desired
accuracy of the root is obtained.
Bare must be ta;en in the selection of the starting point and the
increment so that a root is not missed.
x
f6x7

xi xi@&
f6xi7
f6xi@&7
xC&% x
*igure &.$
Roots of )lgebraic and Transcendental Equations &($
Example &.$(&
1.' (isection %ethod
)fter a sign change has occurred in a search method, one way to
more rapidly converge on a root is the .isection Aethod, also
;nown as the Dalf(Interval Aethod or the .ol5ano Aethod.
)ssume between
i
x
and
& i
x
+
that
&
6 7 6 7 %
i i
f x f x
+

. The interval is
then divided into two sub(intervals, the first from
i
x
to
&C ! i
x
+
and the
second from
&C ! i
x
+
to
& i
x
+
as seen in *ig &.E. 0ext, the sub(interval
containing the root can be found by the following:
&C !
6 7 6 7 %
i i
f x f x
+
<
, first interval contains the root
&C !
6 7 6 7 %
i i
f x f x
+
>
, second interval contains the root
&C !
6 7 6 7 %
i i
f x f x
+

,
&C ! i
x
+
is the root
.isect the sub(interval containing the root and repeat the procedure
until the desired accuracy is achieved. )fter 3n4 bisections, the
si5e of the original interval has been reduced by a factor of !
n
.
x
f6x7
x x
xi xi@&
f6xi7
f6xi@&7
f6xi@
&
!7
xi@
&
!
Roots of )lgebraic and Transcendental Equations &(E
*igure &.E
Example &.E(&
1.) %ethod of *alse Position or +inear
$nterpolation
)lthough the .isection Aethod can be used to reach convergence,
other methods such as *alse /osition provide the same result more
rapidly. )s with the .isection Aethod, assume between
i
x
and
& i
x
+

that
&
6 7 6 7 %
i i
f x f x
+
<
. Refer to
i
x
and
& i
x
+
to
&
x
and
!
x
, respectively.
) straight line connecting
&
x
and
!
x
intersects the x(axis at a new
value, say

x
, which is closer to the root than either
&
x
or
!
x
. Thus,
by similar triangles, the value of

x
can be found.
! & &
! & &
6 7 6 7 % 6 7 f x f x f x
x x x x

'R
! &
& &
! &
6 7
6 7 6 7
x x
x x f x
f x f x

This equation can be further bro;en down into the following

expression:
& ! ! &

! &
6 7 6 7
6 7 6 7
x f x x f x
x
f x f x

The relationship between

& !
, , x x
and

x
can be seen in *igure &.".
Roots of )lgebraic and Transcendental Equations &("
x!
f6x&7
f6x!7
x&
x
f6x7
*igure &."
&
6 7 6 7 % f x f x <
, first interval contains the root
&
6 7 6 7 % f x f x >
, second interval contains the root
&
6 7 6 7 % f x f x
,

x
is the root
If the first interval contains the root, let the following be assigned:
&
x
and
&
6 7 f x
remain unchanged
!
x x
!
6 7 6 7 f x f x
If the second interval contains the root, let the following be
assigned:
!
x
and
!
6 7 f x
remain unchanged
&
x x
&
6 7 6 7 f x f x
Bontinue with the process until the desired accuracy is obtained.
Example &."(&
Roots of )lgebraic and Transcendental Equations &(F
1., !ecant %ethod
This method is similar to the *alse /osition Aethod except that the
two most recent values of
x
6
!
x
and

x
7 and their corresponding
function values 6
!
6 7 f x
and

6 7 f x
7 are used to obtain a new
approximation to the root instead of chec;ing values that bound the
root. In the renaming process for iteration, use the following:
& ! !
, x x x x
& ! !
6 7 6 7, 6 7 6 7 f x f x f x f x
In some instances interpolation occurs, while in others,
extrapolation occurs.
x!
f6x&7
f6x!7
x&
x
*igure &.F
Example &.F(&
1.1- .e/ton0Raphson %ethod 1.e/tons
2angent3
Roots of )lgebraic and Transcendental Equations &(&%
'nce an approximate root
n
x
has been found, the slope of the
function at that point,
G6 7
n
f x
, is incorporated to converge to the
root more rapidly. The slope intersects the x(axis at
& n
x
+
.
xn
f6xn7
fG6xn7
xn@&
f6x7
*igure &.&%
&
6 7
G6 7
n
n
n n
f x
f x
x x
+

'R
&
6 7
G6 7
n
n n
n
f x
x x
f x
+

Repeat the process using a new value until convergence occurs.
Bonvergence may not occur in the following two cases:
2
GG6 7 f x
6curvature7 changes the sign near a root.
2 Initial approximation is not sufficiently close to the true root
and the slope at that point has a small value.
Example &.&%(&
1.11 .e/tons !econd 4rder %ethod
Roots of )lgebraic and Transcendental Equations &(&&
0ewton,s -econd 'rder Aethod is often a preferred method to
determine the value of root due to its rapid convergence and
extremely close approximation.
The equation
6 7 % f x
is considered once again.
f6x7
x
xn
xn@&
x
*igure &.&&.&
The following is a Taylor series expansion of
6 7 f x
about
n
x x
:
!
&
GG6 76 7 GGG6 76 7
6 7 6 7 G6 76 7 ...
!? ?
n n
n n n
f x x f x x
f x f x f x x
+

+ + + +
*or a means of determining a value of x that will ma;e the
Taylor series expansion go to 5ero, the first three terms of the right
hand side of the equation is set equal to 5ero to obtain an
approximate value:
GG6 76 7
6 7 G6 7 %
!
n
n n
f x x
f x x f x

1
+ +
1
]
The exact value of x can not be determined from this equation
since only the first three terms of the infinite series were used in
Roots of )lgebraic and Transcendental Equations &(&!
the calculation. Dowever, a close approximation of the root is a
result.
8hen using this equation to calculate x , a quadratic must be
solved yielding two possible roots. In order to avoid this problem,
6 7 C G6 7
n n
x f x f x
from 0ewton,s Tangent may be substituted
into the brac;eted term only:
GG6 7 6 7
6 7 G6 7 %
! G6 7
n n
n n
n
f x f x
f x x f x
f x
1
+
1
]
-olving for x we obtain the following:
6 7
GG6 7 6 7
G6 7
! G6 7
n
n n
n
n
f x
x
f x f x
f x
f x
1
1
1
1

1
]
*rom *igure &.&&,
& n n
x x x
+

. -ubstituting into the previous
equation, the formula can be written as follows:
&
6 7
GG6 7 6 7
G6 7
! G6 7
n
n n
n n
n
n
f x
x x
f x f x
f x
f x
+
1
1
1
1

1
]
If the first derivative is small, use 9ust the second derivative term
as follows:
G6 7 %
n
f x
Roots of )lgebraic and Transcendental Equations &(&
GG6 76 7
6 7 %
!
n
n
f x x
f x x

1
+
1
]
!
GG6 7
6 7
!
n
n
x f x
f x


! !
6 7 6 7
%
GG6 7 GG6 7
! !
n n
n n
f x f x
x x
f x f x

+
-olving by the quadratic equation where,
6 7
&, %,
GG6 7
!
n
n
f x
a b c
f x

!
6 7 6 7
<6&7 !
GG6 7 GG6 7
<
! !
! !6&7 !
n n
n n
f x f x
f x f x
b b ac
x
a

t
t t
6 7
GG6 7
!
n
n
f x
x
f x

t
8ith
& n n
x x x
+

,
&
6 7
GG6 7
!
n
n n
n
f x
x x
f x
+

t
This is a good tool in finding two roots that are near each other.
Roots of )lgebraic and Transcendental Equations &(&<
+ouble roots occur when the first derivative is 5ero. Triple roots
occur when the first and second derivatives are 5ero, etcH
*igure &.&&.!
-ynthetic division may be used with all the previously discussed
methods.
Example &.&&(&
1.12 5raeffes Root !quaring %ethod
1raeffe,s Root -quaring Aethod is a root(finding method which
was among the most popular methods for finding roots of
polynomials in the &Fth and !%th centuries. The 1raeffe,s Root
-quaring Aethod is especially effective if all roots are real. The
method proceeds by multiplying a polynomial
6 7 f x
by
6 7 f x
using
the following equations:
& !
6 7 6 76 7......6 7
n
f x x a x a x a
& !
6 7 6 &76 76 7......6 7
n
f x x a x a x a + + +
so the result is:
Roots of )lgebraic and Transcendental Equations &(&#
! ! ! !
&
6 7 6 7 6 &7 6 7.....6 7
n
n
f x f x x a x a
*or example, use a
rd
degree polynomial with root
& !
, x x
and

x
as
follows:
!
& !
6 7 % f x x a x a x a + + +
) polynomial with roots
& !
, x x
and

x
would be as follows:
!
& !
6 7 % f x x a x a x a + +
Aultiplying the two equations together yields the following:
$ ! < ! ! !
& ! ! &
6 7 6 7 % 6 ! 7 6 ! 7 f x f x x a a x a a a x a + + + +
Ietting
!
y x , this equation may be written as follows:
! ! ! !
& ! ! &
% 6 ! 7 6 ! 7 y a a y a a a y a + + +
This equation has roots of
! !
& !
x x and
!

x . If the procedure was

applied again, another polynomial would be derived with roots of
< <
& !
x x and
<

x . If computed a third time, they would be

" "
& !
x x
and
"

x and so forth with each repetition.

The general process of an n
th
degree polynomial would be in the
following forms:
! & ! !
& ! ! & <
% 6 ! 7 6 ! ! 7
n n n
y a a y a a a a y

+ + + +
! !
! < & # $
6 ! ! ! 7 ...
n
n
a a a a a a y a

+ + +
'R
Roots of )lgebraic and Transcendental Equations &(&$
!
n
< n
"
E &
$ !
#
!
<
n
$
# &
< !
!

! n
<
&
!
!
& n
!
!
& n
a ... y
a !
a a !
a a !
a a !
a
y
a !
a a !
a a !
a
y
a !
a a !
a
y
a !
a
y % + +

'

'

'

+
+

'

+

) solution may be set up as follows:
Bonsider
& !
% & ! &
6 7 ....
n n n
n n
f x a x a x a x a x a

+ + + + +
,
m a
0
x
n
a
1
x
n-1
a
2
x
n-2
a
3
x
n-3
. a
n-1
x a
n
x
0
cycle
1 a
0
a
1
a
2
a
3
. a
n-1
a
n
1
a
0
2
a
1
2
a
2
2
a
3
2
. a
n-1
2
a
n
2
-2a
0
a
2
-2a
1
a
3
-2a
2
a
4
. . .
+2a
0
a
4
+2a
1
a
5
. . .
-2a
0
a
6
. . .
2 b
0
b
1
b
2
b
3
. b
n-1
b
n
2
b
0
2
b
1
2
b
2
2
b
3
2
. b
n-1
2
b
n
2
-2b
0
b
2
-2b
1
b
3
-2b
2
b
4
. . .
+2b
0
b
4
+2b
1
b
5
. . .
-2b
0
b
6
. . .
4 c
0
c
1
c
2
c
3 . c
n-1
c
n 3
r (c
1
/c
0
)
1/m
(c
2
/c
1
)
1/m
(c
3
/c
2
)
1/m
. (c
n-1
/c
n-2
)
1/m
(c
n
/c
n-1
)
1/m
Barefully inspect the coefficient of the polynomial for a pattern.
The solution of the original polynomial can ta;e three different
forms as follows:
2 Real and +istinct roots
2 Real and Equal roots
2 Bomplex roots
)fter many cycles of squaring, the coefficients of the derived
polynomial are the squares of the terms in the preceeding cycle.
This is ;nown as the regular solution and yields Real and +istinct
roots. The roots 6En;e7 are as follows:
Roots of )lgebraic and Transcendental Equations &(&E
)gain consider the polynomial, but in factored form as shown:
!
& !
6 7 % f x x a x a x a + + +
& !
6 7 % 6 76 76 7 f x x x x x x x
!
& ! & ! & ! & !
% 6 7 6 7 6 7 % x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x + + + + +
Therefore, the original coefficients are as follows:
& & !
6 7 a x x x + +
! & ! & !
6 7 a x x x x x x + +
& !
a x x x
8e recall that the sign has been lost so we use the En;e roots as
the basis 6
& & ! !
, , .. x r x r etc
7. Then the following is true:
& & !
6 7 a r r r + +
! & ! & !
6 7 a r r r r r r + +
& !
a r r r
)s the cycles 6m7 continue, the derived polynomial becomes the
following:
!
& !
% y b y b y b + + +
The En;e root relationship is then as follows:
Roots of )lgebraic and Transcendental Equations &(&"
& & !
6 7
m m m
b r r r + +
! & ! & !
6 7
m m m m m m
b r r r r r r + +

& !
6 7
m m m
b r r r
If we consider only the dominant terms in each expression the
following occurs:
& &
m
r b
& ! !
m m
r r b
& !
m m m
r r r b
These become the following:
& &
m
r b
( )
&
& &
m
r b
!
!
&
m
b
r
b

&
!
!
&
m
b
r
b
_

!
m
b
r
b

&

!
m
b
r
b
_

,
&
m
n
n
n
b
r
b

&
&
m
n
n
n
b
r
b

_

,
Roots of )lgebraic and Transcendental Equations &(&F
The En;e roots only lac; the proper sign and either positive or
negative may be correct, so a chec; is necessary.
Example &.&!(&
)fter many cycles of squaring, the coefficients of the derived
polynomial are the squares of the terms in the proceeding cycle
with the exception of one term is J the square of the term in the
proceeding cycle, and two of the roots are equal 6that and the next7.
*urther, if one term is
&
C

the square of the term in the proceeding

cycle, three of the roots are equal 6that and the next two7. EtcH
The roots 6En;e7 will have a relationship similar to the following
6this assumes r
&
=r
!
7:
If we consider only the dominant terms in each expression the
following occurs:
& & !
6 7
m m m
b r r r + +
& &
!
m
r b
! & ! & !
6 7
m m m m m m
b r r r r r r + +
!
& !
m
r b
& !
6 7
m m m
b r r r
!
&
m m
r r b
These become the following:
& &
!
m
r b
&
&
&
!
m
b
r
_

,
!
& !
m
r b
( )
&
!
& ! !
m
r b r
!
&
m m
r r b
&

!
m
b
r
b
_

,
Roots of )lgebraic and Transcendental Equations &(!%
&
m
n
n
n
b
r
b

&
&
m
n
n
n
b
r
b

_

,
If the second term was J the square of the term in the previous
cycle it would loo; li;e the following 6this assumes r
!
=r

7:
If we consider only the dominant terms in each expression the
following occurs:
& & !
6 7
m m m
b r r r + +
& &
m
r b
! & ! & !
6 7
m m m m m m
b r r r r r r + +
& ! !
!
m m
r r b
& !
6 7
m m m
b r r r
!
& !
m m
r r b
These become the following:
& &
m
r b
( )
&
& &
m
r b
& ! !
!
m m
r r b
&
!
!
&
!
m
b
r
b
_

,
!
& !
m m
r r b
&
!

!
&
m
b
r r
b
_


,
&
m
n
n
n
b
r
b

&
&
m
n
n
n
b
r
b

_

,
Roots of )lgebraic and Transcendental Equations &(!&
Ta;e note of the pattern of the powers.
If the first term was &C the square of the term in the previous cycle
it would loo; li;e the following 6this assumes r
&
=r
!
=r

7:
If we consider only the dominant terms in each expression the
following occurs:
& & ! <
6 7
m m m m
b r r r r + + +
& &

m
r b
! & ! & & < ! ! < <
6 7
m m m m m m m m m m m m
b r r r r r r r r r r r r + + + + +
!
& !

m
r b
& ! & ! < & < ! <
6 7
m m m m m m m m m m m m
b r r r r r r r r r r r r + + +

&
m
r b
These become the following:
& &

m
r b
&
&
&

m
b
r
_

,
!
& !

m
r b
&
!
& !
&
m
b
r r
b
_


,

&
m
r b
&

&
!

m
b
r r
b
_


,
&
m
n
n
n
b
r
b

&
&
m
n
n
n
b
r
b

_

,
Roots of )lgebraic and Transcendental Equations &(!!
The En;e roots, once again, only lac; the proper sign and either @
or 2 may be correct 6chec; it7
Example &.&!(!
)fter many cycles of squaring, the coefficients of the derived
polynomial are the squares of the terms in the proceeding cycle,
except one or more terms have a sign fluctuation 68DKL7, two of
the roots are complex 6that and the next7. The roots 6En;e7 will
have a relationship similar to the following 6this assumes r

M r
<
are
the complex pair7.
If we consider only the dominant terms in each expression, the
following occurs:
( )

Re cos sin
i
x R i u iv

+ +
( )
<
Re cos sin
i
x R i u iv

8here then, in simple form, the following is true:
& i
! !
R u v +
The form of the coefficients will become the following:
& & !
6 7
m m m i m i m
b r r R e e

+ + +

!
! & ! & & ! !
6 7 6 7 6 7 6 7
m m i m i m i m i m m
b r r r Re r Re r Re r Re R

+ + + + +
! !
& ! & ! & !
6 7 6 7 6 7 6 7
i m i m m m
b r r Re r r Re r R r R

+ + +

!
< & !
6 7
m
b r r R

Roots of )lgebraic and Transcendental Equations &(!
These become the following:
& & !
! 6cos 7
m m m
b r r R m + +
!
! & ! & !
! 6 cos 7
m m m m m m
b r r R r r m R + + +
!
& ! & !
!6 7 cos 6 7
m m m m
b r r R m R r r + +
!
< & !
6 7
m
b r r R
If we consider only the dominant terms in each expression, the
following occurs:
& &
m
r b
( )
& ! !
m
r r b
( )
& !
! cos
m
r r R m b
( )
!
& ! <
m
r r R b
These become the following:
& &
m
r b
( )
&
& &
m
r b
( )
& ! !
m
r r b
&
!
!
&
m
b
r
b
_

,
+ividing the second and third equations we get the following:
Roots of )lgebraic and Transcendental Equations &(!<
!
<
!
cos
m
b
R m
b

&
!
<
!
m
b
R
b
_

,
:sing the fact that
! ! !
R u v +
the following is used to find u and
v:
& & ! <
6 7 a x x x x + + +

[ ]
& & !
6 7 6 7 a x x u vi u vi + + + +
& & !
6 ! 7 a x x u + +

The En;e roots, once again, only lac; the proper sign and either @
or 2 may be correct.
Example &.&!(
1.13 (airsto/s %ethod
If we divided a polynomial of n
th
degree by a quadratic equation,
the result will be a polynomial of n(! degree plus some remainder.
This remainder can be used to give a closer approximation of the
root quadratic equation. 8hen the remainder is 5ero, the quadratic
is a root equation. 8e will not be concerned with the derivation
6Names, -mith, 8olford7, 9ust the process as follows:
& ! &
& ! &
.... %
n n n n
n n
x a x a x a x a x a

+ + + + + +
( ) ( )
! ! <
& ! !
... %
n n n
n n
x ux v x b x b x b x b remainder


+ + + + + + + +
8e will simply call the derived polynomial as follows with the
terms in the brac;ets being the remainder:
Roots of )lgebraic and Transcendental Equations &(!#
[ ] ( )
! <
& ! ! &
...
n n n
n n n n
x b x b x b x b b b


+ + + + + + +
8e then divide the resulting polynomial by the quadratic equation
in order to derive an equation that has something to do with the
derivative of the original equation. 8e are not concerned about
the derivation. The following is the form of the second polynomial
with the terms in the brac;ets being the remainder:
[ ] ( )
< # $
& ! # < ! &
...
n n n
n n n n n
x c x c x c x c c c c


+ + + + + + + +
The solution may be set up as follows:
-u a
0
a
1
a
2
. a
n-3
a
n-2
a
n-1
a
n
0 -ub
0
-ub
1
-ub
n-4
-ub
n-3
-ub
n-2
-ub
n-1
-v 0 0 -vb
0
. -vb
n-5
-vb
n-4
-vb
n-3
-vb
n-2
-u b
0
b
1
b
2
. b
n-3
b
n-2
b
n-1
b
n
0 -uc
0
-uc
1
-uc
n-4
-uc
n-3
-uc
n-2
-v 0 0 -vc
0 . -vc
n-5
-vc
n-4
-vc
n-3
c
0
c
1
c
2
. c
n-3
c
n-2
c
n-1
:sing the above values, the approximation for the change in u and
v 6u and v7 is as follows:
!
&
& !
!
n n
n n
n n
n n
b c
b c
u
c c
c c

M
&
! &
& !
!
n n
n n
n n
n n
c b
c b
v
c c
c c

! &
u u u +
M
! &
v v v +
Bontinue the process until u and v are equal to 5ero. The roots
6!7 are as follows by the quadratic equation:
Roots of )lgebraic and Transcendental Equations &(!$
( )
!
% x ux v + +
with
!
&,!
<
!
u u v
x
t

Example &.&(&
Example &.&(!
Roots of )lgebraic and Transcendental Equations &(!E