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v + w = 5 8v 2w = 12 8v + 3w = 14

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1 1 1 a 1 1 1 a 1 1 1 a 2 2 5 b 0 0 3 2a + b 0 2 4 4a + c 0 0 3 2a + b 0 2 4 4a + c 4 6 8 c
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u + v + w = a 2u + 2v + 5w = b 4u + 4v + 8w = c
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2u 3v = 3 4u 5v + w = 7 2u v 3w = 5
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x + by z = 0 x 2y z = 0 y + z = 0

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AMH

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u + v + w = 2 3u + 3v w = 6 u v + w = 1
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? J K? @ FH J K? IK JA AIJ ? J JA @A =B=EHA JD? AN IMID? =F JD AN IMID !

2 = A?
/E= AC= JAH= IKIJ =J= @A A =E FH= JE = CHXB K A = = KJE X X A AN IMID =E = =J=CHXB K A JD =F= EB IK > EI ? FE X M A =E F GH IE ? 5JD @ANEX F AKHX E=? AN IMID? G K A = @EX KI = IJ D b 5J F=HX@AEC =   5 b = 2 . 9 5JD =HEIJAH F AKHX @EX KI = IJ D G K A J K? =C IJ K? J K? F K? AF ID? CHXB K A M? =

u x= v . w
K? CHXB K A M? =F = =

 " A JHAE? CH= ?

6 ? G K A J K? ' IK JA AIJ ? J K? F =E JHAE? IJ A?

2 1 1 A = 4 6 0 . 2 7 2

 #

)KJ ? A =E

=? JAJH=CM E

? F = =? ! AF ! F = =? A m CH= ? =E n IJ A? A =E E= IA m CH= ? =E n IJ A? AEI D IA H C EA? A JE F = =? A =E JAJH=CM E ? -X m = n A

@EXJ=ND mn FH=C =JE =HE F=HA IAE? -X m = n JE F = =? A =E F=H= D

HEI

? - =? m AF n F = =? CH=

E F = A? FH IJ A J=E =JX IK EIJ I= =E F =F =IEX J=E A =HE ? = HE> ? FM? J= @E= I =J= 5KG X = AMH A = n @EX KI = ? = n 1 F = = F H A = FH I I K A @ F = A? AX G K JE? @EA? @E=IJXIAE? @D =@ J @E =HE CH= =E J @E =HE IJD /E= F=HX@AEC = 2 1 1 6 5 5 1 + 6 4 3 = . + 4 6 0 2 7 2 2 1 2

2 1 1 4 6 0

6 3 3 12 18 0

ABX =E 

2 = A? =E )F=

EB Gauss

!

3HAE= =IJA IK > IK EIJ I= IJD CH= IK > AJ=E

EI CE= = = =BAH =IJA IA X A IK EIJ I= A ? F = = 0 i =E IJD IJ D j IK > AJ=E aij -JIE m n F = =? A

a11 a21 A= ai1

a12 a22 ai2

. . . a1j . . . a2j ... aij

. . . a1n . . . a2n . . . ain

am1 am2 . . . amj . . . amn

E= IK J AKID =KJ J K IK > EI A =E = CHXB K A A = [aij ] -JIE AX A = [aij ] =E B = [bij ] A =E m n F = A? G K A A + B = [aij + bij ] -F ID? IK > K A (A + B )ij JD IK EIJ I= IJD ID ij J K = H I =J ? A + B =E G K A

(A + B )ij = aij + bij ,

A

(B )ij = bij .
- @= A JE D IK @K=I ? JM x " 6 J E E AJ=N FE X M =HEIJAH F AKHX JD? AN IMID?   F HA = AMHD A M? CH= E ? IJD J K F = = A  # A IK JA AIJ ? JE? IK EIJ IA? J K @E= I =J ? IK @K=I A B= J=E IKG X =E =? @DC = H I K A E= FHXND =E @E= KI XJM

HEI ? 6 CE A J K m n F = = A A J n @EX KI = x A =E = m @EX KI = Ax J K F K D IK EIJ I= IJD ID i A =E J AIMJAHE CE A JD? i CH= ? J K A A J x Ax = (y1 , y2 , . . . , yn ) F K

yi = ai1 x1 + ai2 x2 + + ain xn , CE= i = 1, . . . , m

2H I NJA JD IG ID = X AI= IJE? @E=IJXIAE? J K m n F = = A J K n @E= I =J ? x =E J K m @E= I =J ? Ax

2=HX@AEC =   6 CE

A ? 3 3 F = = A = ! @EX KI = A =E 1 2 6 2 2 + 10 + 0 12 3 0 3 5 = 6 + 0 + 0 = 6 , 1 1 4 0 2+5+0 7 ? 2 3 F = = A = ! @EX KI = A =E = @EX KI = 2 1 2 6 2 + 10 + 0 12 5 = = . 3 0 3 6+0+0 6 0 IK @K=I

= ! @EX KI =

X J CE

- CG K A JE J @EX KI = Ax A =E FHXC =JE CH= E ? F = = A A IK JA AIJ ? JE? IK EIJ IA? J K @E= I =J ? x 1 2 6 2 1 2 3 0 3 5 = 2 3 + 5 0 + 0 1 1 4 0 1 1

? JM IJD

J K

6 12 3 = 6 . 4 7

"

-EI=CMC IJD /H=

) CA>H=

>

/E= = = =BAH A IJE? IK EIJ IA? J J EM CE EI CE= = H I =J=

n

IKG X GHDIE

F E

A J IK

(Ax)i =
j =1

aij xj .

= FH IF= I K A = A BHXI K A JD @E=@E =I = JD? =F= EB ? IM FE X M - = @E=B HAJE A @ ? CE K @E= I =J ? A F = = F K J H= CHXB K A J @EX KI = M? CH= =E IJ= =HEIJAHX J K F = = A =E D = K D 2 1 1 4 6 0 = 0 8 2 . 2 1 0 2 7 2 0 X A IK EIJ I= JD? CH= ? IJ= @ANEX A CH= A JD = J IJ EGD IJ D J K F = = @ANEX A =E J =F J AI = J K = =B=EH I K A @A JAHD @D =@ = HE> ? =KJ F K X = A IJD 0 0 1 J @E = = A JD CH= 2 1 4 6 0 0 1 2 7 =E J AIMJAHE CE A J K @E= I =J ? 2=H=JDH A JE DHD D CH= IJ= B H ? JD FH JD CH= J K F = = =F JD =F= EB IJ I IJD =   -B=H K A

1 0 = 2

2 7 2

.
=IJA J K

6 =F J AI = A =E D JH JD CH= J K F = = )F =KJ ? JE? F=H=JDH IAE? @DC IJD @K =J JDJ= = A BHXI K A J FH J > = JD? =F= EB ? IM F =F =IE=I F = =A A = F = =E 1 0 0 2 1 1 2 1 1 E A = 2 1 0 4 6 0 = 0 8 2 0 0 1 2 7 2 2 7 2 AMH A J m n F = = A =E J n p F = = B 6 m p F = =? F ? GAE IJ EGA IJD ID ij J AIMJAHE CE J K A =E JD? j IJ D? J K B
n

 $

HEI

CE

AB A =E JD? i CH= ?

(AB )ij =
k=1

aik bkj , CE= i = 1, . . . , m =E j = 1, . . . , p

FH FAE =HE ? JM IJD J K A = A =E I ? A J =HE

/E= = H AJ=E J CE JM CH= J KB

A 2

2=HX@AEC = 
F = =B

=F =IE=I

? AJ

2 2 F = = I =B AE = AJX> DJ J = 2 3 7 4 6 0 .

23

IB =

1 0 0 1

2 3 7 4 6 0

2=HX@AEC =  !
H J=E =E E @

F =F =IE=I ? FE X M @A A =E AJ= AJE F = A? AB =E BA

? =

D =E J=

AB =

1 6

2 1

ABX =E 

2 = A? =E )F=

EB Gauss

#

BA=

2 1

1 6

2 12 1 6

2=HX@AEC =  " 2
CH= ?J KB F

=F =IE=I ? =F J= =HEIJAHX A J F = = P A = XIIAE JE? =F =IE=I ? A J P =F J= @ANEX A = XIIAE JE? IJ A? J K B

PB=

0 1 1 0 2 3 7 8

2 3 7 8 0 1 1 0

7 8 2 3 3 2 8 7

BP =
- J ? =F J HEI AMH IAE? A =E IKG X F

.
E = K A? @ JM

J K F =F =IE=I GH IE A?

FE X M F K @ I= A

2H J=ID  
CH=

 0 i CH= J K F = = AB A =E ID A J CH= E IK @K=I J K B A IK JA AIJ ? JE? IK EIJ IA? JD? i CH= ?JKA IK @K=I JM IJD

0 j IJ D J K F = = AB A =E ID A J CH= E IK JA AIJ ? JE? IK EIJ IA? JD? j IJ D? J K B

JKA A

)F @AEND 0 i CH=
(AB )i1 . . . (AB )ip
/HXOJA J = X C KF

J K AB A =E
n

=
CEI

n k=1

aik bk1 . . .
A?

n k=1

aik bkp

=
k=1

aik

bk1 . . . bkp

CE= JE? IJ

2H J=ID 

F =F =IE=I ? FE X M A =E FH IAJ=EHEIJE ? =E AFE AHEIJE ? M? FH ? JD FH I AID 5KC A HE = AX A, B A =E m n F = A? C, D A =E n p F = A? =E E A =E p q F = =? J JA 

A(CE ) = (AC )E , A(C + D) = AC + AD

IK > EI

(A + B )C = AC + BC .
G K A

)F @AEND 0 =F @AEND JD? FH IAJ=EHEIJE ? E@E JDJ=? =F JA A XI DID IJD GH ID J K

CE= J= = H I =J= /E= i = 1, . . . , m =E j = 1, . . . , q
n

(A(CE ))ij =
k=1 n

aik (CE )kj

p

=
k=1 n

aik
t=1 p

ckt etj aik ckt etj

=
k=1 t=1

$ = X F H A == XN K A JD IAEHX A JD
p

-EI=CMC IJD /H=

) CA>H=

F = F= H
n

K A J= = H I =J=

(A(CE ))ij = =
t=1 p

aik ckt etj

t=1 k=1 p n

aik ckt
k=1

etj

=
t=1

(AC )it etj

= ((AC )E )ij .
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)I DID  " 7F

1 2 7

C IJA J= @ AIMJAHE X CE A = =E J CE 1 3 1 2 , 1 2 7 5 , 2 , 7 1 7 C IJA J= CE A = FE X M 0, 5 2 1 0 /2 1 2 3 2/3 1 6 cos(/6) 7 1 0 0 0 2 0 3 2 2 1 0 3 /3 3 1 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 2 0 0 1/2 0 1 0 3 1/3 0 1/3

3 5 1

)I DID  # 7F

)I DID  $ 7F
D@A E @EX KI =

C IJA J CE A Ax CE= = >HA JA = ID J K IKIJ F HA JA = >HA JA X A? IAE? J K Ax = 0 3 6 0 2 2 2 1 . Ax = 0 1 1 1 1

=J ? Ax =

)I DID  % /HXOJA J K? ! AF ! F = A? A =E B A IJ EGA =

aij = i j
=E KF JM @AE J C IJA J= CE A = AB BA =E A2 =E

bij =

1 . j

)I DID  & -X J= IJ EGA = J K F = = A A =E aij GHDIE F E IJA J IK > EI

CE= = CHXOAJA

ABX =E 

2 = A? =E )F=

EB Gauss

%

= J > J C 6 @ J

FH J F

@DC ? J= JD =B=EH A =F JD CH=

=F =IE=IJ li1 JD? FH JD? CH= IJ EGA

F K = JE = EIJX J aij AJX =KJ JD =B= HAID

@A JAH

@DC ? J K CE K EA =E JE? IJ A? J K AE J=

)I DID  ' 2AHECHXOJA JE? CH=

E=

1 7 0 1

)I DID  

AMH A JE E IJ A? J K n n F = = A A =E J= @E= I =J= c1 , c2 , . . . , cn =E E CH= ? J K n n F = = B A =E J= @E= I =J= CH= ? r1 , r2 , . . . , rn 6 CE A ci ri A =E =? n n F = =? @A JA J 2=HX@AEC =  ! - BHXIJA J CE A AB M? X H EI = J J EM FE X M

)I DID   )F @A NJA JD AFE AHEIJE

F E J=? J IK > EI = H I =J ?

E@E JDJ= J K F

=F =IE=I

FE X M GHDIE

)I DID 
F

*HA JA F I K? F =F =IE=I ? =HE =F =IEXIAJA = 2 3 F = = A = 3 5 F = =

GHAEX AJ=E = X AJA CE= =

)I DID  ! ) D ? OAK@ ? ,E =E

C IJA JD =FX JDI I=? @E IK >= AE =E A JD @E IK >= AE =E A JD @E IK >= AE =E A JD @E IK >= AE =E A JD

= -X D FH JD =E D JH JD IJ D J K F = = A A =E @EA? J FH JD =E JD JH JD IJ D J K F = = AB > -X D FH JD =E D JH JD IJ D J K F = = B A =E @EA? J FH JD =E JD JH JD IJ D J K F = = AB C -X D FH JD =E D JH JD CH= J K F = = A A =E @EA? J FH JD =E JD JH JD CH= J K F = = AB @ -X D FH JD =E D JH JD CH= J K F = = B A =E @EA? J FH JD =E JD JH JD CH= J K F = = AB

KF CEI J K CE K AB =F=EJ J=E mnr F =F =IE=I =HE 5A =KJ J FH > D = @A =? =F=IG A =HE ? JM FH I IAM  -X C A =E F = =? r p >HA JA F I EF =F =IE=I =HE =F=EJ J=E CE= J KF CEI JM CE M (AB )C =E A(BC )

)I DID  " -X A A =E F = =? m n =E B A =E F = =? n r @A NJA JE CE= J

)I DID  # , @ J=E F = A? A, B, C, D A J= = K = AC D A : 5 14 B : 14 87 C : 87 3 =E D : 3 42 *HA JA F I E F =F =IE=I =F=EJ J=E CE= = KF C IAJA J CE A ABCD A J K? = K K? JH F K?
= (A(BC ))D > A(B (CD))

&

-EI=CMC IJD /H=

) CA>H=

- BH=ID JD? =F=

EB ?

IM FE X M
IM

FM? A @= A IJ  $ J FH J > = JD? =F= EB ? IJ I IJD =   FAHECHXBAJ=E F =F =IE=I =F =HEIJAHX J K F = = IK JA AIJ A =JX D F = =

HEI ? F = =? F K GAE 1 IJD @E=C E =E 0 IA A? JE? X A? IAE? X AJ=E J=KJ JE ? F = =? F = =? F K GAE 1 IJD @E=C E =E = 0 IA XF E= ID ij CE= i = j A GAE 0 IJE? KF EFA? IAE? X AJ=E IJ EGAE @D? F = =? =E

IK > AJ=E Eij () J= F =F =IEX K A = F = = A =F J= =HEIJAHX A J Eij () J =F J AI = A =E = =B=EH A B H ? JD CH= j =F JD CH= iJ KA J= F =F =IEX K A = F = = A =F J= @ANEX A J Eij () J =F J AI = A =E = =B=EH A B H ? JD IJ D i =F JD IJ D j J K A 2H I NJA JD @E=B HX IJD @EXJ=ND JM @AE J )? AB=H I K A =KJ JD @E=@E =I = IJ I IJD =   >X @ANEX? F AKHX? IJ AF=KND F = = 2 1 1 5 4 6 0 2 . 2 7 2 9  )B=EH J=? =E J @EX KI = b JD?

A 2 B H ? JD FH JD CH= =F JD @A JAHD 2 1 1 5 1 0 0 2 1 1 5 0 8 2 12 = 2 1 0 4 6 0 2 2 7 2 9 0 0 1 2 7 2 9

)B=EH A 1 B HX JD FH JD CH= =F JD JH JD 2 1 1 5 1 0 0 1 0 0 2 1 1 5 0 8 2 12 = 0 1 0 2 1 0 4 6 0 2 0 8 3 14 (1) 0 1 0 0 1 2 7 2 9 ! )B=EH A 1 B HX JD @A JAHD CH= =F JD 2 1 1 5 0 8 2 12 = 0 0 1 2 1 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 0 2 0 (1) 1 1 0 1 0 JH JD

0 0 2 1 1 5 1 0 4 6 0 2 0 1 2 7 2 9 = 0 0 1 J

* F K A JE J K F = = A =F F =F =IE=I ? J= =HEIJAHX FH J= A J E 1 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 2 1 0 =J FE A J F = 0 1 0 =E J ? A J G = 0 1 0 0 1 (1) 0 1 0 (1) GAE J @E =F J AI = A JD =F= EB Gauss 6 @E F H A = X K A =E A @EX KI = b 0 =F= EB Gauss C AJ=E

[A b] E [A b] F E [A b] GF E [A b] .

ABX =E 

2 = A? =E )F=

EB Gauss

'

3HDIE F E J=? JD FH IAJ=EHEIJE E@E JDJ= =J= C K A JE F H A = A BHXI K A JD =F= EB M? F =F =IE=I J K F = = A =E J K @E= I =J ? b A J CE A GF E 6 =HGE I IJD = AX = b C AJ=E

GF EAx = GF Eb .
- =? XJM =F JD @E=C - =? F = =? A = @E=C E A =E I=

HEI

F = =? A = [aij ] X AJ=E X M JHECM E ? AX = J= IJ EGA = E A =E I= A 0 @D =@ AX aij = 0 J= i > j [aij ] X AJ=E XJM JHECM E ? AX = J= IJ EGA = FX M =F JD A 0 @D =@ AX aij = 0 J= i < j ? F = =? =E G K A

-X CHXO K A U = GF EA =E c = GF Eb U A =E X M JHECM E = I K A J I IJD = Ux = c J F =HGE F J A CE= = I K A IK >

) X CH= CH=

AJ=E A = X@H D = JE =JXIJ=ID =E GAE = HE> ? J @E I IAM A J I IJD = H A = = =EH I K A J= > =J= JD? =F= EB ? CE= = FX A =F J F = = U I FH FAE = = =EH I K A = = > = A JD = J IJH BD IAEHX - =E B= AH JE = =EH I K A J =F J AI = J K F =F =IE=I A J G =H A = F =F =IEX A J F = = F K FH I JAE (1) B H ? JD @A JAHD CH= IJD JH JD J F 1 K AG 1 0 0 G1 = 0 1 0 . 0 1 1 1 0 0 C= H K A J F = = F 1 = 0 1 0 F K FH I JAE (1) B HX JD FH JD 1 0 1 1 0 0 IJD JH JD =E J F = = E 1 = 2 1 0 F K FH I JAE B H ? JD FH JD 0 0 1 IJD @A JAHD =E G K A

E 1 F 1 G1 U = A .
6 CE A

E 1 F 1 G1 J IK >

K A L -G K A CHXOAE J

F = = A I= CE

A = LU .
F H A = A JA I K A =KJ JD @E=@E =I = IA F E @ F JA JAJH=CM E n n F = = =H A J= IJ EGA = F K A B= J=E IJD @E=C E =JX JD =F= EB = D A =E D@ 5A =KJ JD FAH FJMID A JE D @E=@E =I = =F= EB ? >H I AE = F HA? I @DC

)I DID  $ 7F

C IJA J CE

L = E 1 F 1 G1

* F K A JE L IJ F=HX@AEC = A =E XJM JHECM E ? A  IJD @E=C E =E J K? F =F =IE=IJ ? XJM =F JD @E=C E = @A N K A JE =KJ @A A =E JKG= L A =E 1 1 1 1 J CE A E F G JM FE X M F K = =EH J= > =J= JD? =F= EB ? G A =E IJ EGAE @D? F = =? E32 (1) A J = J IJ EG F =F =IE=IJ 32 = 1 IJD ID 3 2 F 1 A =E IJ EGAE @D? F = =? E31 (1) A J = J IJ EG F =F =IE=IJ 31 = 1

 IJD ID 3 1 2 =F =IE=I 31 B H ? JD FH JD CH= J F JA J =F J AI = A =E =F CE K 1 0 0 1 31 0

-EI=CMC IJD /H=

) CA>H=

? J K E32 (1) A J E31 (1) =F J= =HEIJAHX FH I JAE K E32 IJD JH JD CH= ) X D FH JD CH= A =E [1 0 0] ? = A B= EIJA F =F =IE=IJ ? 31 IJD ID 3 1 J K

0 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 = 0 1 0 . 1 0 32 1 31 32 1
F =F =IE=IJ 21 IJD

2=H E= F =F =IE=I ? A J F = = E 1 J F AJA J ID 2 1 GMH ? = = XNAE J= X = IJ EGA = J K F = = -JIE G K A

L = E 1 F 1 G1 = E21 (21 )E31 (31 )E32 (32 ) 1 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 = 21 1 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 31 0 1 0 32 1 1 0 0 21 1 0 = 31 32 1

2H J=ID  ! -X IJ n n I IJD = Ax = b D @E=@E =I = =F= EB ? >H I AE = F HA? I @DC GMH ? = GHAE=IJA = X K A A = =C ? CH= J JA F = =? A CHXBA J=E M? CE A A = LU F K
L A =E XJM JHECM E JD @E=C E U A =E X M JHECM E
? ? A 1 IJD @E=C E =E J K? F E =? JH F ? =F =IE=IJ ? ij XJM =F

A J K? @DC ? IJD @E=C

0 F=H=C J F DID A = LU GAE ACX D FH= JE ID =I = ,A A =E =F X = F=H=IJ I K A JD =F= EB 0 AN IMID Ax = b C AJ=E

LU x = b.
) X AX CHXO K A c = U x ANEI IAE? F H A = = JE =J=IJ I K A JD =HGE AN IMID A JE? @

LC = b,
-JIE CE= = I K A JD =HGE Lc = b =E =J FE J x F K E = @ IKIJ =J= A =E JHECM E X   D AN IMID Lc = b C AJ=E 1 2 1 @D =@

U x = c.

AN IMID =H A = >H A J c F K E = F EA JD AN IMID F EA JD AN IMID U x = c 6 ID = JE A =E JE =KJX J= =E IK AF ? A =E A = J= I K A 5J F=HX@AEC =

0 0 1 0 1 1

5 c1 c2 = 2 c3 9

c1 = 5 2c1 + c2 = 2 c1 c2 + c3 = 9
=F F K G K A A AK A = = JE =JXIJ=ID c1 = 5, c2 = 12, c3 = 2

ABX =E 

2 = A? =E )F=

EB Gauss

0 AN IMID U x = c J H= C AJ=E 2 1 1 0 8 2 0 0 1 JD

x 5 y = 12 z 2
K JE =KJX J= IKIJ =J= G K

F = K A A = =@H = JE =JXIJ=ID 0 AK A = =E D = X@H D = JE =JXIJ=ID AN=IB= =@E ID E A =E = @E=B HAJE X =F J D@

2H J=ID  " -X U A =E n n X M JHECM E ? F = =? J K F K J= IJ EGA = IJD

@E=C J JA X A I IJD =

Ux = b
GAE =@E ID 6 @E EIG AE CE= XJM JHECM E IJ EGA = A =E D D@A E X F = =JK F K = J= @E=C E=

- J ? =F JD F=H=C J F DID A = LU = EX B HX GHDIE F E A E= FE IK AJHE F=H=C J F DID CHXB K A J U M? CE A A ? @E=C E K F = = D A J K? @DC ? IJD @E=C E =E A ? X M JHECM E F = = U A 1 IJD @E=C E

A = LDU . U =F JA A J=E =F JE? CH= ? J K U @E=EHA A? A 2 1 1 2 0 0 1 0 8 2 0 8 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 0

J = J IJ EG 1/2 1/2 1 1/4 . 0 1 @DC

2=H F K D IAEHX A JD F = X K A J= > =J= JD? =F= EB ? GMH ? A = =C ? F HA = = XNAE J JA E =F J AI = A =E =@E FM? = @A NAJA IJD )I DID  !

)I DID  % 6 CE

A @ XJM JHECM E FE X M A =E FX E XJM JHECM E ? F = =?  = J= IJ EGA = FX M =F JD HE= @E=C E A =E D@  -N= HE> IJA JE EIG AE A = F=HX@AEC = FE X M 3 3 =E =J FE ANDC IJA =KJ J =F J AI = GHDIE F E J=? J K? = A? J K F =F =IE=I FE X M

)I DID  & -B=H IJA =F= EB CE= = >HA JA J K? F=HXC JA? L =E U JM FE X M
2 1 8 7 , 3 1 1 1 3 1 1 1 3 , 1 1 1 1 4 4 1 4 8

)I DID  '

IJA JD 1 1 1

AN IMID 0 0 2 4 4 u 2 1 0 0 1 2 v = 0 0 1 0 0 1 w 2

= =

JX? JD IA @

JHECM E ? ANEI IAE? Lc = b =E U x = c

-EI=CMC IJD /H=

) CA>H=

)I DID  ! ,A NJA JE D F=H=C J F DID A = LDU A ? F = = A =E

FX M =F JD @E=C

=@E

)I DID  ! 7F

E 

C IJA J= CE

A = F GH =E HGF  G K A F=H= A OAE J= D@A E X

1 2 1 F = 0 0 1 0 0 0 1

1 0 1 G= 0 2 1 0 0 0 1

1 0 1 . H= 0 0 1 0 0 2 1

)I DID  !
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2=H=C J F E IJA J F = = A IA CE A LU =E CHXOJA J X M I IJD = U x = c F K FH FJAE AJX JD =F= EB CE= J I IJD =

u 2 2 3 3 v = 2 . Ax = 0 5 7 5 6 9 8 w

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E= 1 0 6 1

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- =

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= [1/a]

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2H J=ID  ' 6 CE
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F 1 G1 (GF EA)A1 = E
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j = 1, . . . , n.

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1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1

1 0 0 2 1 0 1 0 1 1 0 0 2 1 0 1 1 1

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=   -X

? F = =? U GAE

D@A E

IJ EGA

IJD @E=C

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W = UM .
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HB ? n n F = =? J JA D @E=@E =I = JD? =F= EB ? Gauss F = =U F ? GAE J K XGEIJ = D@A E IJ EGA

A = P 1 LU .
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A HD =  ! - =? F = =? A =E E@E
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HB ? AX

=E

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AX KFXHG K 0 0 2 0 4 2 0 , 1 3 1 3 3 0 1 2

1 2 1 3 1 0 2 3 1

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= J IJH B J K 1 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 4 A= 1 1 1 0 . 3 3 1 1 1 1 2 2 2

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2 = A? =E )F=

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F E

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b 0 d 0 . 0 e
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A I

0 2 1 0 2 2 0 1

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IJA

2x 7 1 2 2x x 5 3

2 7 1 4 3 2 5 4

>

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J JA @A A =E = JEIJH OE ?

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CH=

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=E E JHA ? F = A? A, B, A + B A =E = JEIJH OE

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)I DID  #& 7F

JE? @ F H

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IJH OE ? AX (I BA)B

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2=HX@AEC =  &
2 1 8 7

2 8 1 7

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HEI

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? AX AT = A @D =@ X AJ=E = JEIK

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D A =E @E=C

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LT = U .

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4 5 6 1 2 3 0 1 2

1 1 3 1 2 0 . 3 0 4

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2 = A? =E )F=

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3 4

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8 6

9 7 . 4 9

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0 0 1 P1 = 0 1 0 1 0 0

0 0 1 =E P2 = 1 0 0 . 0 1 0

-NDC IJA CE=J CE= F = A? AJ= IAM? P EIG AE FX J= P 1 = P T @A NJA JE J=  >H I J=E IJD IMIJ ID IJA = EIG AE P P T = I

)I DID  $% - =E J= =
OAK@ = - =? 4 4 F = =? A > - =? F = =? A  IJD C -X A A =E = JEIJH OE

=E =F @A NAE? AX A =E = D

K = = D D@

OAK@

, IJA = JEF=H=@A C =J= AX A =E ?

= CH= HE= @E=C

@A A =E = JEIJH OE ?

E A =E = JEIJH OE ? ?

? J JA A1 A =E = JEIJH OE ? J JA A A =E = JEIJH OE D D@A E

@ -X AT A =E = JEIJH OE

)I DID  $& ,A NJA JE KFXHG K

JE A A = 0
T

J= A = 0

F = A? CE= J K? F

K? A2 = 0 =

-EI=CMC IJD /H=

) CA>H=

)I DID  $' 2=H=C J F E IJA J K? =

A = LDLT
F K D A =E @E=C

A1 =

1 3 3 2

K K? IK AJHE ? F = A? IJD E ? =E L XJM JHECM E ? 2 1 0 1 b A2 = A3 = 1 2 1 . b c 0 1 2

HB

)I DID  % 7F
m m IK AJHE
= 6E IG ? = GAE

IJA JE

F = =? R A =E m n F=H= D AJHE E ?

CH=

=E

A A =E

F = =? RT AR ,A NJA JE A =E IK GAE =H DJE ? JE ? IJD @E=C

> ,A NJA JE

RT R @A

ABX =E 2 = A? =E ,E= KI =JE 7F GMH E

K A = ANAJXI K A KF I = JM FHXNAE? JM @E= KI XJM AMH A FH -X FH I I K A @ @E= I =J= J K F =F =IEXI K A = @EX KI = J K @E= KI =JE G HM Rn IJ= F = H J=E E 2 J= = AK A = IJ R = {(x, y ) | 3x +2y = 6} IK K J X H EI = @A = AE IJ -X A = =HE J CE A @A = AE IJ X

(2, 0) , (0, 3)

(2, 0) + (0, 3) , 2(2, 0) .

) JE JM? CE= JD AK A = = {(x, y ) | 3x + 2y = 0} AX (x1 , y1 ) , (x2 , y2 ) =E R J JA

(x1 , y1 ) + (x2 , y2 ) = (x1 + x2 , y1 + y2 )

=E

(x1 , y1 ) = (x1 , y1 ) .

) X C= IJ R3 J AF FA@ = {(u, v, w) | 2u + v + w = 0} GAE JD E@E JDJ= JE AX a, b J JA a + b =E b A J AF FA@ = {(u, v, w) | 2u + v + w = 5} @A GAE =KJ JD E@E JDJ=

HEI ? - = KF I KF GMH ?  CH= E

 V @A A =E A

V J K @E= KI =JE G H K Rn ? KF GMH ? J K Rn AX

X AJ=E

@E= KI =JE

V =

V A =E
! V A =E a V

AEIJ M? FH ? JD FH I AID AX a, b V J JA a + b V AEIJ M? FH ? J F =F =IE=I A =HE AX a V =E R J JA

6= =E ! = I= IJ V

ID =

JE E CH= A

IK @K=I

JM IJ EGA M J K V F=HX

2=HX@AEC =

JE AX V A =E KF GMH ? J K Rn J JA J D@A E n @EX KI = 0 = (0, . . . , 0) R = AE IJ V 2HXC =JE =B V @A A =E A KFXHGAE XF E a V =E 0 = a + (1)a V 6 I {(0, . . . , 0) Rn } A =E @E= KI =JE ? KF GMH ? J K Rn 5J R3 @E= KI =JE KF GMH E A =E ? G H ? R3 X A AF FA@ F K FAHE GAE J 0 R3 X A AK A = F K FAHE GAE J 0 R3 J I {0 R3 } !!

 2=H=JDH

!" = A AJ I K A HEI K? @E= KI =JE J=E A = I IJD = m ANEI IAM A n =C

-EI=CMC IJD /H=

) CA>H=

? KF GMH K? J K Rm =E J K Rn F K IK @ IJ K? A = mn F = =

2=HX@AEC =

AMH

AJ I 1 5 2

IJD = Ax = b 0 b1 u 4 = b2 . v 4 b3

2 JA GAE J I IJD = ID -X KFXHGAE ID IJM (u0 , v0 ) J JA J @EX KI = (b1 , b2 , b3 ) CHXBAJ=E M? CH= E ? IK @K=I ? JM IJD J KA 0 1 b1 b2 = u0 5 + v0 4 . 4 2 b3 ) J IJH B= AX J @EX KI = F HA = CH=BJA M? CH= E ? IK @K=I ? JM IJD J K A J JA E IK JA AIJ ? J K CH= E IK @K=I =F JA E= ID J K IKIJ =J ? 5K AF ? J I IJD = GAE ID AX =E AX J @EX KI = b F HA = CH=BJA M? CH= E ? IK @K=I ? JM IJD J K A 6 I JM CH= E IK @K=I JM IJD J K A A =E J I V = {1 (1, 5, 2) + 2 (0, 4, 4) | 1 , 2 R} 6 I V @A A =E A AB I (1, 5, 2) V =E A =E AEIJ M? FH ? JD FH I AID =E J F =F =IE=I A =HE 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 5 + 2 4 + 1 5 + 2 4 = (1 + 1 ) 5 + (2 + 2 ) 4 2 4 2 4 2 4 =E 1 0 1 0 1 5 + 2 4 = 1 5 + 2 4 . 2 4 2 4 M JM CH= E IK @K=I JM IJD m A =E @E= KI =JE ? KF GMH ? J K R F ? X AJ=E G H IK > AJ=E R(A) CA

HEI

? 6 I

J K mn F = = A IJD J K A =E

2H FAE = @A N K A JE FHXC =JE R(A) A =E CH= E ? KF GMH ? 0 =F @AEND A =E =F AKID J K FH DC A K F=H=@A C =J ? =E JD =B K A M? XI DID 2=H=JDH A JE b R(A) AX =E AX J I IJD = Ax = b GAE ID 2HXC =JE E IK EIJ IA? J K @E= I =J ? x A =E = HE> ? E IK JA AIJ ? J K CH= E IK @K=I JM IJD J K A F K @ @AE J b E H JAH ? @K =J ? G H ? IJD A =E D@A E ? KF GMH ? F K =F JA A J=E =F J D@A E @EX KI = IJ Rm =KJ ? A =E G H ? IJD J K D@A E F = =A=0 5J X X H G H ? IJD J K J=KJ JE m m F = = A =E ? G H ? Rm m X A @EX KI = J K R CHXBAJ=E M? CH= E ? IK @K=I ? JM IJD e1 , e2 , . . . , em J K I (b1 , b2 , . . . , bm ) = b1 e1 + b2 e2 + + bm em . 6 @E EIG AE CE= X A D E@E HB m m F = = A G H ? IJD J K A FAHE GAE m = J= @E= I =J= J K R D AN IMID Ax = b GAE ID CE= X A @EX KI = b Rm

x1 =E x2 A =E @

2=HX@AEC =

! -NAJX K A JD AN IMID Ax = 0 2H B= ? x = 0 A =E E=
IAE? JD? AN IMID? J JA

ID -X

A(x1 + x2 ) = Ax1 + Ax2 = 0

=E A(x1 ) = Ax1 = 0 .

ABX =E

2 = A? =E ,E= KI =JE

7F GMH E

!# =? @E= KI =JE ? KF GMH ? J K

)H= J I Rn

JM

IAM JD? AN IMID? Ax = 0 A =E JM

HEI ? -X A A =E m n F = =? J I A =E =? @E= KI =JE ? KF GMH ? J K Rn F =E IK > AJ=E N (A)

5JD AN IMID

IAM JD? AN IMID? Ax = 0 X AJ=E D@A GMH ? J K A

1 0 5 4 2 4

u v

0 = 0 . 0

2 ID A =E (u,v ) = (0, 0) )H= N (A) = {0 R } 1 0 1 5J F = = B = 5 4 9 D JH JD IJ D A =E J X H EI = JM X M @ 2 4 6 X A R CH= E ? IK @K=I ? 1 0 1 5 + 4 9 = 0. 2 4 6

)H= CE=

,D =@

X AF

=F XIE J K (1, 1, 1) A =E

ID J K Bx = 0

=E

N (B ) = {(1, 1, 1) | R}

)I DID
=F JA

@E= KI =JE

 - CNJA AX J= KF I

? KF GMH K?

= J K R2 F K E = GE

F E

JE? F=H= XJM ANEI IAE?

= . 3x + y = 0 C . 3(x + 2) 5y = 6

> . 3(x + 2) = 5y @ . x2 + y 2 = 0

)I DID

-X FH I I K A = AFEF IJ D b IJ F = = A J JA G H ? IJD C AJ=E AC= JAH ? A J ? AX . . . . . . . . . , IJA = F=HX@AEC = IJ F G H ? IJD AC= AE =E = IJ F F=H= AE @E ? /E=J D AN IMID Ax = b GAE ID = HE> ? J= G H ? IJD @A AC= AE J= IK FAHE X> K A J @EX KI = b E IJ A? J K AB A =E CH= E IK @K=I JM IJD J K A )KJ ID = AE JE G H ? IJD J K AB FAHE GAJ=E IJ  A =E I ? A J  G H IJD J K A , IJA = F=HX@AEC = F K E G H E IJD J K A =E J K AB @A A =E I E

)I DID )I DID

=E =EJE

" - =E J= = K == D CDID AX A =E = D

OAK@

, IJA = JEF=HX@AEC = AX A =E OAK@

= 6= @E= I =J= b F K @A FAHE G J=E IJ G H IJD KF GMH > -X R(A) FAHE GAE C G H ? IJD J D@A E

R(A) =F JA
D@A E J KA

CH= ? F = =?

@EX KI = J JA A A =E

J K F = = 2A A =E I ? A J G H IJD

!$ @ G H ? IJD

-EI=CMC IJD /H=

) CA>H=

JM A I A =E I ? A J G H IJD

J KA

)I DID

/E= F EX @E= 1 0 0

I =J= (b1 , b2 , b3 ) G K J= = 1 1 x1 b1 1 1 x2 = b 2 , 0 1 x3 b3

K = IKIJ =J= ID 1 1 1 x1 b1 0 1 1 x2 = b 2 . 0 0 0 x3 b3

)I DID )I DID )I DID )I DID

=J=I AKXIJA = 3 3 F = = J K F K G H ? IJD FAHE GAE J= @E= I =J= (1, 1, 0) =E (1, 0, 1) = X @A FAHE GAE J (1, 1, 1) =J=I AKXIJA = 3 3 F = = J K F K G H ? IJD A =E = AK A = J JA R(A) = . . .

% -X A A =E F = =? 9 12 =E J I IJD = Ax = b GAE
=E J D@A GMH J K F = =

ID CE= X A b

& *HA JA J G H IJD

2 0 1 0

' ,A NJA JE AX A A =E = JEIJH OE ? n n F = =? J JA N (A) = {0 Rn }

)F=

EB IA I IJD = m ANEI IAM

A n =C

IJ K?

0 FAH FJMID IKIJD XJM m ANEI IAM A n =C IJ K? CE= m = n F= EB A B= J=E M? FAHEII JAHA? @K =J JDJA? 5JD =HG ANAJX A HE F=HX@AEC = JD @E=@E =I = JD? =F= EB ? IA = 3 4 F = = 1 3 3 2 6 9 5 . A= 2 1 3 3 0 5JD FH JD CH= G K A D D@A E IJ EGA F E A M? @DC )B=EH A @ B H ? JD FH J K A JD FH JD CH= IJD JH JD 1 3 3 2 2 6 9 5 1 3 3 0 5JD @A JAHD IJ D @A KFXHGAE D D@A E IJ EGA F H A = >H A @DC A A = =C CH= KFXHGAE D D@A E IJ EGA IJD @A JAHD CH= B H ? JD @A JAHD CH= =F JD JH JD 1 3 3 2 1 0 0 3 1 0 0 0 6 2 0

AJ=E FX E A = K A A = IKC

 

IJD FH JD IJ D J F GHDIE JD CH= =F JD @A JAHD =E FH I

1 3 3 2 0 0 3 1 0 0 6 2
XJM =F JD FH JD CH= XH= @A 5K AG K A IJD JH JD IJ D F K @A JAH ? @DC ? )B=EH A @

3 3 2 0 3 1 . 0 0 0

5JD J J=HJD IJ D @A KFXHGAE @DC ? 5JD CA E FAH FJMID F HA = GHAEX AJ=E = X K A A = =C CH= CE= = B H K A = D D@A E IJ EGA IJD ID J K @DC =J= C K A IA = F = = IJD = K D HB D F = X AJ=E E = MJ

ABX =E

2 = A? =E ,E= KI =JE

7F GMH E

!% J=E FX M =F JE? CH= ?

E CH= ? A F K G K

D@A E X IJ EGA = AX KFXHG K  A B= D@A E X IJ EGA = AX KFXHG K 

6 FH J D@A E IJ EGA @DC ? X A D D@A E ? CH= CH= ?

X A CH= ? AX KFXHGAE X AJ=E @DC ? ? >H I AJ=E IJ= @ANEX J K @DC JD? FH DC A D? X A @DC KFXHG K D@A E X -X =F= EB ? F= H K A = XJM JHECM E = J IJH B J K FH J K > =J ? JD? =

5K FAH= K A JE IJ= =HEIJAHX =E XJM =F =J=CHXO K A J= = J IJH B= JM >D XJM JD? m m F = = 5J F=HX@AEC = G K A CE= J F= EB ? 1 1 2 E = 1 A CE= J = J IJH B J K @A JAH K >

0 0 1 0 0 1

F 1
)H= A = E 1 F 1 U = LU F K

=J ? 1 0 0 = 0 1 0 . 0 2 1

1 0 0 L= 2 1 0 . 1 2 1
)KJ D FAHECH=B FAHE = >X AE =E JD FAH FJMID JAJH=CM E F = = = ? D X M JHECM E HB F K F= H K A =F JD =F= EB A ? JAJH=CM E F = = A =E AE@E FAH FJMID JD? E = MJ ? HB ? 5K AF ? J AF A A HD = J K F K = @ I K A FE FH IA JE =F @AEND FAHE = >X AE =E J= FH DC A = =F JA I =J=

A HD =


 5A X A m n F = = A = JEIJ EGA
? F = =? L E = MJ A 1 IJD @E=C E =E

=? m m F = =? AJ= IAM P =? m m XJM JHECM E

=? m n F = =? IA

HB U

J J E E IJA

P A = LU .
2HE @ I K A JD =F @AEND J K AMH =J ? FH FAE = H I K A A =JX D JH F = CA E F = = IA E = MJ HB , K A FH J= = HEI F K AFE A JH K A JD FH I G =? IJE? CH= ? J K F = = 5J = K HEI @ K A IA F=H AID JD @E=EI DJE AH D A = JM =HE r =E ji = H=E ? r  =HE ? JM D D@A E CH= J K F = = A 0 r m =E CE= X A i = 1, . . . , r KFXHG K = H=E E ji n D ID J K FH J K D D@A E IJ EGA K JD? CH= ? i J J E E IJA  aiji = 0 =E X AJ=E

HEI

? - =? m n F = =? U = [aij ] A =E IA

E = MJ

HB AX KFXHGAE =?

@DC ? IJD CH=

i =E IJD IJ D ji

!&

-EI=CMC IJD /H=

) CA>H=

j1 1 =E CE= X A i = 1, . . . , r 1 ji+1 > ji  X A @DC ? >H I AJ=E IJ= @ANEX J K FH DC A K

! /E= X A i = 1, . . . , r aik = 0 CE= k < ji  IJ EGA JD? CH= ? " /E= i > r aik = 0 CE= X A k 7FXHG K @DC ? A =E J FH J D D@A E ?

r D D@A E ? CH=

0 a1j1 0 a2j2 0 arjr 0 0

0 0

0 @E=@E =I = JD? =F= EB ? FH GMHX IJ D IJ D XH= GHAE= =IJA E= FAHECH=B JD? E = MJ ? HB ? =JX IJ A? -NAJXIJA FH IA JE X JE? @ FAHECH=B ? =E >A>=EM A JA JE IA X A FAH FJMID FAHECHXB K JD @E= HB -X U = [aij ] A =E m n F = =? IA E = MJ HB J JA KFXHGAE r m =E CE= X A j = 1, . . . , n KFXHG K = H=E E ij D ID J K JA AKJ= K D D@A E IJ EGA K JD? IJ D? j  A ij r J J E E IJA  0 i1 1 =E CE= X A j = 1, . . . , n 1 ij ij +1 ij + 1

aij = 0 CE= i > ij

=HE

=E AX ij > ij 1 J JA aij j = 0

? ij AJHXAE F I E @DC KFXHG K IJE? IJ A? =F 1 M? j )F @AEND 2H J= FAHECHXB K A = =@H E X JD @E=@E =I = JD? =F= EB ? GHDIE F E J=? J K? =HE ? ij J K A i0 = 0 U0 = A =E KF J K A JE CE= k A n > k 0 G K A F = = Uk J F = = F K FH FJAE =F J A AJX JD =F= EB IJE? k FH JA? IJ A? =E = AH= K? i0 , . . . , ik E F E E = F E JE? F=H=FX M IK A? AMH A JD IJ D k + 1 J K F = = Uk =E =J=I AKX K A J F = = Uk+1 =E J = H=E ik+1 A J = K JH F

-X ai(k+1) = 0 CE= X A i A m i > ik J JA @A GHAEX AJ=E = = XN K A JD IJ D k + 1 CE= = FXH K A J F = = Uk+1 J K A ik+1 = ik =E Uk+1 = Uk ,E=B HAJE X >H I K A J E H JAH i CE= J F i > ik =E ai(k+1) = 0 /E= =KJ J i A = XII K A JE? CH= ? ik + 1 =E i J K F = = Uk @D =@ F =F =IEX K A J Uk =F J= =HEIJAHX A J F = = P(ik +1)i A =KJ JD A = =C B H K A = D D@A E IJ EGA IJD ID J K @DC IJD IJ D k + 1 )HE A N= X JE? CH= ? J K K F = = =E IK > K A J= IJ EGA = J K A aij /E= X A A m > ik + 1 F =F =IEX K A =F J= =HEIJAHX A J IJ EGAE @D F = = F K a ik + 1 =F JD CH= A =KJ J JH F =B=EHA a (k+1) B H ? JD CH= (ik +1)(k+1) D@A K A = J= IJ EGA = JD? IJ D? k + 1 F K >H I J=E XJM =F J @DC a(ik +1)(k+1) 6 ? J K A ik+1 = ik + 1 =E Uk+1 I A J JA E CE A

ABX =E

2 = A? =E ,E= KI =JE

7F GMH E

!'

J= AN= J E = MJ -X IK > JAJHE => M E ?F =

I K A A? JE? IJ A? =J= C K A A J F = = U = Un F ? A =E IA HB I K A P1 , . . . , Pr J K? F = A? A = =C ? F K GHDIE F E A IJ= r D =J= JD? @E=@E =I =? =F= EB ? =E L1 , . . . , Lr J K? = J IJ EG K? XJM JHEC A? G K A U = Lr Pr Lr1 Pr1 L1 P1 A .

/E= = =J= N K A IJD F=H=C J F DID LU = P A F K L A =E XJM JHECM E ? A  IJD @E=C E =E P A =E F = =? AJ= IAM? FH FAE = FAHXI K A K? J K? XJM JHECM E ? F = A? Li IJ= =HEIJAHX JM FE X M A = =C ? Pi / MH K A JE A C AE

Lr Pr Lr1 Pr1 L1 P1 = Lr Lr1 L1 Pr Pr1 . . . P1 .

 M? = @A N K A JE KFXHGAE XJM JHECM E ? F = =? K A  IJD @E=C E J J E ? IJA

Lr Pr Lr1 Pr1 L1 P1 = K Pr P1 .
J K A Kr = L r =E CE= X A i = 1, . . . , r 1 H K AJ F = = Ki =F JD IG ID  

(Pr Pr1 Pi+1 )Li = Ki (Pr Pr1 Pi+1 ) .

5J = K KF CEI IA X A > = GHDIE F E G K A KF CH= J=? JD

IAE J K? H K? F K G K A = JE =J=IJ IAE

Lr Pr Lr1 Pr1 L1 P1 = = = = =

Kr Pr Lr1 Pr1 L1 P1 Kr Kr1 Pr Pr1 L1 P1 ... Kr Kr1 K3 K2 Pr Pr1 P3 P2 L1 P1 Kr Kr1 K2 K1 Pr Pr1 P2 P1 .

)F AE = @A N K A JE K = Kr K1 A =E AF ID? XJM JHECM E ? A  IJD @E=C E 2=H=JDH A JE Li =B=EHA F =F XIE= JD? i CH= ? =F JE? FE XJM CH= ? @D =@ A =E JD? HB ? I 0 i Li =

B
A

Imi i + 1, . . . , m XH= Ii R Ii . R 1 0 0

Pr Pi+1 A =E E= AJX AID R JM CH= Pr Pi+1 = 0

=E

(Pr Pi+1 )1 = Pi+1 Pr = 0

"

-EI=CMC IJD /H=

) CA>H=

7F C K A J CE A Ki = (Pr Pi+1 )Li (Pr Pi+1 )1 F =F =IEX F = A? IA F =E G K A Ii 0 Ii 0 Ii 0 Ki = 0 R B Imi 0 R1 I 0 i = , RB Imi F ? A =E XJM JHECM E ? F = =? A 1 IJD @E=C E K = Kr K1 A =E AF ID? XJM JHECM E ? A  IJD @E=C 5K FAH= E K A JE

J=? J K?

F = =?

)I DID

 ,A NJA JE AX A =E B A =E = JEIJH OE E F = A? J JA F = =?
A C = 0 0 . B 1

)I DID

 , @ J=E E F = A?
1 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 P1 = 0 0 1 , P2 = 0 1 0 , L = 0 1 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 2 1

1 1 7F C IJA J= CE A = P1 LP1 =E P2 LP2 F = A? -NDC IJA J= =F JA I =JX I=?

- =E =KJX J= CE

A = XJM JHECM E =E L JIE IJA

)I DID
=

*HA JA J P A = LU CE= J K? = K

E = MJ F = = U K? F = A?

=E J K? F = A? P

A=
>

0 1 0 3 0 2 0 6 1 2 2 2 4 5 1 2 2 2 4 4

A=
C

A=
@

1 2 0 1 A= 0 1 1 0 1 2 0 1

ABX =E

2 = A? =E ,E= KI =JE

7F GMH E

"

0 1 A= 0 3

0 2 0 6

IAE? JD?

CA

? AN IMID?
Ax = 0 .

/E= = >H A JE? IAE? J K IKIJ =J ? m ANEI IAM A n =C IJ K? ANAJX K A FH J= JD CA FAH FJMID J= IJD @ANEX F AKHX G K A J D@A E @EX KI =

)F J =E

A HD = G K A A = (P 1 L)U =E AB I AX U x = (P 1 L)1 0 @D =@ AX =E

P 1 L A =E = JEIJH OE AX

? Ax = 0 AX

Ux = 0 .
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u 1 3 3 2 0 0 0 3 1 v = 0 . w 0 0 0 0 0 y
-G K A ID AE IAE A F=GAEX CHX IJ EG IA IJ A? A @DC ? =J= J K? @DC ? =E JE? AJ=> DJ ? u =E w F K = JE K A A = X@H D = JE =JXIJ=ID =E IK AF ? w = 1 y 3 G K A u + 3v y + 2y = 0 =E IK AF ?

=F JD @A JAHD CH=

3w + y = 0

= JE = EIJ J=? J w IJD FH JD CH= u = 3v y

,D =@ F H A = @ I K A F E=@ F JA JE IJE? AJ=> DJ ? v =E y E F A? = JE IJ EG IA IJ A? F K @A G K @DC ? =E = KF C I K A JE? = J IJ EGA? JE ? JM AJ=> DJ u =E w 0 CA E ID A =E

1 (3v y, v, 3 y, y ) .

- =E GH IE X =E XFM? =K = HAJ = @E= H K A JE? AJ=> DJ ? IA =KJ ? F K = JE IJ EG IA IJ A? A @DC ? JE? F A? X K A >=IE ? AJ=> DJ ? =E IJE? KF EFA? F K = JEIJ EG IA IJ A? GMH ? @DC ? JE? F A? X K A A A AHA? AJ=> DJ ? 5J F=HX@AEC X =? E A A AHA? AJ=> DJ ? A =E E v =E y =E D ID F HA = CH=BA u 3 1 v = v 1 +y 0 x= 1 w 0 . 3 1 y 0

"

-EI=CMC IJD /H=

) CA>H=

2=H=JDH A JE X A @EX KI = F K CHXBAJ=E M? CH= E ? IK @K=I ? JM (3, 1, 0, 0) 1 =E (1, 0, 3 , 1) = AE IJ D@A GMH J K F = = A = @A N K A JE CA E JAH= CE= = m n F = = KFXHGAE = I @E= KI XJM AF ? I AJ F ? JM A A AHM AJ=> DJ J J E IJA X A @EX KI = J K D@A GMH K CHXBAJ=E M? CH= E ? IK @K=I ? =KJ JM @E= KI XJM /E= = >H A =J J E I @E= KI XJM F H A = AB=H I K A JD = K D @E=@E =I = AMH A J I IJD = ANEI IAM F K FH FJAE =F JE? D D@A E ? CH= ? J K E = MJ F = = U , K A JD JE  IA = =F JE? A A AHA? AJ=> DJ ? JD JE 0 IJE? KF EFA? A A AHA? AJ=> DJ ? =E K A J I IJD = CE= = FH I@E H I K A JE? = J IJ EGA? JE ? JM >=IE AJ=> DJ A =KJ J JH F CE= X A A A AHD AJ=> DJ G K A = @EX KI = F K E = F EA JD AN IMID U x = 0 IK AF ? =E JD AN IMID Ax = 0 = @A N K A JE X A @EX KI = J K D@A GMH K A BHX AJ=E M? CH= E ? IK @K=I ? =KJ JM @E= KI XJM 5K > K A JE? AJ=> DJ ? J K IKIJ =J ? x1 , . . . , xn =E KF J K A JE KFXHG K k A A AHA? AJ=> DJ ? E xi1 , . . . , xik 5K > K A ai1 , . . . , aik J= @E= I =J= F K FH FJ K A J FE FX M JH F 5 J F=HX@AEC X =? A A AHA? AJ=> DJ ? A =E E x2 = v =E x4 = y =E J= = J IJ EG= @E= I =J= A =E J= 1 a2 = (3, 1, 0, 0) , a4 = (1, 0, 3 , 1) . AMH A J H= = F E @ F JA @EX KI = J K D@A GMH K c = (c1 , . . . , cn ) N (A) -G K A U c = Ac = 0 = @A N K A JE J c CHXBAJ=E M? CH= E ? IK @K=I ? JM ai1 , . . . , aik A IK JA AIJ ? JE? IK EIJ IA? ci1 , . . . , cik J K c

c = ci1 ai1 + ci2 ai2 + + cik aik .

6 @EX KI = a = c (ci1 ai1 + + cik aik ) A =E = @EX KI = F K E = F EA JD AN IMID U x = 0 =B U c = 0 =E U aij = 0 -F F IA X A A A AHD AJ=> DJ D IK EIJ I= J K a A =E  6 JA M? E D D@A E ? CH= ? J K U FH I@E H K A =@E JH F JE? JE ? J K a IJE? >=IE ? AJ=> DJ ? =KJ ? A =E AF ID? 0 )H=

c (ci1 ai1 + + cik aik ) = 0 .

)I DID
E = MJ

! *HA JA JD F=H=C J F DID LU IA XJM JHECM E

HB CE= J

F = = =E F = = IA

1 2 0 1 A= 0 1 1 0 . 1 2 0 1
=J ? Ax = 0 *HA JA JD IAE? JD? CA ?

2H I@E H IJA JE? >=IE ? =E JE? A A AHA? AJ=> DJ ? J K IKIJ CA E ID J K CA ? IKIJ =J ?

)I DID

AN IMID? Ax = 0

" /E= J K? F = A? A JD? )I DID?  >HA JA JE?

IAE? JD? D
K A JD D CA

CA
FAH FJMID

? AN IMID?
b = 0.

6 H= ANAJX

Ax = b ,

ABX =E

2 = A? =E ,E= KI =JE

7F GMH E

"!

6 I IJD = GAE IAE? AX =E AX J b = AE IJ G H IJD J K A -X b R(A) J JA J I IJD = @A GAE ID =E A JE E ANEI IAE? A =E =I >=JA? -X b R(A) J JA D =F= EB =E D = X@H D = JE =JXIJ=ID @ @AE JE? IAE? )? ANAJXI K A J F=HX@AEC =  -B=H J=? JD =F= EB =E IJD @ANEX F AKHX JD?

u 1 3 3 2 b1 v 2 6 9 5 w = b2 1 3 3 0 b3 y
F= H K A JD AN IMID

u b 1 3 3 2 1 0 0 3 1 v = . b2 2b1 w b3 2b2 + 5b1 0 0 0 0 y

* F K A JE AX b3 2b2 + 5b1 = 0 J I IJD = A =E =I >=J 5J F=HX@AEC = G H ? JM IJD A =E = HE> ? J AF FA@ JM @E= KI XJM (b1 , b2 , b3 ) F K E = F E 5b1 2b2 + b3 = 0 -X b = (1, 5, 5) J JA J I IJD = @A A =E =I >=J 0 =F= EB J AJ=JH FAE IA u 1 1 3 3 2 0 0 3 1 v = 3 . w 0 0 0 0 0 y FM? =E CE= JD CA FAH FJMID F H IK =HJ IAE? JM A A AHM AJ=> DJ A = I K A CE= JE? >=IE ? AJ=> DJ ? M?

w = 1

y 3 u = 2 y 3v

CA E

ID A =E JD?

HB ?

u 2 3 1 v 0 1 0 x= w = 1 + v 0 + y 1 3 y 1 0 0

2=H=JDH A JE A =E J X H EI = E=? AE@E ? ID? =E JD? CA E ? ID? J K CA ? IKIJ =J ? Ax = 0 2HXC =JE AX Ax0 = 0 =E Ax1 = b J JA A(x0 + x1 ) = 0 + b = b /E= = >H A E= AE@E ID F H A = @ I K A IA A? JE? A A AHA? AJ=> DJ ? JD JE 0 0 AN IMID Ax = b GAE IAE? AX =E J K A -X x1 A =E = ID J JA D CA E ID xCA

A HD =

AX b = A =E JD?

AE IJ G H IJD HB ?

xCA
F K x0 A =E E= ID JD? CA

= x1 + x0 ,

? AN IMID? Ax = 0

""

-EI=CMC IJD /H=

) CA>H=

2=H=JDH A JE J I JM IAM IJD FAH FJMID b = 0 @A A =E @E= KI =JE ? KF GMH ? A =E D@A GMH ? J K A AJ=J FEI ? =JX JD AE@E ID X K A JXND J K F = = A J =HE r JM @DC F K A B= J=E IJD =F= EB -X KFXHG K r @DC J JA KFXHG K r >=IE ? AJ=> DJ ? =E n r A A AHA? AJ=> DJ ? - =E FH B= ? JE =HE ? JM @DC A =E I ? A J =HE JM D D@A E CH= IJ E = MJ F = = U -X r = n J JA @A KFXHG K A A AHA? AJ=> DJ ? IK AF ? D@A GMH ? J K A n A =E {0 R } =E AX KFXHGAE XF E= ID =KJ A =E =@E -X r = m J JA @A A =E @ I =@ A JE = J= @E= I =J= J K Rm = K IJ G H IJD J K A =E IK AF ? D AN IMID Ax = b GAE ID CE= X A b -X r = m = n J JA G K A JAJH=CM E D E@E HB F = = D AN IMID GAE FX J= = =E =@E ID

)I DID

JE? IK A? F K FH FAE = E = F E E IK EIJ IA? bi J K @E= I =J ? b IJA = GAE ID D AN IMID Ax = b 5A X A FAH FJMID AFE NJA = @EX KI = b F K E = F EA =KJ ? JE? IK A? =E >HA JA A? JE? IAE? J K IKIJ =J ? A =E J=KJ JE AC = I

# /E= J K? F = A? A JD? )I DID?  >HA JA JD JXND J K F = = =E

)I DID )I DID

$ -X A A =E 2 3 =E C A =E 3 2 F = A? @A NJA JE CA @A
? F = =? ANAJXIJA JD JXND J K CA *HA JA AMH IJA J E = MJ 1 U= 0 0 F = =

F HA = = F=HX@AEC = IJ F

%

3 3 2 0 3 1 . 0 0 0

F H A = IK AG I F K >H I J=E FX M =F CH= A J = J IJ EG F=HX@AEC = =J= C K A

K A JD =F= EB FH ? J= FX M IJA = D@A I K A J= IJ EGA = J K? @DC ? =E IJD IK GAE= = @E=EH I K A X A D D@A E @DC IJA = G K A  IJD ID JM @DC 5J IKC A HE IJ F = = 1 3 0 1 R = 0 0 1 1 /3 0 0 0 0

)KJ ? F = =? GAE = DC D E = MJ HB =E A =E =F IJAH ? F = =? F K FH FJAE A =F= EB =F J A *HA JA J K? F = A? R IA = DC D E = MJ HB F K = JEIJ EG IJ K? F = A? =

1 2 3 4 1 2 2 4

>

1 2 3 5 2 4 8 12 3 6 7 13

ABX =E

2 = A? =E ,E= KI =JE

7F GMH E

"#

)I DID
=E A

? rn F = =

& ,A NJA JE X A m n F = =? JXNAM? r CHXBAJ=E M? CE

@DC ?) ( D D@A E ? CH=

? mr

A = (IJ A? J K ) F K FAHE G K

? J K R).

)I DID

E = MJ F = = U =E JE? IK = GAE ID J I IJD = Ax = b

' -B=H IJA =F= EB IJ

AF=KND F = = [A b] CE= = >HA JA J A? F K FH FAE = E = F E E IK EIJ IA? J K b CE=

b1 2 4 6 4 A = 2 5 7 6 b = b2 . 2 3 5 2 b3
*HA JA JE? IAE? JD? b = (4, 3, 5) CH= CA ? AN IMID? Ax = 0 =E JD CA E ID JD? Ax = b J= J KA 2 E

)I DID
E

IK @K=I

 2 EX @E= I =J= (b1 , b2 , b3 ) >H I

JM CH=

J K A @@ K  1 2 1 1 1 1 A = 2 6 3 , A = 1 2 4 0 2 5 2 4 8

J=E IJ G H IJD

)I DID
A? JE?

IAE?

 2 E ? IK
2 4 5 9

A? IJ= b1 , b2 , b3 , b4 = EIJ

J I IJD = AFE IE

*HA JA

1 2 2 3

x1 x2

b1 b2 = b3 , b4

1 2 2 3

2 3 b1 x1 4 6 b2 x2 = b3 5 7 x3 9 12 b4
IE

)I DID
J AF=KND

2 EX IK F = = [A b]

D IJ= b1 , b2 , b3 = EIJX J I IJD = AFE =E >HA JA A? JE? IAE? J= E =

:A E IJA A D

F EA J=E D IK

x + 2y 2z = b1 2x + 5y 4z = b2 4x + 9y 8z = b3

)I DID )I DID

@E=B HAJE ?

! -X D AN IMID Ax = b GAE @ " /HXOJA

@E=B HAJE ? IAE? JD? Ax = 0 5JD IK GAE= >HA JA X D =

IAE? x1 =E x2 >HA JA @ ID JD? Ax = b

AX C MH AJA JE = KFXHG K

A? JE? IG IAE? F K F HA JA = IK FAHX AJA CE= J= r, m =E n m n F = =? A GAE JXND r =E CE= JD AN IMID Ax = b GAE ID

XF E= b CE= J= F = @A

"$ > CE= X A b GAE XFAEHA? C KFXHGAE = HE> ? @ = HE> ? = = IAE? ID CE= XF E= b = =

-EI=CMC IJD /H=

) CA>H=

ID CE= XF E= X

=b

ID CE= X A b

)I DID

# -FE NJA J =HE A =E B = A =E =   >  C !

q = A =E @K =J

JIE

IJA D JXND JM FE X M

6 4 2 A = 3 2 1 , 9 6 q

B=

3 2 3 q 2 q

)I DID

(2, 3, 1, 0)

D@A G H ? A

? 3 4 F = = A A =E D AK A = F K FAHE GAE J =E JD CA E ID JD? Ax = 0

= *HA JA JD JXND J K F = = A > *HA JA JD = DC D E = MJ

HB R J K A OAK@ , IJA = JEF=HX@AEC = AX A =E OAK@

)I DID
=E =EJE

CDID AX A =E = D

% - =E J= =

K == D

= - =? JAJH=CM E > - =? = JEIJH OE

? F = =? @A ? F = =? @A

GAE A A GAE A A

AHA? AJ=> DJ ? AHA? AJ=> DJ ?

C - =? m n F = =? @A @ - =? m n F = =? @A

GAE FAHEII JAHA? =F n >=IE ? AJ=> DJ ? GAE FAHEII JAHA? =F m >=IE ? AJ=> DJ ? ID J K IKIJ =J ?

)I DID
Ax = 1 0

& *HA JA J
A =E x =

1 0

F = = A AX C MH AJA JE D CA E 0 +c 1 K

)I DID
IJD CH=

' *HA JA = 2 2 F = = J K F ! *HA JA = F = = J K F

D@A G H ? A =E I ? A J G H K? J K?

)I DID
E

? IK @K=I

K D@A G H ? =F JA A J=E =F ? JM @E= KI XJM (2, 2, 1, 0) =E (3, 1, 0, 1)

)I DID )I DID

! *HA JA = F = = J K F K G H ? IJD D@A G H ? =F JA A J=E =F J= F =F XIE= J K (1, 1, 1, 1) !

*HA JA = F = = J K F K G H ? IJD D@A G H ? J= (1, 0, 1) =E (0, 0, 1)

FAHE GAE J (1, 1, 1) =E FAHE GAE J= (1, 1, 0) =E

(0, 1, 1) =E

ABX =E

2 = A? =E ,E= KI =JE

7F GMH E

"%

/H=

) AN=HJDI =

 J= = A = >H A JE? IAE? JD? CA ? AN IMID? Ax = 0 CE= J F = =  @ I= A IA = A A AHD AJ=> DJ JD JE  =E IJD X D JD JE  CE= >H A = ID =J FE @ I= A IJD FH JD A A AHD AJ=> DJ JD JE  =E IJD X D JD JE  CE= = >H A = @A JAHD ID ,A GHAEXIJD A = KF C I K A JE? IAE? CE= X K? IK @K=I ? CE= F=HX@AEC = = @ I K A JD JE  =E IJE? @ A A AHA? AJ=> DJ ? CE=J A? E X A? IAE? FH FJ K M? CH= E IK @K=I =KJ JM @ = JH JD ID @A FH IB HAE XJE FAHEII JAH IJ D@A G H J K F = = ) A =KJ JD E= A =E FAHEJJ AMH A J I IJD = CH= E ANEI IAM

3x + 5y + 2z = 0 2x + y z = 0 x + 4y + 3 z = 0
J F F H A = I K A =E = >H AJ I JM IAM

U = {(t, t, t) | t R}
-X J H= AMH I K A JE? @ FH JA? ANEI IAE? = @ A JE =E =KJ J I IJD = GAE M? I IAM J U 0 JH JD AN IMID A =E D @E=B HX JD? @A JAHD? =F JD FH JD =E JIE @A >X AE XF E AF F FAHE HEI IJ I IAM A =KJ JD E= D JH JD AN IMID A =E FAHEJJ )KJ D E= J K FAHEJJ CE= IAE? F K @A AC= K J G H JM IAM ANEI IAM E F A? @A J K FAHEII JAH K? FAHE HEI ? =F JA A = >=IE E= JD? /H= E ? ) CA>H=? JD F = X K A CH= E ANXHJDID = IK C @E= KI XJM A =E CH= E X AN=HJD D J= FAHE GAE FAHEJJX @E= I =J= - = I IJD = ANEI IAM A =E CH= E X AN=HJD J= FAHE GAE FAHEJJ ? ANEI IAE? 0 JXND A ? F = = A =E =HE ? F K =? @ @AE J FH=C =JE CA ? J K F = = AJHXAE J =HE JM D FAHEJJ ANEI IAM JM D D@A E CH= IJ E = MJ F = = -F ID? AJHXAE J =HE JM IJD A @DC ? =KJ F K FH=C =JE X IK AEIB H K IJ G H IJD /E= = =J= X> K A = JAH= JD ID =I = JD? JXND? A ? F = = GHAE= =IJA JD E= JD? CH= E ? = AN=HJDI =? AX

HEI

= =F =KJX F HA JM CH=

? 6= @E= I =J= u1 , . . . , un J K Rm CE= n 2 A =E CH=

= CH=BA M? CH= J KF = = E ? IK @K=I ? JM KF

E X AN=HJD
FM

6 I

1 1 2 0 4 1 1 3 3

A =E CH= E X AN=HJD =B D JH JD CH= A =E ID A J X H EI = JM @ X M (1, 3, 3) = (1, 1, 2) + (0, 4, 1) )KJ GAE M? IK FAE= JE AX J @EX KI = (u, v, w) E = F EA JE? @ FH JA? =F JE? ANEI IAE? J K IKIJ =J ?

v + 2w = 0 4v + w = 0 , u + 3 v + 3w = 0
J JA E = F EA =E JD JH JD

"&

-EI=CMC IJD /H=

) CA>H=

- =I k @E= KI XJM J K Rn F K FAHE GAE J 0 A =E =F=H=EJ JM? CH= E X AN=HJD AX v1 = 0 J JA v1 = 0v2 + + 0vk = @ I K A = FE IK AJHE HEI JD? E=? JD? CH= E ? ANXHJDID? F K @A @E= H AJ=E XF E =F J= @E= I =J= CH= E IJA

HEI

? IK @K=I

? 6= @E= I =J= v1 , . . . , vn J K Rm A =E CH=

? A IK JA AIJ ? c1 , . . . , cn

E F

E X AN=HJD
E @A A =E

= AX KFXHGAE
D@

J J E ?

c1 v1 + c2 v2 + + ck vk = 0 .
)KJ ID = AE JE AX A A =E F = =? A IJ A? J= @E= I =J= v1 , . . . , vn J JA J CA ? n I IJD = Ax = 0 GAE IAE? x = (c1 , . . . , cn ) @E=B HAJE ? =F J 0 R 6= @E= I =J= v1 , . . . , vk J K Rn A =E CH= E X = ANXHJDJ= AX @A A =E CH= E X AN=HJD = @D =@ AX =@E ? CH= E ? IK @K=I ? JM v1 , . . . , vk F K A =E I ? A D@ A =E JAJHE ? A K? J K? IK JA AIJ ? I K? A 0 5A =KJ JD FAH FJMID D =@E ID J K CA ? IKIJ =J ? Ax = 0 A =E D x = 0 Rn 5K F DH K A J AN=HJD AX u = 0 HEI CE= n = 1 C J=? JE J I =E CH= E X = ANXHJDJ AX u = 0

{u} A =E CH= E X

2=HX@AEC = 2=HX@AEC =
CH= 0

D D@A E X @E= I =J= A =E CH= E X = ANXHJDJ= J= @A A =E IKCCH= E X -X c1 v1 + c2 v2 = 0 = X @A KFXHGAE c J J E IJA v1 = cv2 v2 = cv1 J JA c1 = c2 = 0 E X AN=HJD

",

# 6= @E= I =J= v1 = (1, 2, 1), v2 = (3, 6, 3), v3 = (3, 9, 3) A =E

= CE=J J @A JAH A =E F =F XIE J K FH J K -JIE 3v1 +v2 +0v3 =

2=HX@AEC =
CH=

E X AN=HJD

$ 6= @E= I =J= v1 = (1, 2, 1), v2 = (3, 4, 3), v3 = (1, 4, 1) A =E

= CE=J 4v1 v2 v3 = 0

5K AF ? CE= = A CN K A AX J= @E= I =J= v1 , . . . , vn Rm A =E CH= E X = ANXHJD J= IGD =J K A J m n F = = A IJ A? v1 , . . . , vn -X KFXHGAE = D D@A E @EX KI = c = (c1 , . . . , cn ) J J E IJA Ac = 0 J JA E IJ A? J K F = = A A =E CH= E X AN=HJD A? -X D =@E ID JD? Ax = 0 A =E D JAJHE D x = 0 Rn J JA E IJ A? J K F = = A A =E CH= E X = ANXHJDJA? -E@E JAH= E IJ A? A ? JHECM E F = = A =E CH= E X = ANXHJDJA? AX =E AX = J= IJ EGA = IJD @E=C E A =E @E=B HAJE X =F J 

2H J=ID

E X = ANXHJDJA? 6

! 5A = F = = IA

E = MJ HB E D D@A E ? CH= @E EIG AE CE= JE? IJ A? F K FAHE G K @DC ?

? A =E CH=

AMH A = m n F = = IA E = MJ HB A r D D@A E ? CH= ? =E @DC ? IJE? IJ A? j1 , j2 , . . . , jr 5K > K A U J r n F = = F K =F JA A J=E =F JE? D D@A E ? CH= ? =E c = (c1 , . . . , cr ) = @EX KI = J J E IJA cT U = 0 K A = @A N K A JE c = 0 -NAJX K A JD IJ D j1 6 IJ EGA a1j1 = 0 A = J= KF EF= A =E 0 )H= c1 a1j1 = 0 =E IK AF ? c1 = 0 7F J K A J H= JE c1 = c2 = . . . = ck = 0 CE= k < r =E = @A N K A JE ck+1 = 0 -NAJX K A JD IJ D jk+1 6 IJ EGA a(k+1)jk+1 = 0 A CE= p > k + 1 apjk+1 = 0 )H= ck+1 a(k+1)jk+1 = 0 =E IK AF ? ck+1 = 0 /E= = =F @A N K A JE E IJ A? F K FAHE G K @DC ? A =E CH= E X = ANXHJDJA? ANAJX K A IAE? JD? AN IMID? U x = 0 CE= JE? F A? A? E A A AHA? AJ=> DJ ? A =E

)F @AEND

ABX =E

2 = A? =E ,E= KI =JE

7F GMH E

"' ID x = 0 E X AN=HJD

0 0 = X@H

D = JE =JXIJ=ID J JA @ @AE JD

=@E

2 HEI = )I DID

AN=HJD

" -X n > m = I

n @E= KI XJM IJ G H Rm A =E CH=

A?

!! ,A NJA JE AX a = 0 d = 0 f = 0 J JA E IJ A? J K U A =E CH= E X
a b c U = 0 d e 0 0 f

)I DID
D

!" -X J= a, d, f IJD )I DID !! A =E = @E=B HAJE X =F J  J JA D ID JD? AN IMID? U x = 0 A =E x = 0 E IJ A? J K U A =E CH= E X = ANXHJDJA?

!# -NAJXIJA AX A =E = ANXHJDJ= J= @E= I =J= =  (0, 1), (1, 1) >  (1, 1), (0, 1), (1, 0) C  (1, 0, 0), (1, 1, 1), (0, 1, 1)
J= u1 , u2 , u3 , u4 A =E CH= E X AN=HJD = 1 1 u1 = 0 , u 2 = 1 , 0 0

)I DID

)I DID

!$ ,A NJA JE J= @E= I =J= u1 , u2 , u3 A =E CH= E X = ANXHJDJ= = X JE

1 u3 = 1 , 1 2 u4 = 3 . 4

=B H ? u1 = w2 w2 , u2 = w1 w3 =E u3 = w1 w2 A =E CH= = CH= E IK @K=I JM u1 , u2 , u3 F K @ @AE 0

)I DID )I DID

!% -X w1 , w2 , w3 A =E CH= E X = ANXHJDJ= @E= I =J= @A NJA JE E @E

E X AN=HJD

A? *HA JA

H I =J= v1 = w2 + w2 , v2 = w1 + w3 =E v3 = w1 + w2 A =E CH= E X = ANXHJDJ= - BHXIJA JD IG ID c1 v1 + c2 v2 + c3 v3 = 0 M? FH ? J= wi =E >HA JA ANEI IAE? CE= J= ci

!& -X w1 , w2 , w3 A =E CH= E X = ANXHJDJ= @E= I =J= @A NJA JE J= =

2=H=CMC 7F GMH K
G H ? IJD A ? F = = A =E KF GMH ? J K Rm F K =F JA A J=E =F J= @E= I =J= F K CHXB J=E M? CH= E IK @K=I JM IJD J KF = = A JE E IJ A? J K F = = F=HXC K J G H IJD

HEI ? AMH A CH= E KF GMH V J K Rn 6= @E= I =J= w1 , . . . , wk J K Rn F=HXC K J KF GMH V Rn AX

 wj V CE= X A j = 1, . . . , k =E X A @EX KI = J K V A BHX AJ=E M? CH= E ? IK @K=I ? JM w1 , . . . , wk @D =@ CE= X A v V KFXHG K =HE c1 , . . . , ck J J E E IJA v = c1 w1 + + ck wk

#

-EI=CMC IJD /H=

) CA>H=

/A E JAH= = I @E= KI XJM S V F=HXCAE J KF GMH V AX J K V A BHX AJ=E M? CH= E ? IK @K=I ? @E= KI XJM J K S

X A @EX KI =

2=HX@AEC = 2=HX@AEC = 2=HX@AEC =

=F =KJX J= @E= I =J= F=HXC K J R2 2 EX @ J R2

% 6= @E= I =J= (1, 0) (1, 1) =E (1, 0) F=HXC K J R2 2 EX @ & 0

=F =KJX J= @E= I =J= @A F=HXC K =@E A@

BH=ID M? CH= E ? IK @K=I ? @A A =E A C AE - BHXIJA J @EX KI = (1, 2) M? CH= E IK @K=I JM F=H=FX M @E= KI XJM @E=B HAJE ? JH F K? = F=HXC K J R IK @K=I

' 6= @E= I =J= e1 , e2 , . . . , en J K Rn  E IJ A? J K J=KJ JE

n

F = X EIJ= J @EX KI = b = (b1 , b2 , . . . , bn ) @ @AJ=E =F J CH= E

b1 e1 + + bn en .

AMH A J= @E= I =J= w1 , . . . , wk J K Rn 6 I M JM @E= KI n XJM J K R F K A BHX J=E M? CH= E IK @K=I JM w1 , . . . , wk A =E =? @E= KI =JE ? KF GMH ? J K Rn AMH A J= @E= I =J= w1 , . . . , wk J K Rn KF GMH ? F K F=HXCAJ=E =F J= @E= I =J= w1 , . . . , wk A =E J I M JM @E= KI XJM J K Rn F K A BHX J=E M? CH= E IK @K=I JM w1 , . . . , wk G H ? IJD A =E KF GMH ? J K Rm F K F=HXCAJ=E =F JE? IJ A? J K A 5K >=JE X AMH A JE D@A E ? KF GMH ? {0 Rn } F=HXCAJ=E =F J A I

HEI

)I DID )I DID

!' 6= @E= I =J= u + w =E u w A =E CH= E IK @K=I JM u =E w /HXOJA J= u =E w M? CH= E ? IK @K=I ? JM u + w =E u w 6= @ A CD @E= KI XJM J @E KF GMH )F JA J= @ A CD >XIAE? J K KF GMH K " 2AHECHXOJA J
KF GMH J K R2 F K F=HXCAJ=E =F J= @E= I =J=

=  (0, 1), (1, 1) >  (1, 1), (1, 1) C  (1, 1), (0, 1), (1, 0)

)I DID
GE

J=?

" =  )F B=I IJA AX J= =

= =JX D

I IJD = Ax = 0

K = @E= I =J= A =E CH=

E X = ANXHJDJ=

(1, 1, 0, 0) ,

(1, 0, 1, 0) ,

(0, 0, 1, 1) ,

(0, 1, 0, 1) .

>  - CNJA AX J @EX KI = (0, 0, 0, 1) >H I AJ=E IJ G H F K F=HXC K J= F=H=FX M @E= I =J=

)I DID

"

2AHECHXOJA J

KF GMH J K R3 F K F=HXCAJ=E =F J= @E= I =J=

= (1, 1, 1) =E (1, 1, 1) > (0, 1, 1), (1, 1, 0) =E (0, 0, 0)

ABX =E

2 = A? =E ,E= KI =JE

7F GMH E

# @DC ?

C JE? IJ A? A @

? 35

E = MJ

F = = A A?

= J= @E= I =J= A AJE ? IK JAJ=C

)I DID

IJA JE J F AJ A J= @E= I =J= JM F M K A =A C N K A JD CH= E = AN=HJDI = IJE? CH= ? =E GE IJE? IJ A? A ? F = = 2M? F H A = IK FAHX K A AX A =E CH= E X = ANXHJDJ= =JX JD @EXH AE= JD? =F= EB ? =F J A IJ U

"! 7F

*XID A
J K Rn J

? @E= KI =JE

G H K
KF GMH K V Rn A =E =I @E= KI XJM

HEI

? *XID A ? @E= KI =JE

F KF GMH V E X = ANXHJDJ =E

 2=HXCAE J - =E CH=

KF GMH K V J JA X A IJ EGA = $ -X w1 , . . . , wk A =E >XID J K CH= E J K V A BHX AJ=E A =@E JH F M? CH= E ? IK @K=I ? JM w1 , . . . , wk

)F @AEND 7F

J K A JE w1 , . . . , wk A =E >XID J K V

=E JE

b = a1 w1 + + ak wk = c1 w1 + + ck wk .
6 JA (a1 c1 )w1 + + (ak ck )wk = 0 = ANXHJDJ= E IK JA AIJ ? J K CH= E A0 =E =B J= @E= I =J= w1 , . . . , wk A =E CH= E X IK @K=I F K F=HEIJX AE J 0 A =E E EI E

2=HX@AEC = 2=HX@AEC = 2=HX@AEC =

>XID J K Rn A =E D >XID e1 , . . . , en D F = =F JA A J=E =F JE? IJ A? J K =@E= K F = =  M? D >XID =KJ @A A =E =JX = = JH F =@E E IJ A? X A = JEIJH OE K n n F = = =F JA = >XID J K Rn

 0 =

A? = X F=HXC K J G H IJD >XID J K G H K IJD J KF = =

 E IJ A? A ? 

E = MJ F = = @A A =E FX J= CH= E X = ANXHJDJ IJ A? F K FAHE G K J K? @DC ? =F JA = =J @ A =KJ IA = F=HX@AEC = F = = 3 2 3 1 0 0

AMH

AJ

E = MJ 1 3 U= 0 0 0 0

E IJ A? F K FAHE G K @DC ? A =E E X = ANXHJDJA? =F JD AN IMID 1 0 0

E (1, 0, 0) =E (3, 3, 0) - CG K A JE A =E CH=

3 3 0

c1 c2

=0

-EI=CMC IJD /H=

) CA>H=

G K A c1 + 3c2 = 0 =E 3c2 = 0 =E IK AF ? c2 = 0, c1 = 0 /E= = @A N K A JE E IJ A? A @DC ? F=HXC K J G H IJD =H A = A CN K A JE E KF EFA? IJ A? A BHX J=E M? CH= E ? IK @K=I ? JM IJD F K FAHE G K @DC ? 5J F = = U J K F=H=@A C =J ? AX v1 , . . . , v4 A =E E IJ A? J K U F=H=JDH A JE E IJ A? v2 =E v4 A BHX J=E M? CH= E ? IK @K=I IJM v1 =E v3

v2 = 3 v1

=E

1 v4 = v3 + v1 . 3

,EXIJ=ID
X A CH= E ? KF GMH ? J K Rn @E=B HAJE ? =F J {0} >XIAE?  M? A? E >XIAE? G K J @E =HE IJ EGA M GAE XFAEHA? @E=B H JE ? = >XID A k IJ EGA = J JA

2H J=ID
X AX

=? CH= E ? KF GMH ? V J K Rn GAE D >XID J K V GAE J @E F ? IJ EGA M

% -X

)F @AEND 7F

J K A JE G K A >XIAE? v1 , . . . , vk =E w1 , . . . , wm J K V )B J= @E= I =J= v1 , . . . , vk =F JA >XID X A @EX KI = wj A BHX AJ=E M? CH= E ? IK @K=I ? JM vi wj = a1j v1 + + akj vk .  ! -X

AMH A J K? F = A? V =E W A IJ A? v1 , . . . , vk =E w1 , . . . , wm = J IJ EG= A = (aij ) A =E F = =? J K F K J= IJ EGA = H J=E =F JD ! G K A

W = V A.
/E= F=HX@AEC = D FH JD IJ D J K V A A =E A IK JA AIJ ? a11 , . . . , ak1 CH= E ? IK @K=I ? JM IJD J KV

a11 v1 + + ak1 vk = w1 .
F = =? A A =E k m -X k < m J JA KFXHGAE @EX KI = c = 0 J J E ) X J JA W c = V Ac = V 0 = 0, IJA Ac = 0

=E IK AF ? E IJ A? J K W @A A =E CH= E X = ANXHJDJA? )H= D KF AID k < m @A F HA = EIG AE =B W A =E >XID 2=H E= @A G K A JE @A F HA = EIG AE D KF AID k > m =E IK AF ? G K A k = m

HEI

? JM IJ EGA M JD? >XID? A ? CH= X AJ=E @EXIJ=ID J K V =E IK > AJ=E dim V G H ? Rn GAE @EXIJ=ID n D = ? KF GMH ? {0 Rn } GAE @EXIJ=ID 0 J A I
3

=HE

E E

KF GMH K V J K Rn >XID GAE n IJ EGA = GAE  IJ EGA = J=

2=HX@AEC =
D@A E

!

KF GMH ? V = {(x, y, z ) R3 | y = 3x} =F JA A J=E =F IJ EGA = J K R F K A =E IAE? JD? AN IMID? x 3 1 0 y = 0. z

2=HX@AEC =

"

ABX =E

2 = A? =E ,E= KI =JE

7F GMH E

#!

/E= = >H A = >XID J K KF GMH K V J AMH A M? J D@A GMH N (A) J K F = = [ 3 1 0 ] -@ F = =? GAE = CH= D F = FAHE GAE J @DC ! )H= D JXND J K F = = A =E  =E G K A @ A A AHA? AJ=> DJ ? = >XID J K D@A GMH K GAE @ IJ EGA =  IA? A =E E A A AHA? AJ=> DJ ? =E IK AF ? D @EXIJ=ID J K V A =E  FM? C MH K A =F JD ) = KJE /AM AJH = J I V F=HEIJX AE = AF FA@ IJ G H 2H I NJA JE D @EXIJ=ID = =B HAJ=E IJ KF GMH V =E GE IJ= A = @E= I =J= J KV X A IJ EGA v J K V GAE ! IK JAJ=C A? FHXC = F K ID = AE JE = AE IJ R3 , v R3 -JIE J @EX KI = v = (1, 3, 2) A =E IJ EGA J K G H K V F ? GAE @EXIJ=ID =E J K G H K R3 F ? GAE @EXIJ=ID ! ) X J v A =E AF ID? IJ EGA J K G H K W = {(t, 3t, 2t) : t R} F ? GAE @EXIJ=ID  = @EX KI = x = (x1 , x2 , x3 , x4 ) R4 7FXHG K " AJ= IAE? JM IK JAJ=C M J K )KJX J= " @E= I =J= F=HXC K = KF G H V J K R4 *HA JA IKC A HE = @E= I =J= x J J E= IJA D @EXIJ=ID J K V = A =E =   >   C ! @ "

)I DID

"" -FE C K A

)I DID )I DID

= D = >

>HA JA = >XID CE= JD J =KJ J K AFEF @ K A J (x, y ) AF FA@ 6 >XID CE= J KF GMH JM @E= KI XJM F K A =E X AJ= IJ =HGE AF FA@ OAK@

"# *HA JA = >XID CE= J AF FA@ x 2y + 3z = 0 IJ R3 5JD IK GAE=

? >HA JA =

"$ 7F

J K A JE S A =E KF GMH ? J K R6 @EXIJ=ID? # - =E J= = = AFA J= A IA = >XID J K R6 FH I J J=? ==

K = D

X A >XID J K S F HA @EX KI =

X A >XID J K R6 F HA = FAHE HEIJA IA = >XID J K S @E=CHXB J=?

= @EX KI =

)I DID )I DID

=  >  C 

E IJ A? J K A A =E n @E= I =J= J K Rm 2 EX A =E D JXND J K A AX J= @E= I =J= A =E CH= E X = ANXHJDJ= 2 EX AX J= @E= I =J= F=HXC K J Rm 2 EX AX J= @E= I =J= =F JA K >XID J K Rm

"%

"& *HA JA = >XID CE= X A = =F J K? =

F M F M E IK EIJ IA? A =E IA?

K? KF GMH K? J K R4

= J= @E= I =J= JM = J= @E= I =J= JM

E IK EIJ IA? G K X H EI = 

= J= @E= I =J= F K A =E X AJ= IJ= (1, 1, 0, 0) =E (1, 0, 1, 1)

)I DID

"' 7F

J K A JE

KF GMH ? V GAE @EXIJ=ID k ,A NJA JE E X = ANXHJDJ= J JA =F JA >XID J K V >XID J K V

= AX k @E= I =J= J K V A =E CH= > AX k @E= I =J= F=HXC K J

V J JA =F JA

)I DID

=E W FH FAE = G K = E D D@A E @EX KI = :A E IJA A >XIAE? CE= J K? @ KF GMH K? F K IK E X FAHE G K $ @E= I =J=

# )F @A NJA JE AX V =E W A =E JHEI@EXIJ=J E KF GMH E J K R5 J JA V

#"

-EI=CMC IJD /H=

) CA>H=

E J IIAHAE?

A A E @AE? 7F GMH E A

?F = =

GHE J H= G K A @A F=H=@A C =J= >XIAM = X @A G K A = JH F = =J=I AKX I K A = >XID CE= F E=@ F JA CH= E KF GMH 5JD IK GAE= = @ A FM? NA E J=? =F = FAHECH=B A ? KF GMH K F H A = =J=I AKXI K A = >XID J K -G K A @A @ JH F K? = FAHECHXO K A = @E= KI =JE KF GMH F HA = C MH K A = I @E= KI XJM F K F=HXC K J KF GMH FM? G H ? IJD F K F=HXCAJ=E =F JE? IJ A? A ? F = = ,E=B HAJE X F HA = C MH K A IK A? JE? F A? FH FAE = E = F E J= @E= I =J= J K KF G H K FM? D@A G H ? A ? F = = A F K =F JA A J=E =F J= @E= I =J= F K E = F E JE? IK A? Ax = 0 5JD FH JD FAH FJMID F HA = FAHE G J=E FAHEJJX @E= I =J= IJ I F K F=HXCAE J KF GMH 5JD @A JAHD FAH FJMID F HA = FAHE = >X J=E FAHEJJ ? ANEI IAE? IJE? IK A? F K FH I@E H K J KF GMH = HC= I K A JD IK JDID C HM =F J K? J IIAHAE? A A E @AE? KF GMH K? F K IGAJ J=E A = F = = -G K A @D @A J D@A GMH =E J G H IJD M A ? F = = A = H I K A X K? @ G H K? E F E FH FJ K =F J A JIE IJA CE= X A m n F = = A = G K A J IIAHE? KF GMH K?

J KA

G H ? IJD

=E IK >

J K A A =E KF GMH ? J K Rm AJ=E R(A) Rm

? F=HXCAJ=E =F JE? IJ A?

JD?

D@A GMH ? J K A A =E KF GMH ? J K Rn

CA ? AN IMID? Ax = 0 =E IK >

AJ=E

? =F JA A J=E =F JE?

IAE?

N (A) Rn
J K A A =E KF GMH ? J K Rn F ? F=HXCAJ=E =F JE? CH= ? J K A 2H B= ? IK F FJAE A J G H IJD J K = XIJH B K F = = AT =E IK > AJ=E R(AT ) Rn

G H ? CH=

=F JE? IAE? JD? AN IMID? y A = 0 5K F FJAE A J F = = AT =B y T A = (AT y )T =E IK > AJ=E

=HEIJAH ? D@A GMH ? J K A A =E KF GMH ? J K Rm

T

F ? =F JA A J=E D@A GMH J K = XIJH B K

N (AT ) Rm .
= A AJ I K A = = =F =KJ ? J K? G H K? = >H A JD @EXIJ=ID J K? =E = FAHECHXO K A >XIAE? GHDIE F E J=? J F = = A =E J E = MJ F = = U F K FH FJAE AJX JD =F= EB -FEIJH B K A IJ F=HX@AEC =  =E AMH A J=KJ GH M? J K? F = A? A =E U

1 3 3 2 6 9 5 A= 2 1 3 3 0

1 3 3 2 U = 0 0 3 1 0 0 0 0

ABX =E

2 = A? =E ,E= KI =JE

7F GMH E

##

G H ? CH=

J K A, R(AT )
GAE M? >XID JE? D E X = ANXHJDJA? =E J F J= FAHEII JAH A J G H CH=

/E= = E = MJ F = = U A = > F K A JE G H ? CH= D@A E ? CH= ? J K U IJD 2H J=ID ! @A N= A JE A =E CH= F=HXC K J G H =B E D@A E ? CH= ? @A IK AEIB H K 0 ID = JE F=H=J HDID A =E JE G H ? CH= J K A A =E @E ? J KU

&
R(AT ) = R(U T ) .

X A CH= J K U FH FJAE =F CH= E ? IK @K=I ? JM CH= J K A 5J F=HX@AEC = D D CH= J K U A =E D D CH= J K A A J @EF XIE JD? D? CH= ? J K A  )H= =E F E I@ F JA CH= E ? IK @K=I ? CH= J K U F HA = A BH=IJA M? CH= E ? IK @K=I ? CH= J K A )H= G H ? CH= J K U FAHE GAJ=E IJ G H CH= J KA

)F @AEND

R(U T ) R(AT ) .
) X =B D @E=@E =I = JD? =F= EB ? A =E = JEIJH OE D X A CH= J K A F HA A BH=IJA M? CH= E ? IK @K=I ? JM CH= J K U 5J F=HX@AEC = D D CH= J K A A =E D D CH= J K U IK J @EF XIE JD? D? CH= ?J KU )H= G H ? CH= J K U FAHE GAJ=E IJ G H CH= J KA =

R(AT ) R(U T ) .
5K FAH= K A JE

R(AT ) = R(U T ) .

9? >XID J K R(AT ) F H A = GHDIE F E I K A JE? D D@A E ? CH= ? J K U 6 F ? =KJ A =E I A JD JXND r J K F = = 5K FAH= K A JE D @EXIJ=ID J K G H K CH= A =E ID A JD JXND J K F = =

dim R(AT ) = r .
F H A = -X M? G J KF = =A =J=CHXB >H A = >XID J K G H K CH= F K = =F JA A J=E =F CH= ? J K A K KFXHNAE A = =C ? CH= IJD =F= EB Gauss E r FH JA? CH= ? F HA = D A =E CH= E X = ANXHJDJA? K A JE? FH DC A A? F=H=JDH IAE? IJD = K D 2H J=ID

2H J=ID

G H ? CH= J K m n F = = A A =E KF GMH ? J K Rn @EXIJ=ID ID A JD JXND J K F = =

'

=E GAE

R(AT ) Rn

dim R(AT ) = r
? J K = J IJ EG K E = MJ

= >XID J K R(AT ) =F JA A J=E =F JE? D D@A E ? CH= F = =U

#$

-EI=CMC IJD /H=

) CA>H=

D@A GMH ? J K A, N (A)

-G K A @AE JE D@A GMH ? J K A A =E I ? A J D@A GMH J K U =KJ ? = HE> ? A =E C ? F K D =F= EB Gauss GHDIE F EA J=E CE= JD ID J K IKIJ =J ? Ax = 0 -G K A @AE AF ID? JE CE= X A A A AHD AJ=> DJ xi1 , . . . , xik F H A = >H A @E= I =J= vi1 , . . . , vik J= F = F=HXC K J D@A GMH N (A) 6 @EX KI = vij GAE JD EFA? A A AHA? AJ=> DJ ? JE  IJD A A AHD AJ=> DJ xij =E JD JE  IJE? KF 5K AF ? = = =F J= @E= I =J= vij @A F HA = A BH=IJA M? CH= E ? IK @K=I ? JM KF FM 5K FAH= K A JE J= @E= I =J= vi1 , . . . , vik A =E CH= E X = ANXHJDJ= =E IK AF ? JE =F JA >XID J K D@A GMH K N (A) 0 @EXIJ=ID J K D@A GMH K A =E ID A J F ? JM A A AHM AJ=> DJ k =nr

2H J=ID

D@A GMH ? J K m n F = = A A =E KF GMH ? J K Rn @EXIJ=ID ID A J F ? JM A A AHM AJ=> DJ



=E GAE

N (A) Rn

dim N (A) = n r .

G H ? IJD
)I DID
IJ 6 =

J K A, R(A)
= @EX KI = J K R(A) J K F=H=@A C =J ?  F K @A = AE J K

5JD FAH FJMID J K G H K IJD D IG ID J K R(A) A J R(U ) @A A =E J I =F )F J F=HX@AEC = A =E FH B= ? JE R(A) @A A =E @E ? A J R(U )

R(U )
K

# *HA JA

= FAHECHXBAE JD IG ID AJ=N JM IJD

J K A =E JM IJD =E

U
AX J = J IJ EG I =E U

 - = I

IJD J K F = = A A =E CH= E X = ANXHJDJ AX IJD J K U A =E CH= E X = ANXHJDJ A? J K U J JA = KF I JM IJD

)F @AEND -X A A =E F = =? F K F= H K A =F
F = =? =F JE? = J IJ EGA? IJ

J KA

A = P 1 L U
=E =B F = =? P 1 L A =E = JEIJH OE ? = @EX KI = x E = F EA JD A x = 0 AX =E AX E = F EA JD AN IMID U x = 0 -X E IJ A? J K U A =E CH= E X = ANXHJDJA? J JA D =@E ID J K A =E D x = 0 =E IK AF ? D =@E ID J K A x = 0 A =E D x = 0 5K AF ? J K A A =E CH= E X = ANXHJDJA? E IK AF=CMC ? EIG K =E = J IJH B= AX E IJ A? J K A A =E CH= E X = A? J @E EIG AE CE= JE? IJ A? J K U AN IMID

Ux = 0 E IJ A?
ANXHJDJ

/ MH K A JE E r IJ A? F K FAHE G K @DC ? =F JA >XID J K R(U ) 5K AF ? E = J IJ EGA? r IJ A? j1 , . . . , jr J K F = = A A =E CH= E X = ANXHJDJA? -X D @EXIJ=ID J K R(A) J= AC= JAHD =F r J JA = KF HGA XF E= X D IJ D J K A D F = = A JE? j1 , . . . , jr = =F JA IA CH= E X = ANXHJDJ I ) X J JA E = J IJ EGA? r + 1 IJ A? J K U = J= CH= E X = ANXHJDJA? F K @A F HA = IK >A =B D @EXIJ=ID J K R(U ) A =E r 5K AF ? E IJ A? j1 , . . . , jr F=HXC K J R(A) =E =F JA >XID J K

ABX =E

2 = A? =E ,E= KI =JE

7F GMH E

#% =E GAE

2H J=ID

G H ? IJD J K m n F = = A A =E KF GMH ? J K Rm @EXIJ=ID ID A JD JXND r J K F = =

R(A) Rm
= >XID J K R(A) =F JA A J=E =F JE? IJ F = = U F K FAHE G K @DC ? 5K FAE= JM 2H JXIAM J K A A =E I ' =E ? JM CH=

dim R(A) = r .
IJE? IJ A? J K E = MJ

A? F K = JEIJ EG K

 A =E J =

A A E @A? =F J AI = E X = ANXHJDJM CH= JKA

A HD =

! 5A X A m n F = = A J F
AJ F

? JM CH= E X = ANXHJDJM IJD

=HEIJAH ? D@A GMH ? J K A, N (AT )

=HEIJAH ? D@A GMH ? J K A A =E D@A GMH ? J K = XIJH B K F = = AT / M H K A JE D @EXIJ=ID J K D@A GMH K A ? F = = A =E J F ? JM A A AHM AJ=> DJ F K A =E I A J F ? M JM AJ=> DJ A J F ? JM >=IE AJ=> T DJ /E= J F = = A J F ? M JM AJ=> DJ A =E m  IA? A =E E IJ A? J K AT @D =@ IA? A =E E CH= ? J K A 6 F ? JM >=IE AJ=> DJ J K T A A =E I A JD JXND J K r =F J A HD = ! 5K AF ? J F ? JM A A AHM AJ=> DJ J K AT A =E m r =E

dim N (AT ) = m r .
/E= = FAHECHXO K A J= @E= I =J= y F K E = F E

y T A = 0 ANAJX K A JD F=H=C J F DID

P A = LU . L A =E = JEIJH OE
? =E G K A

L1 P A = U .
0 i CH= J K U A =E J CE A JD? i CH= ? J K L1 P A J F = = A E mr JA AKJ= A? CH= ? J K U A =E IA? A J D@ )H= E m r JA AKJ= A? CH= ? J K L1 P A =E @E= I =J= J K =HEIJAH D@A GMH K J K A )B F = =? L1 P A =E = JEIJH OE ? E CH= ? J K A =E CH= E X = ANXHJDJA? )H= E m r JA AKJ= A? CH= ? J K L1 P A =E CH= E X = ANXHJDJ= @E= I =J= J K G H K N (AT ) F ? GAE @EXIJ=ID m r =E IK AF ? =F JA = >XID J K G H K

2H J=ID

=HEIJAH ? =E GAE @EXIJ=ID m r

"

D@A GMH ? J K m n F = = A A =E KF GMH ? J K Rm

N (AT ) Rm

dim N (AT ) = m r
? J K F = = L1 P JD?

= >XID J K N (AT ) =F JA A J=E =F JE? m r JA AKJ= A? CH= =F= EB ? Gauss

)I DID
F = =

2AHECHXOJA J K? J IIIAHAE? KF G H K? J K R3 F K IGAJ 0 1 0 A= 0 0 1 0 0 0

J=E A J

#&

-EI=CMC IJD /H=

) CA>H=

)I DID

#! *HA JA E= >XID J K G H K IJD

0 1 0 0 U = 0 0 0 0 4 2 0 0

3 2 0 0

J K

)I DID
=

JM FE X M

#" *HA JA JD @EXIJ=ID =E = >XID CE= J K? J IIAHAE? A A E @AE? KF GMH K?

1 2 0 1 A= 0 1 1 0 1 2 0 1 0 1 4 0 0 2 8 0 1 2 0 1 =E U = 0 1 1 0 . 0 0 0 0 0 1 4 0 0 0 0 0

>

A=

=E U =

)I DID )I DID

A AB A =E D@A E ? F = =? AB = 0 @A NJA JE G H ? IJD J K F = = B FAHE GAJ=E IJ D@A G H J K A ,A NJA AF ID? JE G H ? CH= J K A FAHE GAJ=E IJ =HEIJAH D@A G H J K B F = =B F J= @E= I =J=

## -X J CE

#$ *HA JA = F = = A
? GAE J

F ? GAE J G H V M? G H IJD =E = G H V M? D@A G H V A =E KF GMH ? F K F=HXCAJ=E =F

1 1 1 1 , 2 , 5 0 0 0

)I DID )I DID )I DID

JAIIXHM

GAJ=E IJ G H CH=

#% /E=J @A KFXHGAE F = =? A J J E ? IJA J @EX KI = (1, 1, 1) = FAHE

=E IJ D@A G H J K A

#& -X D AN IMID Ax = 0 GAE = D D@A E ID @A NJA JE KFXHG K @E= I =J= w CE= J= F = AT y = w @A GAE ID =J=I AKXIJA = J J E A =E w #' 3MH ? = F =F =IEXIAJA CE= A A EM@ KF G HM J K A 1 0 0 1 A= 6 1 0 0 9 8 1 0 $ -X A = XNAJA JE? @
= KF C IAJA J A >HA JA >XIAE? JM

2 3 4 1 2 3 . 0 1 8

)I DID

FH JA? CH= ? J K F = = A F E =F J K? J IIAHAE? KF GMH K? @A = X K -X y = (1, 2, 3, 4) A =E IJ EGA IJ =HEIJAH D@A G H J K A >HA JA = @EX KI = IJ =HEIJAH D@A G H J K KF = =

ABX =E ! 2 = A? =E /H=
/H= E ? =FAE IAE?

E ? )FAE

IAE?

J= F =F =IEX K A = @EX KI = x A = F = = A F= H K A = =E HCE @EX KI = Ax -X x Rn =E F = =? A =E m n F= H K A = @EX KI = IJ Rm -JIE F H A IJ F = = A = = JEIJ EG I K A E= =FAE EID LA =F J G H Rn IJ G H Rm

LA : Rn Rm : x Ax .

2=HX@AEC = !  AMH

AJ

F = =

A=

c 0 0 c

/E= X A @EX KI = x R2 Ax = cx X A @EX KI = @E=IJ AJ=E A J IK JA AIJ c -X c > 1 J @EX KI = C AJ=E AC= JAH AX 0 < c < 1 J @EX KI = C AJ=E E H JAH 6 ? AX c < 0 J @EX KI = = X AE B HX

2=HX@AEC = !

AMH

AJ

F = =

A=

0 1 1 0

.
? A =KJ J F = =

/E= X A @EX KI = x = (u, v ) R2 Ax = (v, u) 2 =F =IE=I FAHEIJH BAE J AF FA@ C HM =F J 0 =JX E= H CM =

2=HX@AEC = ! ! AMH

AJ

F = =

A=

0 1 1 0

.
=F =IE=I ? A =KJ J F = =

/E= X A @EX KI = x = (u, v ) R2 Ax = (v, u) 2 = = X J AF FA@ M? FH ? JD AK A = u = v

2=HX@AEC = ! " AMH

AJ

F = =

A=

1 0 0 0

.
=F =IE=I ? A =KJ J F = =

/E= X A @EX KI = x = (u, v ) R2 Ax = (u, 0) 2 FH >X AE J AF FA@ IJ u XN = #'

$ 6 A @ K? =FAE F H A = >H IAE? F H = FH A XF EA? E@E JDJA? O K =F F

-EI=CMC IJD /H=

) CA>H=

=F =IE=I

=F = = -

 6 0 FH FAE = =FAE

AJ=E IJ 0 LA (0) = 0 AB I

A0 = 0
=F XIE= @E

2 =F XIE= A ? @E= I =J ? FH FAE = =FAE J=E IJ= = J IJ EG= F JD? AE =? J K @E= I =J ? LA (cx) = c LA (x) AB I A(cx) = c(Ax)

! 6 X H EI = @ @E= KI XJM =FAE AJ=E IJ X H EI = JM AE M JM @ = KI XJM LA (x + y ) = LA (x) + LA (y ) AB I A(x + y ) = Ax + Ay

x, y Rn

CH= E HEI ?

)FAE

IAE? F K G K =KJ ? JE? E@E JDJA?

AJ=IGD =JEI

J=E

CH=

E ? =FAE

IAE?

0 =FAE EID f : Rn Rm A =E =E X A c R

CH=

=FAE

EID AX CE= X A

 f (x + y ) = f (x) + f (y ) =E

f (cx) = c f (x)
/A E JAH= AX V =E W A =E @E= KI =JE KF GMH E J K Rn =E J K Rm = J IJ EG= = =FAE EID f : V W A =E CH= E AX E = F E J=E E F=H=FX M IK A? CE= X AvV - @= A JE CE= X A m n F = = A D =FAE EID LA A =E CH= E = @A N K A J H= JE = J IJH B= X A CH= E =FAE EID f : Rn Rm = JEIJ EGA IA = F = = 7FA K K A JE AX 1 , . . . , n A =E E IJ A? J K F = = A J JA u1 A = u1 1 + + un n . un

2H J=ID ! 

AMH A JD CH= E =FAE IJ A? J= @E= I =J= f (e1 ), f (e2 ), . . . , f (en ) J K Rn 6 JA f = LA

EID f : Rn Rm =E J F = = A A F K e1 , e2 , . . . , en A =E D = E >XID

)F @AEND -IJM u = (u1 , . . . , un ) 6 JA u = u1 e1 +u2 e2 + +un en )F CH= E JDJ=

f (u) = f (u1 e1 + + un en ) = u1 f (e1 ) + + un f (en ) u1 = A . un

0 2H J=ID !  F HA = CA E AK A M? AN ? E JE ? =? CH= E ? =FAE EID? f : V W IJ= @E= I =J= v1 , v2 , . . . , vk =? >XID? J K FA@ K HEI V = H K JD =FAE EID X A v V CHXBAJ=E M? CH= E ? IK @K=I ? JM IJ EGA M JD? >XID? v = c1 v1 + + ck vk =E J JA D CH= E JDJ= JD? f FH I@E H AE J @EX KI = f (v )

f (v ) = c1 f (v1 ) + + ck f (vk ) .

ABX =E !

2 = A? =E /H=

E ? )FAE

IAE?

$

2=HX@AEC = ! # -X f : R2 R3 A =E CH= E
A f (0, 1) = (0, 1, 1) J JA F H A = >H 2H FAE = E = F E J=E E IG IAE? 1 1 A = 1 =E 2 0 JE? F A? F H A = CHXO K A = M? AJ

=FAE EID =E f (1, 2) = (1, 1, 2) 3 2 F = = F K F=HEIJX AE JD f

0 1

0 = 1 , 1

A
)

1 0 2 1

1 0 = 1 1 . 0 1

X J= @E= I =J= (1, 2) =E (0, 1) A =E CH= E X = ANXHJDJ= =F JA >XID J K R2  1 0 =E IK AF ? F = =? A =E = JEIJH OE ? 2 =F =IEX K A =F J= @ANEX A J 2 1 A1 =E G K A 1 0 1 1 0 . A= 1 1 2 1 0 1

2=HX@AEC = ! $ = @

A XF EA? =FAE

IAE? F K @A A =E CH=

E ?

 g (x) = 2x + 1 ) =E J CHXBD = =KJ ? JD? IK XHJDID? A =E E= AK A = @A E = F EA JE? IK A? J K HEI g (u + v ) = 2u + 2v + 1 = (2u + 1) + (2v + 1) = g (u) + g (v )

(u1 , u2 ) (2u2 + 1, 0)
! (x, y ) (xy, x, y ) 0 FH IAJ=EHEIJE E@E JDJ= J K CE K FE X M AN=IB= E =FAE IAM A =E CH= E =E = JEIJ EGA IJ CE A AE JE D I AID @ JM FE X M CH=

2H J=ID !
CE A

-X A, B A =E F = A? m n =E n p = J IJ EG= C = AB J JA EIG AE LA LB = LC .

IJA = H AJ=E J

)F @AEND 2HXC =JE LC (v) = Cv = (AB )v = A(Bv ) = LA (LB (v)) = LA LB (v) )I DID !  *HA JA JD AE
CE= JE? =FAE = J K CA E ID A K (v1 , . . . , vn ) J K FA@ K HEI IAE? F K H J=E A F =F =IE=I =F J= =HEIJAHX A J F = = 1 1 1 2 2 A= B= 0 0 0 1 3

C=

3 0 1 4 2 0

1 0 2 1 D = 1 0 1 1 1 2 2 2

-EI=CMC IJD /H=

) CA>H=

)I DID !

*HA JA J

F = = A IJ

= JEIJ EGA D CH=

=FAE

EID

f (x, y ) = (3x + y, 2y, x y ) .

)I DID ! ! ,A NJA JE E F=H= XJM =FAE

= g (x, y, z ) = (3x, y 2 ) > h(u, v, w) = (v + 2, 4u)

IAE? @A A =E CH=

E ?

)I DID ! " *HA JA J

= )FAE J EG=

F = = F K = JEIJ EGA IJ CH=

AJ=IGD =JEI

AE J= @E= I =J= (1, 0) =E (0, 1) IJ= @E= I =J= (1, 3) =E (7, 1) = J I

> )FAE AE J= @E= I =J= (1, 0, 0) (0, 1, 0) =E (0, 0, 1) IJ= @E= I =J= (1, 5, 2, 9) (2, 6, 4, 7) =E ( 3, 3, 7, 1) = J IJ EG=

)I DID ! # -X
f g (u) A =E I

E =FAE A u u2 F E

IAE? f

=E g A =E CH=

E ?

=E f (u) = g (u) = u J JA

)I DID ! $ 2 E ? =F JE? =

f (u) + f (v )
=E F E ? E = = f (v ) = v/||v || > f (v ) = (v1 , 2v2 , 3v3 ) C f (v ) = v1 + v2 + v3 @ f (v ) = D AC=

K A? =FAE IAE? E = F E JD IG ID f (u + v ) = JD IG ID f (cv ) = cf (v ) F K v = (v1 , v2 , v3 )

JAHD IK EIJ I= J K v K A? =FAE IAE? @A A =E CH= E ? F K v = ( v1 , v 2 )

)I DID ! % 2 A? =F JE? =

= g (v ) = (v2 , v1 ) > g (v ) = (0, v1 ) C g (v ) = (v1 , v1 ) @ g (v ) = (0, 1)

)I DID ! & ,A NJA JE AX f : R3 R3 A =E CH= E

CH= E =FAE EID I

=FAE

EID J JA f 2 A =E

@D =@ = BE AF ID? CH= E

)I DID ! ' ,A NJA JE AX D CH= E

= JD =FAE

=FAE EID f : V W A =E = JEIJH OE D EID J JA D = J IJH B =FAE EID f 1 : W V A =E

ABX =E !

2 = A? =E /H=

E ? )FAE

IAE?

$!

/H=

E ? =FAE

IAE? J K AFEF @ K

5J= F=H=@A C =J= F K @ I= A IJD =HG J K AB= = K AMH I= A JD FAHEIJH B J K AFEF @ K =JX = H CM = JD = X =ID IJD AK A = x = y =E JD FH > IJ x XN =  M? F H A = G K A FAHEIJH B ? =JX =K = HAJA? CM A? =E FH > ? = = XIAE? IA F E=@ F JA AK A = F K FAHE GAE J 0  A? =KJ ? E =FAE IAE? A =E CH= E ? = >H A J K? F = =? F K JE? = =F=HEIJ GHDIE F E J=? JD = E 1 0 >XID =E J K R2 0 1 1 cos 0 FAHEIJH B =JX CM = =FAE AE J @EX KI = IJ @EX KI = =E 0 sin 0 sin J @EX KI = IJ @EX KI = @A? ID AE IAE? ) = KJE ? /AM AJH =? 1 cos )H= F = =? Q F K F=HEIJX AE JD FAHEIJH B J K AFEF @ K =JX CM = A =E

Q =
0 CAM AJHE @E= I DID =? GAE = J IJH B JD FAHEIJH B 2=H=JDH A JE

cos sin sin cos

=JX CM = A =E = JEIJH OE D =E

AE JE D FAHEIJH B =JX CM =

Q =
=E FHXC =JE

cos() sin() sin() cos()

cos sin sin cos

Q Q =

cos2 + sin2 cos sin sin cos sin cos cos sin sin2 + cos2

1 0 0 1

.
A =

)I DID !  -F= D A I=JA JE @

FAHEIJH B =JX CM = 2 @D =@ IJD

FAHEIJH B ? =JX CM = EI @K =

Q2 = Q2
=E JE D FAHEIJH B =J= CM = =E AJX =JX CM = EI @K = A =JX CM = + @D =@ JE Q Q = Q(+) . 0 FH XI = X A E= J F A JD FAHEIJH B

> J K @E= I =J ? (1, 0) IJD AK A = F K IGD =J AE CM = A J x XN = =? K A =KJ JD AK A = J XN = @ @AE = @EX KI = IKCCH= E A J (cos , sin ) 2 ? cos ,D =@ J (1, 0) FH >X AJ=E IJ @EX KI = (cos , cos sin ) 2=H @EX KI = (0, 1) FH >X AJ=E IJ @EX KI = (sin cos , sin2 ) = =? F K F=HEIJX AE JD FH > IJ XN = A =E EF

P =

cos2 cos sin cos sin sin2

.
J=E IJ

)KJ ? F = =? @A A =E = JEIJH OE ? 6= ID A = J K + XN = FH >X 2  D@A G H ? J K F = = =F JA A J=E =F J= F =F XIE= J K @E= I =J ? cos + , sin + 2 2 = ( sin , cos ) .

$" 0 CAM AJHE @E= I DID =? AE JE AX FH >X @E A J = FH >X K A = B HX

-EI=CMC IJD /H=

) CA>H=

K A@

B H ? J =F J AI = A =E

(P ) =

c2 cs cs s2

c2 (c2 + s2 ) cs(c2 + s2 ) cs(c2 + s2 ) s2 (c2 + s2 )

= P .

0 = X =ID IJ XN = =B AE = AJX> DJ= J= ID A = J K XN = =E IK AF ? J @EX KI = (cos , sin ) =FAE AJ=E IJ A=KJ J K - = @EX KI = X AJ IJ XN = =FAE AJ=E IJ = J AJ J K IK AF ? J ( sin , cos ) =FAE AJ=E IJ (sin , cos ) )H= F = =? H F K F=HEIJX AE JD = X =ID E = F EA

H
=E IK AF ?

c s s c

c s s c

H = =

c s s c

c s s c

2c2 1 2cs 2cs 2s2 1

F=H=FX M KF CEI

.
J K F = = H

)I DID !  -F= D A I=JA J

0 CAM AJHE @E= I DID =? AE JE @ = = XIAE? IJ @E XN = AF= =B H K JD =HGE AE = @D =@ (H )2 = I F H A = AF= D A I K A =KJ JD E@E JDJ= A =F AK A =? KF CEI - = = JE X F=H=JDH A JE H = 2P I =E IK AF ? G K A (H )2 = (2P I )2 = 2 2 4P 4P + I = I =B P = P

)I DID ! 

F = =? A =

xXN = 5GA@EXIJA J =F F =F =IE=I AJ

2 0 F=HEIJX AE = stretching IJD @EA K ID J K 0 1 x2 + y 2 = 1 =E C HM J K ID A = (2x, y ) F K FH FJ K F = = A 6E IG = GAE D = F D F K FH FJAE

)I DID ! ! 2

J K R2 =JX = H F=HEIJX AE JD =FAE IJ y XN =

? F = =? F=HEIJX AE JD =FAE EID F K FAHEIJH BAE X A @EX KI = =E IJD IK GAE= FH >X AE FX M IJ xXN = 2 E ? F = =? EID F K FH >X AE IJ xXN = =E IJD IK GAE= FH >X AE FX M

1 0 F=HEIJX AE = shearing D F = =B AE J 3 1 y XN = = AJX> DJ= 5GA@EXIJA J =F J AI = =KJ ? JD? =FAE EID? IJ xXN = ID AE J=? JD AE = JM ID A M (1, 0), (2, 0) =E (1, 0) = ? =E JD AE = K J K xXN =

)I DID ! "

F = =? A =

)I DID ! # 2
= FH > > = X

E 3 3 F = A? F=HEIJX

K JE? =

K A? =FAE

IAE?

IJ (x, y ) AF FA@ =ID IJ (x, y ) AF FA@ =JX = H CM = =E =B AE J=

C JD =FAE EID F K FAHEIJH BAE J (x, y ) AF FA@ ID A = J K z XN = = AJX> DJ=

ABX =E !

2 = A? =E /H=

E ? )FAE

IAE?

$# =J FE J (x, z )AF FA@ X =JX CM = ID A @ =

@ JD =FAE EID F K FAHEIJH BAE J (x, y ) AF FA@ =JX = H CM = A JD =FAE H ?

EID F K X AE JE? @EA? JHA ? FAHEIJH B ? =

)I DID ! $ 2AHEIJH B ? IJ G H FH I@E HE )I DID ! %

J=E =F J XN = J K F K J= ID A = F=H= K = AJX> DJ= =E JD CM = FAHEIJH B ? *HA JA J XN = =E JD CM = FAHEIJH B ? JD? =FAE EID? F K =FAE AE J (x1 , x2 , x3 ) IJ (x2 , x3 , x1 ) AMH IJA JD J g (g (g (v ))) =E J g 100 (v ) K E =FAE EID q (v1 , v2 , v3 ) = (v3 , v1 , v2 ) *HA JA

EID JF K IJ AE J (1, 0) IJ (2, 5) =E J (0, 1) IJ (1, 3) 2 E ? F = =? IJ AE J (2, 5) IJ (1, 0) =E J (1, 3) IJ (0, 1) /E=J @A KFXHGAE F = =? F K = =FAE AE J (2, 6) IJ (1, 0) =E J (1, 3) IJ (0, 1)

)I DID ! & 2 E ? F = =? F=HEIJX AE JD =FAE )I DID ! '

= 6E IG > /E= F E C /E= F E @ /E= F E

1, 0 x2 1} =E

AMH IJA = J= @E= I =J= x IJ JAJHXCM = 22 F = = A = J K JAJH=C K =F JD x Ax

{(x1 , x2 ) : 0 x1

= GAE D AE

? F = A? A A =E D AE ? F = A? A A =E D AE ? F = A? A GAE D AE

= JAJHXCM = = AK CH= I A1 J =

= A >=@

-E = =E = J IJH BD AE = J IJH B
LA : R R

= )HEIJAH
=E JD = J IJ EGD CH= E

=E @ANE
=FAE EID EID?

2H J=ID ! !
n m

AMH

AJ

mn F = = A

 -X V A =E @E= KI =JE ? KF GMH ? J K Rn J JA D AE = J K V IM JD? =FAE LA LA (V ) = {LA (v ) | v V } A =E @E= KI =JE ? KF GMH ? J K Rm

-X W A =E @E= KI =JE ? KF GMH ? J K Rm J JA D = J IJH BD AE = J K W IM 1 n ? KF GMH ? JD? =FAE EID? LA L A (W ) = {v R | LA (v ) W } A =E @E= KI =JE n JKR

)F @AEND /E= = =F @A N K A J  AMH

A w1 , w2 LA (V ) =E c R =E FH FAE = @A N K A JE w1 + w2 =E cw1 LA (V ) -B I w1 LA (V ) KFXHGAE v1 V J J E IJA LA (v1 ) = w1 =E = X C= CE= J w2 -B I V A =E @E= KI =JE ? KF GMH ? v1 + v2 V =E LA (v1 + v2 ) = LA (v1 ) + LA (v2 ) = w1 + w2 XH= w1 + w2 LA (V ) 2=H E= cv1 V =E LA (cv1 ) = cLA (v1 ) = cw1 )H= cw1 LA (V ) 1 /E= J AMH A v1 , v2 L =E FH FAE = @A N K A JE v1 + v2 =E A (W ) =E c R 1 cv1 L ( W ) 7FXHG K w W J J E IJA L ( v ) =E = X C= CE= J w2 ) X 1 A 1 = w1 A J JA LA (v1 + v2 ) = w1 + w2 W =E LA (cv1 ) = cw1 W XH= v1 + v2 =E cv1 = K

$$
1 IJ L A (W )

-EI=CMC IJD /H=

) CA>H=

6 AF A AH JD = F K K A = ANAJXI K A A =E KF F A? IK A? A =E D =FAE EID LA A AE E AFAE E = BE I = JD 0 LA A =E A AE E AX CE= X A v1 , v2 Rn D KF AID LA (v1 ) = LA (v2 ) IK AFXCAJ=E JE v1 = v2 )KJ EIG AE AX =E AX EIG AE D IK AF=CMC Av1 = Av2 v1 = v2 EI @ = = AX A(v1 v2 ) = 0 v1 v2 = 0 ,D =@ D LA A =E A AE E AX =E n AX CE= X A x R Ax = 0 x = 0 @D =@ AX =E AX D =@E ID JD? AN IMID? Ax = 0 A =E D JAJHE D x = 0 ) X C MH K A JE D CA ? AN IMID GAE =@E ID JD JAJHE D = HE> ? J= @A KFXHG K A A AHA? AJ=> DJ ? @D =@ J= D JXND J K F = = A =E r = n 0 LA A =E AFAE E AX CE= X A b Rm KFXHGAE v Rn J J E IJA LA (v ) = b m @D =@ J= D AN IMID Ax = b GAE ID CE= X A b R )KJ EIG AE = HE> ? J= m G H ? IJD J K A A =E ? R @D =@ J= D JXND J K F = = A =E r = m -G K A =F @A NAE JD = K D FH J=ID

2H J=ID ! " -X A A =E m n F = =? J JA D =FAE

 A AE AFAE ! = BE E E I AX AX =E =E =E AX r = n AX r = m =E

EID LA A =E

= JD AX

AX r = m = n

= =FAE EID f : IJA g f = idN AX h : M N J J E ID AE IAE? J K = =J

N M GAE =HEIJAH = J IJH B g : M N J J E =E AX D f A =E A AE E =E GAE @ANE = J IJH B IJA f h = idM AX =E AX D f A =E AFAE E @A? ? A E= JM = D =JE 

HEI


? -X A A =E =? m n F = =?
n m F = =? B A =E n m F = =? C A =E

=HEIJAH ? = J IJH B ? J K A AX BA = In @ANE ? = J IJH B ? J K A AX AC = Im

2H J=ID ! #

m n F = =? A GAE
=E AX D JXND r = n AX D JXND r = m

 =HEIJAH = J IJH B AX @ANE = J IJH B AX =E

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U V , U W , V W .

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R(AT ) N (A)
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R(A) N (AT ) .

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n

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-G K A @A NAE JE

N (A) = R(AT ) .
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R(AT ) = N (A) .
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dim R(A T ) + dim N (A ) = n

A JD "  =E =B N (A ) = N (A) IK FAH= K A JE dim R(A T ) = dim R(AT ) ) X =KJ ID = AE JE J @EX KI = z AN=HJXJ=E CH= E X =F J= @E= I =J= E=? >XID? J K R(AT ) @D =@ JE = AE IJ R(AT ) -G K A =F @A NAE J FH J H ?J K= K K AMH =J ? 6 @A JAH H ? =F @AE A J=E AMH J=? J = XIJH B F = =

A HD = " " , @AJ=E =? m n F = =? A 6 JA

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N (AT ) = R(A) =E R(A) = N (AT ) .

A H

A =KJ J A HD = ? F = = E F E =F JA C E IJ G H IJD

DH

AJ=E D FAHECH=B JM JAIIXHM A A EM@ @ A CD H CM M IK F DHM XJM = @EX KI = H C E IJ J KA D@A G H

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)I DID " 

A =E J D@A E

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1 1 0 A= 0 0 0

2 0

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A D E@E JDJ= D@A G H ?

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ID

1 0 =E AT 0 = 0 0 0
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FAHE GAE J

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V = {w Rn : v V, wT v = 0}
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Ax = p.
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2=HX@AEC = " " 7F

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b = a .

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2x = b1 3x = b2 4x = b3 .
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b1 2 3 x = b2 b3 4
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GAE ID J IBX =

J= J (b1 , b2 , b3 ) =

= ax b =

(2x b1 )2 + (3x b2 )2 + (4x b3 )2 ,

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)I DID " $ 7F

C IJA JD F=HXCMC ax b A =E X AJ IJ a

d (2 ) dx

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2H >

IA AK A =

)? ANAJXI K A FH J= JD FH > IA = AK A = AMH A J= @E= I =J= a =E b IJ AF FA@ - @= A IJ ABX =E ! JD FH > J K AFEF @ K R2 IJ XN = @D =@ IJD AK A = JM @E= KI XJM F K A =E IKCCH= E X A J (cos , sin ) 6 H= K A = KF C I K A JD FH > A ? ID A K b J K Rn FX M IJD AK A = JM @E= KI XJM F K A =E IKCCH= E X A J a Rn 6 @EX KI = FH > ? p G=H= JDH AJ=E =F JE? = K A? E@E JDJA?  6 p A =E IKCCH= E A J a @D =@ p = x a CE= XF E =HE C E= IJ a @D =@ aT (b p) = 0

x R

0 @E=B HX b p A =E H )F =KJ ? JE? E@E JDJA? = >X

K A JD AN IMID

aT (b x a) = 0
JD F = F H A = I K A CE= = >H AJ x

x =
5K AF ? J @EX KI = FH > ? A =E

aT b . aT a

p=x a =

aT b a. aT a

ABX =E "

D =E H ? CM A?

%%

K A = A BHXI K A JD FH > M? = CH= E =FAE EID =F J Rn IJ Rn D F = =FAE AE J Rn IJD AK A = V = {ta : t R} =E = >H A J = J IJ EG F = = 5J FH DC A KF CEI F H A = = JEIJH O K A JD @EXJ=ND J K a =E J Kx aT b p = ax =a T , a a =E = AB=H I K A JD FH IAJ=EHEIJE E@E JDJ=

p=
2=H=JDH IJA JE aT a A =E AJE JAJH=CM E ? F = =? 6 F = = ? =HE

1 aT a

aaT b .
J K K? J K a A

? J JAJHXCM

aaT A =E

P =

1 aT a

aaT

X K A F = = FH > ? /E= = FH >X K A J @EX KI = b Rn IJD AK A = F K H AE J @EX KI = a =H A = J F =F =IEXI K A A J F = = P

2=HX@AEC = " # 5K AG
I IJD =

K A J 2=HX@AEC = " "

A b = (4, 6, 9) @D =@

AMH

AJ

2 4 3 x = 6 . 4 9
AE IJ G H F K F=HXCAE J (2, 3, 4)

)KJ @A GAE ID =B J @EX KI = (4, 6, 9) @A = 0 > JEIJD ID A =E x J J E= IJA 4 2 3 4 6 x 9 @D =@

2 3 = 0 , 4

x =
5K FAH= K A JE D > JEIJD JE 62 (4, 9) A =E = 29 F=HXCAJ=E =F J @EX KI = (1, 2)

(2, 3, 4) (4, 6, 9) 62 = . 2 2 2 2 +3 +4 29 CE= J F K FH FJAE =F J= ! ID A = (2, 4) (3, 6) =E

J K @E= I =J ? (7, 4) FX M IJ KF GMH F K

)I DID " % *HA JA JD FH > )I DID " & *HA JA J )I DID " ' *HA JA J
=

F = = FH > ? F K = JEIJ EGA IJD FH > XJM J K AFEF @ K R2 FX M IJD AK A = 3x 2y = 0

JM @E= KI

F = = FH > ? P1 IJD AK A = A @EA K ID a = (1, 3) ? =E J F = = FH > ? P2 IJD AK A = F K A =E X AJD IJ a 7F C IJA J K? F = A? P1 + P2 =E P1 P2 -NDCA IJA J =F J AI = XN A? IK JAJ=C

)I DID " ! 5J

G H Rn F EX CM = IGD =J AE J @EX KI = (1, 1, . . . , 1) A J K? M *HA JA J F = = FH > ? IA =KJ J @EX KI =

)I DID " ! 2 E F

=F XIE J K (a = (1, 1, 1) A =E F DIE IJAH IJ ID A b = (2, 4, 4) *HA JA AF ID? J ID A IJD AK A = A @EA K ID b F K A =E F DIE IJAH IJ a

%&

-EI=CMC IJD /H=

) CA>H=

)I DID " !

E =

,A NJA JE F EA JD IG ID P 2 = P

F = =? FH >

? P =

1 aT a

aaT A =E IK AJHE

=E J=E

)I DID " !! 2 E ? F = =? P FH >X AE X A ID A J K R3 IJD AK A = F K J

J= AF FA@= x + y + t = 0 =E x t = 0 J K b IJ a

)I DID " !" /E= J= =

FH > = b= > b=

K = @E= I =J= IGA@EXIJA IJ =HJAIE= AF FA@ JD =E IJD IK GAE= KF C IJA JD FH > =F JD BH=ID p = xa

cos sin 1 1

=E a = =E a =

1 0

1 1
K ID a =E A CNJA

)I DID " !# 7F

C IJA JD FH > J K b IJD AK A = A @EA JE J @E= KI =JE IBX = e = b p A =E H C E IJ a 1 1 = b = 2 =E a = 1 1 2

1 1 > b = 3 =E a = 3 1 1

)I DID " !$ -IJM a @EX KI = J K Rn =E IJM P

JE J X H EI = JM @E=CM M IJ EGA M J K P EI

F = =? FH > J=E A 

? J K a ,A NJA

)I DID " !% -IJM a = (1, 2, 1, 3)

= *HA JA J F = = FH > ? P IJ @EX KI = a

> *HA JA E= >XID J K D@A GMH K N (P ) C *HA JA D@A E = D D@A E @EX KI = @EX KI = v J K R4 J K F K D FH > IJ a = A =E J

2H >

IA KF GMH

AMH A J H= J FH > D = IA FAHEII JAHA? @E=IJXIAE? K A = FH >X K A J @EX KI = b IA = KF GMH V @EXIJ=ID? k I= IJ Rm F H A CE= AK = = KF I K A JE k = 2 =E m = 3 GMH ? KIE=IJE @E=B HX IJD @E=@E =I = AMH A 3 EF @ @E= I =J= a1 =E a2 J K R J= F = =F JA >XID J K V =E J m k F = = A A IJ A? J= @E= I =J= ai JIE IJA V = R(A) )B D FH > p >H I AJ=E IJ G H IJD J KA G K A p = Ax

ABX =E "

D =E H ? CM A?

%' A =E H C E= J @EX KI = b Ax A =E H C E A HD = " " = AE IJ =HEIJAH D@A G H J K A

CE= XF E x Rk )B D FH > IJ G H IJD J K A =E =F J

AT (b Ax ) = 0 .
-JIE G K A JD AN IMID

AT Ax = AT b ,
A = KF CI K A J p

D F = = =? @ IAE JD > JEIJD ID x =F JD F = F H -X F = =? AT A A =E = JEIJH OE ? G K A

x = (AT A)1 AT b ,
=E D FH > J K b IJ KF GMH V = R(A) A =E

p = Ax = A(AT A)1 AT b .
F = =? FH > ? A =E

P = A(AT A)1 AT .

5A =KJ JD BH=ID A A =E m k F = =? F JA AT A A =E JAJH=CM E ? k k F = =? =E P A =E m m F = =? ) IKC H K A A JD FAH FJMID JD? FH > ? IA AK A = F K k = 1 > F K A JE m 1 F = =? A A =E J @EX KI = a =E = JEIJH OE ? k k F = =? AT A A =E AJE ? 1 T =HE ? a a A = J IJH B aT a )KJ ? AJ=J AJ=E A J F = = A =E IK AF ? F H A = CHXO K A 1 a(aT a)1 aT = T aaT . a a T = @A N K A JE D KF AID FM? A A A =E = JEIJH OE ? E = F EA J=E FX J= J= E IJ A? J K A A =E CH= E X = ANXHJDJA? FM? IJD FAH FJMID F K =F JA >XID J K KF GMH K V

="#

F = =? AT A GAE J = J IJH B AC

@E AEI

D@A G H AMH

AJ AxJ J E

A
JE N (A) N (AT A) IJA AT Ax = 0 F JA

)F @AEND - =E FH B= ? JE AX Ax = 0 J JA AT Ax = 0 @D =@
/E= = @A N K A J

xT (AT Ax) = 0.
) X xT (AT Ax) = (xT AT )Ax = (Ax)T Ax = ||Ax||2 )H= J @EX KI = Ax GAE D@A E ? =E IK AF ? Ax = 0 @D =@ x N (A) ? IA = KF GMH J K Rm

AX

2H J=ID " $ - =? m m F = =? P A =E F = =? FH >

=E AX P A =E IK AJHE ? =E P 2 = P

=? KF GMH ? J K Rm =E A F = =? A IJ A? J= @E= I =J= =? >XID? J K V 6 JA F = =? FH > ? IJ KF GMH V A =E P = A(AT A)1 AT = A CG K A JE P 2 = P

)F @AEND -IJM V

P 2 = A(AT A)1 AT A(AT A)1 AT = A(AT A)1 AT = P.

& = XIJH B ? J K P A =E F = =?

-EI=CMC IJD /H=

) CA>H=

P T = (A(AT A)1 AT )T = (AT )T (AT A)1 = A (AT A)T

1 T

AT

AT

= A(AAT )1 AT = P
) JEIJH BM? AX m m F = =? P E = F EA JE? IG IAE? P 2 = P =E P = P T = @A N K A JE P A =E F = =? FH > ? IJ G H IJD J K 2H B= ? CE= X A b Rm P b = AE IJ G H IJD J K P /E= = @A N K A JE P b A =E D FH > J K b IJ KF GMH V = R(P ) =H A = @A N K A JE b P b A =E H C E IJ V -IJM v @EX KI = J K V 6 JA v A =E CH= E ? IK @K=I ? JM IJD J K P @D =@ m KFXHGAE c R J J E IJA v = P c =E G K A

(b P b)T v = = = =
) X PT = P

(b P b)T P c (bT bT P T )P c bT (I P T )P c bT (P P T P )c.

=E P 2 = P XH= P P T P = P P = 0 A b = (4, 6, 9) = X J H= KF J K A

2=HX@AEC = " $ 5K AG

K A J 2=HX@AEC = " " JE D IG ID AJ=N JM F I J JM a =E b A =E

b = a + .
A J= @E= @A@ = (2, 4) (3, 6) =E (4, 9) G = >H A J= =E 2x1 + x2 3x1 + x2 4x1 + x2 JE? F A? CHXB K A M? = I IJD = K A JHA ? ANEI IAE? A @ =C IJ K? CE=

= 4 = 6 = 9, 4 = 6 . 9

2 1 Ax = 3 1 4 1

x1 x2

6 @EX KI = (4, 6, 9) @A = AE IJ G H IJD J K F = = A =E J I IJD = @A GAE ID 6 IBX = = b Ax A =GEIJ F E J=E CE= JD JE x J K x = (x1 , x2 ) CE= JD F = J @EX KI = b Ax A =E H C E IJ G H IJD J K A -JIE G K A JD AN IMID A =G IJM JAJH=C M 4 2 1 2 3 4 x 1 6 3 1 AT (b Ax ) = = 0, 1 1 1 x 2 9 4 1 @D =@

62 19

29 9 9 3

x 1 x 2

=0

ABX =E "

D =E H ? CM A?

&

ID

x 1 x 2
)H= D > JEIJD AK A = F K =

1 6

3 9 9 29

62 19

15 6 7 6

H AJ=E =F J= ID A = (2, 4) (3, 6) =E (4, 9) GAE AN IMID

6b = 15a + 7 .

)I DID " !& *HA JA JD > JEIJD

=E KF C IJA JD FH >

p = Ax AX

ID A =G IJM JAJH=C

M JD? AN IMID? Ax = b

1 0 A= 0 1 1 1
-F= D A IJA JE J @E= KI =JE IBX

1 =E b = 1 . 0
C E IJE? IJ A? J K A =E >HA JA JE?

= e = b p A =E H

)I DID " !' 7F

C IJA J JAJHXCM J K IBX AHE ? F=H=C C K? J K 2 M? FH ? u =E v AX

=J ? 2 = ||Ax b||2

1 0 A = 0 1 , x = 1 1

u v

1 =E b = 3 . 4

I=JA JE? F=H=C C K? IA? A D@ =E IKC H AJA A JE? ANEI IAE? AT Ax = AT b CE= = @A NAJA JE CEI ? =E D CAM AJH = =J= C K IJE? @EA? ANEI IAE? 7F C IJA J x =E JD FH > p = Ax /E=J A =E p = b

)I DID " " *HA JA JD FH >

J K b = (4, 3, 1, 0) FX M IJ G H IJD

J K

1 2 1 1 . A= 1 0 1 2

)I DID " " *HA JA JD > JEIJD

ID A =G IJM JAJH=C M x J K IKIJ =J ? AN EI IAM 3x = 10 =E 4x = 5 2 E A =E J JAJHXCM J K IBX =J ? 2 F K A =GEIJ F EA J=E -F= D A IJA JE J @E= KI =JE IBX = e = (10 3 x, 5 4 x) A =E H C E IJD IJ D (3, 4)

)I DID " "

*HA JA JD FH >

J K b IJ G H IJD

J KA

1 1 A = 1 1 2 4

1 b = 2 . 7
C E FH ?

,E=GMH IJA J b IA X H EI = p + q A p IJ G H IJD J K A =E q H =KJ 5A F E A A E @D KF GMH J K A >H I AJ=E J @EX KI = q

&

-EI=CMC IJD /H=

) CA>H=

)I DID " "! ,A NJA JE AX

F = =? FH > ? - =E

D@A E

F = =? P E = F EA JD IG ID P = P T P J JA P A =E ? F = =? P = 0 F = =? FH > ? =E IA F E KF GMH = AF FA@ @EX KI = b J F

)I DID " "" 6= @E= I =J= a1 = (1, 1, 0) =E a2 = (1, 1, 1) F=HXC K

IJ R *HA JA J FH >X AJ=E IJ  >HA JA = > J
3

F = = FH >

? IJ AF FA@

=E

= D D@A E

)I DID " "# -X V A =E KF GMH ? F K F=HXCAJ=E =F J= (1, 1, 0, 1) =E (0, 0, 1, 0)

= >XID CE= J F = = FH > H C E IK F HM = V

? P IJ V F A =E F DIE IJAH FH ? J (0, 1, 0, 1) V IJ G H IJD J K F = = A F EX A =E D ? IJ G H IJD J K

C J @EX KI = IJ V J

FH >

)I DID " "$ -X P A =E D FH >

IJ =HEIJAH

D@A G H J K A

)I DID " "% -X P = A(AT A)1 AT A =E F = =? FH >

A F E ? A =E
F = =? FH > AMH ? P IJ G H CH= @E= KI =JE

J KA

)I DID " "&

@E= I =J=

A J

KF GMH V J K R4 F K F=HXCAJ=E =F J=

(1, 2, 0, 3),
= *HA JA J H C E IK F

(2, 1, 1, 2) (1, 4, 2, 5)

HM = V J K V F K v V =E

> /HXOJA J @EX KI = x = (4, 15, 7, 8) M? X H EI = x = v + w w V

ABX =E # H
/ MH

KIA?
H KI=?
K A JD H KI= FE X M 2 2 : AX

3=H= JDHEIJE ? E@E JDJA? JD?

A=
D H KI= J K A A =E

1 3 2 4

1 3 2 4
/E= = CA E

= 1 4 3 2 = 4 6 = 2.
KI= A =E

22 F = = D H

a b c d

= ad bc

= A CG K A HEI A? E@E JDJA? JM HE KI 2 2 FE X M =  0 H KI= AN=HJXJ=E CH= E X =F JD FH JD CH= J KF = =

a+a c

b+b d

= (a + a )d (b + b )c = (ad bc) + (a d b c) a b a b = + , c d c d

=E

ta tb c d

= tad tbc = t a b . c d
XII K A JE? CH= ?J KF = =

>  6 FH ID

JD? H

KI=? =

X AE J= A =

c d a b

= cb da =
&!

a b . c d

&" )F =KJ IK FAH= J KF = = K A JE D H

-EI=CMC IJD /H=

) CA>H=

KI= AF ID? AN=HJXJ=E CH=

E X =F JD @A JAHD CH=

a c+c

b d+d

= = =

c+c a

d+d b

c d c d a b a b .

a b a b + c d c d

C  0 H

KI= J K J=KJ JE

F = = A =E 

1 0 0 1

= 1.

/E= = AFA JA K A JD E= JD? H KI=? IA n n F = A? = GHDIE F E I K A =KJ ? JE? E@E JDJA? = @A N K A JE =KJ ? E JHA ? E@E JDJA? G=H= JDH K A =@E JH F JD H KI= A ? n n F = =

HEI

KI=

X AJ=E

= IK XHJDID IJ I

Mn, n JM n n FE X M

det : Mn, n R ,
D F = IK > AJ=E det A =  0 det AN=HJXJ=E CH=

|A| =E E = F EA JE? E@E JDJA? E X =F JD FH JD CH= J KF = = a11 . . . a1n a21 . . . a2n an1 . . . ann a11 . . . a1n a21 . . . a2n an1 . . . ann
F = = A A A = =C @ CH= J JA

a11 + a11 . . . a1n + a1n a21 ... a2n an1

=E

a11 . . . a1n a21 . . . a2n an1 . . . ann

...

ann ta11 . . . ta1n a21 . . . a2n an1 . . . ann

FJAE =F J

=t

>  -X

F = =? B FH

det B = det A .
C  0 H KI= J K n n J=KJ JE F = = A =E 

1 det In = 0

0 = 1. 1

)F =KJ ? JE? JHAE? E@E JDJA? = IK FAHX K A @EXB HA? X A? E@E JDJA? JM HE KI F K = =? AFEJH O K = @A N K A JE KFXHGAE = HE> ? E= IK XHJDID F K E = F EA JE? JHAE? E@E JDJA? @  -X @ CH= ? J K F = = A A =E IA? J JA det A = 0

ABX =E #

KIA?

&#

2HXC =JE AX A = XN K A JE? @ IA? CH= ? F = =? @A = X AE = X =F J >  D H KI= = X AE FH ID )H= det A = det A =E IK AF ? det A = 0 A  J= =B=EH AF =F XIE =? CH= ? =F = X D D H KI= J K F = = @A = X AE -X A? E CH= ? J K F = = B A =E IA? A =KJ ? J K F = = A A J ? =F JD CH= i D F = A =E ID A JD CH= j = i J K F = = A J JA D H KI= J K F = = F K FH FJAE J= =B=EH I K A =F JD i CH= JD j CH= F =F =IE=I D AF A =E ID A det A det B = X det B = 0

)I DID #  - CN=JA J A  IJ

F = =

a+c b+d c d

)I DID # ,E=JKF IJA J A  A J IK > EI (aij ) 2=H=J HDID )F J= >  =E A  FH FJAE JE D @E=@E =I = =F= EB ? Gauss @A
= X AE JD JE JD? H KI=? F=HX   -X F = =? A GAE = D@A E A = =F J= @  =E A    -X D A =E @E=C E ? F = =? d1 0 J JA det D = d1 d2 . . . dn . 2HXC =JE M? FH ? J FH ID CH= J JA det A = 0 FM? =F @AE AJ=E

0 dn

d1 d2 0

0 = d1 dn =

1 d2 0

dn

1 = d1 d2 . . . dn 0

0 1

D  -X A A =E JHECM E ? J JA D H KI= A =E J CE A JM IJ EGA M JD? @E=CM K -X d1 , . . . , dn A =E J= IJ EGA = JD? @E=CM K =E d1 , d2 , . . . , dn = 0 J JA =B=EH J=? F =F XIE= =? CH= ? =F =X D F H A = B H K A J F = = IA @E=C E= HB A J= d1 , . . . , dn IJD @E=C E )H= det A = d1 d2 . . . dn -X XF E =F J= di A =E D@ J JA D =F= EB Gauss @ @AE = F = = A = D@A E CH= )H= det A = 0 6 H= F H A = @A N K A JE KFXHGAE =@E IK XHJDID IJ I JM JAJH=C M E n n FE X M D F = = E = F EA JE? E@E JDJA? =  >  =E C  -JIE D H KI=

&$

-EI=CMC IJD /H=

) CA>H=

A =E = X HEI D 2HXC =JE C MH K A JE F H A A =F= EB Gauss = AJ=JH O K A J F = = A IJ X M JHECM E F = = U )F J A  D H KI= J K U A =E ID A J CE A JM @DC ) X =F J >  D H KI= J K A @E=B HAE I J FH ID =F JD H KI= J K U AX X = A k A = =C ? =JX JD =F= EB J JA det A = (1)k det U /E= = A =E D H KI= J K A =@E X FH I@E HEI D FH FAE = k @A N K A JE J FH ID (1) A =E =@E X FH I@E HEI ,D =@ JE @A A =E @K =J = XHJE F ? A = =C =E = FAHEJJ F ? A = =C = @ K JD @E= AJX AID JM CH= J K F = = A )KJ =F @AE AJ=E IJ = #  IJ J ? J K AB= = K B ?

A HD = #  0 H KI= det A A =E D@

AX

=E

AX

F = =? A A =E E@E

)F @AEND -X

A A =E E@E HB ? J JA D =F= EB @DCA IA F = = A = D@A E CH= XH= det A = 0 ) J IJH B= AX A @A A =E E@E HB ? D =F= EB @DCA IA X M JHECM E F = = A D D@A E X IJ EGA = IJD @E=C E =E det A = d1 d2 . . . dn = 0

A HD = # )F @AEND -X

-X A, B A =E n n F = A?

det(AB ) = det A det B.

=? =F J K? F = A? A, B A =E E@E HB ? J JA J CE A A =E AF ID? E@E HB =E det(AB ) = 0 = det A det B. 7F J K A JE B @A A =E E@E HB ? =E CE= X A D E@E HB nn F = = A H K A

d(A) =

det(AB ) . det B

= @A N K A JE d(A) E = F EA JE? E@E JDJA? =  >  C  =E IK AF ? H AE = IK XHJDID D F = AX AFA J= A A JD JE 0 CE= E@E HB K? F = A? A =E ID A JD H KI= 0 E@E JDJ= C  AX A = I

d(I ) =

det IB det B = = 1. det B det B

0 E@E JDJ=>  AX A = XN K A @ CH= ? J K A A = XII J=E E = J IJ EGA? CH= ? J K AB )H= = X AE J FH ID J K det AB =E IK AF ? J FH ID J K d(A) 0 E@E JDJ==  AMH A F = A? C = (cij ) =E D = (dij ) J J E K? IJA CE= j = 1, . . . , n, a1j = sc1j + td1j =E CE= i > 1

aij = cij = dij .

6 JA D FH JD CH= J K AB A =E
n n

a1k bkj = s
k=1 k=1

c1k bkj + t

d1k bkj

=E EIG AE det AB = s det CB + t det DB =E IK AF ? d(A) = s d(C ) + td(D). )H= D d(A) AN=HJXJ=E CH= E X =F JD FH JD CH= J KA

ABX =E #

KIA?

&%

7F
/ MH HB

CEI

? JD?

KI=?
=@E JH F IJD

K A JE X A D E@E

HB ? n n F = =? F=H=C J F EA J=E A

A = P 1 L D U ,

F K P A =E F = =? AJ= IAM? L A =E XJM JHECM E ? F = =? A 1 IJD @E=C E D A =E @E=C E ? F = =? A J K? @DC ? IJD @E=C E =E U A =E X M JHECM E ? F = =? A 1 IJD @E=C E )F J= FH DC A = G K A det P = 1 det L = det U = 1 =E det D EI J=E A J CE A JM @DC )H=

det A = det P 1 det L det D det U = CE A JM @DC 

)KJ ? A =E FH= JE JAH ? JH F ? KF CEI JD? H KI=? GHDIE F E A = F= EB CE= = B H K A J F = = IA JHECM E HB D H KI= A =E ID A J CE A k JM @DC F =F =IE=I A (1) F K k A =E =HE ? JM A = =C CH= F K GHDIE F E I= A IJD =F= EB )F AMHDJE XF OD = = A = C MH K A J JH F ANXHJDID? JD? H KI=? =F J= IJ EGA = J K F = = @D =@ = J F CE= JD H KI= = X C A J det A = ad bc CE= 2 2 F = A? )? @ AF ? F H A = =F @A N K A =KJ J J F =F JE? E@E JDJA? JD? H KI=? 0 FH JD CH= J KF = = a b A= c d CHXBAJ=E M? CH= E ? IK @K=I ? [a b] = [a 0] + [0 b] , =E IK AF ?

a b c d

= =

a 0 0 b + c d c d

a 0 a 0 0 b 0 b + + + c 0 0 d c 0 0 d = 0 + ad + (bc) + 0
) AB=H I K A =KJ JD @E=@E =I = IA = n n F = = G K A CE= JD FH JD CH=

[a11 . . . a1n ] = [a11 0 . . . 0] + [0 a12 0 . . . 0] + + [0 . . . 0 a1n ]

XH= D H KI= J K F = = EI J=E A J X H EI = JM HE KI n FE X M X A =? =F J K? F K? GAE J F = D D@A E IJ EGA IJD FH JD CH= -F= = = >X K A =KJ JD @E=@E =I = CE= JD @A JAHD CH= =E G K A J X H EI = JM HE KI n2 FE X M X A =? =F J K? F K? GAE J F = D D@A E IJ EGA IA X A = =F JE? @ FH JA? CH= ? -F= = = >X K A CE= A? JE? CH= ? J K F = = =E =J= C K A A J X H EI = JM HE KI nn FE X M X A = =F J K? F K? GAE IA X A CH= = IJ EGA F K F HA = D A =E I A 0 7F J K A JE IJD i CH= J IJ EGA F K F HA = D A =E 0 >H I AJ=E IJD ji IJ D A =E @D =@ J IJ EGA aiji -NAJX K A = =F =KJ ? J K? nn F = A? -GAE J F n D D@A E X IJ EGA = -X @ =F J= D D@A E X IJ EGA = >H I J=E IJD @E= IJ D J JA KFXHGAE = IJ D F K FAHE GAE D@ =E IK AF ? D H KI= J K F = = A =E D@ 5K FAH= K A JE D

&&

-EI=CMC IJD /H=

) CA>H=

H KI= J K F = = @A D@A AJ=E J= D = JEIJ EG = i ji A =E = BE I = JD @D =@ AX A =E AJX AID J K IK K {1, , n} / MH K A JE KFXHG K n! AJ= IAE? =E IK AF ? n! =F JE? nn H KIA? F HA = D A =E IA? A D@ )? AB=H I K A =KJ JD @E=@E =I = IA = 3 3 F = =

a11 a12 a13 a21 a22 a23 a31 a32 a33

a11 0 0 0 a12 0 0 0 a13 0 a22 0 + 0 0 a23 + a21 0 0 0 0 a33 a31 0 0 0 a32 0

0 0 a13 0 a12 0 a11 0 0 0 a22 0 0 0 + 0 0 a23 + a21 + a31 0 0 0 0 a33 0 a32 0 = a11 a22 a33 + a12 a23 a31 + a13 a21 a32 a11 a23 a32 a12 a21 a33 a13 a22 a31 .
) IK > I K A = AJX AID J K {1, 2, 3} G K A

det A =

a1 (1) a2 (2) a3 (3) det(P )

F K det P A =E 1 AX D AJX AID A =E XHJE= =E 1 AX D AJX AID A =E FAHEJJ

A HD = # ! -X A = (aij ) A =E n n F = =?
det A =

a1 (1) . . . an (n) det(P )

M JM AJ= IAM n IJ EGA M

# 

F K J X H EI = = >X AJ=E FX M =F J I

AMH A JE? AJ= IAE? CE= JE? F A? (1) = 1 #  FAHE G K J F=HXC J= a11 *CX K A J a11 M? =E IK > K A C11 J X H EI =

E = J IJ EG E H E IJ X H EI = E F=HXC J= =KJ JM HM

a11 a2 (2) . . . an (n) det P = a11

(1)=1 (1)=1

a2 (2) . . . an (n) det P = a11 C11 .

E AJ= IAE? J K {1, 2, . . . , n} CE= JE? F A? (1) = 1 = JEIJ EG IA AJ= IAE? J K {2, 3, . . . , n} )H= J X H EI = C11 A =E = HE> ? D H KI= J K F = = A11 F K FH FJAE =F J A AX @E=CHXO K A JD FH JD CH= =E JD FH JD IJ D

C11 =
AJX AID J K {1, . . . , n}
(1)=1

a2 (2) an (n) det P a2 (2) an (n) det P .

AJX AID J K {2, . . . , n}

6 H= AMH A JE? AJ= IAE? CE= JE? F A? (1) = 2 E = J IJ EG E H E IJ X H EI = #  FAHE G K J F=HXC J= a12 *CX K A J a12 M? E F=HXC J= =KJ JM HM =E IK > K A C12 J X H EI =

a12 a2 (2) an (n) detP = a12

(1)=2 (1)=2

a2 (2) an (n) det P = a12 C12 .

ABX =E #

KIA?

&'

X A AJX AID J K {1, 2, . . . , n} CE= JD F = (1) = 2 = JEIJ EGA IA = = BE I = JD =FAE EID =F J {2, 3, . . . , n} IJ {1, 3, 4, . . . , n} =E J X H EI = C12 @E=B HAE M? FH ? J FH ID =F JD H KI= J K F = = A12 F K FH FJAE =F J A AX @E=CHXO K A JD FH JD CH= =E JD @A JAHD IJ D a21 a23 . . . a2n A12 = , an1 an3 . . . ann

C12 =
AJX AID J K{1, . . . , n}
(1)=2

a2 (2) an (n) det P .

A JE? = BE I = JA? =FAE IAE?

/E= j = 1, . . . , n AMH

j = {1, . . . , n 1} {1, . . . , n}\{j }

F K @E=JDH JD @EXJ=ND JM BKIE =HE =E CE= X A AJX AID J K {1, . . . , n} 1 H K A JD AJX AID i = J K { 1 , . . . , n 1} i (i)

{1, . . . , n 1} {1, . . . , n}\{i} {1, . . . , n}\{ (i)} {1, . . . , n 1}

CE= JD F =

1 (i)

(k ) (k ) 1 i (k ) = (k + 1) (k + 1) 1

AX AX AX AX

k k k k

<i <i i i

=E =E =E =E

(k ) < (i) (k ) (i) (k + 1) < (i) (k + 1) (i)

=#"

det P = (1)i+(i) det Pi

JE

)F @AEND -X (n) = n A =E B= AH
det P =

Pn 1

= det Pn ,

AB I =F=EJA J=E @E ? =HE ? A = =C CH= =E IJD CE= = =J= N K A IJ J=KJ JE F = = 5JD CA E FAH FJMID CE= i {1, . . . , n} F = =? P AJ=JH FAJ=E A (ni) A = =C ? CH= =E (n (i)) A = =C ? IJD IJ

P F = = i 1 (n (i))A =

:
=C ? IJD

(i) 1

(n i)A
= =C ? CH=

(i)

Pi . n 1

' 5K AF ?

-EI=CMC IJD /H=

) CA>H=

det P = (1)(ni)+(n(i)) det Pi = (1)i+(i) det Pi

AJ

F=H=FX M IK >

EI

C12 =
AJX AID J K {1, . . . , n}
(1)=2

a1 (1) 1 (1) a1 (n1) 1 (n1) (1)1+2 det P1 a1 (1) 2 (1) a1 (n1) 2 (n1) det P
AJX AID J K
{1, . . . , n 1}

= = det A12 .

/A E JAH= AMH A J K? H K? IJ X H EI = #  F K = JEIJ EG CE= JE? F A? (1) = j :

IA AJ=

IAE?

a1 j a2 (2) an (n) det P = a1j

(1) = j (1) = j

a2 (2) an (n) det P

= a1 j C1 j
6 X H EI = C1 j @E=B HAE M? FH ? J FH ID =F JD H KI= J K F = = A1j F K FH FJAE =F J A AX @E=CHXO K A JD FH JD CH= =E JD j IJ D

a21 a2 (j 1) a2 (j +1) a2 n A1j = an 1 an (j 1) an (j +1) an n

=E AMH A J H= A? JE? AJ= J K (1) =E G K A
n

C1j = (1)1+j det(A1 j ) .

IAE? J K {1, . . . , n} =@ F ED A? = X C= A JD

JE

a1 j
(1) = j

a2 (2) an (n) det P ,

det A =
j =1

(1) = j

a1 j a2 (2) an (n) det P =

j =1

@D =@

det A = a11 C11 + a12 C12 + + a1 n C1 n .

FH

HEI

F =

=? n n F = =? (n 1) (n 1) F = =? FJAE =F J A AX @E=CHXO K A JD i CH= =E JD j IJ D X AJ=E A =? J K IJ EGA K ai j J K A a11 a1 (j 1) a1 (j +1) a1 n a a a a (i1) 1 (i1) (j 1) (i1) (j +1) (i1) n Ai j = a(i+1) (j 1) a(i+1) (j +1) a(i+1) n a(i+1) 1

? -X A = (ai j ) A =E

XIIM

an 1

an (j 1)

an (j +1)

an n

ABX =E #

KIA?

' X AJ=E =

=HE ? Ci j = (1)i+j det Ai j J K IJ EGA K ai g 0 FH DC

CA>HE

IK F

HM = IK F=HXC J=?

A D A JD CA E A AJ=E IJD =
n

K D FH J=ID

2H J=ID # #

 /E= X A i = 1, . . . , n EIG AE

det A =
j =1

ai j Ci j
KI=? det A M? FH ? JD CH=

0 F=H=FX M

BH=ID A =E J = XFJKC = JD? H

n

/E= X A j = 1, . . . , n EIG AE

det A =
j =1

ai j Ci j
KI=? det A M? FH ? JD IJ E KF = = Dj

0 F=H=FX M

BH=ID A =E J = XFJKC = JD? H C I K A JD H

2=HX@AEC = #  = KF

2 1 1 2 A4 = 0 1 0 0

KI= J K JHE@E=C 0 0 1 0 2 1 1 2

= =FJ II J=? =JX JD FH JD CH=

det A4 = 2(1)1+1 det(A4 )11 + (1)(1)1+2 det(A4 )12

F K

=E

2 1 0 2 1 = A3 (A4 )11 = 1 0 1 2 1 1 0 1 1 0 2 1 = 0 (A4 )12 = 0 A2 0 1 2 0 det A4 = 2 det A3 det A2 , .

JM? IJA det(A4 )12 = (1)(1)1+1 det A2 )H= /A E X CE= J X A? @ @E=CM

n n JHE@E=C K? EIG AE

E F = = An A

IJD

HE= @E=C

=E (1) IJE?

det An = 2 det An1 det An2 .

HEI ? AMH A J F = = C = (Ci j ) F K GAE M? IJ EGA IJD ID (i, j ) J IK F=HXC J= J K IJ EGA K ai j J K A = XIJH B ? =KJ J K F = = C T X AJ=E FH I=HJD ? F = =? IK KC ? F = =? J K A =E IK > AJ=E adj A, C11 Cn 1 adj A = C1 n Cn n

'

-EI=CMC IJD /H=

) CA>H=

= # $ -X A = (ai j ) A =E n n F = =? Ci j b = (b1 , . . . , bn ) @EX KI = J JA

IK F=HXCM J K IJ EGA K ai j

=E

b1 Ci 1 + b2 Ci 2 + + bn Ci n
A =E D H F = =A KI= J K F = = B i F K FH FJAE AX = JE =J=IJ I K A J b IJD i CH= JK

a(i 1)1 b1 Bi = a (i + 1)1 an 1

=E

a11

a1 n a(i 1) n bn a(i + 1) n an n

b1 C1 j + b2 C 2 j + + bn Cn j
A =E D H F = =A KI= J K F = = Bj F K FH FJAE AX = JE =J=IJ I K A J b IJD j IJ DJK

Bj =

a11 a1 (j 1) b1 a1 (j + 1) a1 n an 1 an (j 1) bn an (j + 1) an n

)F @AEND 6= IJ EGA = JD? j IJ D? J K F = = A @A A B=

J=E IJ K? IK F=HXC JA? C1 j , , Cn j 5K AF ? =KJ E IK F=HXC JA? A =E I E A J K? IK F=HXC JA? J K F = = Bj 6 = XFJKC = JD? H KI=? J K Bj M? FH ? JD j IJ D A =E

det Bj = b1 C1 j + b2 C2 j + + bn Cn j .
6 =F J AI = CE= J K? F = A? B i =F @AE AJ=E = X C=

2H J=ID # % -X A A =E n n F = =?
A (adj A) = (adj A) A = det A In .

)F @AEND 6 IJ EGA IJD

ID (i , j ) J K CE

K A (adj A) A =E

ai 1 Cj 1 + ai 2 Cj 2 + + ai n Cj n.
2H I G IJD ID JM @AE J KFA K K A JE adj A = (Ci j )T -X i = j J X H EI = @ @AE JD H KI= J K F = = F K FH FJAE AX = JE =J=IJ I K A JD i CH= J K A IJD j CH= J K A ) X =KJ ? F = =? GAE @ CH= ? IA? =E IK AF ? D H KI= J K A =E D@ )H= det A 0 A (adj A) = . 0 det A 0 =F @AEND CE= J (adj A) A A =E = X CD

ABX =E #

KIA?

'!

2 HEI = # & -X det A = 0 J JA

A1 = 1 (adj A) . det A

)KJ ? J F ? CE= J = J IJH B A ? n n F = = GAE AMHDJE A @E=B H = X @A =F JA A FH= JE JH F KF CEI J K = JEIJH B K = ? =F=EJA F FAHEII JAHA? FHXNAE? =F JE D @ ? Gauss - Jordan.

2=H=J HDID

A HD = # '  =

=? J K Cramer -X det A = 0 D
Ax = b
F K

ID JD? AN IMID?

A =E J @EX KI = x = (x1 , x2 , . . . , xn )

xj =
=E Bj A =E F = =? F K FH

det Bj det A
DJKA

FJAE AX = JE =J=IJ I K A J b IJD j IJ

)F @AEND -B I

det A = 0

A A =E D E@E

HB ?

=E

x = A1 b =
)H=

1 (adj A) b det A

xj =

1 det Bj (C1 j b1 + + Cn j bn ) = . det A det A

2=H=JDH A JE = =? J K Cramer @A =F JA A FH= JE JH F KF CEI JD? ID? JD? AN IMID? Ax = b = ? =F=EJA F FAHEII JAHA? FHXNAE? =F JD @ JD? =F= EB ? Gauss -FEIJH B K A IJ =F K DH AE JD =F @AEND JE D H KI= A =E = X HEI D A = =C

= # 

= AJX AID F HA = X GE =E J= @

= A BH=IJA M? I

AID XHJE K

FAHEJJ

K?

)F @AEND

AMH A = AJX AID : {1, . . . , n} {1, . . . , n} =E H K A J =HE N = A =E J F ? JM AKC (i, j ) CE= J= F = i < j =E (i) > (j ) = @A N K A JE X A A = =C = X AE J N =JX = FAHEJJ =HE )H A = F=H=JDH I K A JE D A = =C @ CAEJ E =HE = X AE J N =JX +1 1 =E JE D A = =C @ JKG= M =HE A BHX AJ=E M? I AID FAHEJJ =HE A = =C CAEJ E =HE

)I DID # ! -B=H IJA JD @E=@E =I = =F= EB ? Gauss CE= = B HAJA J

1 1 A= 1 2 0 2 1 0 1 1 2 2 2 2 1 0

F = =

'" IA JHECM E HB  =J=CHXOAJA JKG

-EI=CMC IJD /H=

) CA>H=

=E = KF C IAJA JD H KI= A = =C ? CH= CE= = FH I@E H IAJA J FH ID

)I DID # " 7F

C IJA J K? IK F=HXC JA? A11 , A21 , A23 =E A33 J K F = =

1 2 3 6 . A= 5 0 7 1 4

)I DID # # 7F

C IJA J K? IK F=HXC JA? A12 , A24 , A33 =E A43 J K F = =

2 0 1 5 8 1 2 1 . A= 4 3 5 0 1 4 8 2

)I DID # $ 2H I@E H IJA AX

E=

K A? AJ=

IAE? A =E XHJEA?

FAHEJJ ?

(4213) ,

(3142) ,
K

(4321) .
C IJA JE? H KIA? JM FE X M KI= = =FJ I

/HXOJA J K? 4 4 F = A? F K JE? F=HEIJX IJA = GAJA E= CH= I JX? JD M? FH ? =KJ = IJ JD CH=

=E KF =E KF

)I DID # % 3HDIE F E IJA FHXNAE? AJ=N JM CH=

D AF X0 IJ D

JM IJD C IJA JD H

0 1 5 A= 1 1 6 2 2 7

1 3 2 B = 2 5 4 . 4 1 7

)I DID # & -IJM Dn D H

KI= J K 1, 1, 1 JHE@E=C

E K nn F = =

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 Dn = det . . . 1 1
,A NJA JE Dn = Dn1 + Dn2 . A =E F = =? n AF n

)I DID # ' 2M? IK @ )I DID #  7F

J=E E det(2A), det(A) =E det(A2 ) A JD det A

J= A

C IJA JE? H KIA? 1 = 6 K F = = A = 4 2 1 2 2

ABX =E #

KIA?

'#

4 0 > 6 KF = =U = 0 0
C 6 K F = = UT @ 6 K F = = U 1

4 1 0 0

8 2 2 0

8 2 6 2

0 0 A 6 KF = =M = 0 4

0 0 1 4

0 2 2 8

2 6 2 8 a mc b md c la d lb
FJAE J=

)I DID #  *HA JA JD

JE? @

KI= J K F = = HE KI

GHDIE

F E

J=?

FH JA? E@E JDJA? JM

)I DID # 

= JE = EIJX JD IJ

AMHA IJA J F = = M F K FH D j J K J=KJ JE F = =

= @EX KI = x = (x1 , . . . , xn )

M =

x1 1 xj 1 xn 1

= *HA JA JD

KI= J K M F = =? Bj JD? AN IMID?

> -X Ax = b @A NJA JE AM A =E

xj = det Bj , det A F K Bj =

a11 a12 b1 a1n an1 an2 bn ann

=E D @ANEX F AKHX b A B= C 5K FAHX =JA J =

AJ=E IJD j IJ IJ D J=? H KIA? IJD AM = Bj

= J K Cramer F= H

)I DID # ! -X B = M 1 AM CE=J EIG AE det B = det A ,A NJA AF ID? JE

det A1 B = 1

)I DID # " -X X A CH= )I DID # # 7F

J K A GAE X H EI = IJ EGA M D@ @A NJA JE det A = 0 -X X A CH= GAE X H EI = IJ EGA M 1 @A NJA JE det(A I ) = 0 ,A NJA A XF E F=HX@AEC = JE J JA AKJ= @A ID = AE det A = 1 IJA JE CD = DC =E >HA JA J X ? IJ AF A 2= H J=? JE? H KIA? G K A (det C )(det D) = (det D) (det C ) XH= C =E D GAE D@A E H KI= 5K AF ? D CD = DC A =E @K =J D A =E E@E HB ? IK CEI =? =F J K? J= C

'$

-EI=CMC IJD /H=

) CA>H=

)I DID # $ *HA JA JD

KI= J K F = = 3 2 2 A = 3 1 3 . 1 2 F = =? A = JEIJH OE ?

/EX F E ? JE ? J K A =E

)I DID # % -IJM

4 1 1 B= 1 2 5 . 1 2 3

= 3HDIE F E IJA =JX D D FHXND AJ=N JM CH= J K B CE= = GAJA E= CH= A@ D@A E X =E GHDIE F E IJA J = XFJKC = JD? H KI=? M? FH ? JD CH= CE= = KF C IAJA JD H KI= J K B > 7F C IJA K? J K? IK F=HXC JA? J K F = = B 3HDIE IK F=H=C JM CE= = KF C IAJA J = J IJH B J K B F E IJA J K? F = A?