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Sex from Plato to Paglia [Two Volumes]: A Philosophical Encyclopedia By: Alan Soble

Incest. Jan Steutel Ben Spiecker Incest, sexual activity that occurs between individuals who are closely related by consanguinity or affinity, has not been a central topic in the history of philosophy, although it has been touched on by some of the great theologians and philosophers, for example, Plato (427347 BCE; Republic, 457c462e). Thomas Aquinas (1224/251274) argued that incest was a sexual sin (Summa theologiae, IIa-IIae, ques. 154, art. 1, 9, 12; see Summa contra gentiles , bk. 3, pt. 2, chap. 125; De Malo, ques. 15, art. 3). For Aquinas, some vices of lechery are contrary to nature, and some are not. The unnatural sexual vices, which Aquinas considers the gravest, are acts that cannot be procreative, as in bestiality, masturbation, and homosexuality. Acts that are not unnatural, because from them generation could resultheterosexual adultery, rape, seduction, and incestare also sexual sins, for Aquinas, but for other reasons (and they are not as morally serious). Thus Aquinas does not condemn incest as always being contrary to nature. Here Aquinas follows Augustine (354430), who acknowledged the necessity, and hence the naturalness, of incest among the children of Adam and Eve (City of God, bk. 15, chap. 16). Instead, Aquinas's reasons are that (1) incest and the respect one owes to blood relations are inconsistent; (2) incest would lead to inordinate indulgence in sexual pleasure, thereby weakening the mind and corrupting both prudence and chastity (similarly, for Augustine the incest prohibition restrains concupiscence within due bounds); (3) marrying their sisters prevents men from forming intricate interfamilial connections (this is a predominant theme in Augustine; exogamy is the seed-bed of the city); and (4) children are naturally subject to parents, which is incompatible with conjugal union between them. Immanuel Kant's (17241804) discussion of incest is limited to a handful of lines spread over two sections of his Lectures on Ethics. Kant partially avoids moral questions about incest, because he claims that nature, by itself blocks it: [W]here bonding and familiarity are all too excessive, the impulse produces indifference and disgust . . . . [T]he inclination towards a person one has known from youth upwards is very cold . . . . Thus nature has already by itself set limits to such inclinations between siblings (Ak 27:389; see Roger Scruton, 314). Yet Kant admits that the original humans must have engaged in sibling incest. Against parent-child incest Kant provides two moral objections (Ak 27:390). First, it is incompatible with a necessary respect that has to endure throughout life between parents and children (see Aquinas's reason [1]). Second, sexual union is permissible for Kant only when both parties become subordinate to each other through a mutual surrender of their selves (Ak 27:388). This condition is unsatisfiable between parent and child, because only the child is subordinate in their relationship (see Aquinas's reason [4]). Kant also asks whether incest might be a crimen carnis contra naturam, an unnatural crime of the flesh (Ak 27:391). He admits that it seems not to be, because human incest can be heterosexual and procreative and because animals engage in it (see also David Hume [17111776], Treatise, bk. III, pt. 1, sec. 1). But the rest of Kant's discussion is uncertain.
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488 In recent philosophy of sexuality, incest is largely ignored. Even philosophers who have written extensively about sexuality, such as Igor Primoratz (6365) and Alan Soble (28 29), mention incest only incidentally. More substantial philosophical discussions of incest are found in David Archard (99103), Raymond Belliotti (24246), Jerome Neu (What Is Wrong with Incest?), Richard Posner (199204; see also Posner and Silbaugh, 12942), Scruton (31115), and Ben Spiecker and Jan Steutel. These writings, like those of Augustine, Aquinas, and Kant, address the morality of incest and therefore belong to the field of practical ethics. Incest suggests intriguing philosophical questions, for example, about the authenticity of recovered memories of incest (see Russell, xxxl). Here the focus will be on its morality. Arguments about what is morally wrong with incest frequently refer to its harmful effects. One harmful-effects argument is biological, which cites inbreeding's detrimental genetic effects (see Arens, 1624). The basic idea is that the closer the parents of a child are related genetically, the greater the probability that their child will inherit recessive genes that are phenotypically expressed in physical or mental disorders and hence in reduced viability and, perhaps, fertility (or fitness). Though based on empirical research, the biological argument is not fully adequate for judging incest wrong (see Archard, 101; Neu, 29). It applies only to incest between biologically related persons, not to another sort of incest, that between genetically unrelated individuals (say, stepfather and stepdaughter). Moreover, pregnancy from incest can be prevented by using reliable contraceptives or by the persons engaging only in noncoital sexual acts (Belliotti, 243). A second harmful-effects argument is sociological, which cites the disruptive social repercussions, were incest widespread (see Arens, 4860; Wolf). Functionalists in the social sciences, such as Bronislaw Malinowski (18841942) and Talcott Parsons (1902 1979), but also scholars not usually associated with functionalism, such as Sigmund Freud (18561939) and Claude Lvi-Strauss (1908 ), explain the incest prohibition in terms of its social functions, in particular its contribution to the organization of the nuclear family and, more broadly, to an orderly society. In this argument, if the prohibition of incest were relaxed, the family and, in turn, society would collapse into confusion and chaos. Without the incest prohibition, family members would engage in sexual competition and exchange roles and positions, and the socialization of children would be seriously subverted. (Consider the child of incest in the Jack Nicholson and Faye Dunaway film Chinatown , whose mother is also her sister and whose father is also her grandfather.) Further, society would dissolve into small, isolated groups, because (as in Aquinas's reason [3]; see also Neu) family members would not be forced to leave the family to establish the interfamilial structures required for complex social organizations. The alleged social advantages of the incest prohibition might explain its existence or persistence. But these benefits might also be reasons for morally condemning incest. (Augustine and Aquinas rely on the interference with interfamilial connections as a moral argument against sibling incest.) These reasons would be convincing only if the purported dire effects of lifting the prohibition would actually occur, which may be doubted. Anthropologists and historians have documented the existence of condoned and even mandatory incestuous marriages: sibling unions in royal families of ancient Egypt and in the Egyptian middle class during the Roman era, as well as father-daughter, brother-sister, and mother-son unions among Zoroastrians in ancient Persia (Arens, 910). Organized family life and an orderly society seem possible without an incest prohibition. Further, this functionalist sociology presupposes a view of human sexual nature that may be untenable. It assumes that humans are naturally inclined to incest and that the 488
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489 prohibition is required to counteract this inclination (see Wolf). This view is challenged by evolutionary biology, which argues that inbreeding avoidance mechanisms have been selected that decrease the expression of recessive deleterious genes. One kin-recognition system that adaptively generates incest avoidance among close relatives was suggested by Edward Westermarck (18621939). In The History of Human Marriage (192218, 236), he claimed (as did Kant) that individuals living closely together from childhood (for example, siblings) are not sexually attracted to each other. Long after Westermarck, empirical research has yielded evidence for this mechanism (Lieberman et al.). Evolutionary biology also predicts cross-generational inbreeding avoidance mechanisms: Men have no genetic interest in engaging in coitus with their biological daughters. Consistently with Westermarck's hypothesis, it has been proposed that the involvement of fathers in the early care of daughters inhibits sexual attraction. This claim has some empirical support (Seto et al., 26768). A kin-recognition system that generates cross-generational incest avoidance seems to explain salient differences between biological father-daughter incest and stepfather-stepdaughter sexual activity. Incestuous abuse by biological fathers, as compared with abuse by stepfathers, is not only much less prevalent but also less coercive and severe (Beitchman et al., Short-Term Effects, 550; Finkelhor, 25; Russell, 23140, 255). In contrast to functionalist interpretations of incest and its prohibition, according to which humans are naturally inclined toward incest and the incest prohibition is a cultural device needed for its suppression , evolutionary accounts argue that humans tend to be indifferent sexually to close relatives and the incest prohibition is an expression of this tendency. Evolutionary biologists do not share, therefore, the functionalist concern that relaxing the incest prohibition, if conceivable at all, would result in ubiquitous incestuous behavior. A third harmful-effects arguments is psychological, which invokes the detrimental impact of incest on children. Readers of the many publications on child sexual abuse, including incestuous abuse, can easily get the impression that its effects are devastating. There is virtually no domain of symptomatology that has not been associated with child sexual abuse (Kendall-Tackett et al., 173). Much of this research is methodologically questionable. Most empirical studies are confined to clinical samples, to individuals referred to a mental health setting for assessment or treatment of sexual abuse. The findings of these studies might not be generalizable to the wider population, that is, to nonclinical cases of child sexual abuse. Further, few studies include relevant control groups of nonsexually abused individuals. Consequently, it is unclear whether reported symptoms are attributable to sexual abuse or to other factors: physical abuse, family disturbance, parental attitudes, or even actions taken by professionals in response to disclosure. Nevertheless, there is enough evidence to make some warranted claims about the effects of sexual abuse. One short-term effect is that sexually abused children exhibit, more than nonvictims, various sexualized behaviors: putting objects into anuses or vaginas, excessive or public masturbation, seductive or sexually aggressive acts, and compulsive talk, play, and fantasy with sexual content (Beitchman et al., Short-Term Effects, 552; see also Kendall-Tackett et al.). Along with posttraumatic stress disorder, this syndrome appears to be the only consistent short-term effect. Regarding long-term effects, women who report child sexual abuse more commonly exhibit sexual dysfunction or disturbance, anxiety and fear, depression, suicidal ideation and attempts, as well as revictimizationfor example, being a victim of battering in an adult relationship or being raped (Beitchman et al., Long-Term Effects, 115). Psychological arguments therefore provide strong reasons that cross-generational incest is morally wrong. However, even if the psychological harm argument is strong enough to 489
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490 justify a prohibition of adult-child sex, it might not get to the heart of incest's immorality. Perhaps what makes incest wrong is that the child cannot validly consent to sexual activity with adults: [A]t the core of incest's immorality is nonconsensuality (Belliotti, 246; see Finkelhor, 1718). It may very well be admitted that a child does not have the capacity for making competent decisions in matters of sexuality. But it cannot be immediately concluded that adult-child sex is a violation of the principle of mutual consent. The principle of consent is derived from a more basic principle of respect for persons, that is, for individuals who are regarded as competent decision makers. Accordingly, the principle of mutual consent specifies how adult humans should be treated. In particular, having sexual relations with them is morally permissible only if they have freely given consent on the basis of adequate information. This respect is what we owe to agents having the capacities of self-determination. On this interpretation of the principle of consent, incest between adults and children falls outside its scope: By itself the principle does not imply any judgment about the morality of incestuous adult-child sex. Compare the role of consent in other spheres of life, especially health care (and education). In matters of illness, children do not yet have the capacities required for competent decision making. But that children are incapable of consenting does not make health-care intervention morally wrong. On the contrary, because they lack capacities for self-determination, our interventions for their sake for health reasons, from selecting their food to taking them to the dentist, are not just morally permissible but obligatory, whether they like it or not (see Shrage, 5254). Because children do not have the capacity for making competent decisions in many areas of life, competent adults have the right and responsibility to make decisions for them. The adults who usually have this power are a child's biological parents or their substitutes: stepparents, foster parents, guardians. Adults who function as surrogates or proxies for a child should choose those actions that protect or promote the child's interests or welfare. Their refraining from interventions is inconsistent with their duties to act as a child's surrogate. Parents unwilling to intervene for pressing health-care reasons might be seriously neglecting their children. In the domain of sexuality, parents also have the authority and responsibility to act as the child's surrogate. But parental interventions out of their own sexual motives cannot be justified in terms of their surrogacy duties. Such behaviors are likely detrimental to the child's welfare or at least are not in the child's best interests. Because parents cannot reasonably claim that engaging in sexual activity with their children is for the good of the children themselves, a parent's having sex with a child violates the surrogacy relationship. (See Belliotti, 246; Scruton, 313. Perhaps this is what Aquinas and Kant had in mind with their respect argument.) Indeed, because a parent is expected to protect a child's interests, the harmful effects of parent-child sex might be greater than other forms of (nonincestuous) adult-child sex. The child might experience parental sexual abuse as a breach of trust (Archard, 102), and this often unarticulated feeling of betrayal might have its own independent harmful effects. Incestuous experiences involving a father or stepfather are generally more harmful than abuse by brothers or outsiders. This greater traumatic impact could be explained by the loss of trust involved in parental sexual abuse (see Finkelhor and Browne; Phelan). Note, however, that both the consent and harm arguments for the moral wrongness of parent-child incest apply fairly well to any adult-child sex, even if not incestuous. Also, neither argument seems to imply that other types of incest are always wrong. On the contrary, cross-generational and intragenerational incest between adults who have given valid 490
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491 consent (but see Archard, 100101), as well as incest between young siblings (as long as they enjoy it and no detrimental effects are likely) might be permissible. Those who wish to condemn such practices morally probably must resort either to a version of functionalism or to Natural Law arguments. See also Aristotle; Augustine (Saint); Bible, Sex and the; Consent; Ethics, Sexual; Evolution; Fichte, Johann Gottlieb; Freud, Sigmund; Kant, Immanuel; Natural Law (New); Pedophilia; Perversion, Sexual; Plato; Psychology, Evolutionary; Rape; Tantrism; Thomas Aquinas (Saint); Violence, Sexual; Westermarck, Edward references Archard, David. Sexual Consent. Boulder, Colo.: Westview, 1998; Arens, William. The Original Sin: Incest and Its Meaning. New York: Oxford University Press, 1986; Augustine. (413427) The City of God. Trans. Marcus Dods. New York: Modern Library, 1993; Beitchman, Joseph H., Kenneth J. Zucker, Jane E. Hood, Granville A. DaCosta, and Donna Akman. A Review of the Short-Term Effects of Child Sexual Abuse. Child Abuse and Neglect 15:4 (1991), 53756; Beitchman, Joseph H., Kenneth J. Zucker, Jane E. Hood, Granville A. DaCosta, Donna Akman, and Erika Cassavia. A Review of the Long-Term Effects of Child Sexual Abuse. Child Abuse and Neglect 16:1 (1992), 10118; Belliotti, Raymond. Incest. In Good Sex: Perspectives on Sexual Ethics . Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 1993, 24246; Finkelhor, David. Child Sexual Abuse: New Theory and Research . New York: Free Press, 1984; Finkelhor, David, and Angela Browne. The Traumatic Impact of Child Sexual Abuse: A Conceptualization. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry 55:4 (1985), 53041; Freud, Sigmund. (1913) Totem and Taboo. In The Standard Edition of the Complete Psychological Works of Sigmund Freud, vol. 13. Trans. James Strachey. London: Hogarth Press, 19531974, ix161; Hume, David. (1739) A Treatise of Human Nature. Ed. L. A. Selby-Bigge. Oxford, U.K.: Clarendon Press, 1968; Kant, Immanuel. (ca. 17621794) Lectures on Ethics. Trans. Peter Heath. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1997; Kendall-Tackett, Kathleen A., Linda M. Williams, and David Finkelhor. Impact of Sexual Abuse on Children: A Review and Synthesis of Recent Empirical Studies. Psychological Bulletin 113:1 (1993), 16480; Lvi-Strauss, Claude. The Family. In Harry L. Shapiro, ed., Man, Culture, and Society. New York: Oxford University Press, 1960, 26185; Lieberman, Debra, John Tooby, and Leda Cosmides. Does Morality Have a Biological Basis? An Empirical Test of the Factors Governing Moral Sentiments Relating to Incest. Proceedings of the Royal Society (Biological Sciences) 270:1517 (2003), 81926; Malinowski, Bronislaw. Sex and Repression in Savage Society. London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1927; Neu, Jerome. What Is Wrong with Incest? Inquiry 19:1 (1976), 2739; Parsons, Talcott. The Incest Taboo in Relation to Social Structure and the Socialization of the Child. British Journal of Sociology 5:2 (1954), 10117; Phelan, Patricia. Incest and Its Meaning: The Perspectives of Fathers and Daughters. Child Abuse and Neglect 19:1 (1995), 724; Plato. (ca. 375370
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Republic. Trans. G.M.A. Grube. Indianapolis, Ind.: Hackett, 1992; Posner,

Richard A. Sex and Reason . Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1992; Posner, Richard A., and Katharine B. Silbaugh. A Guide to America's Sex Laws . Chicago, Ill.: University of Chicago Press, 1996; Primoratz, Igor. Ethics and Sex. London: Routledge, 1999; Russell, Diana E. H. (1986) The Secret Trauma: Incest in the Lives of Girls and Women , 2nd ed. New York: Basic Books, 1999; Scruton, Roger. Sexual Desire: A Moral Philosophy of the Erotic. New York: Free Press, 1986; Seto, Michael C., Martin L. Lalumire, and Michael Kuban. The Sexual Preferences of Incest Offenders. Journal of Abnormal Psychology 108:2 (1999), 267 72; Shrage, Laurie. Moral Dilemmas of Feminism: Prostitution, Adultery, and Abortion. New York: Routledge, 1994; Soble, Alan. Sexual Investigations . New York: New York University Press, 1996; Spiecker, Ben, and Jan Steutel. A Moral-Philosophical Perspective on Paedophilia and Incest. Educational Philosophy and Theory 32:3 (2000), 28391; Thomas Aquinas. (1269) De Malo [On Evil]. Trans. Richard Regan. Oxford, U.K.: Oxford University Press, 2003; Thomas Aquinas. (12581264) On the Truth of the Catholic Faith. Summa contra gentiles. Book Three: Providence. Part II. Trans. Vernon J. Bourke. Garden City, N.Y.: Image
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Books, 1956; Thomas 491 492 Aquinas. (12651273) Summa theologiae, 5 vols. Trans. Fathers of the English Dominican Province. London: Burns, Oates, and Washbourne, 19111934; Westermarck, Edward. (1891) The History of Human Marriage, 5th ed., vol. 2. London: Macmillan, 1921; Wolf, Arthur P. Incest Prohibition, Origin and Evolution of. In Neil J. Smelser and Paul B. Baltes, eds., International Encyclopedia of the Social and Behavioral Sciences , vol. 11. Amsterdam, Holland: Elsevier, 2001, 725962. additional reading Aberle, David F., Urie Bronfenbrenner, Eckhard H. Hess, Daniel R. Miller, David M. Schneider, and James N. Spuhler. The Incest Taboo and the Mating Patterns of Animals. American Anthropologist 65 (April 1963), 25364; Aldridge, Alfred Owen. The Meaning of Incest from Hutcheson to Gibbon. Ethics 61:4 (1951), 30913; Appelbaum, Paul S., Charles W. Lidz, and Alan Miesel. Informed Consent: Legal Theory and Clinical Practice. New York: Oxford University Press, 1987; Archard, David. The Limits of Consensuality I: Incest, Prostitution, and Sado-masochism. In Sexual Consent. Boulder, Colo.: Westview, 1998, 98115; Bancroft, John. (1983) Child Sexual Abuse, Paedophilia and Incest. In Human Sexuality and Its Problems . Edinburgh, Scot.: Churchill Livingstone, 1989, 689708; Bittles, Alan H. Incest, Inbreeding, and Their Consequences. In Neil J. Smelser and Paul B. Baltes, eds., International Encyclopedia of the Social and Behavioral Sciences , vol. 11. Amsterdam, Holland: Elsevier, 2001, 725459; Culver, Charles M., and Bernard Gert. Competence. In Jennifer Radden, ed., The Philosophy of Psychiatry: A Companion . New York: Oxford University Press, 2004, 25870; Denov, Myriam. The Myth of Innocence: Sexual Scripts and the Recognition of Child Sexual Abuse by Female Perpetrators. Journal of Sex Research 40:3 (2003), 303 14; Ehman, Robert. Adult-Child Sex. In Robert Baker and Frederick Elliston, eds., Philosophy and Sex, 2nd ed. Buffalo, N.Y.: Prometheus, 1984, 43146; Faden, Ruth R., and Tom L. Beauchamp. A History and Theory of Informed Consent. New York: Oxford University Press, 1986; Fox, Robin. The Red Lamp of Incest. London: Dutton, 1980; Frye, Marilyn. Critique [of Robert Ehman]. In Robert Baker and Frederick Elliston, eds., Philosophy and Sex, 2nd ed. Buffalo, N.Y.: Prometheus, 1984, 44755. Revised version, Not-Knowing about Sex and Power. In Willful Virgin: Essays in Feminism 19761992 . Freedom, Calif.: Crossing Press, 1992, 3950; Krober, A. L. (1939) The Nature of Culture. Chicago, Ill.: University of Chicago Press, 1952; Leventhal, John M. Epidemiology of Sexual Abuse of Children: Old Problems, New Directions. Child Abuse and Neglect 22:6 (1998), 48191; Levine, Judith. Harmful to Minors: The Perils of Protecting Children from Sex. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2002; Mitchell, Juliet. Siblings . Malden, Mass.: Polity, 2004; Neu, Jerome. Genetic Explanation in Totem and Taboo. In Richard Wollheim, ed., Freud: A Collection of Critical Essays . Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday, 1974, 36697; Neu, Jerome. What Is Wrong with Incest? Inquiry 19:1 (1976), 2739. Reprinted in A Tear Is an Intellectual Thing: The Meanings of Emotion . New York: Oxford University Press, 2000, 166 76; Okami, Paul, Richard Olmstead, Paul R. Abramson, and Laura Pendleton. Early Childhood Exposure to Parental Nudity and Scenes of Parental Sexuality (Primal Scenes'): An 18-Year Longitudinal Study of Outcome. Archives of Sexual Behavior 27:4 (1998), 361 84; Oxenhandler, Noelle. The Eros of Parenthood. The New Yorker (19 February 1996), 4749; Pollak, Ellen. Incest and the English Novel, 16841814 . Baltimore, Md.: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2003; Posner, Richard A. Incest. In Sex and Reason . Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1992, 199204; Posner, Richard A. Sexual Abuse of Children. In Sex and Reason . Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1992, 395402; Posner, Richard A., and Katharine B. Silbaugh. Abuse of Position of Trust or Authority, Age of Consent, and Incest. In A Guide to America's Sex Laws . Chicago, Ill.: University of
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Chicago Press, 1996, 11128, 4464, 12942; Rosen, Stanley. (1968) A Digression on Incest. In Plato's Symposium, 2nd ed. New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1987, 21115; Rudd, Jane M., and Sharon D. Herzberger. Brother-Sister IncestFather-Daughter Incest: A Comparison of Characteristics and Consequences. Child Abuse and Neglect 23:9 (1999), 91528; Singer, Peter, ed. Sexual Morality. In Ethics . Oxford, U.K.: Oxford University Press, 1994, Part I.B.iii, 93112; 492 493 Smith, Carol. Challenged by the Text: Two Stories of Incest in the Hebrew Bible. In Athalya Brenner and Carole R. Fontaine, eds., A Feminist Companion to Reading the Bible: Approaches, Methods and Strategies . Sheffield, U.K.: Sheffield Academic Press, 1997, 11435; Smith, Carol. Stories of Incest in the Hebrew Bible: Scholars Challenging Text or Text Challenging Scholars? Henoch 14 (1992), 22742; Spain, David H. The Westermarck-Freud Incest-Theory Debate: An Evaluation and Reformulation. Current Anthropology 28:5 (1987), 62345; Spiecker, Ben, and Jan Steutel. Paedophilia, Sexual Desire, and Perversity. Journal of Moral Education 26:3 (1997), 33142; Trepper, Terry S., and Mary Jo Barrett. Systematic Treatment of Incest: A Therapeutic Handbook. New York: Brunner/Mazel, 1989; Tsai, Mavis, Shirley Feldman-Summers, and Margaret Edgar. Childhood Molestation: Differential Impacts on Psychosexual Functioning. In Larry L. Constantine and Floyd M. Martinson, eds., Children and Sex: New Findings, New Perspectives. Boston, Mass.: Little, Brown, 1981, 20116; Walter, Alex. Putting Freud and Westermarck in Their Places: A Critique of Spain. Ethos 18:4 (1990), 43946; Westermarck, Edward. (1934) The Oedipus Complex. In Three Essays on Sex and Marriage. London: Macmillan, 1934, 1123; Wolf, Arthur P. Sexual Attraction and Childhood Association: A Chinese Brief for Edward Westermarck. Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press, 1995.

MLA Steutel, Jan. Ben Spiecker. "Incest.." Sex from Plato to Paglia [Two Volumes]: A Philosophical Encyclopedia. Ed. Alan Soble, Larry Becker. Santa Barbara, CA: Greenwood, 2005. ABC-CLIO eBook Collection . Web. 17 Dec 2013. Select Citation Style: Copyright 2009 ABC-CLIO

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