Paul Rakita Goldin - Miching Mallecho. The Zhanguo Ce and Classical Rhetoric

SINO-PLATONIC PAPERS
Number 41 October, 1993
Miching Mallecho: The Zhanguo ce and Classical Rhetoric
by Paul Rakita Goldin
Victor H. Mair, Editor Sino-Platonic Papers Department of East Asian Languages and Civilizations University of Pennsylvania Philadelphia, PA 19104-6305 USA vmair@sas.upenn.edu www.sino-platonic.org
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Editor's note: This work appears in revised form as chapter 5 of Paul R. Goldin's After Confucius: Studies in Early Chinese Philosophy (University of Hawai`i Press, 2005).
Sina-Platonic Papers, No. 41 (October, 1993)
niching Hallecho: The Z ' o o e and C l a s s i c a l Rhetoric

m h e l i a : What means t h i s , my lord? Hamlet : Marry, t h i s is miching mallecho, 1 it means mischief.
A consensus regarding the proper c l a s s i f i c a t i o n of t h e Z h a o c &
( I n t r i g u e s of the Warrm S t a t e s ) , t h e singular c o l l e c t i o n of anecdotes compiled by the b i b l i o p h i l e Liu Xiang (77-6 B.C.), scholars. continues t o elude
Henri Maspero has demonstrated t h a t much of t h e material in t h e
Intrigues is f i c t i o n a l . 3 and h i s t o r i a n s have s i n c e rejected them as a primary

source of information, although we know from t h e work of Zheng Liangshu t h a t they may be derived from many of t h e same sources which Sima Qian (146-86
B.C.) used f o r h i s S h w (Recorn's o f the Historian)+
Some w r i t e r s , such as
Timoteus Pokora, have found t h a t "much information given en passant in w h a t

may perhaps be called informatory parts of t h e Chan-kuo
Ts 'e can be
corroborated from other s o u r c e s . " ~ S t i l l , it is generally agreed t h a t the
Intrigues are very u n r e l i a b l e as a h i s t o r i c a l text, and probably were never

intended as one.
1. "Miching" is t h e present p a r t i c i p l e of t h e obsolete verb " t o miche," meaning " t o hide," o r " t o pilferH--probably r e l a t e d t o Modern German meuch-. as in Meuchelmord ("assassination") and areuchl( " s t e a l t h i l y " ) . "Mallecho" is likely the Spanish word melhecho, or "misdeed." "niching mallecho" thus means "secretive malefactionu--or "intrigue." 2. Romanizations of a l l Chinese characters w i l l be found i n t h e appended glossary.
3. "Le Roman d e Sou T s 'in, " Etudes Asiatigues 2 (1925), 127-41; and "Le Roman historique dans la l i t t 6 r a t u r e chinoise de l ' a n t i q u i t g , " in Mdlanges Posthumes (Paris: C i v i l i s a t i o n s du Sud, 1950), 111, 52-62.
4 . Z h w o c e m - i u (Singapore : Xueshu chubanshe, 1972).
5. "Pre-Han l i t e r a t u r e , " in Essays an the Sources f o r Chinese History, ed . Donald D . Leslie, Colin Mackerras, and Gungwu Wang (Columbia: University of South Carolina Press, 1975), 28.
Paul Rakita Eoldin, 'Niching Hallecho: The Zhanguoce and Classical Rhetoric'
Others see the Intr-es
as a handbook on persuasive speaking,
filled
with numerous debates and speeches t h a t serve as examples of superior rhet0ric.e
Yet there does not seem t o be a conscious attempt t o divide t h e

The anecdotes are ordered only by state of After reading t h e book, t h e reader
various items by s t y l e o r theme.
provenance, and at t h a t q u i t e loosely.
senses t h a t he has been made privy t o several gems of rhetorical s t r a t e g y t o

be used when the appropriate s i t u a t i o n should a r i s e , but has learned nothing
of a unified theory of rhetoric t h a t would help him modify h i s speech t o s u i t

a l l occasions.
By contrast, t h e more i n f l u e n t i a l of the c l a s s i c a l Western handbooks on rhetoric--such as De oratore, by Marcus Tullius Cicero (106-43 B.C.); t h e anonymous h t o r i c a ad Herenniuar, and Ch Ccbadpositim, by Dionysius of Halicarnassos (54-7 B.C.?)--share t h e advantage of clear organization: t h e i r
A
discussions and examples are arranged by topic i n t o d i f f e r e n t sections.
primer should be coherent and lead the student's mind d i r e c t l y t o t h e points it wishes t o convey. But the Intrigues, though they may be valuable as
something else, are inadequate as a s o r t of textbook, since none of t h e r h e t o r i c a l s k i l l s appearing i n t h e speeches are ever discussed a n a l y t i c a l l y , o r even identified e x p l i c i t l y , in the t e x t .
The most prominent Western scholar in t h e study of t h e Intrmes is

James I. Crump, Jr., whose c r i t i c a l works and translation of the e n t i r e text
stand out as fundamental contributions.7 Crump's own interpretation of t h e 6. E .g. Burton Watson, E m J y Chinese L i t e r a t u r e (New York and Landon: Columbia University Press, 1962), 75.
7. See esp. "The C h - k u o Ts'e end its Fiction," T'oung Pao 47.4-5 (lS60), 305-75; Intrigues: Studies of the Chan-kuo Ts ' e (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1864); and h i s translation ( Chan-Kuo Ts'e, 2nd edition, Chinese Materials and Research Aids Service Center Occasional Series 41 [San Francisco: Chinese Materials Center, 19791).
Sine-Platonic Papers, No 41 (October, 1993)
I n t r m e s is encapsulated in t h e following paragraph:

Suppose a Chinese r h e t o r i c a l tradition included some such device as t h e suasoria f o r training men in t h e art of persuasion; would that not explain much of what is most b a f f l i n g about t h e IntriByeg If exercises by t h e masters o r t h e d i s c i p l e s of such a "school" were p a r t of the "school's" heritage it would not only explain many of t h e contradictions in the intrigues, but it would account f o r m y other f a c e t s of t h i s d e l i g h t f u l work. Why, f o r example, do s o many persuaders s o often speak their e n t i r e piece with no interruption from t h e r u l e r , who simply says "so be it" when the persuader is finished? Why are the pieces in t h e Intrigues s o b e a u t i f u l l y polished? ... These become understandable i f t h e t r a i n i n g a man underwent t o pursue t h e career he hoped f o r ( p o l i t i c a l advisor, emissary, and t h e l i k e ) included model advice which wouldor shmld have been offered a t c e r t a i n h i s t o r i c e now call the Intrigues occasions, and somehow found its way i n t o what w
of the Warring States?

This is the f i r s t formulation of a theory t h a t has s i n c e gained
widespread popularity.
David Hawkes, f o r example, agrees wholeheartedly in
h i s review of Crump's book, adding: "It is even arguable t h a t Chm-kuo T s 'e meant not Intrigues of the Karrin8 States [but 1 Imaginary Sweches an Warrim?
States T k m s . " e More recently, Jean-Paul Reding has c a l l e d t h e i n t r a e s

"une vlaste collection de p i e c e s rMtoriques, des exercises d06cole sans
daute."lo Jaroslav PrUgek's is t h e most s i g n i f i c a n t d i s s e n t i n g voice; he

remarks t h a t the "stress on t h e anecdotal aspect is n o t by any means subordinated t o t h e s t r e s s m r h e t o r i c . " l l
Yet n e i t h e r Crump's supporters
nor h i s critics have studied t h e t r a d i t i o n of the Roman suasoria and compared
it with t h e r h e t o r i c of t h e Intrigues.
I t is j u s t such an examination t h a t we
need t o undertake before we can gain our own understanding and appreciation of
8. Intrigues, 103f.
8. Journal of the American Oriental Society 8 6 . 1 ( 1966), 63.

10. Les fandements philosophigues de l a rMtorique chez l e s sophistes Grecs et chez les sophistes Chinois (Berne: Peter Lang, 1985), 341. 11. "A New Exegesis of Chan-Kuo-Ts'e,"
Rrchiv Orientdlnf 34.4 (1966),
590.
Paul Rakita Goldin, 'Niching Hallecho: The Zhanquoce and Classical Rhetoric'
the book.
This w i l l involve a comparison of several aspects of Chinese and
Roman rhetoric, such as the use of language and devices, as well as t h e theory
of rhetoric and its ultimate goal. relevant t o the Intrigues? Suasoriae were
Rolnan
What are suasoriae, and why are they
Are t h e I n t r w e s rhetoric a t all?

school exercises: pupils were given a well-known
h i s t o r i c a l event and required t o write persuasive speeches t h a t t h e p e r s o n a e s involved may have delivered.
If a contemporary high school student were asked
t o write h i s or her own version of George Washington's address a t Valley
Forge, t h i s assignment would be similar in spirit t o t h e suasoriae of ancient

times.
Suasoriae are a l s o considered a sub-class of prosopopoeiae, speeches
in which a later writer "supplies the words which someone else, real o r
f i c t i t i o u s , might in agreement with the laws of necessity and probability have composed and delivered under a given set of circumstances."12
Suasoriae are not rare.
The most extensive anthology extant is
comprised of the exercises of t h e students of Seneca t h e Elder (Lucius Annaeus

Seneca, 54 B.C.-A.D.
391).
Others a r e given by Philostratus t h e Athenian (ca.
170-245) in h i s Lives of the S w h i s t s , and in the t h i r d p a r t of the
aforementioned ad Hermiurn. Quintilian (Marcus Fabius Quintilianus, d . ca.
A.D. 100) discusses them at length in h i s I n s t i t u t i o Oratoria. Furthermore,

in their Satires, Juvenal (Dechs Iunius Iuvenalis, d . ca. A.D.
140) and
Persius (Aulus Persius Flaccus, A.D. 34-62) both remember with disdain t h e
days they spent as schoolboys composing suasor iae -13
I n w h a t respects is the comparison between the suasoriae and the Intrmes appropriate? H o w may it be useful; how may it be misleading?
12. Donald Laen Clark, Rhetoric i n Oreco-Roman Education (New York: Columbia University Press, 1957), 218.
13. Juvenal 1-16; Persius 111.45.
Sino-Platonic Papers, No. 41 (October, 19931
Certainly the Intrigues may be f a i r l y categorized as prosopopoeiae.
They
contain too many internal contradictions, both f a c t u a l and chronological, t o

be t r u e history.
It is more l i k e l y that a l l t h e words spoken by t h e kings,
the heirs, the courtiers and ministers--in short, by a l l t h e characters in t h e text--are merely the author's imaginative conjectures as t o what these people
may have said in certain h i s t o r i c a l situations.
For example, t h e well-known
disagreement between Sima Cuo and Zhang Y i over where t h e i r s t a t e , Qin, should
attack (3.13a-14b; 3.181-90; 57)l*--a meaningful h i s t o r i c a l debate, in Han

times--is the prosopopoeia of a l a t e r writer.
This is why historians can
claim t o find a kernel of t r u t h in the Intrigues: its author or authors deliberately chose actual events t o embroider.
The text was not intended as a
genuine history book, but as h i s t o r i c a l f i c t i o n or a romanticization of history. But a prosopopoeia is not necessarily a suasoria. Suasoriae c a n s t i t u t e
To get
a genre t h a t is a peculiar outcropping of c l a s s i c a l Roman culture.
14. Citations from t h e Intrigtres w i l l include three references. The first is t o the well-distributed Sibu m k n edition; the second is t o Zhu Zugeng's excellent c r i t i c a l edition (Zhnguoce jizhu huikao, 3 mls. [Nanjing: Jiangsu guji chubanshe, 19851 ); the t h i r d is the item number in Crump's English translation. Where the t e x t s a r e inconsistent I w i l l follow Zhu ZugaSeveral indices t o the Intrmes exist; these include Index du Tchan Kouo Ts ' 6 (Peking: Centre d 'etudes sinologiques de Pekin, 1948); Sharon J . Fidler, with J .I. Crump, Index to the Chm-kuo Ts'e (Ann Arbor: Center f o r Chinese Studies, 1974)--an index t o the f i r s t edition of Cmmp's translation (Oxford: Clarendon, 1970), later incorporated at the end of the revised edition; and the personal and place-name indices at the end of the last volume of Zhu's edition. There a r e two important studies of the I n t r i g u e s n o t d i r e c t l y relevant t o our discussion. These are Zhong Fengnian, & m e h y m , Yenching Journal of Chinese Studies Monograph Series 1 1 (Peiping: Harvard-Yenching I n s t i t u t e , 1936), which studies t h e contents of the various editions and includes a thorough discussion of e r r o r s ; ehd K.V. Vasil'ev, P l m y s r & u 8 E i c ~ a cerstv (Moscow: Nauka, 1968), which considers the value of the text f o r the economic historian, as well as its place in the peculiar periodization of Chinese l i t e r a t u r e characteristic of Soviet Sinology of t h a t age. The l a t t e r book is reviewed by Pokora in T ' o m Pao 55.4-5 ( 1969), 317-22.
Paul Rakita Goldin, %thing Hallecho: The Zhanguoce and Classical Rhetoric'
ahead in Rome meant t o speak well--and t h a t required complete mastery of t h e
coxrplex r h e t o r i c a l conventims of t h e day.
Roman s c h ~ o l n r s s t e r s were aware

of language t h a t
t h a t t h e stylized--"fulsome, " t o use Crump's wordls--use
characterized t h e successful o r a t o r was an art acquired only through intensive practice.
The suasoriae, which offered an almost i n f i n i t e s e l e c t i o n of
exciting h i s t o r i c a l s i t u a t i o n s t o recreate, were t h e s o l u t i o n t o t h e

p a r t i c u l a r l y Roman problem of t r a i n i n g youths t o become competent statesmen in t h e c l a s s i c a l mold. problematic. But removing t h e suasoriae from their unique context is
I t may be u n j u s t i f i a b l e t o speak of suasoriae in China at a l l ,

W h y is
since t h e conditions t h a t arose in Rome may not have a r i s e n elsewhere.
Grump's proposition any d i f f e r e n t from what he c a l l s other " f a c i l e analogies
f ran t h e West?"16
The d i f f e r e n t p o l i t i c a l contexts in which t h e I n t r a e s and the

suasoriae flourished have played a c r u c i a l and perhaps understudied r o l e in
shaping the two forms. I n Rome, t h e purpose of r h e t o r i c was t o persuade whole masses of people, i n t h e Forum o r i n the Senate.
It followed t h a t t h e mst
popular and most successful r h e t o r i c a l devices were those which were e f f e c t i v e
a t swaying bodies o r groups of people.

students practiced in t h e i r suasoriae.
These were t h e techniques t h a t But t h e s i t u a t i o n was q u i t e t h e
opposite in Warring-States China, where t h e final a r b i t e r was t h e king alone.

A minister who wanted t o p r e s s h i s agenda needed above a l l t o convince t h e
sovereign, whose approval was required f o r any action.
This is why most of
t h e arguments found in t h e I n t r m e s a r e t a i l o r e d t o persuade a single
personage of absolute authority.
The basic d i f f e r e n c e in t h e purpose and
Sioo-Platonic Papers, No. 41 (October , 1993)
intended audience of Chinese and Roman r h e t o r i c should have a profound e f f e c t

on t h e structure of t h e speeches and choice of devices in the Intr-esd
t h e suasor iae . Nevertheless, although Crump concedes t h a t there are some "obvious exceptions"l7 where h i s theory is not applicable, in those pieces in t h e
I n t r d e s f o r which the analogy with suasoriae xnay be s u i t a b l e , there are some

remarkable s i m i l a r i t i e s between t h e two f o r m . For example, the following
thoughts on the suasoriae, given by the Roman orator Quintilian, would be equally appropriate with regard t o t h e In t r m e s Thus [in a suasoria] nothing is asked other than what is b e s t , and vice versa [ i . e . what is t h e lesser of two evils]. And never does there occur i n t h i s type of material a dispute over a matter which is in every respect in our favor; f o r where there is no place f o r contradiction, what cause can there be f o r dispute? Thus almost every suasoria is nothing other than a comparison, and it m u s t be seen what w e would obtain and by w h a t means, s o that it can be judged whether there be more advantage i n t h a t which we seek, o r indeed disadvantage in t h a t by which w e seek i t . 1 6
One of the most r e a d i l y i d e n t i f i a b l e traits of t h e Intr-es is
precisely t h e s o r t of "coniparison" of opposed =merits t h a t Quintilian claims characterizes the suasoriae. debate : Marquis Wen of Wei sought passage through Zhao t o a t t a c k Zhongshan. The Marquis of Zhao was about t o refuse. Zhao L i said: "That is a mistake! I f W e i attacks Zhongshan but cannot obtain it, W e i w i l l witMraw. I f they withdraw, Zhao w i l l become more important. But if W e i takes Zhonjgshan, they w i l l not be able t o cross Zhao and keep
17. Chan-Kuo Ts ' e , 15.
my own.
Let us consider, f o r example, t h e following
18. Institutio Oratoria 111.8.33-5. A l l t r a n s l a t i o n s in t h i s paper are The original: "Ita non tantun u t m melius sed quid sit optimum quaeritur, itemque contra. Nec umquam incidet i n hoc genere materiae d u b i t a t i o r e i quae undique secundm nos sit; nam ubi contradictioni locus non est, quae potest esse causa dubitandi? Ita f e r e omnis suasoria n i h i l est aliud quam comparatio, uidendumque quid consecuturi sinus e t per quid, u t aestimari possit plus in eo quod petimus sit commodi, an uero in eo per quad petimus sit i n c h i . "
Paul Rakita Eoldin, 'niching lallecho: The Zhanguoce and Classical Rhetoric'
Zhongshan [ i . e . t h e presence of Zhao between W e i and Zhongshan w i l l prevent the conquerors from e f f e c t i v e governance of t h e i r new e i w i l l use troops while Zhao w i l l gain l a d . It is t e r r i t o r y ] . Thus W b e t t e r t o allow passage with great encouragement. They w i l l then know t h a t your majesty w i l l p r o f i t by it; they w i l l have t o d e s i s t . It would be best f o r mur majesty t o grant them passage, as though you had no other choice. " (6.9af.; 18.893f.; 233)
I n t h i s , a typical passage in the IntrigUes, we can discern a technique found

i n much of t h e t e x t : presenting an i n i t i a l proposed course of action and then a d e t a i l e d argument r e f u t i n g it. I n t h i s item, t h e "greater advantage," from Quintilian's point of view, lies i n Zhao L i ' s method.
Perhaps the most famous selection of t h i s type is t h e debate between
Sima Cuo and Zhang Y i , t o which we have alluded before.
Where should Qin
attack? The revered minister Zhang Y i advocates attacking Imperial Zhou, s e i z i n g the Wine Tripods and claiming the Empire. But then Sima Cuo points
out t h e adverse e f f e c t s such a brazen step would have on Bin's r e l a t i o n s with
its neighbors: "Stealing the Son of Heaven--stealing t h e Son of Heaven is a

bad reputation."
He argues instead for attacking the rich but under-dweloped
land of Shu, which Qin could take " l i k e jackals and wolves pursuing a f l o c k of sheep."
Sima Cuo's plan promises immeasurable wealth and universal respect:
"Your p r o f i t w i l l exhaust t h e Western Sea, y e t t h e various lords w i l l n o t consider you avaricious."
The tension created here is heightened by t h e great

Zhang Y i is one of t h e m a s t
d i s p a r i t y in influence of t h e two p a r t i e s .
respected advisors under Heaven; Sima Cuo is at this stage a r e l a t i v e unknown.
But t h e king chooses Sima Cuo ' s a l t e r n a t i v e , which, judging from hindsight, h i s t o r y seems t o have favored as w e l l .
What i n t e r e s t s u s primarily about t h i s passage is its s t r u c t u r e .
The
author, ostensibly s e n s i t i v e t o t h e same concerns as Quintilian, recognizes t h a t there were various reasonable points of view at t h e time. After a l l , i f
Sino-Platonic Papers , No, 41 (October , 19931
Qin's object was t h e Ehpire, then t h e most n a t u r a l way t o obtain it would
appear t o be a d i r e c t a t t a c k on Zhou. But t h e r e would be l i t t l e point in
writing t h i s piece i f t h e r e were no a l t e r n a t i v e arguments-Quintilian uses t h e

word " c ~ t r a d i c t i ~ n s " - - t consider. o
Thus t h e author employs t h e same s o l u t i o n
as t h e writers of Roman suasoriae and presents two d i f f e r e n t arguments f o r
Sima Cuo t o weigh.
Judging from these items, then, it would seem that Crimp's theory is
s u i t a b l e in large p a r t .
As we have seen, bath t h e suasoriae and t h e Intrigues
are examples of t h e genre of prosopopoeia--the exercise of writing f i c t i t i o u s

speeches f o r h i s t o r i c a l characters iuvolved in a c t u a l , usually welldocumented, s i t u a t i o n s .
I n addition, the argment-counterargument s t r u c t u r e

I n a suasoria,
of t h e suasoria fits m y of t h e pieces i n t h e Intrigtles.
t h e r e must be evidence on both s i d e s , or else t h e r e is nothing t o discuss. Similarly, many of t h e persuasions in the Intrigues are made e f f e c t i v e by t h e successful r e f u t a t i o n of an opposing p o s i t i o n . l e However, the two forms d i f f e r considerably in t h e i r usage of r h e t o r i c a l
devices.
As any student of Latin o r Greek may attest, one of t h e s a l i e n t
f e a t u r e s of c l a s s i c a l r h e t o r i c is its frequent employment of conventional devices, ranged and named i n long lists t h a t can be found in much of t h e ancient t h e o r e t i c a l l i t e r a t u r e . There we may f i n d , f o r example, anaphora--the
placement of t h e same word o r phrase at t h e head of consecutive clauses;
19. Another observation of B u i n t i l i a n ' s regarding prosopopoeiae in general concerns t h e inherent d i f f i c u l t y of impersonating d i f f e r e n t characters. The b e s t writers can employ varying r e g i s t e r s of speech according t o t h e rank and temperament of t h e characters speaking. The I n t r a e s seem t o e may note t h e majesty and solemnity of be aware of t h i s problem as well. W t h e king's speech ("Good, W e s h a l l hear [=follow] t h e Haster"), and, in c o n t r a s t , Sima Cuo's emotional catalogue of r e l a t i v e advantages and disadvantages (e.g. "Stealing t h e Son of Heaven--stealing t h e Son of Heaven is a bad reputation").
10
Paul Rakita toldin, 'Niching Hallecho: The Zhanguace and Classical Rhetoric'
apostrophe--addressing an absent person; aposiopoesis--1eav4
t h e end of a
sentence unspoken; asyndeton--coordinated words juxtaposed w i t h o u t conjunctions; litotes--expressing a positive a t t r i b u t e through the negation of its opposite; praeteritio--announcw the intention not t o r e f e r t o a c e r t a i n
subject and thereby alluding t o it obliquely; hendiadys--connecting two nouns,

t h e f i r s t acting as an a t t r i b u t e modifying the second; epithet transfer-.
placing an adjective in grammatical agreement with a noun it is not intended t o modify; and the like. I t is not immediately clear whether these devices appear, e i t h e r i n t h e
same o r adapted form, i n the Chinese rhetoric of t h e I n t r a e s .

legitimate concern.
This is a
The suasoria is, as we have emphasized, a product of the
i n t r i c a t e rhetorical s t y l e t h a t engendered it, a kind of apprentice's t r a i n i n g
in the complicated mtxie of oratory of the time. Therefore, it should exhibit

t h e frequent, if affected o r clumsy, use of these tropes and figures--the t o o l s of t h e student's future trade. The Roman figures are, as we have Rhetoric f o r t h e
mentioned above, devices suited t o the persuasion of crowds.
masses was made a necessity by the circumstances t h a t prevailed in R a m ; but
rarely, i f ever, i n t h e context of t h e Intrigues is an orator required t o convince a mass of people of h i s opinion.
Thus one question raised by Crump's
proposed analogy is whether t h e persuasions of t h e Intrmm r e s o r t t o similar rhetorical devices, and whether they may have devices of their own. Different languages tend t o display markedly d i f f e r e n t grammatical
systems. Some are highly inflected and allow f o r f r e e word order.
I n others,
t h e logic of the sentence appears exclusively in the syntax; t h e d i f f e r e n t functions of words are indicated by their placement. There is generally less
opportunity for variation with word order i n languages of t h i s l a t t e r type. This d i s t i n c t i o n is s i g n i f i c a n t : while w e may not be surprised t o see c e r t a i n
Sino-Platonic Papers, No. 41 (Dctober 1993)
11
very general devices--such as isocolon/parallelism, simile, a n t i t h e s i s ,
assonance, and rhyme--in t h e l i t e r a t u r e s of various cultures, devices which
rely on l i b e r a l word order w i l l tend t o appear in t h e languages of t h e

inflected type--and not in the others. Latin happens t o come under the f i r s t
category, c l a s s i c a l Chinese under t h e second--and f o r t h i s reason m y of t h e Latin figures typical of inflected languages--such as asyndeton, hendiadys,
and e p i t h e t transfer--are
not l i k e l y t o appear in Chinese r h e t o r i c .
The suasoriae of Seneca, as w e might expect, abound in r h e t o r i c a l

devices. (A-B-B'-A'
The following (VI.xxvi.24) is a t y p i c a l example of Latin chiasmus

structure--from t h e Greek l e t t e r c h i x ) : "nostraque cadens ferus
Annibal ira." Here, "cadens f e r u s Annibal" ("wild Hannibal f a l l i n g " ) is in

t h e nominative case, and is therefore t h e subject.
"Nostraque
... ira"
("and
our anger") is i n t h e a b l a t i w case, indicating medium o r means.
The whole
phrase means something l i k e " a d wild Hannibal f a l l i n g by our anger," although

the chiasmus is l o s t in t r a n s l a t i o n precisely because English is a largely
uninfl e c t d language, and we cannot arrange t h e words i n t o the proper chiasmic shape. This p a r t i c u l a r type of chiasnus oan be found only in a language l i k e
Latin, whose complex nominal and a d j e c t i v a l declensions can accommodate t h e
necessary word order,

I t is absent from t h e Intrigues: t h e logic of t h e Chinese sentence
cannot be wrenched t o form a chiasmus.
It is s i m i l a r l y inappropriate t o speak
of asyndeton in Chinese, since words are regularly connected without
conjunctions.
For example, t h e "jackals and wolves" which w e s a w in the

"jackals wolves."
debate between Zhang I and Sima Cuo were written s-ly
Only in languages l i k e Latin (and English), with t h e i r habitual use of conjunctions, can there be any discussion of asyndeton as a device, because only in these languages does it have any unusual e f f e c t .
When Shakespeare
12
Paul Rakita 6oldin, 'niching Hallecho: The Zhanguoce and Classical Rhetoric'
writes "hang, beg, s t a r v e , d i e in t h e s t r e e t s " (Rmeo and J u l i e t , III.v.194),

English readers a r e s t r u c k by the s t a r k desolation of t h e phrase.
In
c l a s s i c a l Chinese, what would seem unusual would be t o write a similar series of coordinated words any other way. Hendiadys, furthermore, is impossible in t h e language of t h e intrmes, which makes no r i g i d separations between p a r t s of speech. e p i t h e t s , while readily i d e n t i f i a b l e when declinable--as u n i n t e l l i g i b l e in Chinese. Transferred
i n Latin--would be
And anaphora, with its p e r i p h r a s t i c
repetitiveness, is out of place in t h e t e r s e s t y l e of t h e Intrigues. I n view of t h e i n a p p l i c a b i l i t y of s o many Roman devices t o classical Chinese, one impediment towards t h e acceptance of Czup's proposed m a s o r i a -
theory is t h a t it cannot take i n t o account the d i f f e r e n t r h e t o r i c a l styles of

t h e two forms, suasoria and ce. This is not a t r i v i a l criticism.
W e have
pointed out t h a t the suasoria is a Roman invention that owes its existence t o t h e peculiar requirements of c l a s s i c a l oratory. But t h i s premise does n o t
exist in Chinese rhetoric.
Crump's theory f a l l s s l i g h t l y s h o r t , s i n c e it does
not attend t o the differences in t h e devices, t h e s t y l e , and above a l l t h e language of the two texts. For t h e Intr-es have devices of t h e i r own.
C m m p himself writes that
its
prose w i l l be found t o have very strong rhythm, a penchant f o r antithesis (or chiasm), parisosis (or symmetry of units), consonance verging on rhyme, and a l l t h e other devices peculiar t o t h e o r a t o r ' s self-consciaus and somewhat fulsome use of language.20
Perhaps t h i s is so; but i f a "penchant" f o r chiasmus is found, it w i l l
not be semantic o r s y n t a c t i c chiasmus (as in t h e case of t h e example from Seneca discussed above), s i n c e it is impossible in Chinese. There may be
Sino-Platonic Papers, No. 41 (October, 1993)
13
thematic chiasmus, where t h e explication of whole themes or concepts may form a chiasmus ( t h i s occurs in t h e Bible),zl but t h i s is only one form.
I n any
is
case, Grump's use of t h e words a n t i t h e s i s (A-B) and chiasmus (A-B-B8-A') vague. Antithesis is simpler, and, understandably, more common.
And it
should be recognized that parisosis, consonance, and rhyme may appear in t h e
I n t r u e s because they a r e a l l devices that f i t in a n uninflected language

l i k e Chinese.
On the other hand, sententiae are more typical of t h e language of t h e
Intrigues. sentence.
A sententia is a maxim o r aphorism expressed i n a dense o r t e r s e
Sententiae are frequent in the Intrigues, 22 their inherent power
rendered a l l the more forceful by the laconic rhythm of classical Chinese prose. Litotes (as in t h e ubiquitous "not a l i t t l e " ) and other ornamentations
appear as well.
The persuasive speeches in t h e Intrmes do include tropes
and figur es of t h e i r own--those t h a t work i n Chinese.

As in Western rhetoric, a large number of the r h e t o r i c a l devices used in
t h e Intrmes do not involve s o l e l y the use of language, but p a r t i c u l a r methods of argumentation and t h e arrangement of thematic material. With
regard t o these types of devices too we w i l l f i n d t h a t t h e Intrigues resemble c l a s s i c a l rhetoric in some ways, but d i f f e r s i g n i f i c a n t l y in others.
Ernst Robert Curtius defined "Topoi" as "gedankliche Themen, zu
21. E.g. Genesis 1:9-10: "And God said, 'Let the waters [A] under t h e heaven be gathered together unto one place, and l e t dry land [B] appear.' And it was so. And God called t h e dry land [B'] Earth, and t h e gathering together e seas; and God s a w that it was good." of waters [A'] called H
2.87; 4).
22. E.g. "Do not be alone in knowing [the value of a possession 1" (1.4b; This may be seen as an e a r l y argument from demand theory: a possession is valuable only i f others value it too.
1 4
Paul Rakita Goldin, 'niching tiallecho: The Zhanguoce and Classical Rhetoric8
beliebiger Entwicklung und Abwandlung geeignet."za
Here we may use t h e term
t o designate arguments and images t h a t can be applied in various s i t u a t i o n s .

They a r e the most basic t o o l s of orators, which they can use t o b o l s t e r their
positions in d i f f e r e n t cases.
The Intrigues use them too, as r h e t o r i c a l
strategies--not unlike, f o r example, t h e "affected modesty" topic of t h e

Western rhetoricians.
Perhaps t h e best way t o i l l u s t r a t e t h e diverse
p o s s i b i l i t i e s of topics is t o list some of those t h a t appear in t h e intrigues,

f o r there are many, and t h e persueders rely on t h e i r suasive power at least as
much as an l i n g u i s t i c flourishes.
Topics .and other Strategies in t h e Intraes 1. Historical A1 lusim. The d i r e c t reference t o a h i s t o r i c a l incident, citing t h e circumstances which brought it about as well as t h e aftermath,
serving t h e twofold function of displaying t h e erudition of t h e speaker and
providing h i s t o r i c a l j u s t i f i c a t i o n f o r h i s position.
Examples: 1) Su Qin
presents a catalogue of opportunistic warriors who took up arms (3.3a; 3.118;

47).
2) Chen Zhen r e f e r s t o Xiaoji and Z h , loyal men of old (3.10a; 3.201;
54). 3) Z h m g Y i ventures t o speak of "matters past" (3.65b; 3.144; 107).

This topic is very common.
2. Literary Allusian. The reference t o a revered work, serving much t h e

same purpose as Historical Allusion.
Wes) (3.25b; 7.410; 75).
Examples: 1) From t h e Shijing(Book of
2) From t h e Sh.~$ing(Book of Docmmts) (3.36a;
23. firopiiische Li teratur und la teinisches Mi ttelalter, 3rd edition (Berne and Munich: A. Francke, 1948), 78. Willard Trask (&mopean Literature and the Latin Mid9le Ages, Bollingen Series 36 [New York, 18531, 79) translates t h i s loosely as: "ideas of the most general sort--such as could be employed in every kind of oratory and writing. "
Sino-Platonic Papers, No, 41 (October, 1993)
15 4)
5.264; 89).
3) From t h e Y i j i n g ( B o o k of Changes) (4.13a; 11.608; 130).
From the Laozi (4.14a; 11.608; 130).
3. Aphorism.
C i t i n g a proverb, with the implication t h a t t h e wisdom of
the ancients is on the speaker's s i d e .
Examples: 1 ) "If your feathers are n o t

2) "When t h e s t a l l i o n is
3) "Three men make a tiger
abundant, you cannot f l y high" (3.2b; 3.118; 47). t i r e d , the nag passes it" (4.44b; 12.636; 158).
[ i f they a l l claim t o s e e one]" (3.60~~; 5.329; 105).
4. Inductim.
Asking questions of one's opponent, t o lead him t o agree
t o certain premises, a f t e r which one's argument becomes almost i r r e f u t a b l e ,
since the apposing p a r t y has i t s e l f proved t h e fundamental p a r t .

Su Bin leads the King of Q i i n t o attacking Song.
Examples: 1)
The l o g i c here may be
forced, since it is d i f f i c u l t t o s e e why attacking Song is p a r t i c u l a r l y p r o f i t a b l e ; but t h e format is m i s t a k a b l e : Su Qin induces the king t o say on h i s own that attacking Song is t h e best option (4.40b; 11.630; 157).
2) Su
Dai convinces the King of W e i to maintain Tian Xu--supposedly a loyal vassal-t o watch over two other followers, who, as t h e king admits himself, are untrustworthy (7.22b; 23.1203; 325).
5. Dilemma. a ) Reducing t h e number of possible s o l u t i o n s t o two, then r e f u t i n g one, thereby affirming t h e other. Examples: 1) The debate between
2)
Zhang Y i and Sima Cuo on whether t o a t t a c k Zhou o r S h (discussed above).
Zhmg Gai persuades t h e s t a t e of Lu to remain n e u t r a l f o r the t i m e being,

s i n c e one may a t t a c k e i t h e r now or l a t e r , and attacking later is better than attacking now (4.3a; 8.513f.; 117).
b) Anti-Dilemma, o r Double Persuasion. Showing t h a t an action w i l l have
16
Paul Rakita Goldin, 'fliching flallecho: The Zhanguoce and Classical Rhetoric'
t h e same r e s u l t in a l l possible series of events.
Examples: 1) The widowed
Queen Xuan of Qin should not bury her lover W e i C b u with her, as she has
planned. paramour?
If t h e r e is no l i f e a f t e r death, then what use has she of her
And i f there is l i f e a f t e r death, then she w i l l be busy enough
appeasing her irate husband, and w i l l not have time l e f t over f o r W e i Chou.
The author thus s k i r t s a contentious issue of d w , arguing t h a t it does not

matter, as long as s h e spares W e i Chou (3.52b; 4.260; 98).
2) Zou J i can
surpass h i s r i v a l Tian J i by recommending that t h e latter engage in b a t t l e : for shwld Tian J i succeed, t h e king w i l l reward Zou J i f o r h i s good counsel,
and should Tian J i f a i l , Zou J i w i l l be r i d of a troublesolne competitor (4.3b;

8.497; 118). 3) Zheng Shen, envoy of the King of Chu, takes matters i n t o his
o m hands by giving away land t o t h e embattled Crown Prince.
The envoy has
determined, through an i n t r i c a t e series of c a l c u l a t i m s , t h a t t h e king w i l l p r o f i t regaxdless of whether h i s son succeeds o r f a i l s (5.27a; 14.735; 207).
See a l s o the examples c i t e d by Crump.24
C)
Scylla and CharyMis. Finding a clever solution t o an i n f e l i c i t o u s This requires finding one's way through a path blocked by two
Anti-Dilem.
apparently irreconcilable impdiments.
Examples: 1) Huizi is an enemy of
Zhang Y i but a f r i e n d of the King of Song--so how should t h e King of C h treat
him? I f he treats him well, Zhang Y i w i l l be offended; i f he t r e a t s him

badly, t h e King of Song w i l l be offended. The king's advisor Feng H e h i t s upon t h e solution: support Huizi well and then send him away t o the King of Song. 198).
T h i s w i l l be please both Zhang Y i and t h e King of Song (5.23a; 16.806;
2) A n adulterous wife plans t o poison her husband, but a concubine

How can she avoid betraying either master or mistress?
l e a r n s of the plan.
24. Citan-Koo Ts ' e , 17ff
Sino-Platonic Papers, No. 41 (October, 14433
17
She s p i l l s poisoned drink intentionally, and is beaten f o r it, but maintains
her honor (9.22bf.; 29.1567; 459).
3) Without a go-between, a g i r l cannot be
married.
If her f a t h e r does not show her t o anyme, she w i l l become an old
s p i n s t e r f o r lack of suitors--but i f he does display her, she w i l l be cheapened and remain unbought. The go-between is t h e only solution (9.23a;
29.1571; 460). 4) The debate analyzed above, over whether o r not t o g r a n t Wei passage through Zhao, f i t s i n t o t h i s category as w e l l : it is foolhardy t o deny powerful Wei a request, but at t h e same time dangerous t o allow Wei's troops t o march through one's t e r r i t o r y .
Zhao L i navigates t h e perilous passage.
This topic is one of t h e most p r o l i f i c ; it is a c h a r a c t e r i s t i c f e a t u r e of Chinese l i t e r a t u r e . 2 5
8. Cbaparative Syllcgism. A type of refutation: c i t i n g an instance
where a proposition similar t o t h e one being refuted f a i l e d , even though t h e

odds of success f o r t h e argument in the example were much greater that those
in favor of the argument presently being considered.
This topic generally
t a k e s t h e form, "if wen X, then c e r t a i n l y Y, given t h a t X is less l i k e l y t o occur than Y." Examples: 1 ) Even Zeng Shen's mother f i n a l l y believed slander
concerning her own son after hearing it three times. H o w m c h more precarious now is Gan Mao's position, given t h a t the king's f a i t h i n him is far less than t h a t of Zeng Shen's mother in her son, and t h a t Gan Mao's enemies far more
25. See for example the well-known anecdote at the beginning of the
l . 5 of T b Zuozhuan (James Legge , T h Ch 'un Ts 'eu w i t h the Tso Chum, w Chinese Classics [ R e p r i n t - - H a Kong: Hong Kmg University Press, 10703, 2) where a penitent son and h i s mother are reconciled d e s p i t e h i s headstrong vow n t h e Yellow Springs. never t o see her again: he v i s i t s her a f t e r her death i Mmcius 4B.24.2 (Legge, 11, 329f.) contains another piece with t h i s theme: t h e archer Yugong S i is sent by h i s lord t o k i l l Zizhuo Etu. But Yugong Si's teacher happens t o be Zizhuo Ru's student. Y u g m g S i cannot disobey h i s king, but cannot k i l l h i s master's master, either. H i s solution is t o remove t h e metal t i p s from h i s arrows before shooting Zizhuo h.
18
Paul Rakita Soldin, 'Niching Hallecho: The Zhangucce and Classical Rhetoric'
than three (3.22a; 4.230f.; 66).
2) I f even Zou J i is duped by f l a t t e r e r s ,
t h e mighty king can expect no l e s s (4.5a; 8.507; 119).
3) If t h e King of Wei
can be moved t o believe the preposterous idea t h a t there is a tiger in t h e market a f t e r only three reports t o t h a t e f f e c t , then he can hardly avoid being
swayed by f a l s e accusations of Pang Cong, given t h a t t h e l a t t e r ' s enemies are
more than three (7.6b; 23.1232f.; 302).
7 . The Mask.
Showing the root cause of a phenomenon t o be a l a t e n t
force behind the ostensible cause ( R e m o v . the Mask), or, vice versa,
obscuring the root cause behind the apparent one ( h m i n g the Mask).
Examples: 1) Zou J i is praised not because of h i s beauty, but because of h i s
power (4.5a; 6.507; 110).
2) King X i a n g of Qi can take a l l t h e c r e d i t for
Tian Dan's extraordinary a c t s of charity by ordering grandly t h a t everyone protect t h e needy. Then everyone w i l l think t h a t Tian Dan is merely carrying out the king's beneficent instructions (4.56a.f.; 13.680f.; 182).
3) A tiger
is about t o eat a fax when t h e l a t t e r declares that he is the most powerful
beast under heaven, challenging the t i g e r -to follow him around and see f o r himself. flee. The tiger does so and is convinced when he sees all the animals
He does not r e a l i z e t h a t they are afraid not of t h e fox, but of t h e
t i g e r behind him (5.2b; 14.711; 176).
8. T h St*.
Obtaining from an opponent a valuable concession, often
property o r land, in exchange f o r a similar favor t o be granted l a t e r , but then reneging when circumstances a r e such t h a t t h e opponent does not find it expedient t o complain or seek redress (the trickster never having had any intention of honoring the agreement i n the first place). Examples: 1) Yan
Shuai, Zhou's envoy, gains t h e friendship of Qi by promising t o give Qi t h e
19
Nine Cauldrons.
But Yan S b a i never transports t h e Cauldrons after a l l ,
claiming t h a t t h e r e is no safe route from Z h o u t o Qi--and Q i does not dare have them s e n t . nothing (2.lb-3a; while s a c r i f i c i n g Thus Zhou g a i n s a valuable a l l y in Qi 1.6b; 20).
2) Zhang Y i , Qin's envoy, o f f e r s the King of Chu
600 square li of land t o e n t i c e him t o break with Q i , h i s most powerful ally. Although Chen Zhen, t h e k i n g ' s minister, is suspicious, t h e king ignores him. But j u s t as Chen Zhen thought, Zhang Y i later refuses t o cede the land when he
is s u r e t h a t C h has indeed broken with Q i . The King of Chu is incensed, and

a t t a c k s Qin--again aver t h e p r o t e s t a t i o n s of h i s loyal minister Chen Zhen--and is defeated by t h e combined might of Qin and Qi, Chu's former a l l y . t h u s stung twice. Chu is
Chen Zhen's suggestion, which t h e king does not follow, may
f a l l under t h e S c y l l a and Charybdis rubric: he proposes t h a t the King of Chu o f f e r Qin a c i t y in Chu, in order t o gain Qin as an a l l y . With combined
n forces, Chu and Qin may then a t t a c k the isolated Q i , and Chu w i l l obtain i
b a t t l e a c i t y t o match whatever they have given t o Qin (3.15-17a; 4.207-9;
58).
9. Adding Feet to the s a k e .
Showing t h a t too much of a good t h i n g can
r u i n everything. Examples: 1) The archer Yang Youji should s t o p a f t e r 100 consecutive bull's-eyes, l e s t he miss once and e r a s e h i s s t r e a k ( l . 1 l a ; 2.79;
13).
2) The successful warrior does not r i s k everything by f i g h t i n g once too

3) A n agreement is made among a group of
often (3.61a; 19.953; 106).
associates t h a t whoever f i n i s h e s drawing a snake first can drink a cup of
wine.
One contestant claims victory, and proudly adds f e e t t o h i s snake.
But
before is done, another f i n i s h e s h i s own snake, and snatches t h e cup away: f o r
a snake with f e e t is no longer a snake a t a l l (4.17b-18a;
8.545; 134).
20
Paul Rakita Goldin, 'lliching Hallecho: The Zhanguoce and Classical Rhetoric'
10. Qiarreling Taers. Showing t h a t contending states weaken each other, and t h a t t h e b e s t policy is therefore t o wait and s t r i k e when the time
is r i g h t .
Examples: 1) Guan Zhuangzi f i n d s two tigers quarreling over a He is about t o s l a y t h e m , but Guan Yu convinces him t o wait u n t i l one
corpse.
is dead and the other wounded.
Then he may win fame f o r k i l l i n g two tigers

2) A mussel has caught
while having faced less than one (3.17b; 4.218f.; 59). a heron by t h e beak.
Neither animal is willing t o give ---so
they are both
caught by a fisherman (9.33a; 30.1631f.; 468).
11. Fram-.
Incriminating a r i v a l , generally by placing him o r her in
a suspicious s i t u a t i o n and convincing a r u l e r of h i s o r her g u i l t , often with an "explanatory" letter or speech.
Examples: 1) Gan M a o has learned of t h e

With great
king's plan t o promote Gongsun Yan t o t h e post of P r i m Minister.
f a n f a r e he compliments t h e king on h i s excellent choice, and, when asked,
explains f a l s e l y t h a t Gongsun Yan himself t o l d him t h e news.

banished (3.24b; 4.251; 73).
Gongsun Yan is
2) Nalvet6 c o s t s a d e l i g h t f u l young concubine
her nose (5.23b-4a;
17.815f.; 200; t h i s piece w i l l be discussed below).
12. Wander-working. Deceiving t h e credulous by exploiting t h e i r b e l i e f

in t h e supernatural, often by bribing d i v i n e r s t o g i v e certain predetermined
"fortunes." Examples: 1) The King of Zhao s e i z e s t h e sacrificial lands of
Zhou, but is induced t o r e t u r n them when he f a l l s ill and is t o l d by a false

d i v i n e r t h a t t h e s a c r i f i c i a l lands a r e t h e cause (2.8a; 1.49; 32).
2) Tian
Ji, scheming t o usurp t h e throne, sends a vassal t o a d i v i n e r f o r omens.
But
t h e d i v i n e r reveals everything t o t h e king, h i s loyalty having been bought beforehand by Tian Ji's enemy.
118).
Tian Ji is forced t o flee (4.3b-4a;
8.497f.;
Sino-PIa tonic Papers, No, 41 (October , 1993 1
21
These examples are by no means exhaustive; they are merely some of the most i l l u s t r a t i v e specimens. Identifying these t o p i c s makes it easier t o
understand j u s t what it is about the Intrigtles t h a t gives them t h e i r d i s t i n c t i v e flavor: s o many of t h e anecdotes are patterned a f t e r these general models. This c e r t a i n l y does not mean t h a t the pieces begin t o sound
hackneyed; rather, t h e reader enjoys each with t h e same eager sense of expectancy, anxious t o discover how many ways a v e r s a t i l e image or form of argument w i l l be modified and molded anew.
Other topics include executing d i s l o y a l henchmen, warning t h e king of
slander, and more methods of dealing with underhandedness.
W e can see in t h e
I n t r i g u e s t h e concern t h a t names f i t r e a l i t y , t h e same theme t h a t occupies s o
much of Warring S t a t e s philosophy.
Objects a r e continuously labelled
e x p l i c i t l y as what they are, t o d i s t i n g u i s h them from t h e i r misleading appearance.
Kings are asked t o give t h e i r f a v o r i t e wives a p a i r of e a r r i n g s
as a g i f t , or t o g r a n t a p a r t i c u l a r l y f a i t h f u l advisor a large f i e f o r l o f t y
t i t l e , so t h a t a l l know who is in favor--and, consequently, who is not. These
tropes are not included in t h e list above because they are e s s e n t i a l l y subtopics of Ebmoving t h e Mask, perhaps the most elegant form of d i f f e r e n t i a t i n g r e a l i t y from i l l u s i o n , t h e awesome power of t h e tiger from t h e wily ways of t h e fox.
The topics may interest t h e student of t h e Intrigues, and there is

probably more t o be said about each. But our main i n t e r e s t here is t h e i r
relevance t o our comparison of t h e I n t r i g u e s with t h e suasoriae of ancient
Rome.
For such t o p i c s appear in classical r h e t o r i c as well.
Cicero, in h i s
De inmntiane, lists several d i f f e r e n t loci

speaker might use in an oration.
camrounes, o r commonplaces, t h a t a
Though t h i s youthful work was later
repudiated by the author in h i s more mature De oratore, we may still look upon
22
Paul Raki ta 6oldin, 'Hic hing H a l lecho: The Zhanguoce and Classical Rhetoric'
it as a h i s t o r i c a l document, a r e l i a b l e source f o r learning about fashionable

r h e t o r i c a l techniques of t h e day.
One of t h e most u s e f u l , he writes (1.45),
is Induction, exactly t h e same s t r a t e g y i n which t h e persuaders of t h e
Intrigues s p e c i a l i z e .
Moreover, he includes a discussion of t h e merits of
Dilenrma ( I . S l f f . ) , though t h e term is used somewhat d i f f e r e n t l y from they way
we have treated it here.
To Cicero, a Dilemma is a question framed in such a
manner t h a t no matter how one answers one is doomed (e.g. "Are you still beating your wife?") saved--in In any case, t h e same general idea of being lost--or
a l l possible cases is present in both t h e Roman and Chinese versions
of Dilemma. Thus in one important respect, t h e masoria-theory would appear t o e m l a i n t h e int~*&ues well : although t h e f i g u r e s of speech used in the
IntrZgues d i f f e r from those of classical rhetoric as Chinese d i f f e r s from

Latin, some of t h e s t r a t e g i e s t h a t form t h e skeletons of arguments in t h e
Intrigues can be found in Rosnan r h e t o r i c as well.
But, as before, i f the
suasoria-theory is * s u i t a b l e from one point of view, it does not t e l l t h e whole story.

What do t h e s t r a t e g i e s accomplish?
H i s t o r i c a l Allusion, L i t e r a r y
Allusion, and Aphorism (nos. 1, 2, and 3 in t h e list above) may be c a l l e d a l l u s i v e o r platitudinous t o p i c s . quotation from a revered source. I n these, the speaker f i n d s t h e proper These t o p i c s demand c r e a t i v i t y .
Of
themselves, they a r e impotent, s i n c e t h e audience has c e r t a i n l y heard them a l l before.

The persuader's challenge is t o f i t them into h i s argument with
o r i g i n a l i t y and f l a i r . Induction, D i l e m m a , and Comparative Syllogism (nos. 4 through 6) are entirely different. W e may think of these as formulaic o r inventive
s t r a t e g i e s of argumentation with a broad, i f not i n f i n i t e , range of p o s s i b l e
Sino-Platonic Papers, No, 91 [October, 1993)
23
applications.
These topics, unlike the f i r s t three, can be shaped t o f i t They are inexhaustible; they can be used repeatedly
almost any s i t u a t i o n .
with undiminished e f f e c t , because they may appear in d i f f e r e n t contexts each
time. They are the o r a t o r 3 guides, the blueprints of his thought, laying out
f o r him the grand s t r u c t u r e of h i s speech.
Adding Feet t o the Snake and Quarrelling Tigers (nos. 9 and 10) l i e
somewhere in between.
They are not simply r e c i t a t i o n s of proverbs, but they They are, rather, i l l u s t r a t i v e
are not universally applicable, e i t h e r .
c l i c M s : on the one hand, they can be used only f o r c e r t a i n s p e c i f i c arguments--such as counseling a king t o r e t r e a t and consolidate h i s gains; on t h e other hand, they can be varied with d i f f e r e n t parables and examples, j u s t
like the inventive s t r a t e g i e s .

But what do we do w i t h Framing and Wonder-working (nos. 1 1 and 1 2 ) ? They a r e not rhetorical topics at a l l , because they do not use words as t h e i r only o r even primary t o o l . Something l i k e Wonder-working cannot be found
anywhere in the suasoriae o r c l a s s i c a l o r a t o r i c a l repertory because it requires an instrument other than speech. For t h e same reason, it does not
suffice t o c l a s s i f y t h e Intrigvesas rhetoric when s o many of the anecdotes do not consist exclusively of verbal persuasion. Indeed, such an interpretation
only diminishes the book's value, turning a blind eye t o the charm and appeal of the non-rhetorical pieces that make up s o much of the intrigues. Let u s consider, f o r example, the following anecdote:
The King of W e i sent a beautiful woman t o t h e King of C h . The King of Chu enjoyed her. Queen Zheng Xiu knew t h a t t h e king enjoyed the e it clothes o r new woman, and she favored t h e new wornan deeply. B trinkets--she picked out whatever she liked and made it hers [i.e. t h e concubine's]. Be it chambers o r furniture--she picked out whatever she thought good and made it hers. She favored her more deeply than t h e king. The king said, "A wornan serves her husband with sensual e o w Zheng Xiu knows t h a t W g r a t i f i c a t i o n ; but jealousy is her emotion. N enjoy the new woman; she favors her more deeply t h a t W e do. This is t h e
Paul Rakita Eoldin, 'Hiching Hallecho: The Zhanguoce and Classical Rhetoric'
way a f i l i a l son serves h i s parent, t h e way a loyal vassal serves h i s
Zheng Xiu knew t h a t t h e king did not think her jealous, s o she said t o t h e new woman, "The king favors Your beauty! S t i l l , he h a t e s Y o u r nose. When You go t o s e e t h e king, [You] mst cover Your nose." The new woman saw t h e king, and covered her nose. The king said t o Zheng Xiu, "Why did t h a t new woman cover her nose when she saw Us?" Zheng Xiu said, "I know." The king s a i d , "Though it be bad, you must say it. " Zheng Xiu s a i d , "Oh! It seems s h e hates t o smell t h e king's stench! " The king s a i d , "Shrew! " He ordered, "Cut o f f her nose. Let t h e r e be no opposition t o t h i s command." (5.23bf.; 17.815f.; 200)*e
lord. "
This t r i c k is unforgettable, but it is not r h e t o r i c .

t h a t it is out of place in t h e I n t r m e s . are c l e a r l y more than j u s t rhetoric?
Yet no one would argue
What then are these ce--since they
The I n t r m e s a r e a collection of anecdotes about people from t h e

Warring S t a t e s period and h o w they acquire the things they want: position,
fame, revenge, g l o r y f o r t h e state, and s o on.
Naturally, since advisors
o f t e n find t h e b e s t resource t o be t h e king, they focus t h e i r a t t e n t i o n t o persuade t h e king t o action--action sometimes b e n e f i c i a l t o t h e king and h i s s t a t e , but often advantageous t o t h e counselors themselves and t h e i r favorites. These are t h e r h e t o r i c a l pieces. But in many of t h e s t o r i e s , t h e
characters use very d i f f e r e n t methods, such as conspiracy, espionage, and

framing, t o achieve t h e i r goals. These anecdotes always involve some s o r t of
scheme o r machination t o bring about a desired end.

The Intrigues, then, are prinrFlrily about i n t r i g u e .
The l i v e l y ,
d i s j o i n t e d pieces fuse together t o paint an i r r e v e r e n t p i c t u r e of Warring States politics. trickery.
The e n t i r e book seems t o be a g l o r i f i c a t i o n of mendacity and
The cunning advisors l i v e by their w i t s , rising and f a l l i n g by
26. Honorific pronouns are capitalized: thus zi is rendered as "You,"

gUaren as "We."
25
By c o n t r a s t , t h e kings are
t h e i r own ingenuity and t h a t of t h e i r r i v a l s .
continuously hoodwinked by t h e unscrupulous sophistry of t h e i r own ministers.
Some, l i k e Lord Mengchang (e.g. 4.35b-36b; 10.579f.; 153) accept t h e d u p l i c i t y

of t h e i r r e t a i n e r s and even encourage it, on a manageable s c a l e , r a t h e r than oppose it f r u i t l e s s l y . But most do not, and a r e deceived throughout.
The Intrigues form a document from turbulent times, and t h e jungle l a w

they advocate r e f l e c t s t h e circumstances i n which they originated. Scholars
have been reluctant t o concede t h i s point because of t h e c l e a r anti-Confucian
message it e n t a i l s . 2 7
But t h e position of t h e Intr-es
is unmistakable:
a l l is due t o him who a t t a i n s it; t h e more devious t h e p l o t , t h e more
entertaining; v i r t u e and l o y a l t y a r e eminently unprofitable.

t o miching mallecho.
They a r e a paean
If w e must f i n d a Western analogy f o r t h e I n t r i g u e s , l e t u s look t o t h e
Arabian Nights and t h e medieval European fabliaux.

t o an art form with pure d e l i g h t .
A l l t h r e e raise t r i c k e r y
Differences in c u l t u r e can explain Su Qin's greatest honor is t h e
differences in what t h e schemers scheme f o r .
respect he commands from h i s family (3.6a; 3.120; 47)) while "hende Nicholas" of t h e Miller's Tale--though he later pays f o r h i s exploit--can claim a n i g h t
with h i s beloved Alisoun, and t h e Lady with t h e Five S u i t o r s (Nights 593-6)

frees her l w e r and brings shame upon t h e f i v e lechers who would have taken
advantage of her helplessness.
Yet t h e spirit is the same in a l l three
instances: a clever stratagem succeeds.
The suasoriae may be similar t o t h e
Intrmes i n some respects, but t h e bawdy fabliaux may o f f e r other e n t i c i n g

possibilities.
2 ' 7 . Liu Xiang, in h i s own preface t o t h e work (given in Zhu Zugeng, 111, 1795f.), acknowledges t h a t he was h e s i t a n t t o publish t h e text, but accepts t h e Intrigrtles as a t e x t of its own chaotic the.
26
Paul Rakita coldin, 'niching Hallecho: The Zhanguoce and Classical Rhetoric'
S t i l l , Crwnp's theory is helpful because it is s o daring.
I t does n o t
explain t h e differences between Latin and Chinese, and t h e r h e t o r i c a l devices

used i n each language; o r t h e differences between t o p i c s in t h e s u a s o r i a e and
in t h e Intrmes; o r the d i f f e r e n c e s in t h e b a s i c purposes behind t h e two

forms, t h e former a school exercise intended t o train young men in t h e arts of oratory, t h e l a t t e r an musing collection of devious p l o t s and a reconsideration of t r a d i t i o n a l v i r t u e s .
Grump's theory w i l l
Yet t h e arresting o r i g i n a l i t y of
t h e a t t e n t i o n of s c h o l a r s in a
bring the Intr-esto
different light.
Some w i l l challenge h i s theory, but o t h e r s w i l l defend it;
a l l of t h i s disputation can only deepen our understanding of t h e text and
s t i m u l a t e u s t o probe f u r t h e r i n t o t h e context in which it was created.
Cmnp
has shown u s a new way of looking at a very old text, and he may r i g h t l y take
h i s place beside Zhang Y i and Su Qin as one of t h e most accolaplished r h e t o r i c i a n s of t h e 2-m.
Chen Zhen
Chu
Feng He Gan Mao

Gongsun Yan guaren Guan Yu Guan Zhuangzi GULXY kanyan Han Huizi
BZ H%% %A
8
g#! EB? BR&R
R@ E @#
Glossary of Characters % Tian Xu

Wei
Wei ~ h o u Wen Xiang Xiaoji
Xuan
Yan Shuai
8 4
2 3
Lam' li
L i u Xiang
3! PI @
Yang Youj i ~i ling Yugong S i Zeng Shen Zhanguoce Zhangu~x-e jjizhu

huik3b
Mengchang Pang Cong Qi Q in

Shi ji hijinq Shu Shu jinq
d
+B rn
?@
Zhimquoce ywiu
zhang Gai
l!k!E
Zhang Y i
8
5
Zhao
Zhao Li
g?2 BE
S.bu ~ ~ ~ x ~ g k a ~ Sima Cuo Sima Qian Song Su Dai
Zheng Liangshu Zheng Shen Zheng Xiu ~ h o n gFengnian Zhongshan Zhou Zhu Zugeng
zi Zixu
Su Qin Tian Dan
Zizhuo Ru Zou Ji
Previous Issues
Number 1 Date Nov. 1986 Author Victor H. Mair
University of Pennsylvania
Title The Need or a! Al"habeticall# Arra!ged $e!eral %sage Dictio!ar# o Ma!dari! &hi!ese' A (evie) Article o *ome (ece!t Dictio!aries a!d &urre!t +e,icogra"hical Pro-ects The Poetics o %!certai!t# i! 1arl# &hi!ese +iterature A Partial 5ibliogra"h# or the *tud# o I!dia! I! lue!ce o! &hi!ese Po"ular +iterature The 7our +a!guages o 8Ma!dari!9
Pages .1
Dec. 1986 March 1984
A!dre) 0o!es
Hiroshima
23
Victor H. Mair
iv6 /12
Nov. 1984 Dec. 1984 0a!. 1988
(obert M. *a!ders
University of Hawaii
12
1ric A. Haveloc:
Vassar College
&hi!ese &haracters a!d the $ree: Al"habet &om"uters a!d 0a"a!ese +iterac#' Niho!;i! !o <omi:a:i N=r#o:u to >o!"#uta I!do?1uro"ea! Vocabular# i! @ld &hi!ese (evie)s AIB
0. Marshall %!ger
University of Hawaii
1.
0a!. 1988 7eb. 1988 Dec. 1988
&ha!g Tsu!g?tu!g
Goethe-Universitt
i6 36
various
ii6 .9
*oho Machida
Daitoku-ji, Kyoto
+i e a!d +ight6 the I! i!ite' A Historical a!d Philological A!al#sis o the Amida &ult 5uddhist I! lue!ce o! the Neo? &o! ucia! &o!ce"t o the *age
26
1C
0u!e 1989
Pratoom A!gurarohita
Chulalongkorn University angkok
.1
11
0ul# 1989
1d)ard *haugh!ess#
University of Chi!ago
Dester! &ultural I!!ovatio!s i! &hi!a6 1/CC 5&
Previous Issues, cont.

Number 12 Date Aug. 1989 Author Victor H. Mair
Title The o!tributio!s o" T#a!g a!$ %ive D&!asties Tra!s"ormatio! Te'ts (pien-wen) to *ater hi!ese Po+ular *iterature The om+lete Ci1Poems o" *i 2i!g3hao4 A Ne5 6!glish Tra!slatio! 8evie5s (II)
Pages ,1
1-
.ct. 1989
/iaoshe!g 0a!g
Shanghai
'ii, 122
17
Dec. 1989 /a!. 199;
various
99
1:
<eorge ar$o!a
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19
19
March 199;
Victor H. Mair
Three =rie" 6ssa&s o!cer!i!g hi!ese Tocharista!
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1,
A+ril 199;
Heather Peters
University Museum of Philadelphia
Tattooe$ %aces a!$ >tilt Houses4 0ho 0ere the A!cie!t ?ue@
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18
Ma& 199;
Victor H. Mair
a. T5o No!1Tetragra+hic
Norther! >i!itic *a!guages b. Im+licatio!s o" the >oviet Du!ga! >cri+t "or hi!ese *a!guage 8e"orm c. 0ho 0ere the <&Ami@ =acBhillCPeBi!gC=eiDi!g
28
19
/u!e 199; .ct. 199;
=osat Ma!
Nalanda
2;
Victor H. Mair
I!tro$uctio! a!$ Notes "or a Tra!slatio! o" the Ma15a!g1tui M>> o" the Lao T u
98

Number 21 Date Dec. 199; Author Phili++a /a!e =e!so!
Carnegie Mellon University
Title T5o ross1 ultural >tu$ies o! 8ea$i!g Theor&
Pages 9, 1-
22
March 1991 A+ril 1991
Davi$ Moser
University of Michigan
>li+s o" the To!gue a!$ Pe! i! hi!ese TracBs o" the Tao, >ema!tics o" Ee!
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2-
Victor H. Mair
1;
27
Aug. 1991
Davi$ A. Ft3
*a!guage, 0riti!g, a!$ Tra$itio! i! Ira!
27
2:
Aug. 1991 >e+t. 1991
/ea! De=er!ar$i
University of !l"erta
*i!guistic Natio!alism4 The ase o" >outher! Mi! 2uestio!s o! the .rigi!s o" 0riti!g 8aise$ b& the >ilB 8oa$
22 G "igs. 1;
29
/A. Tsu!g1i
Chinese University of #ong $ong
2,
Aug. 1991
Victor H. Mair, e$.

Schriftfestschrift% &ssays in #onor of 'ohn (e)rancis on #is &ightieth *irthday The %amil& o" hi!ese haracter1 T&+e >cri+ts (Twenty Mem"ers and )our Stages of (evelopment) 0hat Is a hi!ese HDialectCTo+olectI@ 8e"lectio!s o! >ome Je& >i!o16!glish *i!guistic Terms hi!ese Philolog& a!$ the >cri+ts o" e!tral Asia
i', 27:
28
>e+t. 1991
EH.F ?ougua!g
State Language Commission+ Pe,ing
11
29
>e+t. 1991
Victor H. Mair
-1
-;
.ct. 1991
M. V. >o"ro!ov
-nstitute of )ar &astern Studies+ !cademy of Sciences+ Moscow
1;
-1
.ct. 1991
various
8evie5s (III)
98

Number -2 Date Aug. 1992 >e+t. 1992 Author Davi$ Mc ra5
University of #awaii
Title Ho5 the hi!a5oma! *ost Her Voice I!tereth!ic o!tact o! the I!!er Asia! %ro!tier4 The <a!gou Peo+le o" Mi!he ou!t&, 2i!ghai
Pages 2,
--
%6N< *i$e a!$ Jevi! >tuart

Chuan,ou No. . Middle School and /inghai &ducation College
-7
-7
.ct. 1992
Victor H. Mair
1. T5o Pa+ers o!
>i!oli!guistics 2. A H&+othesis o!cer!i!g the .rigi! o" the Term fan0ie (H ou!tertom&I) -. 6ast Asia! 8ou!$1Tri+ 0or$s 8evie5s (IV)
1-
-:
Nov. 1992
Victor H. Mair
-,
5ith a! a$$e$ !ote b& 6$5i! <. Pulle&bla!B -9 %eb. 199KF 0e!Ba!
#anyu (a Cidian editorial offices+ Shanghai
Ha!&u 0ailaici $e ?u&ua! Jao3he!g he i$ia! =ia!3ua! (Philological 8esearch o! the 6t&molog& o" *oa!5or$s i! >i!itic a!$ Dictio!ar& om+ilatio!) hi!ese =u$$hist Historiogra+h& a!$ .ralit& The *i!guistic a!$ Te'tual A!tece$e!ts o" The Sutra of the 2ise and the )oolish A Material ase "or a *ate =eri!g >trait rossi!g oi!ci$e!t 5ith Pre1 olumbia! Tra!s1Paci"ic rossi!gs
1-
-,
March 199A+ril 199-
Ta!&a >torch
University of New Me1ico
19
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Victor H. Mair
9:
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Aug. 199-
/or$a! Pa+er
3or, University
1,

Number 7; Date >e+t. 199Author Michael arr
Center for Language Studies+ 4taru University of Commerce
Title Tiao1%ish through hi!ese Dictio!aries
Pages 98
71
.ct. 199Nov. 199-
Paul <ol$i!
#arvard University
Michi!g Mallecho4 The 5hanguo ce a!$ lassical 8hetoric Jham Tibeta! *a!guage Materials
2,
72
8e!chi!1/ashe ?ulshul
Ti"etan !utonomous Prefecture+ $o,onor 6/inghai7
-9
a!$ Jevi! >tuart

-nstitute of )oreign Languages+ Ulaan"aatar+ Mongolia
7-
Dec. 199-
MA 2ua!li!, MA 0a!'ia!g, a!$ MA Ehiche!g

8ining
>alar *a!guage Materials
,2
6$ite$ b& Jevi! >tuart

$o,onor
77
/a!. 1997
DolBu! Jamberi
Colum"ia University
The Three Thousa!$ ?ear .l$ harcha! Ma! Preserve$ at Eaghu!luL The >i!o1Al+habet4 The Assimilatio! o" 8oma! *etters i!to the hi!ese 0riti!g >&stem 8evie5s (V)
1:
7:
Ma& 1997
MarB Ha!sell
Carleton College
28
79
/ul& 1997 Aug. 1997
various
2, 1::
7,
8obert >. =auer

Mahidol University Salaya Na,ornpathom+ Thailand
>i!o1Tibeta! MBolo H0heelI
11
78
>e+t. 1997
Victor H. Mair
I!tro$uctio! a!$ Notes "or a om+lete Tra!slatio! o" the Chuang T u
'''iv, 11;

Number 79 Date .ct. 1997 Author *u$o 8ocher
Title .ralit& a!$ Te'tualit& i! the I!$ia! o!te't
Pages 28
:;
Nov. 1997
?IN =i!&o!g
State Language Commission and -nstitute for !pplied Linguistics 6Chinese !cademy of Social Sciences7
Di&i ge *a$i!g Eimu $e Ha!&u Pi!&i! %a!g#a! >hi Ee!&a!g ha!she!g $e@ NHo5 0as the %irst 8oma!i3e$ >+elli!g >&stem "or >i!itic Pro$uce$@O
:1
Nov. 1997
HAN Ja!g'i!
-nstitute of !rcheology Chinese !cademy of Social Sciences
The >tu$& o" A!cie!t Huma! >Beleto!s "rom Ki!Dia!g, hi!a
9G7 "igs.
:2
Nov. 1997
0arre! A. >hibles
University of 2isconsin 2hitewater
hi!ese 8oma!i3atio! >&stems4 IPA Tra!sliteratio!
2;
:-
Nov. 1997
KF 0e!Ba!
&ditorial 4ffices of the #anyu (a Cidian Shanghai
<ua!&u Tuhuoluore! $e 2i&ua! he 2ia!'i 0e!ti N.! the Problem o" the .rigi!s a!$ Migratio!s o" the Tocharia!sO I!tro$uctio!, <rammar, a!$ >am+le >e!te!ces "or /egQ! ?ogur
11
:7
Nov. 1997
PDi&e$ii! huluu ( haolu 0u)

University of Toronto
-7
::
Nov. 1997

I!tro$uctio!, <rammar, a!$ >am+le >e!te!ces "or Do!g'ia!g
-7
:9
Nov. 1997

I!tro$uctio!, <rammar, a!$ >am+le >e!te!ces "or Dagur
-9
:,
Nov. 1997

I!tro$uctio!, <rammar, a!$ >am+le >e!te!ces "or Mo!guor
-1

Number :8 Date Nov. 1997 Author PDi&e$ii! huluu ( haolu 0u)
Title I!tro$uctio!, <rammar, a!$ >am+le >e!te!ces "or =aoa!
Pages 28
:9
Dec. 1997
Jevi! >tuart
/inghai 'unior Teachers College9
hi!a#s Mo!guor Mi!orit&4 6th!ogra+h& a!$ %olBtales
i, I, 19-
*imusishi$e!
/inghai Medical College !ttached #ospital+ 8ining+ $o,onor 6/inghai7
9;
Dec. 1997
Jevi! >tuart, *i Kue5ei, a!$ >helear

/inghai 'unior Teachers College+ 8ining+ $o,onor 6/inghai7
hi!a#s Dagur Mi!orit&4 >ociet&, >hama!ism, a!$ %olBlore
vii, 19,
91
Dec. 1997
Jevi! >tuart a!$ *i Kue5ei

/inghai 'unior Teachers College+ 8ining+ $o,onor 6/inghai7
Tales "rom hi!a#s %orest Hu!ters4 .roLe! %olBtales
iv, :9
92
Dec. 1997
0illiam . Ha!!as
:eorgetown University
8e"lectio!s o! the HF!it&I o" >+oBe! a!$ 0ritte! hi!ese a!$ Aca$emic *ear!i!g i! hi!a The Develo+me!t o" om+le'it& i! Prehistoric North hi!a A <erma!ic1Tai *i!guistic Pu33le
9-
Dec. 1997 /a!. 199:
>arah M. Nelso!
University of (enver
1,
97
Ar!e Rstmoe
*ang,o,+ Thailand+ and (r;"a,+ Norway
81, 9
9:
%eb. 199:
Pe!gli! 0a!g
Chinese University of #ong $ong
I!$o16uro+ea! *oa!5or$s i! Altaic
28
99
March 199:
EHF 2i!g3hi
Sichuan University and Pe,ing University
>ome *i!guistic 6vi$e!ce "or 6arl& ultural 6'cha!ge =et5ee! hi!a a!$ I!$ia

Number 9, Date A+ril 199: Author Davi$ Mc ra5
Title Pursui!g Ehua!g3i as a 8h&memaster4 A >!arB1Hu!t i! 6ight %its Ne5 8esearch o! the .rigi! o" o5ries Fse$ i! A!cie!t hi!a
Pages -8
98
Ma& 199:
Je Pe!g, ?a!shi Ehu

University of Chicago and To,yo+ 'apan
i, 29
99
/a!. 1999
D+al1l$a!1bBra1shis, Jeith >later, et al.

/inghai+ Santa *ar"ara+ etc.
*a!guage Materials o" hi!a#s Mo!guor Mi!orit&4 Hu3hu Mo!gghul a!$ Mi!he Ma!gghuer
'i, 299
,;
%eb. 1999
Davi$ Ft3, Ki!ru *iu,

Taylor Carman+ *ryan <an Norden+ and the &ditor Philadelphia+ <assar+ etc.
8evie5s VI
9-
,1
March 1999
6riB EQrcher
Leiden University
Ver!acularisms i! Me$ieval hi!ese Te'ts
-1 G 11 G 8
>eishi Jarashima
So,a University
Hua!mi!g 2i!
Tang Studies #otline
,2
Ma& 1999
6. =ruce =rooBs
University of Massachusetts
The *i"e a!$ Me!torshi+ o" o!"ucius
77
,-
/u!e 1999
EHAN< /ua!, et al., a!$ Jevi! >tuart

/inghai+ -nner Mongolia+ Shan1i+ #enan+ Liaoning
=lue loth a!$ Pearl DeerS ?ogur %olBlore
iii, ,9
,7
/a!. 199,
Davi$ Moser
University of Michigan = *ei>ing )oreign Studies University
overt >e'ism i! Ma!$ari! hi!ese
2-
,:
%eb. 199,
Hau! >auss&
Stanford University
The Prestige o" 0riti!g4 0e!2, *etter, Picture, Image, I$eogra+h&
7;

Number ,9 Date %eb. 199, Author Patricia 6iche!baum Jaret3B&
*ard College
Title The 6volutio! o" the >&mbolism o" the Para$ise o" the =u$$ha o" I!"i!ite *i"e a!$ Its 0ester! .rigi!s The .rigi! a!$ Nature o" the HNi!etee! .l$ PoemsI Practical Mo!golia! >e!te!ces (0ith 6!glish Tra!slatio!)
Pages 28
,,
/a!. 1998 %eb. 1998
Da!iel Hsieh
Purdue University
79
,8
Narsu
-nner Mongolia College of !griculture = !nimal #us"andry
iii G 79 G ii G 99
Jevi! >tuart
/inghai 'unior Teachers? College
,9
March 1998 /ul& 1998
De!!is <ra""li!
*ates College
A >outheast Asia! Voice i! the Dao$eDi!g@ A >tu$& o" >aBa Histor&
8;
Taisha! ?u
Chinese !cademy of Social Sciences
ii G 22:
81
>e+t. 1998
Hera >. 0alBer

Ursinus College 6Philadelphia7
I!$ige!ous or %oreig!@4 A *ooB at the .rigi!s o" the Mo!Be& Hero >u! 0uBo!g A %ragme!t o" a +ie!15e!(@) 8elate$ to the &cle H.! =u$$ha#s *i"eI Te!seCAs+ect marBers i! Ma!$ari! a!$ Kia!g $ialects, a!$ their co!tact The Ne5 .l$ Mummies "rom 6aster! e!tral Asia4 A!cestors o" the Tocharia! J!ights De+icte$ o! the =u$$hist 0all+ai!ti!gs o" Jucha a!$ Tur"a!@ >ome ircumsta!tial 6vi$e!ce
iv G 11;
82
>e+t. 1998
I. >. <urevich
@ussian !cademy of Sciences
1:
8-
.ct. 1998
Mi!gla!g Ehou
University of Colorado at *oulder
2;
87
.ct. 1998
Fl" /Tger
:ronauA2estfalen+ :ermany

Number 8: Date .ct. 1998 Author MariBo Namba 0alter
University of New &ngland
Title ToBharia! =u$$hism i! Jucha4 =u$$hism o" I!$o16uro+ea! e!tum >+eaBers i! hi!ese TurBesta! be"ore the 1;th e!tur& .6. >iba4 =ro!3e Age ulture o" the <a!su orri$or
Pages -;
89
.ct. 1998
/i$o!g ?a!g
18
8,
Nov. 1998
Victor H. Mair
a!i!e o!u!$rums4 6urasia! Dog A!cestor M&ths i! Historical a!$ 6th!ic Pers+ective >i$$ham i! hi!a a!$ /a+a!
,7
88
Dec. 1998 /a!. 1999
>aroD Jumar hau$huri

!ichi :a,usen University
9, 127
89
Alvi! *i!
3ale University
0riti!g Tai5a!ese4 The Develo+me!t o" Mo$er! 0ritte! Tai5a!ese 8evie5s VII Ni!clu$i!g revie5 o" The .rigi!al A!alectsO Pho!os&mbolism or 6t&molog&4 The ase o" the Verb H o+I
7 G 71 G7
9;
/a!. 1999 /a!. 1999
Victor H. Mair et al
2, -8
91
Victor H. Mair
28
92
/a!. 1999
hristi!e *ouise *i!

(artmouth College
The Presb&teria! hurch i! Tai5a! a!$ the A$vocac& o" *ocal Auto!om& The Je& to the hro!olog& o" the Three D&!asties4 The HMo$er! Te'tI =amboo A!!als orres+o!$e!ce =et5ee! the hi!ese ale!$ar >ig!s a!$ the Phoe!icia! Al+habet
'iii G 1-9
9-
/a!. 1999
Davi$ >. Niviso!

Stanford University
iv G 98
97
March 1999
/ulie *ee 0ei

#oover -nstitute
9: G 9

Number 9: Date Ma& 1999 Author Victor H. Mair
Title A Me$ieval, e!tral Asia! =u$$hist Theme i! a *ate Mi!g Taoist Tale b& %e!g Me!g1lu!g Ale'a!$ria! Moti"s i! hi!ese Te'ts
Pages 2,
99
/u!e 1999
6. =ruce =rooBs
University of Massachusetts
17
9,
Dec. 1999 /a!. 2;;;
*I >huiche!g
Pe,ing University
>i!o10ester! o!tact i! the >eco!$ Mille!!ium = 8evie5s VIII
iv, 29
98
Peter Da!iels, Da!iel =oucher, a!$ other authors A!tho!& =arbieri1*o5

Princeton University
1;8
99
%eb. 2;;;
0heele$ Vehicles i! the hi!ese =ro!3e Age (c. 2;;;1,71 = )
v, 98 G : color +lates 29
1;;
%eb. 2;;;
0a&!e Alt
Community College of *altimore County 6&sse17
Ehua!g3i, M&sticism, a!$ the 8eDectio! o" Disti!ctio!s
1;1
March 2;;;
. Michele Thom+so!
South Connecticut State University
The ViUt Peo+les a!$ the .rigi!s o" Nom
,1, 1
1;2
March 2;;;
Theresa /e!
*ryn Mawr College
Pe!less hi!ese haracter 8e+ro$uctio!
1:
Pi!g Ku
*aruch College
1;-
/u!e 2;;; /ul& 2;;;
arrie 6. 8ei$
Middle"ury College
6arl& hi!ese Tattoo
:2
1;7
Davi$ 0. Pa!Be!ier
Lehigh University
Po+ular Astrolog& a!$ =or$er A""airs i! 6arl& hi!a
19 G 1 color +late -1
1;:
Aug. 2;;;
A!!e =irrell
Cam"ridge University
Postmo$er!ist Theor& i! 8ece!t >tu$ies o" hi!ese *iterature

Number 1;9 Date >e+t. 2;;; Author ?u Taisha!
Title A H&+othesis about the >ources o" the >ai Tribes
Pages i, -, 2;;
1;,
>e+t. 2;;;
/acLues $e*isle, A$elhei$ 6. Jroh!e, a!$ the e$itor 8uth H. ha!g

8evie5s IK
178 G ma+
1;8
>e+t. 2;;;
F!$ersta!$i!g (i a!$ Tian4 Deit& a!$ Heave! %rom >ha!g to Ta!g
vii, :7
1;9
.ct. 2;;; .ct. 2;;; Nov. 2;;;
o!A! Dea! are&

Stanford University
I! Hell the .!e 5ithout >i! is *or$
ii, 9;
11;
Toh Hoo!g TeiB

#arvard University
>ha&Bh VAlam4 The 6m+eror o" 6arl& >i'tee!th1 e!tur& hi!a The Nee$ "or a Ne5 6ra
2;
111
Victor H. Mair
1;
112
/ul& 2;;1
Victor H. Mair
Notes o! the A!au I!scri+tio!
'i, 9-
11-
Aug. 2;;1
8a& olli!s
Chepachet+ @-
Davi$ Jerr
Mel"ourne+ )L
6t&molog& o" the 0or$ HMacrobiotic4sI a!$ Its Fse i! Mo$er! hi!ese >cholarshi+
18
117
March 2;;2
8am!ath >ubbarama!
University of Chicago
=e&o!$ the 2uestio! o" the Mo!Be& Im+oster4 I!$ia! I!"lue!ce o! the hi!ese Novel, The 'ourney to the 2est orres+o!$e!ces o" =asic 0or$s =et5ee! .l$ hi!ese a!$ Proto1 I!$o16uro+ea!
-:
11:
A+ril 2;;2
EH.F /i'u
Sichuan Normal University

Number 119 Date Ma& 2;;2 Author *IF ?o!gLua!
-nstitute of Linguistics+ Chinese !cademy of Social Sciences
Title .! the Problem o" hi!ese *ettere$ 0or$s
Pages 1-
11,
Ma& 2;;2
>HAN< 0ei
Colum"ia University
*aihua+ :uanhua+ )angyan a!$ the Ma& %ourth 8ea$i!g o" @ulin 2aishi 6vi$e!ce "or the I!$o16uro+ea! .rigi! o" T5o A!cie!t hi!ese Deities
1;
118
/u!e 2;;2
/usti!e T. >!o5
Port Townsend+ 2!
ii, ,:, 1 color, 1 b15 +ri!t 21, : "igs.
119
/ul& 2;;2
0F Ehe!
8in>iang Museum+ BrCmchi
HHuI No!1 hi!ese as The& A++ear i! the Materials "rom the Asta!a <rave&ar$ at Tur"a! %emale1<e!$ere$ M&th i! the Classic of Mountains and Seas
12;
/ul& 2;;2
A!!e =irrell
University of Cam"ridge+ Clare #all
7,
121
/ul& 2;;2 /ul& 2;;2
MarB 6$5ar$ *e5is

Stanford University
Dici!g a!$ Divi!atio! i! 6arl& hi!a The Magical $unlun a!$ HDevil >lavesI4 hi!ese Perce+tio!s o" DarB1sBi!!e$ Peo+le a!$ A"rica be"ore 1:;; 8evie5s K
22, , "igs. :1, "igs.
122
/ulie 0ile!sB&
3ale Univesity
12-
Aug. 2;;2 August 2;;2
Paul 8. <ol$i! a!$ the e$itor %re$riB T. Hiebert

-;
127
The o!te't o" the A!au >eal 8emarBs o! the A!au a!$ Ni&T >eals
11-7 -:17,
/oh! olarusso
McMaster University

Number 12: Date /ul& 2;;Author EH.F /i'u
Sichuan Normal University Shanghai Normal University
Title orres+o!$e!ces o" ultural 0or$s bet5ee! .l$ hi!ese a!$ Proto1 I!$o16uro+ea!
Pages 19
129
Aug. 2;;.ct. 2;;-
Tim Miller
University of 2ashington
A >outher! Mi! 0or$ i! the Tsut?ang chi The <etes
17
12,
>u!$ee+ >. /hutti

Petaluma+ California
12:, 8 color +lates 18
128
Nov. 2;;Dec. 2;;-
?i!+o Tscha!g
New 3or, City
.! Proto1>ha!g
129
Michael 0it3el
#arvard University
*i!guistic 6vi$e!ce "or ultural 6'cha!ge i! Prehistoric 0ester! e!tral Asia Ma&a!4 A >i!o1Tibeta! *a!guage@ A om+arative >tu$&
,;
1-;
%eb. 2;;7
=e$e %ahe&
)ort St. 'ohn+ *ritish Colum"ia
91
1-1
March 2;;7
Taisha! ?u
A Histor& o" the 8elatio!shi+ bet5ee! the 0ester! a!$ 6aster! Ha!, 0ei, /i!, Norther! a!$ >outher! D&!asties a!$ the 0ester! 8egio!s .! the Prese!ce o" No!1 hi!ese at A!&a!g Scientific &vidence for PreColum"ian Transoceanic <oyages D18.M
1, -, -:2
1-2
A+ril 2;;7 A+ril 2;;7
Jim Ha&es
Sydney
11
1--
/oh! *. >ore!so!
*righam 3oung University
arl *. /oha!!esse!
University of 4regon
78, 199, 19, 1: +lates i, 22
1-7
Ma& 2;;7
Kie&a! Hi!cha
NeumDdewit + :ermany
T5o >te+s To5ar$ Digra+hia i! hi!a

Number 1-: Date Ma& 2;;7 Ma& 2;;7 Author /oh! /. 6merso!
Portland+ 4regon
Title The Secret #istory of the Mongols a!$ 0ester! *iterature I!"lue!ces toBharie!!es sur la m&thologie chi!oise
Pages 21
1-9
>erge Pa+illo!
Mouvau1+ )rance and Ulaan"aatar+ Mongolia
7,
1-,
/u!e 2;;7
Hoo!g TeiB Toh

#arvard University
>ome lassical Mala& Materials "or the >tu$& o" the hi!ese Novel 'ourney to the 2est Dogs a!$ ats4 *esso!s "rom *ear!i!g hi!ese A H&+othesis o! the .rigi! o" the ?u >tate
97
1-8
/u!e 2;;7 /u!e 2;;7
/ulie *ee 0ei

San 'ose and London
1,
1-9
Taisha! ?u
2;
17;
/u!e 2;;7 /ul& 2;;7 /ul& 2;;7 /ul& 2;;7
?i!+o Tscha!g
New 3or, City
>hih a!$ Eo!g4 >ocial .rga!i3atio! i! =ro!3e Age hi!a haos i! Heave!4 .! the ale!$ars o" Preclassical hi!a Sil, @oad &1change in China
28
171
?i!+o Tscha!g
New 3or, City
-;
172
Jather&! *i!$u"", e$.

University of Pitts"urgh
97
17-
Victor H. Mair
>lee+ i! (ream4 >o+ori"ic 8es+o!ses to De+ressio! i! Story of the Stone *a!$ 8oute or >ea 8oute@ omme!tar& o! the >tu$& o" the Paths o" Tra!smissio! a!$ Areas i! 5hich =u$$hism 0as Dissemi!ate$ $uri!g the Ha! Perio$ 8evie5s KI
99
177
/ul& 2;;7
8.N< Ki!Dia!g
Pe,ing University
-2
17:
Aug. 2;;7
the e$itor
2, 71

Number 179 Date %eb. 2;;: March 2;;: Author Hoo!g TeiB Toh
!cademia Sinica
Title The -yu 6!$i!g i! Kio!g!u, Kia!bei, a!$ <aoDu .!omastica h. /iong W Tib. Jh&u!gS Taoism W =o!+o 11 >ome 2uestio!s 8elate$ to 6arl& 6th!o18eligious Histor& i! >ichua! *e grXco1bou$$hisme et l#art $u +oi!g e! hi!e A >acre$ Tri!it&4 <o$, Mou!tai!, a!$ =ir$4 ultic Practices o" the =ro!3e Age he!g$u Plai! F&ghurs a!$ F&ghur I$e!tit&
Pages 27
17,
Hoo!g TeiB Toh

!cademia Sinica
18
178
A+ril 2;;: Ma& 2;;:
*ucas hristo+oulos
*ei>ing Sports University
:2
179
Jimberl& >. Te 0i!Ble

University College+ London
ii, 1;(71 i! color) 77
1:;
Ma& 2;;: /u!e 2;;:
DolBu! Jamberi
2ashington+ (C
1:1
/a!e /ia >I

The <e!ealog& o" Dictio!aries4 Pro$ucers, *iterar& Au$ie!ce, a!$ the irculatio! o" 6!glish Te'ts i! the Treat& Port o" >ha!ghai The Da!ce o" 2ia! a!$ Ju! i! the 5houyi The M&sterious .rigi!s o" the 0or$ HMarihua!aI Mythologie sino-europEenne
77, 7 tables
1:2
/u!e 2;;: /ul& 2;;: /ul& 2;;: /ul& 2;;: /ul& 2;;:
De!is Mair
Seattle
1-, 2 "igs. 1,
1:-
Ala! Pi+er
London 6U$7
1:7
>erge Pa+illo!
*elfort+ )rance
1,7, 1 +late 8
1::
De!is Mair
Seattle
/a!us1*iBe o!ce+ts i! the Li a!$ $un Trigrams Manichean :nosis and Creation
1:9
AbolLasem 6smail+our
Shahid *eheshti University+ Tehran
1:,
1:,
Aug. 2;;:
8al+h D. >a5&er
-ndependent Scholar
Para$o'ical oe'iste!ce o" Prog!osticatio! a!$ 0ar"are
1-

Number 1:8 Date Aug. 2;;: Aug. 2;;: Author MarB 6$5ar$ *e5is
Stanford University
Title 0riti!gs o! 0ar"are %ou!$ i! A!cie!t hi!ese Tombs The 5uo huan Accou!t o" the Death o" Ji!g Ehao o" hu a!$ Its >ources *iterar& 6vi$e!ce "or the I$e!ti"icatio! o" >ome ommo! >ce!es i! Ha! %u!erar& Art The Names o" the 3i 'ing Trigrams4 A! I!Luir& i!to Their *i!guistic .rigi!s ou!ti!g a!$ J!otti!g4 orres+o!$e!ces bet5ee! .l$ hi!ese a!$ I!$o16uro+ea! Hua!g$i a!$ Hu!tu! (the ?ello5 6m+eror a!$ 0o!to!)4 A Ne5 H&+othesis o! >ome %igures i! hi!ese M&tholog& >ha!g a!$ Ehou4 A! I!Luir& i!to the *i!guistic .rigi!s o" T5o D&!astic Names DA. a!$ D64 A! I!Luir& i!to the *i!guistic .rigi!s o" >ome Terms i! hi!ese Philoso+h& a!$ Moralit& 8evie5s KII
Pages 1:
1:9
/e!s Rstergaar$ Peterse!

University of Copenhagen
7,
19;
>e+t. 2;;:
Matteo om+areti
<enice
17
191
>e+t. 2;;:
/ulie *ee 0ei

London
18
192
>e+t. 2;;:
/ulie *ee 0ei

London
,1, ma+
19-
.ct. 2;;:
/ulie *ee 0ei

London
77
197
.ct. 2;;:
/ulie *ee 0ei

London
92
19:
.ct. 2;;:
/ulie *ee 0ei

London
:1
199
Nov. 2;;:
/ulie *ee 0ei

London
i, 9-
Ho$o!g Jim
Seoul National University
a!$ Davi$ >elvia a!$ the 6$itor

"oth of the University of Pennsylvania

Number 19, Date Dec. 2;;: Author EH.F /i'u
Sichuan Normal University
Title .l$ hi!ese VMteesV a!$ Proto1 I!$o16uro+ea! HM$eusI4 >imilarit& i! 8eligious I$eas a!$ a ommo! >ource i! *i!guistics As+ects o" Assimilatio!4 the %u!erar& Practices a!$ %ur!ishi!gs o" e!tral Asia!s i! hi!a o!versio! Tables "or the Three1 Volume 6$itio! o" the #anyu (a Cidian *ear!i!g 6!glish, *osi!g %ace, a!$ TaBi!g .ver4 The Metho$ (or Ma$!ess) o" *i ?a!g a!$ His ra3& 6!glish
Pages 1,
198
Dec. 2;;:
/u$ith A. *er!er
New 3or, City
:1, v, 9 +lates
199
/a!. 2;;9
Victor H. Mair
i, 287
1,;
%eb. 2;;9
Amber 8. 0oo$5ar$
18
=egi!!i!g 5ith issue !o. 1,1, Sino-Platonic Papers 5ill be +ublishe$ electro!icall& o! the 0eb. Issues "rom !o. 1 to !o. 1,;, ho5ever, 5ill co!ti!ue to be sol$ as +a+er co+ies u!til our stocB ru!s out, a"ter 5hich the& too 5ill be ma$e available o! the 0eb. %or +rices o" +a+er co+ies, see the catalog at 555.si!o1+lato!ic.org
1,1
/u!e 2;;9 Aug. 2;;9 .ct. 2;;9
/oh! De%ra!cis
The Pros+ects "or hi!ese 0riti!g 8e"orm The .utlooB "or Tai5a!ese *a!guage Preservatio! A >tu$& o" the Histor& o" the 8elatio!shi+ =et5ee! the 0ester! a!$ 6aster! Ha!, 0ei, /i!, Norther! a!$ >outher! D&!asties a!$ the 0ester! 8egio!s >og$ia!s a!$ =u$$hism
29, "igs. 18
1,2
Deborah =easer
1,-
Taisha! ?u
19,
1,7
Nov. 2;;9
MariBo Namba 0alter
9:

Number 1,: Date Dec. 2;;9 Author Ehou /i'u
Center for &ast !sian Studies+ University of Pennsylvania9 Chinese (epartment+ Sichuan Normal University
Title The 8ise o" Agricultural ivili3atio! i! hi!a4 The Dis+arit& bet5ee! Archeological Discover& a!$ the Docume!tar& 8ecor$ a!$ Its 6'+la!atio!
Pages -8
1,9
Ma& 2;;,
6ric He!r&
University of North Carolina
The >ubmerge$ Histor& o" ?uY
-9
1,,
Aug. 2;;,
=everle& Davis
Timeli!e o" the Develo+me!t o" the Horse
189

Paul Rakita Goldin - Miching Mallecho. The Zhanguo Ce and Classical Rhetoric

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SINO-PLATONIC PAPERS

Number 41 October, 1993

Miching Mallecho: The Zhanguo ce and Classical Rhetoric

by Paul Rakita Goldin

SINO-PLATONIC PAPERS is an occasional series edited by Victor H. Mair.

Sina-Platonic Papers, No. 41 (October, 1993)

niching Hallecho: The Z ' o o e and C l a s s i c a l Rhetoric

A consensus regarding the proper c l a s s i f i c a t i o n of t h e Z h a o c &

Henri Maspero has demonstrated t h a t much of t h e material in t h e

Intrigues is f i c t i o n a l . 3 and h i s t o r i a n s have s i n c e rejected them as a primary

B.C.) used f o r h i s S h w (Recorn's o f the Historian)+

Timoteus Pokora, have found t h a t "much information given en passant in w h a t

corroborated from other s o u r c e s . " ~ S t i l l , it is generally agreed t h a t the

Intrigues are very u n r e l i a b l e as a h i s t o r i c a l text, and probably were never

Others see the Intr-es

as a handbook on persuasive speaking,

with numerous debates and speeches t h a t serve as examples of superior rhet0ric.e

Yet there does not seem t o be a conscious attempt t o divide t h e

various items by s t y l e o r theme.

provenance, and at t h a t q u i t e loosely.

senses t h a t he has been made privy t o several gems of rhetorical s t r a t e g y t o

of a unified theory of rhetoric t h a t would help him modify h i s speech t o s u i t

discussions and examples are arranged by topic i n t o d i f f e r e n t sections.

The most prominent Western scholar in t h e study of t h e Intrmes is

Sine-Platonic Papers, No 41 (October, 1993)

I n t r m e s is encapsulated in t h e following paragraph:

of the Warring States?

David Hawkes, f o r example, agrees wholeheartedly in

States T k m s . " e More recently, Jean-Paul Reding has c a l l e d t h e i n t r a e s

daute."lo Jaroslav PrUgek's is t h e most s i g n i f i c a n t d i s s e n t i n g voice; he

Yet n e i t h e r Crump's supporters

nor h i s critics have studied t h e t r a d i t i o n of the Roman suasoria and compared

8. Journal of the American Oriental Society 8 6 . 1 ( 1966), 63.

Rrchiv Orientdlnf 34.4 (1966),

This w i l l involve a comparison of several aspects of Chinese and

What are suasoriae, and why are they

Are t h e I n t r w e s rhetoric a t all?

t o write h i s or her own version of George Washington's address a t Valley

Forge, t h i s assignment would be similar in spirit t o t h e suasoriae of ancient

Suasoriae are a l s o considered a sub-class of prosopopoeiae, speeches

The most extensive anthology extant is

comprised of the exercises of t h e students of Seneca t h e Elder (Lucius Annaeus

Others a r e given by Philostratus t h e Athenian (ca.

170-245) in h i s Lives of the S w h i s t s , and in the t h i r d p a r t of the

aforementioned ad Hermiurn. Quintilian (Marcus Fabius Quintilianus, d . ca.

A.D. 100) discusses them at length in h i s I n s t i t u t i o Oratoria. Furthermore,

Sino-Platonic Papers, No. 41 (October, 19931

Certainly the Intrigues may be f a i r l y categorized as prosopopoeiae.

contain too many internal contradictions, both f a c t u a l and chronological, t o

It is more l i k e l y that a l l t h e words spoken by t h e kings,

may have said in certain h i s t o r i c a l situations.

For example, t h e well-known

attack (3.13a-14b; 3.181-90; 57)l*--a meaningful h i s t o r i c a l debate, in Han

This is why historians can

The text was not intended as a

a genre t h a t is a peculiar outcropping of c l a s s i c a l Roman culture.

ahead in Rome meant t o speak well--and t h a t required complete mastery of t h e

coxrplex r h e t o r i c a l conventims of t h e day.

Roman s c h ~ o l n r s s t e r s were aware

t h a t t h e stylized--"fulsome, " t o use Crump's wordls--use

characterized t h e successful o r a t o r was an art acquired only through intensive practice.

The suasoriae, which offered an almost i n f i n i t e s e l e c t i o n of

exciting h i s t o r i c a l s i t u a t i o n s t o recreate, were t h e s o l u t i o n t o t h e