EC1352 Antenna Wave Propagation /J.

Alexander/ AP/ECE / AAMEC

Antenna An antenna may be defined as a conductor or group of conductors used either for radiating electromagnetic energy into space or for collecting it from space. Electrical energy from the transmitter is converted into electromagnetic energy by the antenna and radiated into space. On the receiving end, electromagnetic energy is converted into electrical energy by the antenna and fed into the receiver. The electromagnetic radiation from an antenna is made up of two components, the E field and the H field. The total energy in the radiated wave remains constant in space except for some absorption of energy by the earth. However, as the wave advances, the energy spreads out over a greater area. This causes the amount of energy in a given area to decrease as distance from the source increases. In other words the antenna is the transitional structure between free-space and a guiding device. The guiding device or transmission line may take the form of a coaxial line or a hollow pipe (waveguide), and it is used to transport electromagnetic energy from the transmitting source to the antenna, or from the antenna to the receiver.

The IEEE Standard Definitions of Terms for Antennas (IEEE Std 1451983) defines the antenna or aerial as a usually metallic device (as a rod or wire) means for radiating or receiving radio waves.

EC1352 Antenna Wave Propagation /J. Alexander/ AP/ECE / AAMEC

Radiation intensity Radiation intensity is defined as the power radiated from an antenna per unit solid angle. The radiation intensity is a far-field parameter. It can be obtained by simply multiplying the radiation density by the square of the distance. In mathematical form it is expressed as U = r2. Wrad o Where U = radiation intensity (W/unit solid angle) Wrad = radiation density (W/m2) Directivity The directivity of an antenna defined as the ratio of the radiation intensity in a given direction from the antenna to the radiation intensity averaged over all directions. The average radiation intensity is equal to the total power radiated by the antenna divided by 4. If the direction is not specified, the direction of maximum radiation intensity is implied. The directivity of a nonisotropic source is equal to the ratio of its radiation intensity in a given direction over that of an isotropic source. In mathematical form,

Directive Gain:

Directive Gain Gd = Power Gain or Gain =

Total Input Power ( Directivity Vs Gain.

= Radiated Power + Power loss in ohmic resistance

If an antenna has no ohmic loss or dielectric mismatch loss, i.e., 100% efficient, then directivity and Gain are the same. 2

EC1352 Antenna Wave Propagation /J. Alexander/ AP/ECE / AAMEC

G = k .D K= Efficiency factor =1 for 100% efficiency < 1 if losses are present. D = Directivity G = Gain Antenna Efficiency: Antenna Efficiency () = = If the current flowing in the antenna is I , then % = =

100

Beam width The beamwidth of a pattern is defined as the angular separation between two identical points on the opposite side of the pattern maximum. In an antenna pattern, there are a number of beamwidths. One of the most widely used beamwidths is the Half-PowerBeamwidth (HPBW ).

HPBW is defined as: In a plane containing the direction of the maximum of a beam, the angle between the two directions in which the radiation intensity is one-half value of the beam.
3

EC1352 Antenna Wave Propagation /J. Alexander/ AP/ECE / AAMEC

Another important beamwidth is the angular separation between the first nulls of the pattern, and it is referred to as the First-Null Beamwidth (FNBW ). Bandwidth The bandwidth of an antenna is defined as o The range of frequencies within which the performance of the antenna, with respect to some characteristic, conforms to a specified standard. The bandwidth can be considered to be the range of frequencies, on either side of a center frequency (usually the resonance frequency for a dipole), where the antenna characteristics (such as input impedance, pattern, beamwidth, polarization, side lobe level, gain, beam direction, radiation efficiency) are within an acceptable value of those at the center frequency. Reciprocity principle In any network composed of linear, bilateral, lumped elements, if one places a constant current (voltage) source between two nodes (in any branch) and places a voltage (current) meter between any other two nodes (in any other branch), makes observation of the meter reading, then interchanges the locations of the source and the meter, the meter reading will be unchanged RECIPROCITY is the ability to use the same antenna for both transmitting and receiving. The electrical characteristics of an antenna apply equally, regardless of whether it has been used for transmitting or receiving. The more efficient an antenna is for transmitting a certain frequency, the more efficient it will be as a receiving antenna for the same frequency. Reciprocity for antenna patterns is generally provided the materials used for the antennas and feeds, and the media of wave propagation are linear. Nonlinear devices, such as diodes, can make the antenna system nonreciprocal.
Radian and Steradian Radian. The measure of a plane angle is a radian. One radian is defined as the plane angle with its vertex at the center of a circle of radius r that is subtended by an arc whose length is r. A graphical illustration is shown in Figure (a). Since the circumference of a circle of radius r is C = 2r, There is 2 rad (2r/r) in a full circle. Steradian The measure of a solid angle is a steradian.

EC1352 Antenna Wave Propagation /J. Alexander/ AP/ECE / AAMEC

One steradian is defined as the solid angle with its vertex at the center of a sphere of radius r that is subtended by a spherical surface area equal to that of a square with each side of length r. A graphical illustration is shown in Figure (b). Since the area of a sphere of radius r is A = 4r2, There is 4 Sr (4r2/r2) in a closed sphere.

Solid Angle Of A Sphere (d)

Cartesian (x,y,z) Differential length Differential Area dx , dy , dz

Cylindrical (r, , z) dr, r.d , dz r. dr.d r.d.dz dr dz

Spherical (r, , ) dr, r.d, r sin d r.dr.d r sin d dr r2 sin d d 5

dx.dy = dy.dz = dz.dx

EC1352 Antenna Wave Propagation /J. Alexander/ AP/ECE / AAMEC

The infinitesimal area dA on the surface of a sphere of radius r, shown in Figure 2.1, is given by dA = r2 sin d d Therefore, the element of solid angle d of a sphere can be written as d = dA/ r2 = sin d d (sr)

Effective Area (or) Effective Aperture (or) Capture Area Effective Area = =

Consider a receiving antenna situated in the field of a passing electromagnetic wave. The antenna collects power from the wave and deliver it to the terminating or Load impedance ZT connected in series. The antenna may be replaced by a thevenins equivalent Circuit ( series combination of V and RA) The voltage V is induced by the passing wave and produces a current I through the terminating impedance ZT. (1) Terminating and antenna impedances are complex. Thus, ZT = RT +j XT ; ZA = RA +j XA .(2)

Antenna Resistance may be divided into two parts (i) Radiation Resistance (ii) Loss Resistance RA = Rrad + Rloss From (1) & (2)

Since, Power (W) = I2RT ; 6

EC1352 Antenna Wave Propagation /J. Alexander/ AP/ECE / AAMEC

Power = Power density x Area ; W = S . A

Let us consider now the situation where the terminating impedance is the complex conjugate of the antenna impedance, so that maximum power is transferred. XT = XA ; RT = Rrad + Rloss

The above said condition yields the effective aperture (Aeff) of the Antenna. Thus,

Aeff =

Effective Length (Effective Height)

Effective length is defined as the ratio of the magnitude of the open-circuit voltage developed at the terminals of the antenna to the magnitude of the electric-field strength in the direction of the antenna polarization. The effective length represents the antenna in its transmitting and receiving modes, and it is particularly useful in relating the open-circuit voltage Voc of receiving antennas. This relation can be expressed as

Voc = Ei . le
where

Voc = open-circuit voltage at antenna terminals (volts) Ei = incident electric field (Volts / meter) le = vector effective length (meter) le =

Where, le = Effective Length (metre) lp = Physical length (metre) Iav = Average Current (Ampere) Io = Instantaneous Current (Ampere)

Relation between Effective length and effective area For an antenna of radiation resistance Rrad matched to its load, the power delivered to the load is equal to

.. (1) 7

EC1352 Antenna Wave Propagation /J. Alexander/ AP/ECE / AAMEC

Power (W)

= Poynting vector x Effective Aperture = S x Aeff = (2)

Where, Z0 = intrinsic impedance of space (= 377 ) Equate (1) and (2)

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Thus, effective length and effective aperture are related via radiation resistance and the intrinsic impedance of space. Radiation Resistance: The antenna is a radiating device, in which the power (i.e., energy per unit time) is radiated into space in the form of electromagnetic waves. Hence there must be power dissipation which may be expressed in the usual manner as, W = I2R If it is assumed that all this power appears as electromagnetic waves, then the power can be divided by the square of the current. I.e., at the point where it is fed to the antenna and obtain a fictitious resistance called as radiation resistance.

The radiation resistance (Rrad) is thus defined as that fictitious resistance which, when substituted in series with the antenna, will consume the same power as it actually radiated. Relation between gain, effective length and radiation resistance.