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Journal of Muslim Minority Affairs

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Islamic Revivalism: The Case of the Tablighi Jamaat

Jan Ali Version of record first published: 04 Aug 2010.

To cite this article: Jan Ali (2003): Islamic Revivalism: The Case of the Tablighi Jamaat, Journal of Muslim Minority Affairs, 23:1, 173-181 To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/13602000305935

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Journal of Muslim Minority Affairs, Vol. 23, No. 1, April 2003

Islamic Revivalism: The Case of the Tablighi Jamaat

JAN ALI

Introduction

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Islamic revivalism is a social phenomenon in Muslim societies and has been its permanent feature. Historically, like hurricanes, which come and go unannounced, the Islamic revival movements have appeared and disappeared from human consciousness for decades, if not for centuries now. In the contemporary period, one particular Islamic revival movement, the Tablighi Jamaat, has entered into our consciousness and is gradually gaining prominence as a new force for Muslim reformation and spiritual elevation. The Tablighi Jamaat is only the latest in a string of Islamic political and revival movements going back to the eighteenth century. This paper essentially attempts to examine the Tablighi Jamaat in the context of Islamic revivalism and seeks to understand the break from worldliness to piety and spirituality as a means for salvation and success in both the worldshere and Hereafter. Importantly, it tries to shed light on how, through tabligh (preaching) work, new relationships and moral bonds are forged between tablighis (preachers) in an attempt to achieve new Muslim identity and solidarity. In order to better understand Islamic revival movements, in particular the Tablighi Jamaat, it is critical to rst explore the fundamental structures of Muslim societies prior to the modern period and identify the ways in which Muslims themselves have articulated the continuous political and cultural struggles in their own societies. This historical background is important because it takes us back to the fundamental structures of the pristine Muslim societies and shows that they continue to be essential for comprehending contemporary events in the modern world. The Historical Context Historically, Muslim communities have taken the shape of small collectivities that organised and identied themselves in terms of tribe, lineage, and ethnicity.1 Despite the rise in Muslim population around the world today, Muslims constantly face economic and political problems and remain divided. These are due to a plethora of contradictory Muslim doctrines, misinterpretation and misrepresentation of the Shariah (Islamic law), lacking in the steadfastness to Islamic precepts, preferential Islamic ritual practices, Muslim cultural interpolation, and the conspicuous absence of a strong and pious leadership because a leadership that has rebelled against God and His guidance and is responsible for the suffering of mankind has to be replaced by a leadership that is God-conscious, righteous, and committed to following Divine guidance.2 Moreover, the situation is further exacerbated by unscrupulous and reckless proselytisation of non-Muslims who upon conversion continue to hold on to nonIslamic values and the general incorporation of non-Islamic ideologies and practices
ISSN 1360-2004 print/ISSN 1469-9591 online/03/010173-09 2003 Institute of Muslim Minority Affairs DOI: 10.1080/1360200032000073085

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into Muslim life-cycle rituals. As Lapidus suggests, every Muslim community has been built upon a population of diverse peoples who have preserved their own kinship systems, territorial divisions, linguistic and ethnic groupings, and other non-Islamic cultural features.3 Similarly, Voll asserts that in the central parts of the Islamic world, the Middle Eastern countries, society has often been described as a mosaic of peoples and cultures, with the smaller units maintaining special identities while being integrated into a larger social framework.4 Consequently all Muslims identied mainly with a particular clique or community and perceived themselves as Sunnis, Shiites, or Kharijis.5 These distinctions can be traced back to seventh century political conict over leadership of Muslim caliphate (state) after the death of Prophet Muhammad. The Sunnisthe majority Muslims claim that Abu Bakr was the rightful rst caliph. In contrast, the Shiites maintain that the forth caliphAliwas the rightful successor to the Prophet Muhammad. The Kharijis, however, basically oppose dynastic succession and prefer liberal democratic election to the caliphate. Each of these sects is divided into schools as well as devotees of particular mentors or teachers. For example, Sunni Muslims are divided into four schools of thought under separate imams (leaders): Hana, Sha, Maliki, and Hanbali. Despite being afliated with a particular school of thought or being devotees of a particular religious mentor, Muslims were also active Sus. Susm is Muslim mysticism. It is beyond the scope of this paper to delve into a discussion of Susm but sufce to say that it takes a variety of forms. It emphasises a religious and ethical discipline built around the teachings of the Quran and the Hadith (the sayings of Prophet Muhammad) and full of consistent spiritual practices. The underlying common factor in all forms of Susm is the existence of religious insight, discipline, and a reputation for sanctity. Importantly, the cultural diversity and sectarian politics continued to exist and by the end of the seventeenth century, different forms of state, ulamah (scholars), and Susm plus the emergence of numerous communal groups constituted the fabric of Muslim societies. Hence, what emerged were numerous communities representing distinct political and social milieus, and importantly different Islamic values. This gave rise to religious or political rivalry with each other. By the beginning of eighteenth century, this rivalry intensied contributing to the weakening of major Muslim empires such as the Ottoman, the Safavid, and the Mughal. Consequently, the expansion of European colonial powers during eighteenth and nineteenth centuries broke down the established balance of political and religious forces in Muslim societies. Thus, in the course of the late eighteenth, nineteenth, and early twentieth centuries, the Dutch seized control of Java, the British established their paramountcy in India, and the French colonised North and West Africa. Russia occupied much of Central Asia between 1864 and 1885.6 By overpowering and subsequently destroying Muslim empires, the European intervention paved the way for increased internal conict in Muslim societies regarding hegemony, authority, and cultural and religious objectives. This conict remains problematic to present day. The breakup of the global system of Muslim empires was unprecedented and the initial Muslim response to it was manifested in the emergence of reformist, revivalist, and scripturalist movements. Common to all these movements was the underlying objective to revive pristine Islam and imitate ways of Prophet Muhammad as an ideal to be adapted in their daily lives. Most importantly, the strongest blow to Muslim homogeneity and to its cultural

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foundation came from the politicisation of Muslim life. Instead of attributing sovereignty to Allah, Muslims with weak faith and vested interests annexed sovereignty with human beings and social institutions. On the issue of sovereignty, Allah is not merely the Creator and Master of the universe and everything in it, but the Government and Rule also belong to Him. As Siddiqi points out: hence it is not in our power to determine the purpose of our life or use our energies or delimit our authority, nor has anyone else any say in the matter. It is only in the power of God who created in us such powers and authority. The principle of the Unity of God utterly negates the concept of human sovereignty which is the actual source of strife, whether this sovereignty be deemed to vest in one man, a family, a class, a clique or a whole nation.7

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The Tablighi Jamaat From this background emerged the Tablighi Jamaat. The Tablighi Jamaat is a relatively recent Muslim phenomenon originally conceived by Maulana Muhammad Ilyas (a Deoband educated Muslim scholar) in 1927 in Mewat, south of Delhi in India. It is an apolitical religious movement that places particular emphasis on personal renewal and spiritual elevation. The purpose of Tablighi Jamaat essentially is to literally visit Muslims in their separate localities and invite them toward practical Islam. Its function is to encourage the Muslim masses in reverting to the ways of Prophet Muhammad as an ideal life-form. The aim is to remove the stains of materialism from the hearts and minds of Muslims and inculcate in them a high moral order and guide them toward righteousness and Islamic spirituality. Today, primarily based on the missionary-preaching method, the Tablighi Jamaat has established itself in numerous countries outside its Indian homeland. Its networks reach throughout the globe from North America to Great Britain, from continental Europe to Africa, from Asia to the Middle East, and from South East Asia to Pacic Islands. Whilst the Tablighi Jamaat enjoys an international repute, it has not attracted much scholarly interest either in its birthplace in India or outside. The Western intellectuals and Muslim scholars both seem to perceive Tablighi Jamaat as an Islamic spiritualist movement teaching the basics of Islamic faith and encouraging Islamic practices. In other words, a grassroot spiritualist movement. No attempt has been made so far to understand the dynamics of its ideology, methods, and impact either in its own terms or with reference to the work of other Islamic movements operating in the same sociopolitical space (p. 510).8 However, it should become apparent that the Tablighi Jamaat is an important twenty-rst century Islamic revivalist movement and, therefore, a more concrete understanding about it is warranted. The basic idea behind tabligh or dawah (preaching) work is that every Muslim by the virtue of his or her adherence to Islam could educate fellow Muslims the fundamentals of faith and basic Islamic observances. This type of educational process is considered by the Tablighi Jamaat particularly potent not only in disseminating Islamic knowledge and encouraging religious practices in fellow Muslims but helping the educators themselves gain deeper insight and understanding of Islam and thus perfecting their own practices. As the Quran says, And remind (by preaching the Quran, O Muhammad) for verily, the reminding prots the believers.9 Thus, by inviting fellow Muslims toward Allah and righteousness, a Muslim is able to convey the prophetic message to the ummah (community) without having to go through any formal educational pro-

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cesses to gain teaching or preaching qualications. In other words, one does not need to be an alim (scholar) to participate in the dawah work. In this sense the spreading of Islam is not a preferential activity or a realm exclusive to the ulamah, but is an obligation of every Muslim. The membership to Tablighi Jamaat is on voluntary basis and those who join the work cover for their own expenses. The participants are from varying socio-economic backgrounds, including students and unemployed individuals to busy professionals and practitioners. Tabligh includes many levels of participation, from those who have virtually no other activity [but that of the Jamaat], to people engaged in paid employment who yet manage to meet the movements standards for participation in gatherings and travel, to those who join on occasional mission, to those who may occasionally or regularly pray where Tablighis congregate and listen to their discussions. (p. 111)10 The Muslims who join the Tablighi Jamaat may start with a short period of commitment but may gradually build on their experiences and become fully committed. Membership to the Tablighi Jamaat is free and involves the men leaving their families in small groups, for differing periods of time, to educate fellow Muslims the proper Islamic way of life and encourage them to join in the course of dawah or tabligh. Women are also involved in tabligh work and operate under the same guiding principles. Six Principles of the Tablighi Jamaat In order to guide his work and give it a systematic treatment, Maulana Muhammad Ilyas developed six basic principles. First is the kalimah or article of faith which is an assertion that there is no deity but Allah and that the Prophet Muhammad is His messenger. This article of faith has two aspects. First is the acceptance of the existence of Allah and His greatness and oneness. Second is to testify to the Prophethood of Muhammad and obedience to Him. The second is the ve daily salaat (ritual prayer). These are most crucial to a practical life, spiritual elevation, piety in actions, and an act of salvation from miseries of this material world and Jahannam (hell) of Hereafter. Then is Ilm and Dhikr (knowledge and remembrance of Allah). A short time in the morning after the salaat and a little time in the evening after the dusk salaat are to be spent for these purposes. In these sessions, apart from listening to the preaching by the amir (leader), the congregation perform na (supererogatory) prayers, recite the Quran, and read Hadith. They also have their breakfast and dinner together and throughout this session, one can see Islamic brotherhood, solidarity, and humility expressed openly among the congregation. All of this seems to encourage most regular attendees to remain in the movement.11 Fourth is Ikram-i-Muslim (respect for Muslim). The honour and deference need to be demonstrated toward fellow Muslims. In the case of young Muslims they should be treated with kindness and affection by the elder Muslims and, in respect to elder Muslims, they should be shown reverence and deference by the young Muslims. Next is Ikhlas-i-Niyat (emendation of intention and sincerity). A Muslim must perform every single human action for the sake of Allah and for self-reformation. This is linked with the purpose of life as permanent servitude to Allah.

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Islamic Revivalism Sixth is Tafrigh-i-Waqt (to spare time). According to Haq: to a Muslim faith and life based on faith means holding rmly to kalimah and prayer, regularly observing dhikr, learning its virtues or excellences, fullling duties and obligations, respecting the rights of fellow Muslims, seeking the pleasure of God, following in the footsteps of the Prophet and going from door to door, city to city and country to country for the sake of faith. This was the essence of the life of all Prophets and the distinguishing feature of the community brought into being by Muhammad.12

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The sparing of time is connected with the notion of tour known as khuruj. The khuruj is central to the tabligh work where jamaats (groups) of 10 or more men, depending on the total size of the jamaat, move from house-to-house and place-to-place preaching Islamic orthodoxy and inviting Muslims towards pristine Islam. A new member initially is required to spare four months or three chillas (40 days) for self-reformation, shaping and re-shaping, and learning the basics of Islam. This is the initial preparation for regular participation in dawah work. Once one has accomplished this, then one should at least spend one chilla per year and three days per month in dawah work in order to safe guard oneself from sliding back to the state of un-Islam and also to encourage and invite others towards righteousness and piety. However, the normal practice of the Tablighi Jamaat workers transcends these times and many spend prolonged periods whilst some commit their entire life to tabligh work. Taqui suggests that after spending 40 days or six months, you would feel a total transformation and a change in thinking and perception. Some people would extend the stay to one year, three years, ve years, and in some cases lifetime in search for identity, values, and spiritual elevation.13 The Tabligh Work The tabligh work is not restricted to men only; women also perform dawah work but amongst themselves. The important thing to remember, however, is the fact that men and women do not work together. In fact their boundaries are not separated by women merely wearing hijaab (clothing covering the body from head to toe) but physical distance and absence of social interaction separates women and men into isolated physical boundaries. Despite the fact that men and women work separately, the tablighi women share in a common model of personal comportment as well as a commitment to Tabligh.14 Furthermore, the dominant attitude in the Tablighi Jamaat is an emphasis on a common nature and set of responsibilities shared by women and men.15 The dawah tours offer signicant break to the Tablighi Jamaat workers from the complexities of mundane rituals. Importantly, the travel for the purpose of preaching is thought to bestow many benets on the workers, conferring on them religious blessings, educational benets, moral training and personal reform. Ilyas proposed that the journey would produce and strengthen qualities, such as readiness to serve friends and companions regardless of self, eagerness to full duties with an abiding sense of responsibility, willingness to live together with people of varying temperaments thereby cultivating good social relations, and a sense of leadership.16 Importantly, all these allow tablighis the opportunity to ponder on the purpose of life in this world and make mends to those areas of their existence which preclude them from achieving spiritual elevation, personal tranquillity, modesty in disposition, and happiness. By doing away with the everyday luxuries of life and sleeping on hardened oor instead of a mattress, doing own cooking, washing own clothes, and overcoming

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the reliance on material resources, tablighis are able to gain gentleness, self-abnegation, modesty, and new outlook on life which sets them apart from ordinary Muslims. The doing away with material resources not only during the khuruj but also in tabligh life in general helps undo the hierarchical structures and status based on wealth and material possessions. Various practices help in the plateauing of socio-economic strata among the tablighi members. Dress, for instance, which is a potent indicator of social and economic status, is a simple attire in the context of tablighis. The tablighis wear simple and non-extravagant items of clothing which eliminates all status barriers inherent in dress and brings them all on an equal footing. There is no distinction amongst the tablighis based on what they wear. They also use simple and polite language to cultivate in themselves modesty and humbleness but at the same time it makes the preaching more effective, appealing, and far-reaching to the general Muslim population. Furthermore, the tablighis make their own nancial arrangements to participate in the tabligh work and whilst there is a lot of help and support available within the movement, it is not considered prudent and character building to be dependent on others for anything. If anything, only dependence on Allah is sought. In other words, there is no dependency on people and everyone is considered equal and capable, because power, energy, and strength all derive from Allah. Given that there are no set criteria for selection into the Tablighi Jamaat, the openness of entry into it only helps promote the signicance of tabligh work and basically eliminates any sense of restriction or structural stratication. This openness is critical to Tablighi Jamaat reecting values and ideologies embodied in Islam and helps break up the institutionalised and hierarchical social system.17 Among those on preaching tours, the group decisions, for instance, are made in mushwarah (consultation) with each other under the leadership of an amir (leader) who is chosen by the group. The amir is chosen based on the meritoriousness of his faith and not on his socio-economic status; therefore, for anyone to be chosen as an amir on a preaching tour is highly probable. In this practice there is more than just a hint of Susm. Not attempting to delve into a discussion of Susm, it sufces to say that the Tablighi Jamaat work is a derivative of Susm and in a way could be perceived as neo-Susm. From Maulana Ilyass six basic principles for his movement, all except the sparing of time are Su principles. According to the Sus, the heart is the centre of all human and spiritual activity, and, therefore, the affairs of the heart have precedence over everything else. Ilyas likewise believed that the proper technique for his movement was for the heart to do most of the work.18 Analysis The formation of Tablighi Jamaat in 1927 as an agent of change has transformed Muslims in small pockets in numerous parts of the world. As such, new type of moral bond has been forged between the Jamaat members, thus a redenition of the term collective membership. Emulating Khomeinis Islamic Revolution, Hasan Al-Bannas Al-Ikhwan al-Muslimun, and Mawdudis Jamaati-I-Islami, the Ilyasist doctrine, while positing a similar break with secular and mundane, generated a new overriding social denitions of Muslim ummah and bound tablighis with new ties of fellowships as well as by ideas of a new type of morality based on inner conscience. This break achieved its most salient expression in the thinking of Muhammad Ilyas on the primacy

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of Shariah and the subjugation of worldliness to the sovereignty of Allah. The search for a new unity between Muslims and Allah, based upon the primacy of Shariah and prophetic ways and aimed at the creation of a Muslim ummah, represents a major break with worldliness and material pursuit of happiness. By doing away with material pursuit of happiness and worldliness, the Tablighi Jamaat principles help members make in-roads to a new unity between Muslims and Allah. This transformation seeks to then nullify the dominant modes of material existence and modern practices that stand in the way of piety, spiritual elevation, and the creation of a Muslim ummah. Therefore, the tabligh activity functions as a means to salvation in the life Hereafter. In this way the tabligh work helps the construction of new symbolic denitions of collective identity and posits new models of legitimising piety in line with pristine Islam. It needs to be noted that legitimation of piety and prophetic ways according to Ilyasist doctrine is not achieved through political processes but by way of reviving Islamic values and exhorting the abandonment of non-Islamic practices in Muslims. In this doctrine, therefore, is inherent the apolitical stance of the movement because the apolitical program of the Jamaat has helped it to operate freely and without ofcial hindrance, thus enabling it to reach a large number of government ofcials and to educate them about Islamic beliefs, ethics, and practices.19 Thus, unlike numerous other Islamic revival movements such as the Jamaat-I-Islami and Al-Ikhwan alMuslimun, the Tablighi Jamaat maintains that nations and social systems do not have an independent, separate existence; they exist only by virtue of the individuals who form them. Therefore, if a nation or a society is to be changed and reformed, the reform effort must begin with the individual and not at the level of political structures.20 This stance has also helped Tablighi Jamaat remain distanced from conicting ideological tendencies of numerous political organisations both in India and elsewhere in the world. Not all those who return to strict religious observances and practice begin to apply their rediscovered heritage into political action. Neither (sic.) those who become Revivalist Muslims become political activists.21 Therefore, in the Tablighi Jamaat ideology there is the redenition of the parameters of institutionalised social interaction where the emphasis is placed on the primacy of the Shariah and the renewed stress on the incorporation of Sunnah (Prophets Tradition) in opposition to the dictates of modern social and political institutions as the basis of individual and collective existence. Turning away from the efcacy of externally enforced norms, Tablighi Jamaat posits voluntary and generous obedience to Allah as the only true basis of Islamic existence. This approach serves as the basis of a new conception of the universe and world order with implications for the reconciliation of the contemporaneousness of material life with the pristineness of Islam. For the new ecumenical order to be established, the tablighis as the holy community participating in Prophet Muhammad posit as the new model for Muslim ummah. This means that the boundaries of the Muslim community are not of everyday participation in commerce and politics or in the objectives of material success and aspiring to human sovereignty, but a common and voluntary subjugation of each individual will to the will of God.22 It is in this voluntary submission to the will of Allah that a new Muslim ummah is dened, a community existing at the time of Prophet Muhammad and subsequently under the Khulfa-I-Rashidin (period of four rightly guided caliphs). According to Seyyed Nasr, Abul Ala Mawdudi, the founder of Jamaat-I-Islami movement, asserted, there was a time when I was also a believer of traditional and hereditary religion and practiced it At last I paid attention to the Holy Book and the Prophets Sunnah. I

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understood Islam and renewed my faith in it voluntarily. Thereafter I tried to nd out and understand the Islamic system in detail. When I was satised in this I began to invite others to the truth.23 Through the unication of this world with the Hereafter a new moral order is established. Therefore, the Tablighi Jamaat seeks to realise and implement, in full, the Shariah in all spheres of everyday living, and self-reformation is the starting point of this process. The major social mechanism for the realisation of this is in the Sunnah because ultimately it is in the Sunnah that the tablighis endeavour to create themselves as true Muslims as well as a new and reformed Muslim ummah. Therefore utilising itinerant preaching method, the Tablighi Jamaat has thus become an important religious training ground for aspiring Muslims among the small-town shopkeepers, school teachers, government clerks, artisans, and para-professionals in the private sector.24 In this way the Tablighi Jamaat believes that people will become good Muslims not by reading books but by receiving the message through personal contacts and by active participation in dawa work.25 This position of the Tablighi Jamaat is in stark contrast to its counterparts, the Jamaati-I-Islami and Al-Ikhwan al-Muslimun, because whilst they employ written and speech-based congregational preaching, the Tablighi Jamaat emphasise face-to-face itinerant approach and denounce the usefulness of any other preaching method. For the Tablighi Jamaat the efcacy and success of preaching lies in the deep penetration of heart and mind and this is most effectively achieved through their itinerant method because Prophet Muhammad and all prophets before him conveyed the word of Allah by no other means but literally delivering it to the doorsteps of people. This preaching approach has inevitably forged a new social solidarity amongst the tablighis and given them a new collective identity. By delivering to Muslims from all walks of life and different ethnic backgrounds the basic teachings and precepts of Islam and exhorting them to abandon non-Islamic values and social and cultural practices, the Tablighi Jamaat has brought about a new collective Muslim identity and paved the way for an unprecedented change in the articulation of Islamic orthodoxy. Conclusion Even though the Tablighi Jamaat is a recent Muslim phenomenon, it has in a short span of time captured a vast spectrum of Muslim interest and not surprisingly this interest is fast growing. The Tablighi Jamaats focus on Islamic practice is grounded in Quran and Hadith and all Muslims (men and women) are equally encouraged to participate in the promotion of Allahs word. Its preaching of the purpose of existence as remaining permanently in the servitude of Allah, in an expression of faith in Islam as a state of being in which virtue, human decency, and political security are realised, helps explain the speedy success of the movement. Its philosophical ideology which is in consistency with Islamic religiosity and Islamic revivalismits fundamental objectiveis a mechanism for calling Muslims toward righteousness, moral excellence, and love for the lord of all worlds, Allah. The assertion of Tablighi Jamaat as an Islamic revival force derives its legitimacy and success in the preaching of Islamic orthodoxy. It has not only been able to attract a large number of previously quiescent and inert Muslims to participate in dawah work through simple face-to-face itinerant preaching but also created easily accessible environment for training in orthodox Islam. Usually the responsibility of Islamic propagation has been the realm of the ulamah but through its dawah work the Tablighi Jamaat

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has entered into the eld of preaching by recruiting ordinary Muslims and thus given a great impetus to the spreading of prophetic message primarily among Muslims. By deploying ordinary Muslim missionary workers, the Tablighi Jamaat has re-introduced the Muslim masses to Islamic institutions and pristine Islam. Consequently, it has helped reassert the authority of Islamic orthodoxy and brought it closer to Muslims, particularly to the marginal Muslims. In the creation of re-born Muslims the Tablighi Jamaat has forged a renewed Muslim identity and paved the way for the solidication of the Muslim ummah. NOTES
1. Ira Lapidus, Contemporary Islamic Movements in Historical Perspective, Policy Papers in International Affairs, Number 18, Berkeley: University of California, 1983, p. 7. 2. Khurram Murad, The Islamic Movement: Dynamics of Values, Power and Change, Leicester: The Islamic Foundation, 1984, p. 71. 3. Lapidus, Contemporary Islamic Movements, op. cit., p. 7. 4. John Voll, Islam: Continuity and Change in the Modern World, Essex: Longman House, 1982, p. 280. 5. Lapidus, Contemporary Islamic Movements, op. cit., p. 7. 6. Ibid., pp. 1011. 7. Abdul Siddiqi, Islam and the Remaking of Humanity, Lahore: Kazi Publications, 1978, p. 229. 8. Mumtaz Ahmad, Islamic Fundamentalism in South Asia: The Jamaat-i-Islami and the Tablighi Jamaat of South Asia, in eds M. Marty and R. Appleby, Fundamentalism Observed, Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1991, pp. 457530. 9. Al-Quran, 491415. 10. Babara Metcalf, New Medinas: The Tablighi Jamaat in America and Europe, in ed. B. Metcalf, Making Muslim Space in North America and Europe, Berkeley: University of California Press, 1996, pp. 110127. 11. Fadzillah Jamil, The Reawakening of Islamic Consciousness in Malaysia: 19701987, unpublished PhD dissertation, University of Edinburgh, 1988, p. 184. 12. Muhammad Haq, The Faith Movement of Mawlana Muhammad Ilyas, London: George Allen and Unwin, 1972, p. 145. 13. Jassim Taqui, Politicising the Tablighi Jamaat, available online at: http://www.paknews.org/articles , 2001, p. 2. 14. Babara Metcalf, Islam and Women: The Case of the Tablighi Jamaat, available online at: http://shr. stanford.edu/shreview/51/text/oldmetcalf.html , 2001, p. 2. 15. Ibid., p. 4. 16. Haq, The Faith Movement, op. cit., p. 147. 17. Metcalf, Islam and Women, op. cit., p. 2. 18. Haq, The Faith Movement, op. cit., p. 66. 19. Ahmad, Islamic Fundamentalism, op. cit., p. 518. 20. Ibid., p. 517. 21. Zainah Anwar, Islamic Revivalism in Malaysia: Dakwah Among the Students, Petaling Java: Pelanduk, 1978, p. 9. 22. Adam Seligman, Innerworldly Individualism: Charismatic Community and its Institutionalisation, New Brunswick: Transaction, 1994, p. 25. 23. Seyyed Nasr, Mawdudi and the Making of Islamic Revivalism, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1996, p. 29. 24. Ahmad, Islamic Fundamentalism, op. cit., p. 515. 25. Ibid., p. 516.

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