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CON!N"
#$%&'(%.................................................................................................4
)*+%$'+,$%.......................5
)%(+,$% -. Phonetics as a science..............7
)%(+,$% .. Phonostylistics..........................9
)%(+,$% /. Phoneme...................11
)%(+,$% 0. The system oI English phonemes. Consonants.....17
)%(+,$% 5. The system oI English phonemes. Vowels.......19
)%(+,$% 1. Syllable Iormation. Types oI transcription......23
)%(+,$% 7. Word stress..................25
)%(+,$% 2. Intonation........................28
)%(+,$% 3. Territorial varieties oI English pronunciation.....31
"%4*5'$6.............................................................................................33
789%: %6+ ;8$<......................35
!='4*5'+*85 >,%6+*856.........................36
?:866'$@............................38
3
#$%&'(%
At the Iaculties oI Ioreign languages in this country two courses oI
phonetics are introduced:
Practical or normative phonetics that studies the substance, the material
Iorm oI phonetic phenomena in relation to meaning.
Theoretical phonetics which is mainly concerned with the Iunctioning
oI phonetic units in the language, it considers the role oI phonetic means in
the act oI communication.
I hope you have suIIicient knowledge oI the practical course oI English
phonetics which will serve as the basis Ior this course.
The theoretical course oI phonetics contains the Iollowing basic
problems: phonetics as a science, Iunctional-stylistic aspect oI
pronunciation, phonology, segmental phonemes, suprasegmental
phonemes, the problem oI territorial varieties oI pronunciation. The basic
tasks oI the course are: 1) to give the systematic classiIication oI the
Iunctional phonetic units; 2) to explain the usage oI these units in the
process oI people`s communication; 3) to give the scientiIic grounds oI the
phonetic units and the processes in the studied language; 4) to provide the
students with the knowledge oI the variants oI the English language.
The aim oI this book is to let the students learn the peculiarities oI the
phonetic system which can help them use the linguistic knowledge while
teaching the Ioreign language. According to this purpose the book contains
the Iollowing parts: literature, lectures (1 9), seminars, examination
questions, and glossary.
In 'Literature you can Iind the list oI basic and additional literature the
students will need while learning the course oI theoretical phonetics.
'Lectures (1-9) contain the inIormation about the norms oI the studied
language, its sound system, accentual structure, intonation.
As the course 'Theoretical phonetics oI the English language is
closely connected with practical skills, the mastering oI this course
presupposes the seminars which provide the interconnection oI the teacher
and the students (see 'Seminars).
'Glossary lets the students master the terminology.
4
.
)*+%$'+,$%
A'6*( 4'+%$*':
1. ) *"+" m
/P.H. A. - M., 1956. 240 c.
2. , &"*" Om /H.P. 3. M., 1979. 312 c.
3. & -"." T m
( . .) /C.. H.- M., 2002. 336 .
4. - $")" H /M.A.
C. M.: m. . n BHAOC, 1997. 384 .
5. /0123324 5"6" Phonetics /L.D. O`Connor. Penguin, 1977.
6. 728292:; <"=" English Phonetics. A theoretical course /M.A.
Sokolova. M., 1996. 286 p.
7. >;??@9AB: >"=" English Phonetics: A theoretical Course /V.A.
Vassilyev. M., 1980. 323 p.

B99*+*85': 4'+%$*':
1. ) )"$" Pm m /A.M.
A. M., 1984. 119 .
2. ) C"D" H n ( .
.) /E.. A, C.H. K, .A. H. H., 1974.
3. E F")" O n
m // B
MV. C. 19. H m mmn
/O.A. . M., 1999.- N1.- C.90 -102
4. G! #"$" Hm n nn
// m /B.M. Xm. - M., 1968. C. 22
38.
5. $ $"$" A n (,
, +m) /M.M. M. M., 1982. 136 .
5
6. #"D" O x
/B.. H. M., 1976. 152 .
7. % )"H" x m
mm m m //
H /A.. Bn. - N1, 1968.
8. % )"H" H CBA
A /A.. Bn. - M., 1971.
9. - #"I" H
n /B.X. C. M., 1983. 312 .
10. J29@3KB4 6" Intonation / D. Bolinger. Lnd, 1972.
11. 1LB?L@4B M" Variation in an English Dialect: A Sociolinguistic Study /
J. Cheshire" - Cambridge, 1982.
12. 14A?N;9 6" Prosodic System and Intonation in English /D. Crystal.
Cambridge, 1969.
13. OPKLB? =" and Trudgill P. English Accents and Dialects /A. Hughes.
London, 1980.
14. QB3A23 M"7" American Pronunciation /J.S. Kenyon. Ann Arbor,
Michigan, 1946.
15. Q@3KR2S Q" The Groundwork oI English Intonation /K. Kingdom.
Ld., 1958.
16. T@8B Q"5" The Intonation oI American English /K.L. Pike. Ann Arbor,
1956.
17. 7L;8LU;K2:; 6"=" Varieties oI English Pronunciation /D.A.
Shakhbagova. M., 1982.
6
)%(+,$% -. #C85%+*(6 '6 ' 6(*%5(%
1. Phonetics as a branch oI linguistics.
2. The relations with other sciences.
3. The role in Ioreign language teaching.
-1-
#C85%+*(6 as a science is concerned with the human noises by which
the thought is actualized or given audible shape: the nature oI these noises,
their combinations, and their Iunctions in relation to the meaning. The term
'phonetics comes Irom the Greek word VWL23BX translated as 'sounds.
Phonetics studies the sound system oI the language, that is segmental
phonemes, word-stress, syllabic structure and intonation (p.6).
Phonetics is a basic branch oI linguistics; neither linguistic theory nor
linguistic practice can do without phonetics and no language description is
complete without phonetics, the science concerned with the spoken
medium oI language. That is why phonetics claims to be oI equal
importance with grammar or lexicology.
Phonetics has 2 main divisions: on the one hand DEC858:8F@G, the
study oI the sound patterns oI languages, oI how a spoken language
Iunctions as a 'code, and on the other - the study oI 6,H6+'5(%, that
carries the code (p.7). #C858:8F@ is the branch oI phonetics that studies the
linguistic Iunction oI consonant and vowel sounds, syllabic structure, word
accent and prosodic Ieatures, such as pitch, stress and tempo (p.11-12). The
phoneticians are interested in the way in which sound phenomena Iunction
in a particular language, how they are utilized in that language and what
part they play in maniIesting the meaningIul distinctions oI the language.
There are 3 branches oI phonetics each corresponding to a
diIIerent stage in the communication process:
The branch oI phonetics that studies the way in which the air is set in
motion, the movements oI the speech organs and the coordination oI these
movements in the pronunciation oI single sounds and trains oI sounds is
called '$+*(,:'+8$@ EC85%+*(6.
B(8,6+*( EC85%+*(6 studies the way in which the air vibrates between
the speaker`s mouth and the listener`s ear. The means by which we
discriminate sounds-quality, sensations oI pitch, loudness, length are
relevant here. This branch oI phonetics is oI great interest to anyone who
teaches or studies pronunciation.
7
The branch oI phonetics investigating the hearing process is known as
',9*+8$@ EC85%+*(6. Its interests lie more in the sensation oI hearing,
which is brain activity, than in the physiological working oI the ear or the
nervous activity between the ear and the brain (p.10-11).
Phonetics is in itselI divided into two major components: 6%F4%5+':
EC85%+*(6, which is concerned with individual sounds (i.e. 'segments oI
speech) and 6,E$'6%F4%5+': EC85%+*(6 whose domain is the larger units
oI connected speech: syllables, words, phrases and texts.
Another subdivision oI phonetics: 1) general phonetics studies
general laws, Iormulates general theories (theory oI intonation, syllable
Iormation, phoneme); 2) special phonetics based on general phonetics, it
deals with phonetical peculiarities oI a certain language; 3) some linguists
distinguish historical phonetics it traces the development oI the phonetic
system in the course oI time Iinding out the basic laws oI the system.
-2-
Language is not an isolated phenomenon; it is a part oI society and a
part oI ourselves. It is a prerequisite Ior the development oI any society. No
branch oI linguistics can be studied without presupposing at least the study
oI other aspects oI society. We see the development oI quite distinct
interdisciplinary subjects such as 68(*8:*5F,*6+*(6 (sociophonetics),
E6@(C8:*5F,*6+*(6, 4'+C%4'+*(': :*5F,*6+*(6 and others.
"8(*8EC85%+*(6 studies the way in which pronunciation interacts with
society. It is the study oI the way in which phonetic structures change in
response to diIIerent social Iunctions and the deviations oI what these
Iunctions are.
#6@(C8:*5F,*6+*(6 as a distinct area oI interest covers the
psychological implications oI an extremely broad area, Irom acoustic
phonetics to language pathology (discusses the problem oI acquisition oI
language by children, the extent to which language is inIluenced and
inIluences such things as memory, attention, recall and constraints on
perception, the extent to which language has a certain role to play in the
understanding oI human development, the problems oI speech production).
Acoustic phonetics comes close to studying EC@6*(6 and the tools
used in this Iield enable the investigator to measure and analyze the
movement oI the air in terms oI '(8,6+*(6.
8
-3-
A study oI phonetics has educational value Ior almost everyone
realizing the importance oI language in human communication. The study
oI the complex oI various communication techniques is deIinitely relevant
to +%'(C*5F ' &8$%*F5 :'5F,'F%.
As regards the learning oI speciIic Ioreign languages, there has never
been a time in the world when the ability oI growing numbers oI people to
speak one another`s language really well has been oI such signiIicance as
now.
Knowledge oI the structure oI sound systems, and oI the articulatory
and acoustic properties oI the production oI speech is necessary in teaching
Ioreign languages. The teacher has to know the starting point, which is the
sound system oI the pupil`s mother tongue as well as the aim oI his
teaching, which is a mastery oI the pronunciation oI the language to be
learnt. He must be able to point out the diIIerence between these two, and
to arrange adequate training exercises. Ear training and articulatory training
are both equally important in modern language teaching. The introductory
oI technical equipment disks, taperecorders, language laboratories, etc
has brought about a revolution in teaching pronunciation oI a Ioreign
language.
YPB?N@23?Z
1. What is phonetics
2. IdentiIy the object and the subject oI phonetics.
3. What is phonology How is it related to phonetics
4. Analyze the three branches oI phonetics.
5. Name the segmental and suprasegmental elements.
6. With which sciences is phonetics connected
7. Explain the role oI phonetics in Ioreign language teaching.
8. What methods are used in phonetic investigations
)%(+,$% .. #C8586+@:*6+*(6
1. Problems oI phonostylistics.
2. ClassiIication oI phonetic styles.
-1-
Phonetics studies the way phonetic means are used in this or that
particular situation which exercises the conditioning inIluence oI a set oI
9
Iactors, which are reIerred to as extralinguistic. The aim oI phonetics is to
analyze all possible kinds oI spoken utterances with the main purpose oI
identiIying the phonetic Ieatures, both segmental and suprasegmental,
which are restricted to certain kinds oI contexts, to explain why such
Ieatures have been used and to classiIy them into categories, based upon a
view oI their Iunction.
Style-Iorming and style-modiIying Iactors:
Style Iorming Iactor is the aim or purpose oI the utterance. The aim is
the strategy oI the speaker.
-I +C% &8$4 8& (844,5*('+*85 J4858:8F,% 8$ 9*':8F,%IK
.I +C% 6E%'<%$L6 '++*+,9% +8 +C% 6*+,'+*85 J%48+*856,
+C8,FC+6, %+(IK
/I +C% 9%F$%% 8& &8$4':*+@ J &8$4': M *5&8$4':IK
0I +C% 9%F$%% 8& 6E85+'5%*+@ 8$ 8& E$%E'$%95%66, +C%
6E%'<%$L6 %9,('+*85': H'(<F$8,59 E:'@%9 ' F$%'+ $8:%.
-2-
Styles oI speech according to the purpose oI communication.
-I *5&8$4'+*85':
2) '('9%4*( (scientiIic)
3) E,H:*(*6+*( (oratorical)
4) 9%(:'4'+8$@ (artistic)
5) (8::8>,*': (Iamiliar)
1) sing the inIormational style the speaker ought to be careIul not to
distract the listener by what he is saying (TV-announcers). Written
representation oI oral and prepared speech.
2) ScientiIic style is used in lectures or science subjects or when reading out
loud a piece oI scientiIic prose. The purpose is to attract the listener`s
attention to what is the most important in the lecture.
3) Publicistic style is used by politicians, the purpose is to except the
inIluence oI the listener to convince him oI something, and make him
accept the speaker`s point oI view.
4) It is used in reading poetry, prose aloud, in stage speech to appeal to the
Ieelings oI the listener.
5) Conversational Iormulae Iamiliar oI everyday communication are used in
speech oI Iriends within similar groups. It can have a wide range oI
intonation patterns.
YPB?N@23?Z
1. What are basic problems oI phonostylistics
10
2. How can you characterize oral speech
3. Name the Iactors which result in phonostylistic varieties.
4. Give the list oI the phonetic styles. Characterize them.
5. What are the style Iorming Iactors
)%(+,$% /. #C85%4%
1. The phoneme theory.
2. The conception oI the phoneme in this country and abroad.
3. The material aspect oI the phoneme.
4. The abstract aspect oI the phoneme.
5. The Iunctional aspect oI the phoneme.
6. Pronunciation errors in relation to meaning.
7. Semantic and distributional methods.
-1-
The deIinitions oI the phoneme vary greatly.
L.V. Shcherba: the phoneme may be viewed as a Iunctional, material
and abstract unit.
V.A.Vassilyev: The phoneme is a smallest unit capable oI
distinguishing one word Irom another word, one grammatical Iorm oI word
Irom another.
B. Bloch: phoneme is a class oI phonemically similar sounds
contrasting and mutually exclusive with all similar classes in the language.
. Jacobson: phoneme is a minimal sound by which meaning may be
discriminated.
Views oI the phoneme seem to Iall into 4 main classes:
1) the '4%5+':*6+*( or 'E6@(C8:8F*(': N*%O regards the phoneme as an
ideal 'mental image or a target at which the speaker aims.
2) The so-called D&,5(+*85':G N*%O regards the phoneme as the minimal
sound unit by which meanings may be diIIerentiated without much regard
to actually pronounced speech sounds.
3) A stronger Iorm oI the 'Iunctional approach is the so-('::%9 D'H6+$'(+G
N*%O oI the phoneme, which regards phonemes as essentially independent
oI the acoustic and physiological properties associated with them, that is
oI speech sounds.
4) The DEC@6*(':G N*%O regards the phoneme as a 'Iamily oI related sounds
satisIying certain conditions, notably:
11
a) the various members oI the 'Iamily must show phonetic similarity to
one another, in other words, be related in character;
b) no member oI the 'Iamily may occur in the same phonetic context as
any other.
Nowadays the phoneme is characterized Irom the point oI view oI its
three aspects (Iunctional, material, abstract): the EC85%4% is a minimal
abstract linguistic unit realized in speech in the Iorm oI speech sounds,
opposable to other phonemes oI the same language to distinguish the
meaning oI morphemes and words.
-2-
The ussian linguist, I.A. Baudauin de Courtenay, was the Iirst to use
the term 'phoneme. Later 'Shcherba Courtenay approach appeared. It
considered phoneme as a psychic equivalent oI a sound.
L.V. Shcherba, the ussian scholar (St.-Petersburg school), was the
Iirst to introduce the material aspect. He stated that phoneme is a sound
that we can hear.
The abstract aspect was supported by the scholars oI the Prague school.
The best representative oI that school is N. Trubetskoy. He is the linguist
who wrote the book 'The Basics oI Phonology. He was the Iirst to
develop the system oI oppositions. He was the Iirst who divorced phonetics
Irom phonology.
. de Saussure gave many deIinitions oI the phoneme and the main oI it
is: m m, , m
m n, m
m, x. He supported the
points oI view oI N. Trubetskoy.
L. BloomIield (American scientist) considers phoneme to be a bundle
oI distinctive Ieatures.
-3-
The material aspect oI the phoneme is reIlected in the deIinition that the
phoneme is the minimal abstract unit realized in speech in a Iorm oI speech
sounds. It exists in speech oI all people who belong to a given language
community in a Iorm oI speech sounds, but as it occurs in diIIerent
positions in the word (e.g. in diIIerent environments), the phonemes may
slightly diIIer.
Compare the sound t in the phrase 'let us and 'let them, they are
not the same. The t oI 'let us is alveolar while the t in 'let them is
dental. They are the variants oI the phoneme t and are called
12
''::8EC85%6. Allophones oI the same phoneme need the Iollowing
requirements:
1. though they possess some similar Ieatures they may show
diIIerence.
2. They never occur in the same phonetic context.
The allophone which is heard in isolation or stands in the position
where it is not the subject (in such words as R224[ R;48, etc.) and doesn`t
undergo any distinguishable changes in the chain oI speech is called
'principal. The allophones which are inIluenced by the neighbouring
sounds and change the articulation are called 'subsidiary.
-4-
The native speaker is aware oI the phonemes oI his language but much
less aware oI the allophones: he will not hear the diIIerence between two
allophones like the alveolar and dental consonants d in the words 'wide
and 'width. The reason is that the phonemes have an important Iunction in
the language: they diIIerentiate words like 'tie and 'die Irom each other.
Allophones on the other hand have no such Iunction, they usually occur in
diIIerent positions in the word and hence, cannot be opposed to each other
to make meaningIul distinctions. Hence, the allophones oI the phoneme do
not obstruct the listener and the speaker to understand each other.
-5-
In linguistics &,5(+*85 is generally understood as the role oI the
various elements oI the language in distinguishing the meaning. The
Iunction oI the phonemes is to distinguish the meaning oI morphemes and
words. The native speaker doesn`t notice the diIIerence between the
allophones oI the same phoneme because this diIIerence does not
distinguish meanings.
But at the same time they realize, that allophones oI each phoneme
possess a bundle oI distinctive Ieatures that makes the phoneme
Iunctionally diIIerent Irom all other phonemes oI the language concerned.
This Iunctionally relevant bundle oI articulatory Ieatures is called the
*5N'$*'5+ 8& +C% EC85%4%. None oI the articulatory Ieatures that Iorm the
invariant oI the phoneme can be changed without aIIecting the meaning.
All the allophones oI the phoneme d are occlusive, Iorelingual, lenis (iI
occlusive articulation is changed Ior constrictive one, d will be replaced
by z e.g. breed breeze; d will be replaced by g iI the Iorelingual
articulation is replaced by the backlingual one: dear gear; the lenis
articulation oI d cannot be substituted by the Iortis one without changing
the meaning: dry try). The articulatory Ieatures which Iorm the invariant
13
oI the phoneme are called distinctive or relevant. To extract relevant
Ieatures oI the phoneme we should oppose it to some other phoneme in the
same phonetic context. II the opposed sounds diIIer in one articulatory
Ieature and this diIIerence brings about changes in the meaning oI the
words the contrasting Ieatures are called relevant (e.g. port court, both
sounds are occlusive and Iortis, the only diIIerence is that p is labial and
k is backlingual. So it is possible to say that labial and backlingual
articulations are relevant in the system oI English consonants. The
articulatory Ieatures which do not serve to distinguish meaning are called
non-distinctive, irrelevant or redundant; Ior instance, it is impossible in
English to oppose an aspirated p` to a non-aspirated one in the same
phonetic context to distinguish meanings. That is why aspiration is a non-
distinctive Ieature oI English consonants.
-6-
Any changes in the invariant oI the phoneme aIIect the meaning. OI
course all students make mistakes in the articulation oI particular sounds.
According to L.V. Shcherba the E$85,5(*'+*85 %$$8$6 may be:
-I EC858:8F*(':
.I EC85%+*(
1) II an allophone oI some phoneme is replaced by an allophone oI a
diIIerent phoneme the mistake is called phonological, because the
meaning oI the word is aIIected. It happens when one or more relevant
Ieatures oI the phoneme are not realized (e.g. i: in 'beat becomes more
open, more advanced and is no longer diphthongized, it changes into i in
'bit).
2) II an allophone oI the phoneme is replaced by another allophone oI the
same phoneme the mistake is called phonetic. It happens when the
invariant oI the phoneme is not modiIied and the meaning oI the word is
not aIIected (e.g. iI the aspirated p` in 'part is replaced by non-
aspirated one, the meaning doesn`t change.
It is better not to make any oI these mistakes because in that case the
degree oI Ioreign accent will be an obstacle to the listener`s perception.
-7-
There are 2 ways oI '5':@P*5F 6E%%(C 68,596:
-I '$+*(,:'+8$@
.I EC858:8F*(':
14
The aim oI the phonological analysis oI language is the identiIication oI
the phonemes and Iinding out the patterns oI relationship into which they
Iall as the sound system oI that language.
or the articulatory description we need the inIormation oI what sort oI
narrowing is Iormed by the tip oI the tongue and the alveolar ridge, what is
the shape oI the tongue when the obstruction is made, etc. So iI the speech
sounds are studied Irom the articulatory point oI view it is the diIIerences
and similarities oI the production that are in the Iocus oI attention, whereas
phonological approach suggests studying the sound system which is
actually a set oI relationships and oppositions which have Iunctional value.
So, the aim oI phonological analysis is:
1) to determine which diIIerences oI sounds are phonemic and which are
non-phonemic;
2) to Iind the inventory oI the phonemes oI this or that language.
Phonemic opposability depends on the way the phonemes are
distributed in their occurrence. That means that in any language certain
sounds don`t occur in a certain position: h never occurs in a word Iinally,
initially.
The 2 sets oI phonetic context are complementing each other and the
2 sounds are classed as allophones oI the same phoneme. They are said to
be in complementary distribution.
We should remember that the allophones oI the same phoneme
possess similar articulatory Ieatures, they may Irequently show
considerable phonetic diIIerences.
There are 2 mainly used 4%+C896 8& EC858:8F*(': '5':@6*6Q +C%
9*6+$*H,+*85': '59 +C% 6%4'5+*( method. The 9*6+$*H,+*85': 4%+C89 is
used by 'structuralists. They group all the sounds pronounced by native
speakers into phonemes according to the 2 laws oI phonemic and
allophonic distribution:
1) Allophones oI diIIerent phonemes occur in the same phonetic context.
2) Allophones oI the same phoneme never occur in the same phonetic
context.
Thus two conclusions Iollow:
1) II more or less diIIerent sounds occur in the same phonetic
context they should be allophones oI diIIerent phonemes. Their distribution
is contrastive.
2) II more or less similar speech sounds occur in diIIerent
positions and never occur in the same phonetic context they are allophones
oI one and the same phoneme. Their distribution is complementary.
15
There are also Iree variants oI a single phoneme (e.g. in
ussian). We could explain the diIIerence on the basis oI 'dialect or on
the basis oI sociolinguistics. It could be that one variant is a 'prestige
Iorm that the speaker uses when he is constantly 'monitoring what he says
while the other variant oI pronunciation is Iound in casual or less Iormal
speech. II all explanations Iail then we have truly Iree variants.
Another method oI the phonological analysis, widely used in Soviet
linguistics, is +C% 6%4'5+*( 4%+C89. It is based on a phonemic rule, that
phonemes can distinguish words and morphemes when opposed to one
another. The semantic method attracts great signiIicance to meaning. It
consists oI the systematic substitution oI the sound Ior another in order to
ascertain in which cases where the phonetic context remains the same such
substitution leads to a change oI meaning. This process is called the
(844,5*('+*85 +%6+. It consists in Iinding minimal pairs oI words and
their grammatical Iorm. By a minimal pair we mean a pair oI words or
morphemes which are diIIerentiated by only one phoneme in the same
position (e.g. p in pin, b in bin, s in sin allophones oI
diIIerent phonemes; p` p`in wrong pronunciation but an allophone
oI the same phoneme).
The phonemes oI a language Iorm a system oI oppositions in which any
phoneme is usually opposed to other phonemes in at least one position, in
at least one minimal pair. All the sounds should be opposed in word-initial,
word-medial, and word-Iinal positions.
There are three kinds oI oppositions:
1) 6*5F:%, iI members oI the opposition diIIer in one Ieature (e.g. pen
ben. Common Ieatures: occlusive occlusive, labial labial.
DiIIerentiating Ieatures: Iortis lenis.
2) 98,H:%, iI 2 distinctive Ieatures are marked
(e.g pen den. Common: occlusive occlusive,
DiI.: labial lingual, Iortis voiceless lenis voiced).
3) +$*E:%, iI three distinctive Ieatures are marked
(e.g. pen then. DiI.: occlusive contrastive, labial dental, Iortis
voiceless lenis voiced).
The Ieatures oI the phoneme that are capable oI diIIerentiating the
meaning are termed relevant or distinctive. The Ieatures that do not take
part are irrelevant, or non-distinctive. The latter may be oI two kinds:
1) incidental or redundant (aspiration oI voiceless plosives, presence oI voice
in voiced consonants, length oI vowels),
16
2) indispensable or concomitant (tenseness oI English long monophthongs,
the checked character oI stressed short vowels, lip rounding oI back
vowels).
A single opposition remains single iI its members diIIer Irom each
other not only in a distinctive Ieature alone, but also in distinctively
irrelevant Ieatures.
The phonological analysis oI the sounds oI a language is based on one
more notion, that is oI native speaker`s knowledge. We should take into
account the native speaker`s Ieelings about his language as Iar as this is
possible.
YPB?N@23?Z
1. DeIine the notion 'phoneme.
2. Is there any diIIerence between a sound and a phoneme
3. Give characteristics oI allophones oI one phoneme, oI diIIerent
phonemes.
4. What are the main distinctive Ieatures oI two phonological methods
)%(+,$% 0. C% 6@6+%4 8& !5F:*6C EC85%4%6.
R85685'5+6
1. The diIIerentiation oI consonants according to the sort oI articulatory
posture, production oI noise.
2. The place oI articulation.
3. Voiced voiceless characteristics.
4. The position oI the soIt palate.
-1-
Each sound is known to have three '6E%(+6: '(8,6+*(, '$+*(,:'+8$@
'59 ',9*+8$@ and thereIore can be studied on these three levels. or the
sake oI analysis each aspect can be considered and described independently
though we should take it reasonably obvious that there is no sharp dividing
line between them.
On the articulatory level each consonant may be identiIied by stating
two general Iacts about it:
1) what sort oI articulatory posture it is Iormed by;
2) whereabout in the mouth (or pharynx) it is produced.
17
Phonological description oI sounds will be made in terms oI the
articulatory level.
As to the classiIication oI English consonants there are Iew ways oI
seeing the situation. According to V.A. Vassilyev primary importance
should be given to the type oI obstruction and the manner oI production oI
noise. On this ground he distinguishes two large classes oI consonants:
a) 8((:,6*N%, in the production oI which a complete obstruction is Iormed;
b) (856+$*(+*N%, in the production oI which an incomplete obstruction is
Iormed. (e.g. oppositions: ti: si: occlusive constrictive
pul Iul occ. cons.)
Each oI the two classes is subdivided into 58*6% (85685'5+6 and
6858$'5+6. The division is based on the Iactor oI prevailing either noise or
tone component in the auditory characteristic oI a sound. In their turn noise
consonants are divided into E:86*N% (85685'5+6 (or stops) and '&&$*('+%6.
Another point oI view is shared by a group oI Soviet phoneticians.
They suggest that the Iirst and basic principle oI classiIication should be
the degree oI noise. Such consideration leads to dividing English
consonants into two general kinds:
-I 58*6% (85685'5+6
.I 6858$'5+6
-2-
The place oI articulation is another characteristic oI English
consonants which should be considered Irom the phonological point oI
view. The place oI articulation is determined by the active organ oI speech
against the point oI articulation. According to this principle the English
consonants are classed into:
-I :'H*':
.I :*5F,':
/I F:8++':
The class oI labial consonants is subdivided into: aI H*:'H*':K HI :'H*8S
9%5+':; and among the class oI lingual consonants three subclasses are
distinguished; they are: 'I &8$%:*5F,':, HI 4%9*8S:*5F,': '59 (I
H'(<:*5F,':.
-3-
The next point should be made in connection with another sound
property, that is N8*(%9 M N8*(%:%66 characteristic which depends on the
work oI the vocal cords. The distinction between such pairs oI consonants
as p, b, t, d, k, g, s, z, I, v is primarily based on energy diIIerence,
18
besides on absence or presence oI vibrations oI the vocal cords, or on the
absence or presence oI voice or tone component. All voiced consonants are
O%'< J:%5*6I and all voiceless consonants are 6+$85F J&8$+*6I.
-4-
There is one more articulatory characteristic which is usually included
into the set oI principles on the basis oI which the English consonants are
classiIied. That is the position oI the soIt palate. According to this principle
consonants can be 8$': and 5'6':. There are relatively Iew consonantal
types in English which require the lowered position oI the soIt palate. They
are the nasal occlusive sonorants m, n and . They diIIer Irom oral
plosives in that the soIt palate is lowered allowing the escape oI air into the
nasal cavity.
YPB?N@23?Z
1. On which bases do we distinguish consonants
2. Analyze the phonemes p, b, s, z.
3. What are the basic modiIications oI sounds in connected speech
Give your examples (with the analysis).
)%(+,$% 5. C% 6@6+%4 8& !5F:*6C EC85%4%6.
T8O%:6
1. The Iunction oI quantity and quality in the system oI English vowels.
2. The main components oI vowel quality in English.
3. The relevants oI vowel length in modern English.
4. Morphology and its problems.
-1-
Vowel quality and quantity are two main constituents oI the English
vowels. The quality oI a vowel is known to be determined by the size,
volume, and shape oI the mouth resonator, which are modiIied by the
movement oI active speech organs, that is the tongue and the lips. So vowel
quality could be thought oI as a bundle oI deIinite articulatory
characteristics which are sometimes intricately interconnected and
interdependent.
A vowel like any sound has physical duration time which is
required Ior its production (articulation). When sounds are used in
19
connected speech they cannot help being inIluenced by one another.
Duration is one oI the characteristics oI a vowel which is modiIied by and
depends on the Iollowing Iactors: its own length, the type oI syllable, the
number oI syllables in the word, the position oI the word in the sentence,
the place oI a terminal tone, the position oI the sentence in the text and
some others.
But the problem is whether variations oI quantity are meaningIul
(relevant).
Although we isolated vowel quality and vowel length, it was done
only Ior the sake oI analysis with the purpose oI describing the vocalic
system oI the English language. They are closely connected (e.g. the
lengthening oI a vowel makes the organs oI speech tenser at the moment oI
production, etc).
-2-
Vowel quality is viewed according to the Iollowing criteria:
1) 6+'H*:*+@ 8& '$+*(,:'+*85 according to which we distinguish 3 groups oI
vowels:
'I 4858EC+C85F6,
HI 9*EC+C85F6,
(I 9*EC+C85F8*96.
Monophthongs don`t change their articulation during the pronunciation
(with the exception oI i: u:). They are divided into short and long.
2) the E86*+*85 8& +C% +85F,% may be oI the horizontal and vertical movement.
According to the horizontal movement N8O%:6 can be:
a) &$85+ i:, e, ei, ,
b) &$85+S$%+$'(+%9 i, i
c) (%5+$': , 3:, , 3u, u
d) H'(< o, o:, u:, a:
e) H'(<S'9N'5(%9 u, u.
The tongue position in its vertical movement gives us:
close, mid, open vowels, they have also narrow and broad
variations:
1. (:86% a) narrow i:, u:
b) broad i, u, i, u
2. 4*9 a) narrow e, 3:, , ei, 3u
b) broad ,
3. 8E%5 a) narrow , o:, oi
20
b) broad , ai, au, o, a:
The British linguists consider the vowels to be: mid, low, high.
3) )*E $8,59*5F M according to this characteristic Ieature vowels can be
divided into rounded and unrounded. The higher the tongue raises the
more rounded the lips are.
4) CC%(<5%66 this quality depends on the character oI the articulatory
transition Irom a vowel to a consonant. All short vowels are checked when
stressed, other vowels are Iree.
5) %56%5%66 characterizes the state oI the organ oI speech at the moment oI
production oI a vowel. Historically all long vowels are tense, and all short
vowels are lax.
-3-
The problem the analysts are Iaced with is whether vowel length can be
treated as a relevant Ieature oI English vowel system. The approach oI D.
Jones extends the principle underlying phonological relevance oI vowel
quantity. That means that words in such pairs as bid bi:d, sit si:t
are distinguished Irom one another by the opposition oI diIIerent length,
which are called (C$85%4%6. The diIIerence in quantity is considered to be
decisive and the diIIerence in quality (the position oI the active organs oI
speech) is considered to be subordinate to the diIIerence in quantity.
To approach this aspect Irom the phonological point oI view we
should base on the 2 laws characterizing any system:
1) A relevant Ieature must characterize a number oI units.
English vowels can hardly Iorm quantitative correlation. Sounds i: and
u: are normally realized in P as diphthongized vowels. So i u are
opposed to diphthongoids but not to long monophthongs.
The opposition 3: is a Iairly speciIic one because the
phoneme never occurs in a stressed syllable and Iorms the core oI the
unstressed vocalism in English.
The opposition a: is arbitrary. So there is only one pair oI
opposed phonemes, remaining o: o. That means that quantitative
correlation exists only in one opposition, so it cannot be treated as a
phonologically relevant Ieature.
2) A Ieature can be systematic iI it doesn`t depend on the
context (e.g. i: in 'beat is only halI about as long as the i: oI 'bee and
may approximately have the same duration as i oI 'bid, because it is
generally known that a voiced consonant Iollowing a vowel increases its
length. But still the words 'bid and 'beat are perceived as diIIerent
21
words, because the vowels are diIIerent in quality: i being Iront-retracted,
a pure monophthong, and i: being Iront, close and a diphthongized
vowel. Hence, vowel quantity cannot be considered a minimal distinctive
Ieature since it varies under the inIluence oI diIIerent phonetic contexts.
-4-
The sound variations in words, their derivatives and grammatical Iorms
oI words are called D68,59 ':+%$5'+*856, they are caused by assimilation,
accommodation and reduction in speech. Some oI them are historical, and
others are contextual. The study oI the relationship between phonemes and
morphemes is called '48$EC8EC85%4*(6 and the interrelation oI
phonology and morphology is known as 48$EC858:8F@. It studies the way
in which sounds can alternate as diIIerent realizations oI one and the same
morpheme. Morpheme is a minimal unit oI meaning. The main problem is
connected with neutralization, whether the sound is an allophone oI
some phoneme which lost some oI its distinctive Ieatures or a neutral
phoneme.
The so-called morphological school represented by Soviet
philologists .I. Avanesov, V.P. Sidorov, A.A. eIormatsky supported the
theory oI neutralization oI phonemes. A neutralization is said to occur
when 2 or more closely related sounds, which are in contrast with each
other in most positions like ! \ ! are Iound to be non-contrastive in
certain other positions (e.g. ``). That means that
there are environments where the 2 sounds do not contrast with each other,
even though they normally do. So, the opposition between the 2 sounds is
said to be neutralised. Alternations are observed in one and the same
morphological unit (preIix, suIIix, root or ending). The phonemic content
oI the morpheme is constant. Only then we can distinguish whether the
phonemes are diIIerent or the same. Morphemes may have strong and weak
positions. A strong position Ior a vowel is in a stressed syllable, Ior a
consonant beIore a vowel ( e.g. object ob/ject). This point oI view is
supported by the linguists oI the Moscow School. As to the St.-P. School
they consider the phoneme to be independent oI the morpheme. The
phonemic content oI the morpheme is not constant and they think the
diIIerence between allophones oI the same phoneme limited and similar
sounds cannot be treated as allophones oI diIIerent phonemes. The
words /2U]B^N and 2U_]B^N o are allophones oI the same phoneme.
The Moscow School is oI a polymorphological structure: 1) phonemic
changes cannot be analysed without the morpheme taken into account
because the Iorm and the content make a unity; 2) it is quite natural Ior the
allophones oI the same phoneme to sound diIIerently (e.g. dd dres).
22
Some scholars are against this point oI view and there are the reasons:
1) Sometimes it is impossible to Iind a strong position Ior a sound (e.g.
decorate o or e).
2) The diIIerence between the allophones oI the same phoneme may be
strong.
The second concept oI the scholars is Ior:
1. The only reason Ior this conception is its seeming simplicity.
Against this conception:
1.The objections seem to be Iar more serious because they isolate
phonology Irom morphology. As a result oI it the unity between a Iorm and
a content is destroyed.
2.The limits within which the allophones oI the same phoneme may
vary are too vague.
YPB?N@23?Z
1. On which bases do we distinguish vowels
2. Analyze the Iunction oI quality and quantity in the system oI
English vowels.
3. Characterize the phonemes o, u, i.
4. What are the basic modiIications oI vowels in connected speech
Give your examples (with the analysis).
)%(+,$% 1. "@::'H:% &8$4'+*85. @E%6 8&
+$'56($*E+*85
1. Syllable Iormation.
2. Syllable division.
3. Types oI transcription.
-1-
Syllable Iormation in English is based on the phonological opposition
vowel consonant. Vowels are usually syllabic while consonants are not,
with the exception oI l, m, n, which become syllabic iI they occur in
an unstressed Iinal position preceded by a noise consonant /litl, /ga:dn.
The structure oI the syllable is known to vary because oI the number
and the agreement oI consonants. In English there are 0 +@E%6 8& 6@::'H:%6:
1) 8E%5 (no),
2) (:86%9 (odd),
23
3) (8N%$%9 (note),
4) ,5(8N%$%9 (oh).
The structure oI the English syllables reveals variations in the number
oI pre-vocalic consonants Irom 1 to 3 and post-vocalic consonants Irom 1
to 5.
As to the number oI syllables in the English word it can vary Irom 1
to eight.
-2-
The other aspect oI the dialectal unity which characterizes the speech
continuum is syllable division. The linguistic importance oI syllable
divisions in diIIerent languages is in Iinding typology oI syllables and
syllable structure oI meaningIul units oI a language, that is morphemes and
words.
The syllabic structure oI a language is patterned. The part oI
phonetics that deals with this aspect oI a language is called phonotactics.
In English the problem oI syllable division exists only in case oI
intervocalic consonants and their clusters like in the words /siti, /gri:.
2 variants are possible:
1) the point oI syllable division is aIter the intervocalic consonant;
2) the point oI syllable division is inside the consonant.
In both cases the Iirst syllable remains closed according to phonotactic
rules oI the English language, because the short vowel should be checked.
The results oI the analysis show that the point oI syllable division in words
like /piti, /topic is inside the intervocalic consonant.
U,5(+*856 oI the syllable:
1) the (856+*+,+*N% &,5(+*85. It lies in its ability to be a part oI a word or a
word itselI;
2) the 9*6+*5(+*N% &,5(+*85. The syllable is characterized by its ability to
diIIerentiate words and word Iorms.
So at the Iunctional level oI description the syllable could be conceived
oI as a smallest pronounceable unit with potential linguistic importance.
-3-
The system oI phonetic notations is generally termed as 'transcription.
$'56($*E+*85 is a set oI symbols representing speech sounds. C% &*$6+
24
+@E% oI notation is H$8'9 8$ EC85%4*( transcription which provides
special symbols Ior all the phonemes oI a language. C% 6%(859 +@E% M +C%
5'$$8O 8$ '::8EC85*( transcription suggests special symbols including
some notes about the articulation oI a particular allophone. It is used in
research work.
There are two types oI broad transcription, used in this country:
1) the Iirst type was introduced by D. Jones. He realized the diIIerence in
quality as well as in quantity between the vowel sounds in the words 'sit
and 'seat, the neutral vowel and the vowel in the word 'earn. He wanted
to reduce the number oI symbols and insisted that some conventions
should be stated one and Ior all. One oI these conventions is that the above
mentioned long and short vowels diIIer in quality as well as in quantity.
That`s why one used the same symbols Ior them i i:.
2) the second type used by V.A. Vassilyel, causes no phonological
misunderstanding providing special symbols Ior all vowel phonemes I,
i:, e, , a:, , o, o:, u, u:, 3:, .
Being a good visual aid this way oI notation can be strongly
recommended Ior teaching the pronunciation oI English to any audience.
YPB?N@23?Z
1. How many types oI syllables do you know Name them.
2. What are the three points according to which a syllable can be
analyzed
3. What is the main problem oI the syllable division in English
4. What are the Iunctions oI the syllable
5. Give the deIinition oI the term 'syllable.
6. What are the basic diIIerences between the broad and narrow types oI
transcription
)%(+,$% 7. ;8$9 6+$%66
1. Word stress, its acoustic nature.
2. The linguistic Iunction oI a word stress.
3. Degree and position oI a word stress.
-1-
The sequence oI syllables in the word is not pronounced identically.
The syllable or syllables which are pronounced with more prominence than
the other syllables oI the word are said to be stressed or accented. The
25
correlation oI varying prominences oI syllables in a word is understood as
the accentual structure oI the word.
According to A.C. Gimson, the eIIect oI prominence is achieved by
any or all oI Iour Iactors: Iorce, tone, length and vowel colour. The
dynamic stress implies greater Iorce with which the syllable is pronounced.
In other words in the articulation oI the stressed syllable greater muscular
energy is produced by the speaker. The European languages such as
English, German, rench, ussian are believed to possess predominantly
dynamic word stress. In Scandinavian languages the word stress is
considered to be both dynamic and musical (e.g. in Swedish, the word
82SS; (comma) is distinguished Irom the word 82SS; (come) by a
diIIerence in tones). The musical (tonic) word stress is observed in
Chinese, Japanese. It is eIIected by the variations oI the voice pitch in
relation to neighbouring syllables. In Chinese the sound sequence 'chu
pronounced with the level tone means 'pig, with the rising tone
'bamboo, and with the Ialling tone 'to live.
It is Iair to mention that there is a terminological conIusion in
discussing the nature oI stress. According to D. Crystal, the terms
'heaviness, intensity, amplitude, prominence, emphasis, accent, stress
tend to be used synonymously by most writers. The discrepancy in
terminology is largely due to the Iact that there are 2 major views
depending on whether the productive or receptive aspects oI stress are
discussed.
The main drawback with any theory oI stress based on production oI
speech is that it only gives a partial explanation oI the phenomenon but
does not analyze it on the perceptive level.
Instrumental investigations study the physical nature oI word stress.
On the acoustic level the counterpart oI Iorce is the intensity oI the
vibrations oI the vocal cords oI the speaker which is perceived by the
listener as loudness. Thus the greater energy with which the speaker
articulates the stressed syllable in the word is associated by the listener
with greater loudness. The acoustic counterparts oI voice pitch and length
are Irequency and duration respectively. The nature oI word stress in
ussian seems to diIIer Irom that in English. The quantitative component
plays a greater role in ussian accentual structure than in English word
accent. In the ussian language oI Iull Iormation and Iull length in
unstressed positions, they are always reduced. ThereIore the vowels oI Iull
length are unmistakably perceived as stressed. In English the quantitative
component oI word stress is not oI primary importance because oI the non-
reduced vowels in the unstressed syllables which sometimes occur in
English words (e.g. 'transport, 'architect).
26
-2-
In discussing accentual structure oI English words we should turn now
to the Iunctional aspect oI word stress. In language the word stress
perIorms / &,5(+*856:
1) (856+*+,+*N% word stress constitutes a word, it organizes the syllables oI
a word into a language unit. A word does not exist without the word
stress. Thus the Iunction is constitutive sound continuum becomes a
phrase when it is divided into units organized by word stress into words.
2) Word stress enables a person to identiIy a succession oI syllables as a
deIinite accentual pattern oI a word. This Iunction is known as
*9%5+*&*('+8$@ (or recognitive).
3) Word stress alone is capable oI diIIerentiating the meaning oI words or
their Iorms, thus perIorming its 9*6+*5(+*N% &,5(+*85. The accentual
patterns oI words or the degrees oI word stress and their positions Iorm
oppositions ('/import im /port, '/present pre /sent).
-3-
There are actually as many degrees oI word stress in a word as there are
syllables. The British linguists usually distinguish three degrees oI stress in
the word. The primary stress is the strongest (e.g. exami/nation), the
secondary stress is the second strongest one (e.g. ex,ami/nation). All the
other degrees are termed 'weak stress. nstressed syllables are supposed
to have weak stress. The American scholars, B. Bloch and J. Trager, Iind 4
contrastive 9%F$%%6 8& O8$9 6+$%66Q :8(*9, $%9,(%9 :8(*9, 4%9*': '59
O%'<.
In Germanic languages the word stress originally Iell on the initial
syllable or the second syllable, the root syllable in the English words with
preIixes. This tendency was called recessive. Most English words oI
Anglo-Saxon origin as well as the rench borrowings are subjected to this
recessive tendency.
Languages are also diIIerentiated according to the placement oI word
stress. The traditional classiIication oI languages concerning the place oI
stress in a word is into those with ' &*=%9 6+$%66 '59 ' &$%% 6+$%66. In
languages with a Iixed stress the occurrence oI the word stress is limited to
a particular syllable in a multisyllabic word. or example, in rench the
stress Ialls on the last syllable oI the word (iI pronounced in isolation), in
innish and Czech it is Iixed on the Iirst syllable.
Some borrowed words retain their stress.
27
In languages with a Iree stress its place is not conIined to a speciIic
position in the word. The Iree placement oI stress is exempliIied in the
English and ussian languages
(e.g. E. appetite begin examination
. m)
The word stress in English as well as in ussian is not only Iree but it
may also be shiIting perIorming semantic Iunction oI diIIerentiating lexical
units, parts oI speech, grammatical Iorms. It is worth noting that in English
word stress is used as a means oI word-building (e.g. /contrast
con/trast, /music mu /sician).
YPB?N@23?Z
1. What Ieatures characterize word accent
2. IdentiIy the Iunctions oI word stress.
3. What are the types oI word stress
4. Do AmE and BE have any diIIerences in the system oI word stress
Give your examples.
)%(+,$% 2. V5+85'+*85
1. Intonation.
2. The linguistic Iunction oI intonation.
3. The implications oI a terminal tone.
4. hythm.
-1-
Intonation is a language universal. There are no languages which are
spoken as a monotone, i.e. without any change oI prosodic parametres. On
perceptional level intonation is a complex, a whole, Iormed by signiIicant
variations oI pitch, loudness and tempo closely related. Some linguists
regard speech timber as the Iourth component oI intonation. Though it
certainly conveys some shades oI attitudinal or emotional meaning there`s
no reason to consider it alongside with the / E$8689*( (84E85%5+6 8&
*5+85'+*85 JE*+(C, :8,95%66 '59 +%4E8I. Nowadays the term 'prosody
substitutes the term 'intonation.
On the acoustic level pitch correlates with the Iundamental Irequency
oI the vibrations oI the vocal cords; loudness correlates with the amplitude
oI vibrations; tempo is a correlate oI time during which a speech unit lasts.
28
The auditory level is very important Ior teachers oI Ioreign languages.
Each syllable oI the speech chain has a special pitch colouring. Some oI the
syllables have signiIicant moves oI tone up and down. Each syllable bears
a deIinite amount oI loudness. Pitch movements are inseparably connected
with loudness. Together with the tempo oI speech they Iorm an intonation
pattern which is the basic unit oI intonation.
An intonation pattern contains one nucleus and may contain other
stressed or unstressed syllables normally preceding or Iollowing the
nucleus. The boundaries oI an intonation pattern may be marked by stops
oI phonation, that is temporal pauses.
Intonation patterns serve to actualize syntagms in oral speech. The
6@5+'F4 is a group oI words which are semantically and syntactically
complete. In phonetics they are called *5+85'+*85 F$8,E6. The intonation
group is a stretch oI speech which may have the length oI the whole phrase.
But the phrase oIten contains more than one intonation group. The number
oI them depends on the length oI phrase and the degree oI semantic
impotence or emphasis given to various parts oI it. The position oI
intonation groups may aIIect the meaning.
-2-
The (844,5*('+*N% &,5(+*85 oI intonation is realized in various ways
which can be grouped under Iive six general headings:
1) to structure the intonation content oI a textual unit. So as to show which
inIormation is new or can not be taken Ior granted, as against inIormation
which the listener is assumed to possess or to be able to acquire Irom the
context, that is given inIormation;
2) to determine the speech Iunction oI a phrase, to indicate whether it is
intended as a statement, question, etc;
3) to convey connotational meanings oI attitude, such as surprise, etc. In the
written Iorm we are given only the lexics and the grammar;
4) to structure a text. Intonation is an organizing mechanism. It divides texts
into smaller parts and on the other hand it integrates them Iorming a
complete text;
5) to diIIerentiate the meaning oI textual units oI the same phonetic structure
and the same lexical composition (distinctive or phonological Iunction);
6) to characterize a particular style or variety oI oral speech which may be
called a stylistic Iunction.
-3-
ClassiIication oI *5+85'+*85 E'++%$56:
29
DiIIerent combinations oI pitch sections (pre-heads, heads and nuclei)
may result in more than one hundred pitch-and-stress patterns. But it is not
necessary to deal with all oI them, because some patterns occur very rarely.
So, attention must be concentrated on the commonest ones:
1.The Low (Medium) all pitch-and-stress group
2.The High all group
3.ise all group
4.The Low ise group
5.The High ise group
6.The all ise group
7.The ise-all-ise group
8.The Mid-level group
No intonation pattern is used exclusively with this or that sentence
type. Some sentences are more likely to be said with one intonation pattern
than with any other. So we can speak about 'common intonation Ior a
particular type oI sentence.
a) Statements are most widely used with the Low all preceded by
the alling or the High level Head. They are Iinal, complete and deIinite.
b) Commands, with the Low all are very powerIul, intense, serious
and strong.
c) Exclamations are very common with the High all.
-4-
We cannot Iully describe English intonation without reIerence to
speech rhythm. WC@+C4 seems to be a kind oI Iramework oI speech
organization. Some linguists consider it to be one oI the components oI
intonation.
hythm is understood as periodicity in time and space. We Iind it
everywhere in liIe. hythm as a linguistic notion is realized in lexical,
syntactical and prosodic means and mostly in their combinations.
In speech, the type oI rhythm depends on the language. Linguists
divide languages into two groups:
1) 6@::'H:%S+*4%9 (rench, Spanish);
2) 6+$%66S+*4%9 (English, German, ussian).
In a syllable-timed language the speaker gives an approximately equal
amount oI time to each syllable, whether the syllable is stressed or
unstressed.
In a stress-timed language the rhythm is based on a larger unit, than
syllable. Though the amount oI time given on each syllable varies
30
considerably, the total time oI uttering each rhythmic unit is practically
unchanged. The stressed syllables oI a rhythmic unit Iorm peaks oI
prominence. They tend to be pronounced at regular intervals no matter how
many unstressed syllables are located between every 2 stressed ones. Thus
the distribution oI time within the rhythmic unit is unequal.
Speech rhythm is traditionally deIined as recurrence oI stressed
syllables at more or less equal intervals oI time in a speech continuum.
YPB?N@23?Z
1. Name the basic components oI intonation.
2. What is the connection between pitch and tempo
3. What Ior do we need diIIerent nuclear tones
4. Which nuclei are the commonest
)%(+,$% 3. %$$*+8$*': N'$*%+*%6 8& !5F:*6C
E$85,5(*'+*85
1. Varieties oI language.
2. English variants.
-1-
The varieties oI the language are conditioned by language
communities ranging Irom small groups to nations. N'+*85': :'5F,'F% is
the language oI a nation, the standard oI its Iorm, the language oI a nation`s
literature. The literary spoken Iorm has its 5'+*85': E$85,5(*'+*85
6+'59'$9. A D6+'59'$9G may be deIined as a socially accepted variety oI a
language established by a codiIied norm oI correctness. It is generally
accepted that Ior the 'English English it is 'eceived Pronunciation or
P; Ior the 'American English 'General American pronunciation; Ior
the Australian English 'Educated Australian.
Though every national variant oI English has considerable diIIerences
in pronunciation, lexics and grammar, they all have much in common
which gives us ground to speak oI one and the same language the English
language.
Every national variety oI the language Ialls into +%$$*+8$*': 8$
$%F*85': 9*':%(+6. Dialects are distinguished Irom each other by
diIIerences in pronunciation, grammar and vocabulary. When we reIer to
varieties in pronunciation only, we use the word 'accent.
31
The social diIIerentiation oI language is closely connected with the
social diIIerentiation oI society. Every language community, ranging Irom
a small group to a nation has its own 68(*': 9*':%(+, and consequently, its
own social accent.
The 'language situation may be spoken about in terms oI the
horizontal and vertical diIIerentiations oI the language, the Iirst in
accordance with the sphere oI social activity, the second with its
situational variability. Situational varieties oI the language are called
Iunctional dialects or Iunctional styles and situational pronunciation
varieties situational accents or phonostyles.
-2-
Nowadays two main types oI English are spoken in the English-
speaking world: English English and American English.
According to British dialectologists (P. Trudgill, J. Hannah, A.
Hughes and others) the Iollowing variants oI English are reIerred to the
English-based group: English English, Welsh English, Australian English,
New ealand English; to the American-based group: nited States English,
Canadian English.
Scottish English and Irish English Iall somewhere between the two
being somewhat by themselves.
T'$*%+*%6 8& !5F:*6C
32
A$*+*6C !5F:*6C B((%5+6
English English Welsh
English
Scottish English Northern
Ireland
English South
ern
Northern Educated
Sc.English

egional

Varieties
Southern
East
Anglia
South-
West
1. Northern
2. orkshire
3. North-West
4. West
Midland
YPB?N@23?Z
1. What is the characteristics oI national variants
2. DeIine the diIIerence between a variant and a dialect.
3. Name the types oI dialects. Give the examples.
Varieties oI English
oI English
English-based
pronunciation
standards
standards
American-based
pronunciation
standards
British English
Irish English
Australian English
New ealand English
English English
Welsh English
Scottish English
Northern Ireland
English
American English
Canadian English
33
4. Dialect accent: are these terms identical
5. Where do pronunciation standards Irom come
6. Can people speak two or more dialects How do we call such a
phenomenon
7. Analyze all English varieties Irom the point oI view oI their
pronunciation standards.
"%4*5'$6
"%4*5'$ -
Topic: The essence oI the course oI theoretical phonetics.
The aims and purposes oI the course. Segmental and suprasegmental
phonetics.
"%4*5'$ .
Topic: Problems oI phonostylistics.
The norms oI the English language. A phonetic style-Iorming Iactor.
"%4*5'$ /
Topic: Extralinguistic Iactors the speaker`s individuality, temporal
provenance, social provenance, range oI intelligibility, sex oI the speaker.
ClassiIication oI phonetic styles.
"%4*5'$ 0
Topic: The Iunctional aspect oI speech sounds.
The phoneme. Main trends in phoneme theory. Methods oI
phonological analysis.
"%4*5'$ 5
Topic: The system oI English phonemes.
Consonants. ModiIications oI English consonants in connected speech.
Vowels. ModiIications oI vowels in connected speech. Sound alternations.
"%4*5'$ 1
Topic: Syllabic structure. Syllable Iormation. Syllabic Iunctions in
connected speech.
Syllabic division.
34
"%4*5'$ 7
Topic: Accentual structure.
The nature oI word-stress, pitch, quantity and quality oI word-stress.
The placement oI word-stress. The instability due to the diIIerent origin oI
several layers in the modern English word-stock.
"%4*5'$ 2
Topic: Intonation.
Pitch, loudness, tempo the main components oI intonation. The
number oI intonation groups. hythm. Stylistic use oI intonation.
"%4*5'$ 3
Topic: Territorial varieties oI English pronunciation.
unctional styles. Dialectology. Spread oI English. Standard English.
C%4%6 &8$ +C% $%E8$+6 Q
1. Historical background oI English accentual system.
2. The peculiarities oI American intonation (the comparative analysis oI
BE and AE intonation).
3. Canadian variant. Its speciIic Ieatures.
4. The Iunctional use oI intonation.
5. ModiIications oI vowels in connected speech.
6. ModiIications oI consonants in connected speech.
7. The problem oI the norm.
789%: %6+ ;8$<
T'$*'5+ -
-I ;C'+ *6 +C% 9*&&%$%5(% H%+O%%5 E$8F$%66*N% '59 $%F$%66*N%
'66*4*:'+*85X
a) in the degree;
35
b) in the level;
c) in the direction.
.I $@ +8 $%4%4H%$ *5 OC'+ E86*+*856 +C% ',=*:*'$@ '59 489':
N%$H6 '$% F%5%$'::@ 6+$%66%9 *5 ' 6%5+%5(%.
a) both in the Iinal and in the initial positions;
b) both in the middle and in the initial positions;
c) both in the Iinal and in the middle positions.
/I $'56($*H% +C% 6%5+%5(%6. 7'$< +C% 6+$%66%6 '59 +,5%6.
C85(%5+$'+% @8,$ 6E%(*': '++%5+*85 85 6+$85F '59 O%'< &8$46 8&
E%$685': '59 E866%66*N% E$858,56 '59 8+C%$ &8$4 O8$96Q
Sam said he was coming.
Is he bringing Mary
He only said he was coming.
T'$*'5+ .
-I ;C'+ '::8EC85% 8& +C% EC85%4% Y$Z *6 ,6%9 O*+C*5 +C% O8$9
+$'*5X
a) voiced;
b) voiceless;
c) completely devoiced.
.I ;% (':: Y 8Z 8E%5 '59 Y*Z (:86%. C'5 @8, %=E:'*5 OC@X
a) because oI the pitch level;
b) because oI the degree oI a tongue protruding;
c) because oI the position in a word.
/I ;C*(C '$% +C% O8$96 +C'+ ':O'@6 C'N% 6+$85F &8$46 *5 '5
,56+$%66%9 E86*+*85X
a) to be b) he
to do when main verbs when
to have then
when oII
then in
on what
36
in do when auxiliary
oII have when auxiliary
that (demonstrative pronoun) should
some (an indeIinite pronoun) able
will (modal verb
!='4*5'+*85 [,%6+*856
1. Phonetics as a branch oI linguistics.
2. The relation oI phonetics to other areas oI science.
3. The role oI phonetics in Ioreign teaching.
4. Phonetics and phonology. Their tasks and problems.
5. The phoneme theory.
6. The material aspect oI the phoneme.
7. The Iunctional aspect oI the phoneme.
8. The concept oI phoneme in this country and abroad.
9. Sounds and phonemes.
10. Articulation and breathing practice.
11. The organs oI speech and their work.
12. Morphonology and its problems.
13. The semantically-distributional method.
14. The principles oI classiIication oI vowels.
15. vowels.
16. The relevance oI vowel length in Modern English.
17. The principles oI classiIication oI consonants.
18. ricatives.
19. AIIricates.
20. Occlusive noise consonants.
21. Sonorants.
22. Pronunciation errors in relation to meaning.
23. The modiIication oI consonants in connected speech.
24. The modiIication oI vowels in connected speech.
25. Syllable Iormation in English.
26. Word-stress. Its acoustic nature.
27. The linguistic Iunction oI word-stress.
28. The degree and position oI word-stress.
29. Intonation.
37
30. The linguistic Iunction oI intonation.
31. Sentence stress. Its types.
32. Tempo oI speech.
33. hythm.
34. The implication oI English terminal tones.
35. Intonational styles.
36. Types oI transcription.
37. Phonostylistics.
38. Principal types oI pronunciation in Great Britain.
39. Standard British as a teaching norm.
40. New tendencies in the pronunciation oI English.
41. General American.
42. Other pronunciation variants (Canadian, Australian, Indian, etc.).
?)O""BW\
BH6+$'(+ S existing as an idea, Ieeling or quality, not as a material
object, or (oI an argument, discussion, etc.) general, not based on
particular examples 'H6+$'(+ S existing as an idea, Ieeling or quality,
38
not as a material object, or (oI an argument, discussion, etc.) general,
not based on particular examples.
'(8,6+*( S relating to sound or hearing.
'&&$*('+% M occlusive-constrictive consonant.
'::8EC85% M the variant oI the phoneme.
',9*H:% S loud enough to be heard.
(C%(<5%66 M this quality depends on the character oI the articulatory
transition Irom a vowel to a consonant. As a result all English short
vowels are checked when stressed.
(85(84*+'5+ J6@5. *59*6E%56'H:%I S (something) happening together
and connected with something else.
(85685'5+ S one oI the speech sounds or letters oI the alphabet which is
not a vowel. They are pronounced by stopping the air Irom Ilowing
Ireely through the mouth, esp. by closing the lips or touching the teeth
with the tongue.
(856+*+,%5+ S one oI the parts that a substance or combination is made
oI.
&8$+*6 M strong (all voiceless consonants are strong).
&$*('+*N% constrictive Iricative consonant. Sounds are Iricative,
because the air passes through the narrowing with audible Iriction.
&,5(+*85': S arranged so that it is easy to use, has a practical purpose.
*5(*9%5+': (syn. redundant)- happening in connection with something
oI greater importance.
*5+%::*F*H:% S (oI speech and writing) clear enough to be understood.
*5+%$'(+*85 S communication with or reaction to (each other).
*5N%5+8$@ S a detailed list oI all the items in a place.
:%5*6 M weak (all voiced consonants are weak).
:8,95%66 S the human ear allows us to detect subtle diIIerences in
loudness ( how loud something is) and in pitch, and to locate the
source oI a sound.
4'+%$*': S relating to physical objects.
5'6': S oI the nose (e.g. the nasal cavity). II a persons voice is nasal it
has a particular sound because air is going through their nose when they
speak.
39
8H]%(+ S a purpose, desired result, or reason Ior doing something.
8$': M oI, taken by, or done to the mouth.
EC85%+*(6 S the study oI the sounds made by the human voice in speech.
E*+(C S the degree to which a sound is high or low.
6858$'5+ nasal consonant.
68,59 S (what is heard because oI) quick changes oI pressure in air, wa
ter etc.
6E%%(C S the ability to talk, the activity oI talking, or a piece oI spoken
language.
6,H]%(+ S the thing which is being discussed, considered or studied.
6,H6*9*'$@ S less important than something else with which it is con
nected.
6@5+'F4 - a group oI words which are semantically and syntactically
complete.
+%4E8 S the speed at which an event happens, or (specialized) the speed
at which a piece oI music is played.
+%56% S (oI your body or part oI the body) stretched tight and stiII.
+%$4*5': M Ialling.
+$*E:% S consisting oI three parts, or being repeated twice.
N8O%: S a speech sound produced by human beings when the breath
Ilows out through the mouth without being blocked by the teeth, tongue
or lips.
40
V
^ _`


T n
C 28.02.2006. H 24.02.2006.
m 60x90/16. Times. m . H .
V. . . 9,06. T 70 +.
3 1746, . (.) 1068.
Pn-
m. B.M. B - 659333, . , . K, 53.
T
m. B.M. B - 659333, . , . K, 55/1.
41

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