2 MARKS

Chapter 1
Define research
Research is the systematic process of collecting and analyzing information (data) in order to increase our understanding of the phenomenon about which we are concerned or interested.

The search for knowledge through objective and systematic method of finding solution to a problem is research. Give the meaning of empirical research. Empirical research relies on experience or observation alone. It is data-based research, coming up with conclusions which are capable of being verified by observation or experiment. What is an applied research?
Applied research aims at finding a solution for an immediate problem facing society or an organization.

Ex: Why have sales decreased during the last quarter? State the meaning of qualitative research.
Qualitative research is concerned with qualitative phenomena relating to or involving quality or kind. Ex.-motivation research.

What is research? A scientific and systematic search for pertinent information on a specific topic A systematized effort to gain new knowledge A careful investigation or inquiry specially through search for new facts in any branch of knowledge What is business research? What is ex-post facto research?
In this type of research, an examination of relationship that exists between independent and dependent variable is studied. We may call this empirical research. In this method, the researcher has no control over an independent variable. Ex-post facto literally means from what is done afterwards. In this research, a variable A is observed. Thereafter, the researcher tries to find a causal variable B which caused A. It is quite possible that B might not have been caused A. In this type of analysis, there is no scope for the researcher to manipulate the variable. The researcher can only report what has happened and what is happening.

State two characteristics of research. 1. It is directed toward the solution of a problem

2. It emphasises the development of generalisations, principles, or theories that will be helpful in predicting future occurrences. 3. Research demands accurate observation and description.

4. Research involves gathering new data from primary sources or using secondary data for a new purpose. 5. Research requires expertise. 6. Research strives to be objective and logical 7. Research is characterised by patient and unhurried activity 8. It is carefully recorded and reported. 9. Research requires a strong determination to know the unknown.

State any two objectives of social science research

To gain familiarity with a phenomenon or to achieve new insights into it - Exploratory research To portray accurately the characteristics of a particular individual, situation or group -Descriptive research To determine the frequency with which something occurs or with which it is associated with something else Diagnostic research To test a hypothesis of a causal relationship between variables Hypothesis-testing research

What is a survey?
A survey is a data collection tool used to gather information about individuals. Surveys are commonly used in psychology research to collect self-report data from study participants. A survey may focus on factual information about individuals, or it might aim to collect the opinions of the survey takers.

Chapter 2
Mention any 4 sources of identifying research problem. State any four sources of selecting a research problem. Reading Academic Experience Daily Experience Exposure to Field Situations Consultations Brainstorming Research

Define research problem. What is research problem? A research problem refers to some difficulty which a researcher experiences in the context of either a theoretical or practical situation and wants a solution for it A research problem exists when the individual or the group, having one or more desired outcomes, are confronted with two or more courses of action that have some but not equal efficiency for the desired objective(s) and are in doubt about which course of action is best

Chapter 3
What is meant by research plan? What is a research design? What do you mean by research plan? What do you mean by research design? A research design is the arrangement of conditions for collection and analysis of data in a manner that aims to combine relevance to the research purpose with economy in procedure Is the conceptual structure within which research is conducted; it constitutes the blueprint for the collection, measurement and analysis of data Mention any two features of a good research plan A research design appropriate for a particular research problem, usually involves the consideration of the following factors: the means of obtaining information; the availability and skills of the researcher and his staff; the objective of the problem to be studied; the nature of the problem to be studied; and the availability of time and money for the research work. What is a dependent variable? Dependent variable (DV) if one variable depends upon or is a consequence of the other variable, it is termed as a DV
Ex: if we say that height depends upon age, then height is the DV and age is the IV.

Chapter 4
What is probability sampling? Probability sampling: In probability sample, every unit in the population has equal chances for being selected as a sample unit. What is a sample? The selected respondents constitute what is technically called a sample Mention any 4 characteristics of a good sample. Sample design must result in a truly representative sample. Sample design must be such which results in a small sampling error. Sample design must be viable in the context of funds available for the research study. Sample design must be such so that systematic bias can be controlled in a better way. Sample should be such that the results of the sample study can be applied, in general, for the universe with a reasonable level of confidence. What is snowball sampling? In this method, the initial group of respondents are selected randomly. Subsequent respondents are selected based on the opinion or referrals provided by the initial respondents. Further, referrals will lead referrals thus, leading to a snowball sampling. The referrals will have a demographic and psychographic characteristics that are relatively similar to the person referring them. Example: College students bring in more college students on the consumption of Pepsi. What is stratified random sampling? What is stratified sampling? If a population from which a sample is to be drawn does not constitute a homogeneous group, stratified sampling is applied in order to obtain a representative sample; here, the population is divided into several sub populations that are individually more homogeneous (these sub populations are called strata). A probability sampling procedure in which simple random sub-samples are drawn from within different strata that are more or less equal on some characteristics. What is random sampling? Simple random sample is a process in which every item of the population has equal probability of being chosen. What is meant by cluster sampling? Define cluster sampling. If the total area of interest happens to be a big one, a convenient way to take a sample is to divide the area into a number of smaller non overlapping areas and then to randomly select a number of these smaller areas (called clusters), with the ultimate sample consisting of all units in these clusters.

What is sample size? The number of items to be selected from the universe to constitute a sample. The size of sample should neither be excessively large, nor too small. It should be optimum. An optimum sample is one which fulfills the requirements of efficiency, representativeness, reliability and flexibility. Costs too dictate the size of sample that we can draw. Budgetary constraint must invariably be taken into consideration when we decide the sample size What is systematic sampling? Systematic Sampling: the most practical way of sampling is to select every ith item on a list; an element of randomness is introduced into this kind of a sampling by using random numbers to pick up the unit with which to start. What is sample design? A sample design is a definite plan for obtaining a sample from a given population. It refers to the technique or the procedure the researcher would adopt in selecting items for the sample. Sample design may as well lay down the number of items to be included in the sample i.e., the size of the sample. Sample design is determined before data are collected. Researcher must select/prepare a sample design which should be reliable and appropriate for his research study. What is sampling?
It is the process of selecting the sample from the entire population for the purpose of research so it represents the entire population.

Chapter 5
What is primary data? Primary data are those which are collected for the first time and are original in character What is secondary data? Secondary data are those which have already been collected by someone else and which have been passed through some statistical analysis What is meant by tabulation? What is tabulation? When a mass of data has been collected, it becomes necessary to arrange it in a concise and logical order Thus, tabulation is the process of summarizing raw data and displaying it in a compact form, for further analysis Tabulation is essential for: It conserves space and reduces explanatory and descriptive statement to a minimum It facilitates the process of comparisons It facilitates the summation of items and the detection of errors and omissions It provides a basis for various statistical computations Define observation. Observation becomes a scientific tool and the method of data collection, when it serves a formulated research purpose, is systematically planned and recorded and is subjected to checks and controls on validity and reliability Under observation the information is sought by way of investigators own direct observation without asking from the respondent Ex: In a study relating to consumer behavior, the investigator instead of asking the brand of wrist watch used by the respondent, may himself look at the watch. What is interview? The Interview Method of collecting data involves presentation of oral-verbal stimuli and reply in terms of oral verbal responses Mention any two demerits of secondary data
It is very difficult to assess the accuracy of secondary data The data may be out dated.

What is observation schedule?

The schedules which are used for observation are known as observation schedules. Using this schedule, observer records the activities and responses of an individual respondent or a group of respondents under specific conditions. The main purpose of the observation schedule is to verify information.

What is a questionnaire?
It is a tool used to collect data from the respondents.

Chapter 6
What is bibliography? The bibliography, which is generally appended to the research report, is a list of books in some way pertinent to the research which has been done. It should contain all those works which the researcher has consulted. What is an abstract?
An abstract is a brief summary of a research article, thesis, review, conference proceeding or any indepth analysis of a particular subject or discipline, and is often used to help the reader quickly ascertain the paper's purpose

What is interpretation of data? Interpretation refers to the task of drawing inferences from the collected data. State any two characteristics of research report. What is research report?
It is a statement of the contents in brief, the procedure adopted and findings arrived at by the researcher.

What do you mean by data analysis?

The data, after collection, has to be processed and analysed in accordance with the outline laid down for the purpose at the time of developing the research plan. The analysis planning should be done earlier at the research design stage itself. Processing involves editing, coding, classification and tabulation of data.

What is field study?

Field study: Includes a depth study. Field study involves in-depth study of a problem such as reaction of young men and women towards a product. Example: Reaction of Indian men towards branded ready to wear suit. Field study is carried out in real world environment settings. Test marketing is an example of field study.

What is pre-test?
A very important part of the questionnaire contruction process is its piloting, known as pretesting. This involves testing your research instrument in conditions as similar as possible to the research, but not in order to report results but rather to check for glitches in wording of questions, lack of clarity of instructions etc. - in fact, anything that could impede the instrument's ability to collect data in an economical and systematic fashion. Pretests should be conducted systematically, with potential respondents and using the same method of administration. The temptation to hurry over them, using just a convenience sample, should be avoided. It is also beneficial to pretest the questionnaire with specialists in question construction, who may be able to pick up potential difficulties which might not be revealed in a pretest with respondents.

If there are a variety of respondent types, all should be included in the pretest, and if the questionnaire is to be in several languages, it should be tested in each language

Give the meaning of hypothesis.

It is an assumption made by the researcher. It may be true or false.

5 MARKS
Chapter 1
State five objectives of research. Explain any five objectives of research. Briefly explain the objectives of research. The purpose of research is to discover answers to questions through the application of scientific procedures To gain familiarity with a phenomenon or to achieve new insights into it (studies with this objective are known as explorative or formulative studies) To portray accurately the characteristics of a particular individual, situation or a group (studies with this object in view are known as descriptive studies) To determine the frequency with which something occurs or with which it is associated with something else (known as diagnostic studies) To test a hypothesis of a causal relationship between variables (known as hypothesis testing)

Distinguish between research methods and research design. Distinguish between research methods and research methodology. Briefly explain the research methodology. Research methods are the various procedures, schemes, algorithms, etc. used in research. All the methods used by a researcher during a research study are termed as research methods. They are essentially planned, scientific and value-neutral. They include theoretical procedures, experimental studies, numerical schemes, statistical approaches, etc. Research methods help us collect samples, data and find a solution to a problem. Particularly, scientific research methods call for explanations based on collected facts, measurements and observations and not on reasoning alone. They accept only those explanations which can be verified by experiments. Research methodology is a method to solve the research problem systematically. It involves gathering data, use of statistical techniques, interpretations and drawing conclusions about the research data. It is a blueprint, which is followed to complete the study.

Research methodology is a systematic way to solve a problem. It is a science of studying how research is to be carried out. Essentially, the procedures by which researchers go about their work of describing, explaining and predicting phenomena are called research methodology. It is also defined as the study of methods by which knowledge is gained. Its aim is to give the work plan of research.

Name and briefly explain the five steps of research process. Research Process consists of series of actions or steps necessary to effectively carry out research. The process consists of closely related activities; such activities overlap continuously rather than following a strictly prescribed sequence.

The steps are as follows: 1. Formulating the research problem 2. Extensive literature survey 3. Development of working hypothesis 4. Preparing the research design 5. Determining sample design 6. Collecting the data 7. Execution of the project 8. Analysis of data 9. Hypothesis-testing 10. Generalization and Interpretation 11. Preparation of the Report 1. Formulating the Research Problem: Two types of problems: Problems which related to state of nature Problems which relate to relationships between variables The problem may be stated in a broad general way and then the ambiguities, if any, relating to the problem be resolved. Then, the feasibility of a particular solution has to be considered before a working formulation of the problem can be set up. The formulation of a general topic into a specific research problem is the first step in scientific enquiry

Two steps in formulating the research problem: Understanding the problem thoroughly Rephrasing the same into meaningful terms from an analytical point of view Must review two types of literature: The Conceptual literature concerning concepts and theories The Empirical literature consisting of earlier studies, which are similar to the one proposed Formulating/defining a research problem is of great importance and significance in the entire research process The problem must be defined unambiguously Must verify the objectivity and validity of background facts concerning the problem 2. Extensive Literature Review Once the problem is formulated, a brief summary of it should be written down. It is compulsory for Research worker writing a thesis for a Ph.D. degree to write a synopsis of the topic and submit it to the necessary Committee or the Research Board for approval. At this juncture the researcher should undertake extensive literature survey connected with the problem. For this purpose he can refer the following: Abstracting/Indexing journals Published/Unpublished bibliographies Academic journals Conference proceedings Govt. Reports Books

3. Development of Working Hypothesis The researcher should state, in clear terms the working hypothesis Working Hypothesis is a tentative assumption made in order to draw out and test its logical or empirical assumptions Hypothesis is the focal point of the research, for ex: students who receive counseling will show a greater increase in creativity than students not receiving counseling or car A is performing as well as car B Functions of a Hypothesis It guides the direction of the study. It identifies facts that are relevant and those that are not. It suggests which form of research design is likely to be most appropriate. It provides a framework for organizing the conclusions that result

4. Preparing the Research Design

Need to prepare a research design a conceptual structure within which the research would be conducted The primary objective of the research design is to collect the relevant data Research Purposes may be grouped into 1. Exploration 2. Description 3. Diagnosis 4. Experimentation The preparation of the research design, appropriate for a particular research problem, involves usually the consideration of the following: (i) the means of obtaining the information; (ii) the availability and skills of the researcher and his staff (if any); (iii) explanation of the way in which selected means of obtaining information will be organised and the reasoning leading to the selection; (iv) the time available for research; and (v) the cost factor relating to research, i.e., the finance available for the purpose. 5. Determining the Sample Design All the items under consideration in any field constitute a Universe or Population. A complete enumeration of all the items in the population is known as a census enquiry. Since a complete census enquiry is not possible generally, we select a sample a few items from the universe for our study. Researcher selects the sample by using sampling design a definite plan determined before any data is actually collected Types of Sampling 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. Deliberate Sampling Simple Random Sampling Systematic Sampling Quota Sampling Stratified Sampling Cluster/area Sampling Multi-stage Sampling Sequential Sampling

6. Collecting the Data Need to collect appropriate data Primary data can be collected thru experiment or survey

In experiment, he observes some quantitative measurements (data), with which the hypothesis is tested In Survey, data can be collected by the following methods: i. ii. iii. iv. v. Observation Personal Interview Telephone Interview Mailing Questionnaires Through Schedules

7. Execution of the Project The research study must be executed in a systematic manner to ensure that adequate and dependable data are collected. Should be rigorously (rigidly accurate) methodological 8. Analysis of Data Requires that the data be necessarily condensed into manageable groups and tables for further analyses Should classify the new data into some purposeful and usable categories Coding is done at this stage Tabulation classified data are put into tables Analysis, after tabulation is based on the computation of various percentages, coefficients, etc. by applying statistics Tests of significance would be applied wherever relevant 9. Hypothesis Testing Do the data support the hypothesis or they contrary? Chi Square test, t-test, f-test are normally used Hypothesis testing will result in either accepting the hypothesis or in rejecting it 10. Generalization & Interpretation To arrive at a generalization, that is, to build a theory Or to interpret the data in terms of existing state of knowledge (theories) 11. Preparation of Report/Thesis Has to prepare the report The layout of the report is as follows:

 The prefatory part The Main Body/Text The Supplemental Part The Prefatory Part Title page Certification Acknowledgments Preface Contents page The Main Body Introduction Summary of Findings Main Report conclusion The Supplemental Part References, or Bibliography Appendices Index Explain any two approaches to research. Explain the approaches of research. Quantitative approach The purpose of inferential approach to research is to form a data base from which to infer characteristics or relationships of population. This usually means survey research where a sample of population is studied (questioned or observed) to determine its characteristics, and it is then inferred that the population has the same characteristics. Experimental approach is characterised by much greater control over the research environment and in this case some variables are manipulated to observe their effect on other variables. Simulation approach involves the construction of an artificial environment within which relevant information and data can be generated. Qualitative approach It is concerned with subjective assessment of attitudes, opinions and behaviour. An approach to research generates results either in non-quantitative form or in the form which are not subjected to rigorous quantitative analysis. Techniques of focus group interviews, projective techniques and depth interviews are used.

Explain the characteristics of research

Chapter 2
Explain the components of research problem Components of Research Problem: 1. There must be an individual or a group which has some difficulty or the problem 2. There must be some objectives 3. There must be alternative means (courses of action) for obtaining the objectives 4. There must remain some doubt in the mind of the researcher regarding the selection of the alternatives 5. There must be some environment to which the difficulty pertains Explain the steps in formulating a research problem. Briefly explain the basic parts of a problem definition. Explain the various features of research problem.

Chapter 3
Explain the different components of research design Research Design has the following parts: i. The Sampling Design which deals with the method of selecting items to be observed for the given study ii. The Observational Design which relates to the conditions under which the observations are to be made iii. The Statistical Design which concerns with the question of how many items are to be observed and how the information and data gathered are to be analyzed iv. The Operational Design which deals with the techniques by which the procedures specified in the sampling, statistical and observational designs can be carried out Explain the need for research design. NEED FOR RESEARCH DESIGN Research design is needed because it facilitates the smooth sailing of the various research operations, thereby making research as efficient as possible yielding maximal information with minimal expenditure of effort, time and money. Just as for better, economical and attractive construction of a house, we need a blueprint, similarly we need a research design or a plan in advance of data collection and analysis for our research project. Research design stands for advance planning of the methods to be adopted for collecting the relevant data and the techniques to be used in their analysis, keeping in view the objective of the research and the availability of staff, time and money. Briefly explain the various variables in research design Briefly explain independent, dependent and extraneous variables in a research design.

A concept which can take on different quantitative values is called a variable. Ex: weight, height, income etc., are examples of a variable Qualitative phenomena (the attribute) are also quantified on the basis of the presence or absence of the concerning attribute 1. Dependent & Independent Variables Dependent variable (DV) if one variable depends upon or is a consequence of the other variable, it is termed as a DV And the variable that is antecedent to the DV is termed as the Independent variable IV Ex: if we say that height depends upon age, then height is the DV and age is the IV. Further, if height also depends upon the individuals sex then, height is the DV and age and sex are the IVs 2. Extraneous Variable IVs that are not related to the purpose of the study, but may affect the DV are termed as Extraneous Variable (EV) Ex: suppose the researcher wants to test the hypothesis that there is a relationship between childrens gains in social studies achievement and their self-concept. Here, self-concept is an IV and social studies achievement is a DV. Intelligence may as well affect the social studies achievement, but since it is not related to the purpose of the study, it will be termed as an EV Therefore, a study must be always so designed that the effect upon the DV is attributed entirely to the IVs and not to some EV. 3. Control One important characteristic of a good research design is to minimize the influence or effect of the EV. The term Control is used when we design the study minimizing the effects of extraneous variables 4. Confounded Relationship When the DV is not free from the influence of the EVs, the relationship between DV and IV is said to be confounded by the EV 5. Research Hypothesis When a prediction or a hypothesized relationship is to be tested by scientific methods, it is termed as a Research-Hypothesis The Research-Hypothesis is a predictive statement that relates an IV to a DV 6. Experimental and Non-Experimental Hypothesis testing research When the IV is manipulated it is an experimental design Research in which the IV is not manipulated is called Non-experimental hypothesis-testing research

Ex: a researcher wants to study whether intelligence affects reading ability for a group of students and for this purpose he randomly selects 50 students and tests their intelligence and reading ability by calculating the co-efficient of correlation between the two sets of scores this is an example of non-experimental hypothesis testing, because the IV, intelligence is not manipulated But now, suppose that the researcher randomly selects 50 students from a group of students who are to take a course in statistics and then divides them into two groups by randomly assigning 25 to Group A, the common program, and 25 to Group B, the special program. At the end of the course, he administers a test to each group in order to judge the effectiveness of the training program on the students performance. This is an example of experimental hypothesis testing because the IV (the type of training program) is manipulated. Explain the essentials of good research design. Analyze the design for descriptive design

Chapter 4
Analyze cluster and stratified sampling. Stratified Sampling: if a population from which a sample is to be drawn does not constitute a homogeneous group, stratified sampling is applied in order to obtain a representative sample; here, the population is divided into several sub populations that are individually more homogeneous (these sub populations are called strata). Cluster Sampling: if the total area of interest happens to be a big one, a convenient way to take a sample is to divide the area into a number of smaller non overlapping areas and then to randomly select a number of these smaller areas (called clusters), with the ultimate sample consisting of all units in these clusters. State the differences between census survey and sample survey Write the difference between census and sampling. Differentiate between census survey and sample survey. Explain the need for sampling What are the advantages of sampling?

Chapter 5
Analyze the characteristics of good questionnaire Questionnaire is the heart of a survey needs to be carefully constructed Need to understand the features of the Questionnaire its general form, question sequence and question formulation and the wording of the questions 1. General Form May be either structured or unstructured Structured Questionnaires are those in which there are definite, concrete, predetermined questions The questions are presented with exactly the same wording and in the same order to all respondents The form of the questions may be either closed (yes or no) or open (inviting free responses Structured Questionnaires may also have fixed alternative questions in which responses are limited to the stated alternatives Thus, a highly structured Questionnaire is one in which all the questions and answers are specified and comments in the respondents own words are held to the minimum Unstructured Questionnaire when the above characteristics are absent, it is known as a unstructured Questionnaire The Interviewer is provided with a general guideline on the type of information to be obtained 2. Question Sequence Proper sequence is needed to elicit valid responses Sequence must be clear that is, the relation of one question to the next To establish rapport and to gain cooperation from the respondent difficult questions, personal questions etc should preferably come at the appropriate time rather than at the beginning 3. Question Formulation & Wording

Phrasing the questions must be clear and unambiguous Questions should be impartial and unbiased Should be easily understood Should be simple (one idea at a time) Should be concrete Form of questions may be multiple choice or open-ended

Discuss briefly different types of observation. Types of Observation Essentially two types: 1. Structured vs. Unstructured Observation 2. Participant vs. Non-participant Observation Structured vs. Unstructured Observation Structured Observation when the observation is characterized by a careful definition of the units to be observed, the style of recording the observed information, standardized conditions of observation and the selection of pertinent data of observation Unstructured Observation when it takes place without the above characteristics Participant vs. Non-participant
This distinction depends upon the observers sharing or not sharing the life of the group he is observing

State the merits and demerits of interview method of data collection. Advantages 1. More information and in greater depth can be obtained 2. Resistance may be overcome by a skilled interviewer 3. Greater flexibility an opportunity to restructure questions 4. Observation method can also be applied to recording verbal answers 5. Personal information can be obtained 6. Possibility of spontaneous responses and thus more honest responses Disadvantages 1. Expensive method 2. Interviewer bias 3. Respondent bias 4. Time consuming 5. Under the interview method the organization required for selecting, training, and supervising the field staff is complex with formidable problems 6. Establishing rapport to facilitate free and frank responses is very difficult What are the advantages of mail survey as a research tool? Explain the merits and demerits of questionnaire. Merits of Questionnaire Method 1. Low cost even when the universe is large and is widespread 2. Free from interviewer bias 3. Respondents have adequate time to think thru their answers

4. Respondents who are not easily approachable, can also be reached conveniently 5. Large samples can be used Demerits 1. Low rate of return 2. Respondents need to be educated and cooperative 3. Inbuilt inflexibility 4. Possibility of ambiguous replies or omission of items 5. This method is slow Explain the advantages of observation. Main advantages are: Subjective bias is eliminated The information relates to what is currently happening This method is independent of respondents willingness to respond

Explain the advantages and disadvantages of primary data. Write any five advantages of secondary data Write the guidelines that help the investigator in conducting interview

Chapter 6
Analyze the technique of interpretation. Briefly explain the techniques of interpretation. The task of interpretation is not an easy job, rather it requires a great skill and dexterity on the part of researcher. Interpretation is an art that one learns through practice and experience. The researcher may, at times, seek the guidance from experts for accomplishing the task of interpretation. The technique of interpretation often involves the following steps: (i) Researcher must give reasonable explanations of the relations which he has found and he must interpret the lines of relationship in terms of the underlying processes and must try to find out the thread of uniformity that lies under the surface layer of his diversified research findings. In fact, this is the technique of how generalization should be done and concepts be formulated. (ii) Extraneous information, if collected during the study, must be considered while interpreting the final results of research study, for it may prove to be a key factor in understanding the problem under consideration. (iii)It is advisable, before embarking upon final interpretation, to consult someone having insight into the study and who is frank and honest and will not hesitate to point out omissions and errors in logical argumentation. Such a consultation will result in correct interpretation and, thus, will enhance the utility of research results. (iv) Researcher must accomplish the task of interpretation only after considering all relevant factors affecting the problem to avoid false generalization. He must be in no hurry while interpreting results, for quite often the conclusions, which appear to be all right at the beginning, may not at all be accurate.

State the purpose of report writing. Explain the purpose of report writing. Explain the purposes as to why the data has to be analyzed statistically.

Distinguish between survey and case study What is pilot study write the merits he conducting pilot study

15 MARKS
Chapter 1
What is research? Discuss different types of research. Explain the various types of research. Types of Research 1. 2. 3. 4. Descriptive vs. Analytical Applied vs. Fundamental Quantitative vs. Qualitative Conceptual vs. Empirical

1. Descriptive vs. Analytical The major purpose of the descriptive research is description of the state of affairs as it exists; usually includes surveys and fact-finding enquiries. The main characteristic here is that the researcher has no control over the variables he can only report what has happened or what is happening. Ex: survey methods to identify peoples preferences. Ex: A description of how the selected clerical sta are rewarded and what measures are used to record their productivity levels. In analytical research, the researcher has to use facts or information already available and analyze these for critical evaluation. Ex: An analysis of any relationships between the rewards given to the clerical sta and their productivity levels.

2. Conceptual vs. Empirical Conceptual research is related to some abstract idea or theory. Used by philosophers and thinkers to develop new concepts or to reinterpret existing ones. Empirical research relies on experience or observation alone; it is data based research coming up with conclusions which are capable of being verified by observation or experiment. 3. Quantitative vs. Qualitative Quantitative research is based on the measurement of quantity it is applicable to phenomena that can be expressed in terms of quantity. Qualitative research is concerned with qualitative phenomena relating to or involving quality or kind. Ex.-motivation research.

4. Applied vs. Fundamental Research can either be applied (action) research or fundamental (basic or pure). Applied research aims at finding a solution for an immediate problem facing society or an organization. Ex: Why have sales decreased during the last quarter? Fundamental research is mainly concerned with generalizations and with formulation of a theory. Gathering knowledge for knowledges sake. Ex: 2H+O2 ---- H2O

Explain the role of research in important areas of business.

Chapter 2
Discuss the various techniques involved in defining the research problem
TECHNIQUE INVOLVED IN DEFINING A PROBLEM

(i) Statement of the problem in a general way: First of all the problem should be stated in a broad general way, keeping in view either some practical concern or some scientific or intellectual interest. For this purpose, the researcher must immerse himself thoroughly in the subject matter concerning which he wishes to pose a problem. The problem stated in a broad general way may contain various ambiguities which must be resolved by cool thinking and rethinking over the problem. At the same time the feasibility of a particular solution has to be considered and the same should be kept in view while stating the problem.

(ii) Understanding the nature of the problem: The next step in defining the problem is to

understand its origin and nature clearly. The best way of understanding the problem is to discuss it with those who first raised it in order to find out how the problem originally came about and with what objectives in view. If the researcher has stated the problem himself, he should consider once again all those points that induced him to make a general statement concerning the problem. For a better understanding of the nature of the problem involved, he can enter into discussion with those who have a good knowledge of the problem concerned or similar other problems. The researcher should also keep in view the environment within which the problem is to be studied and understood.

(iii) Surveying the available literature: All available literature concerning the problem at hand must necessarily be surveyed and examined before a definition of the research problem is given. This means that the researcher must be well-conversant with relevant theories in the field, reports and records as also all other relevant literature. He must devote sufficient time in reviewing of research already undertaken on related problems. This is done to find out what data and other materials, if any, are available for operational purposes. Knowing what data are available often serves to narrow the problem itself as well as the technique that might be used.

(iv) Developing the ideas through discussions: Discussion concerning a problem often produce useful information. Various new ideas can be developed through such an exercise. Hence, a researcher must discuss his problem with his colleagues and others who have enough experience in the same area or in working on similar problems. This is quite often known as an experience survey.

(v) Rephrasing the research problem: Finally, the researcher must sit to rephrase the research problem into a working proposition. Through rephrasing, the researcher puts the research problem in as specific terms as possible so that it may become operationally viable and may help in the development of working hypotheses

What is research problem? Explain the points to be considered in selecting a research problem.

Chapter 3
Explain the important concepts in research design.
Research Design Important Concepts

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.

Dependent and Independent Variables Extraneous Variable Control Confounded Relationship Research Hypothesis Experimental and Non-experimental Hypothesis-testing Dependent & Independent Variables

A concept which can take on different quantitative values is called a variable. Ex: weight, height, income etc., are examples of a variable Qualitative phenomena (the attribute) are also quantified on the basis of the presence or absence of the concerning attribute

Dependent variable (DV) if one variable depends upon or is a consequence of the other variable, it is termed as a DV And the variable that is antecedent to the DV is termed as the Independent variable IV

2. Dependent & Independent Variables

Ex: if we say that height depends upon age, then height is the DV and age is the IV. Further, if height also depends upon the individuals sex then, height is the DV and age and sex are the IVs

2. Extraneous Variable IVs that are not related to the purpose of the study, but may affect the DV are termed as Extraneous Variable (EV) Ex: suppose the researcher wants to test the hypothesis that there is a relationship between childrens gains in social studies achievement and their self-concept. Here, self-concept is an IV and social studies achievement is a DV. Intelligence may as well affect the social studies achievement, but since it is not related to the purpose of the study, it will be termed as an EV Therefore, a study must be always so designed that the effect upon the DV is attributed entirely to the IVs and not to some EV.

3. Control One important characteristic of a good research design is to minimize the influence or effect of the EV. The term Control is used when we design the study minimizing the effects of extraneous variables

4. Confounded Relationship When the DV is not free from the influence of the EVs, the relationship between DV and IV is said to be confounded by the EV

5. Research Hypothesis

When a prediction or a hypothesized relationship is to be tested by scientific methods, it is termed as a Research-Hypothesis The Research-Hypothesis is a predictive statement that relates an IV to a DV

6. Experimental and Non-Experimental Hypothesis testing research When the IV is manipulated it is an experimental design Research in which the IV is not manipulated is called Non-experimental hypothesis-testing research

Ex: a researcher wants to study whether intelligence affects reading ability for a group of students and for this purpose he randomly selects 50 students and tests their intelligence and reading ability by calculating the coefficient of correlation between the two sets of scores this is an example of non-experimental hypothesis testing, because the IV, intelligence is not manipulated

But now ,suppose that the researcher randomly selects 50 students from a group of students who are to take a course in statistics and then divides them into two groups by randomly assigning 25 to Group A, the common program, and 25 to Group B, the special program. At the end of the course, he administers a test to each group in order to judge the effectiveness of the training program on the students performance. This is an example of experimental hypothesis testing because the IV (the type of training program) is manipulated.

What is research design? Explain the nature and importance of research design. Discuss any three types of research design of your choice.
Different Research Designs : 1. Research Design in the case of exploratory research studies ( Formulative Research Studies ) : The main purpose of this study is that of formulating a problem for more precise investigation or for developing the working hypothesis discovery of ideas and insight. In such cases the design must be flexible E.g.. Pilot Study - Survey of concerning literature experience survey, secondary data, focus group 2. Research Design in case of descriptive and diagnostic research :Research design is: - Formulating the objective of the study - Designing the method for data collection -Selecting the sample Collecting the data processing and analyzing the data reporting the findings 3. Research Design for Hypothesis Testing Research Studies ( Experimental Research Studies) : Such studies require procedures that will not only reduce bias and increase reliability, but permit inferences abut causality. Usually experiments meet these requirements. Prof. R.A.Fisher agricultural research He has enumerated three principles of experimental design, they are a. The principle of replication : experiment will be repeated more than once each treatment is applied in many experimental units instead of one ( repetition and duplication) b. The principle of randomization:-is a technique in which each member of the population has an equal and independent chance of being selected this is a method of controlling extraneous variables. c. The principle of local control :- through this principle we can eliminate the variability due to extraneous factors from the experimental error grouping (of homogenous units) blocking balancing

Types of Research Designs

1. Exploratory 2. Descriptive & Diagnostic 3. Experimental

Exploratory Research Design

Also known as Formulative Research Design Main purpose is that of formulating a problem for precise investigation or developing hypotheses from an operational point of view Major Focus discovery of new ideas and insights Exploratory studies must have flexibility in design to provide opportunity for considering different aspects of a problem under study Exploratory Research Design The following 3 methods are used: The survey concerning literature The experience survey The analysis of insight-stimulating examples

1. The Literature Survey The most simple and useful method of formulating the research problem or developing a hypothesis Hypotheses stated by earlier workers may be reviewed and their usefulness evaluated as a basis for further research Use the bibliographical survey of studies already done in ones area of interest for formulating the problem An attempt must be made to apply concepts and theories 2. Experience Survey Is the survey of people who have had practical experience with the problem The object is to obtain insight into relationships between variables and new ideas relating to the research problem 3. Analysis of insight-stimulating examples The method consists of the intensive study of selected instances of the phenomenon in which one is interested For this purpose, existing records may be examined; unstructured interviews with experts may be conducted; etc. II. Descriptive & Diagnostic Research Design Descriptive Studies are those which are concerned with describing the characteristics of a particular individual or of a group.

Studies concerned with specific predictions, with narration of facts and characteristics concerning individual, group or situation are ex.'s of descriptive research studies Diagnostic Studies determine the frequency with which something occurs or its association with something else Studies about whether certain variables are associated, are ex.s of diagnostic studies The research design here must focus on the following: Formulating the objective of the study Designing the methods of data collection Selecting the sample Collecting the data Processing and analyzing the data Reporting the findings

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.

III. Hypothesis-Testing research design Generally known as Experimental Studies where the researcher tests the hypothesis of causal relationships between variables

Such studies require procedures that not only reduce bias and increase reliability but will permit drawing of inferences about causality Prof. R A Fishers name is associated with experimental designs. He developed certain experimental designs for testing hypothesis

Principles of experimental designs The three important principles are: 1. Principle of Replication 2. Principle of Randomization 3. Principle of Local control Principle of Replication The experiment should be repeated more than once to ensure that each treatment is applied in many experimental units instead of one. By doing so the statistical accuracy is increased Principle of Randomization Provides protection against the effect of extraneous factors in an experiment. That is, we design the experiment in such a way that the variations caused by extraneous factors can all be combined under the general heading of chance. Principle of Local Control Here the extraneous factor, the known source of variability, is made to vary deliberately over as wide a range as necessary and this needs to be done in such a way that the variability it causes can be measured and hence eliminated from the experimental error Important Experimental Designs There are several designs: Informal Experimental Designs Formal Experimental Designs
Informal Experimental Designs

1. Before-and-after without control design 2. After-only with control design 3. Before-and-after with control design

Formal Experimental Designs

1. 2. 3. 4.

Completely Randomized design Randomized block design Latin Square design Factorial design

Explain the basic principles of experimental design. Principles of experimental designs The three important principles are: 1. Principle of Replication 2. Principle of Randomization 3. Principle of Local control Principle of Replication The experiment should be repeated more than once to ensure that each treatment is applied in many experimental units instead of one. By doing so the statistical accuracy is increased Principle of Randomization Provides protection against the effect of extraneous factors in an experiment. That is, we design the experiment in such a way that the variations caused by extraneous factors can all be combined under the general heading of chance. Principle of Local Control Here the extraneous factor, the known source of variability, is made to vary deliberately over as wide a range as necessary and this needs to be done in such a way that the variability it causes can be measured and hence eliminated from the experimental error Important Experimental Designs There are several designs: Informal Experimental Designs Formal Experimental Designs
Informal Experimental Designs

4. Before-and-after without control design 5. After-only with control design 6. Before-and-after with control design

Formal Experimental Designs

5. 6. 7. 8.

Completely Randomized design Randomized block design Latin Square design Factorial design

Discuss the components of a research design with suitable examples.

Chapter 4
Discuss various probability sampling techniques. Discuss the various kinds of probability sampling.
Probability Sampling Also know as Random sampling or Chance sampling

Under this design, every item of the universe has an equal chance of inclusion in the sample

It is a lottery method in which individual units are picked up from the whole group not deliberately but by some mechanical process

It is blind chance alone that determines whether one item is selected or not

The results obtained from probability or random sampling can be assured in terms of probability, that is, we can measure the errors of estimation or the significance

Random sampling ensures the law of statistical regularity (which states that if on an average the sample chosen is a random one, the sample will have the same composition and characteristics as the universe)

This is why it is considered as the best technique of selecting a very representative sample

In sum, Random sampling: 1. Gives each element in the population an equal probability of getting into the sample; and all choices are independent of one another 2. Gives each possible sample combination an equal probability of being chosen How to select a Random Sample

In actual/ideal practice the Random Sample is taken by the following process: write each of the possible samples on a slip of paper, mix these slips in a box/container and then draw as a lottery. In complex and large universes this is practically possible.

An easier method is without taking the trouble of enlisting all possible samples on paper slips, we can write the name of each element of a finite population on a slip of paper, put the slip into a box and mix them thoroughly and then draw (without looking) the required number of slips.

In doing so we must make sure that in successive drawings each of the remaining elements of the population has the same chance of being drawn This procedure will also result in the same probability for each possible sample Thus, to draw a sample from a finite population is easy, with the aid of random number tables, only when lists are available and items are readily numbered

Complex Random Sampling Designs Systematic Sampling: the most practical way of sampling is to select every ith item on a list; an element of randomness is introduced into this kind of a sampling by using random numbers to pick up the unit with which to start. Ex.s if a 4% sample is desired, the first item would be selected randomly from the first 25 and thereafter every 25th item automatically be included in the sample. Thus, in systematic sampling, only the first unit is selected randomly and the remaining units of the sample are selected at fixed intervals. The merits of systematic sampling are: It is an improvement over simple random sampling because the sample is spread more evenly over the entire population It is easier and less expensive Can be used in large population The demerits are: If there is a hidden periodicity in the population Stratified Sampling: if a population from which a sample is to be drawn does not constitute a homogeneous group, stratified sampling is applied in order to obtain a representative sample; here, the population is divided into several sub populations that are individually more homogeneous (these sub populations are called strata).

Cluster Sampling: if the total area of interest happens to be a big one, a convenient way to take a sample is to divide the area into a number of smaller non overlapping areas and then to randomly select a number of these smaller areas (called clusters), with the ultimate sample consisting of all units in these clusters.

Area Sampling: if clusters happen to be some geographic subdivisions, then it is better known as area sampling

Multi-stage Sampling: is a further development of the principle of cluster sampling. Ex. suppose we want to investigate the working efficiency of nationalized banks in India and we want to take a sample of few banks for this purpose the first stage is to select large primary sampling units such as States then we select certain districts and interview all the banks in the chosen districts. This is two-stage sampling design

Explain various sampling techniques. Explain the various methods of sampling.

Non-Probability Sampling

Is that sampling procedure which does not afford any basis for estimating the probability that each item in the population has of being in included in the sample?

Also known as deliberate sampling, purposive sampling and judgment sampling

Here, items for the sample are selected deliberately by the researcher, that is, purposively choose the particular units of the universe for constituting a sample on the basis that the small mass that they select out of a huge one will be representative of the whole.

Ex.s if the economic condition of people living in a state are to be studied, a few towns and villages may be purposively selected for intensive study on the principle that they can be representative of the entire state.

Here, personal element (bias) has a great chance of entering into the selection of the sample

However, if the investigators are impartial, work without bias and have the necessary experience the results obtained may be tolerably reliable.

Sampling Error cannot be estimated and the element of bias is always This is why; this design is rarely adopted in large inquiries of importance Quota Sampling is also an example of non probability sampling. Under quota sampling the interviewers are simply given quotas to be filled from the different strata Very convenient and inexpensive

Probability Sampling Also know as Random sampling or Chance sampling

Under this design, every item of the universe has an equal chance of inclusion in the sample

It is a lottery method in which individual units are picked up from the whole group not deliberately but by some mechanical process

It is blind chance alone that determines whether one item is selected or not

The results obtained from probability or random sampling can be assured in terms of probability, that is, we can measure the errors of estimation or the significance

Random sampling ensures the law of statistical regularity (which states that if on an average the sample chosen is a random one, the sample will have the same composition and characteristics as the universe)

This is why it is considered as the best technique of selecting a very representative sample

In sum, Random sampling: 3. Gives each element in the population an equal probability of getting into the sample; and all choices are independent of one another 4. Gives each possible sample combination an equal probability of being chosen

How to select a Random Sample

In actual/ideal practice the Random Sample is taken by the following process: write each of the possible samples on a slip of paper, mix these slips in a box/container and then draw as a lottery. In complex and large universes this is practically possible.

An easier method is without taking the trouble of enlisting all possible samples on paper slips, we can write the name of each element of a finite population on a slip of paper, put the slip into a box and mix them thoroughly and then draw (without looking) the required number of slips.

In doing so we must make sure that in successive drawings each of the remaining elements of the population has the same chance of being drawn This procedure will also result in the same probability for each possible sample Thus, to draw a sample from a finite population is easy, with the aid of random number tables, only when lists are available and items are readily numbered

Complex Random Sampling Designs

Systematic Sampling: the most practical way of sampling is to select every ith item on a list; an element of randomness is introduced into this kind of a sampling by using random numbers to pick up the unit with which to start. Ex.s if a 4% sample is desired, the first item would be selected randomly from the first 25 and thereafter every 25th item automatically be included in the sample. Thus, in systematic sampling, only the first unit is selected randomly and the remaining units of the sample are selected at fixed intervals. The merits of systematic sampling are: It is an improvement over simple random sampling because the sample is spread more evenly over the entire population It is easier and less expensive Can be used in large population The demerits are: If there is a hidden periodicity in the population Stratified Sampling: if a population from which a sample is to be drawn does not constitute a homogeneous group, stratified sampling is applied in order to obtain a representative sample; here, the population is divided into several sub populations that are individually more homogeneous (these sub populations are called strata).

Cluster Sampling: if the total area of interest happens to be a big one, a convenient way to take a sample is to divide the area into a number of smaller non overlapping areas and then to randomly select a number of these smaller areas (called clusters), with the ultimate sample consisting of all units in these clusters.

Area Sampling: if clusters happen to be some geographic subdivisions, then it is better known as area sampling

Multi-stage Sampling: is a further development of the principle of cluster sampling. Ex. suppose we want to investigate the working efficiency of nationalized banks in India and we want to take a sample of few banks for this purpose the first stage is to select large primary sampling units such as States then we select certain districts and interview all the banks in the chosen districts. This is two-stage sampling design

What do you mean by sampling design? What point should be taken into consideration while developing the sampling design for studying in the problems of domestic airline passengers?
The following are crucial: 1. Type of Universe define the set of objects, technically called the Universe, to be studied 2. Sampling Unit sampling unit may be a geographical one (district, city, village) or it may be a social unit (family, club, school) or it may an individual 3. Source List also known as sampling frame from which the sample is to be drawn. It contains all items of a universe 4. Size of Sample refers to the number of items to be selected from the universe to constitute a sample; a major issue here is the size should neither be excessively large nor too small. An optimum sample is one which fulfills the requirements of efficiency, representativeness, reliability and flexibility 5. Budgetary Constraint cost considerations have a major impact upon decisions relating to the size of the sample 6. Sampling Procedure finally, the type of sample to be used, that is, the technique to be used in selecting the items for the sample. There are several sample designs, from which the researcher can choose.

Chapter 5
What is a questionnaire? Explain the steps involved in designing the questionnaire. Discuss different types of observation I. Observation Method Observation becomes a scientific tool and the method of data collection, when it serves a formulated research purpose, is systematically planned and recorded and is subjected to checks and controls on validity and reliability Under observation the information is sought by way of investigators own direct observation without asking from the respondent Types of Observation Essentially two types: 1. Structured vs. Unstructured Observation 2. Participant vs. Non-participant Observation Structured vs. Unstructured Observation Structured Observation when the observation is characterized by a careful definition of the units to be observed, the style of recording the observed information, standardized conditions of observation and the selection of pertinent data of observation Unstructured Observation when it takes place without the above characteristics Participant vs. Non-participant
This distinction depends upon the observers sharing or not sharing the life of the group he is observing

What is a schedule? Write the merits and demerits of schedule method in collecting primary data. What is an interview? Explain different types of interview. II. Interview Method

The Interview Method of collecting data involves presentation of oral-verbal stimuli and reply in terms of oral verbal responses

Personal Interview

PI Method requires the interviewer asking questions in a face-to-face contact with the person. Collecting information thru PI is structured the use of a set of predetermined questions and highly standardized techniques of recording. Thus, the interviewer in a structured interview follows a rigid procedure, asking questions in a form and order prescribed In unstructured interviews there is a flexibility of approach to questioning Unstructured interviews do not follow a system of pre-determined questions and standardized techniques of recording information Focused Interview to focus attention on the given experience of the respondent and its effects The Interviewer has the freedom to decide the manner and sequence of questions to elicit/explore reasons and motives. The main task is to confine the respondent to a discussion of issues

Clinical Interview is concerned with broad underlying feelings or motivations or with the course of an individuals life experience. Eliciting information is left to the interviewers discretion

Non-Directive Interview the interviewer's function is simply to encourage the respondent to talk about the topic with a bare minimum of direct questioning. The interviewer often acts as a catalyst to a comprehensive expression of the respondents feelings and beliefs

Explain the qualitative techniques of data collection. I. Observation Method Observation becomes a scientific tool and the method of data collection, when it serves a formulated research purpose, is systematically planned and recorded and is subjected to checks and controls on validity and reliability

 Under observation the information is sought by way of investigators own direct observation without asking from the respondent Main advantages are: Subjective bias is eliminated The information relates to what is currently happening This method is independent of respondents willingness to respond Main Limitations are: It is expensive The information provided by this method is very limited Unforeseen factors may interfere with the observation task

Types of Observation Essentially two types: 1. Structured vs. Unstructured Observation 2. Participant vs. Non-participant Observation Structured vs. Unstructured Observation Structured Observation when the observation is characterized by a careful definition of the units to be observed, the style of recording the observed information, standardized conditions of observation and the selection of pertinent data of observation Unstructured Observation when it takes place without the above characteristics Participant vs. Non-participant
This distinction depends upon the observers sharing or not sharing the life of the group he is observing

II. Interview Method

The Interview Method of collecting data involves presentation of oral-verbal stimuli and reply in terms of oral verbal responses

Personal Interview

PI Method requires the interviewer asking questions in a face-to-face contact with the person. Collecting information thru PI is structured the use of a set of predetermined questions and highly standardized techniques of recording. Thus, the interviewer in a structured interview follows a rigid procedure, asking questions in a form and order prescribed In unstructured interviews there is a flexibility of approach to questioning

 Unstructured interviews do not follow a system of pre-determined questions and standardized techniques of recording information Focused Interview to focus attention on the given experience of the respondent and its effects The Interviewer has the freedom to decide the manner and sequence of questions to elicit/explore reasons and motives. The main task is to confine the respondent to a discussion of issues

Clinical Interview is concerned with broad underlying feelings or motivations or with the course of an individuals life experience. Eliciting information is left to the interviewers discretion

Non-Directive Interview the interviewer's function is simply to encourage the respondent to talk about the topic with a bare minimum of direct questioning. The interviewer often acts as a catalyst to a comprehensive expression of the respondents feelings and beliefs

Advantages

1. More information and in greater depth can be obtained 2. Resistance may be overcome by a skilled interviewer 3. Greater flexibility an opportunity to restructure questions 4. Observation method can also be applied to recording verbal answers 5. Personal information can be obtained 6. Possibility of spontaneous responses and thus more honest responses Disadvantages 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Expensive method Interviewer bias Respondent bias Time consuming Under the interview method the organization required for selecting, training, and supervising the field staff is complex with formidable problems 6. Establishing rapport to facilitate free and frank responses is very difficult

Explain the interviewing process.

Chapter 6
Discuss the various types of report in research.

TYPES OF REPORTS

Research reports vary greatly in length and type. In each individual case, both the length and the form are largely dictated by the problems at hand. Business firms prefer reports in the letter form, just one or two pages in length. Banks, insurance organisations and financial institutions are generally fond of the short balance-sheet type of tabulation for their annual reports to their customers and shareholders. Mathematicians prefer to write the results of their investigations in the form of algebraic notations. Chemists report their results in symbols and formulae. Students of literature usually write long reports presenting the critical analysis of some writer or period or the like with a liberal use of quotations from the works of the author under discussion. In the field of education and psychology, the favourite form is the report on the results of experimentation accompanied by the detailed statistical tabulations. Clinical psychologists and social pathologists frequently find it necessary to make use of the case-history form. News items in the daily papers are also forms of report writing. They represent firsthand on-the scene accounts of the events described or compilations of interviews with persons who were on the scene. In such reports the first paragraph usually contains the important information in detail and the succeeding paragraphs contain material which is progressively less and less important. Book-reviews which analyze the content of the book and report on the authors intentions, his success or failure in achieving his aims, his language, his style, scholarship, bias or his point of view. Such reviews also happen to be a kind of short report. The reports prepared by governmental bureaus, special commissions, and similar other organisations are generally very comprehensive reports on the issues involved. Such reports are usually considered as important research products.

 Similarly, Ph.D. theses and dissertations are also a form of report-writing, usually completed by students in academic institutions. The above narration throws light on the fact that the results of a research investigation can be presented in a number of ways viz., a technical report, a popular report, an article, a monograph or at times even in the form of oral presentation. Which method(s) of presentation to be used in a particular study depends on the circumstances under which the study arose and the nature of the results. A technical report is used whenever a full written report of the study is required whether for recordkeeping or for public dissemination. A popular report is used if the research results have policy implications.

We give below a few details about the said two types of reports: (A) Technical Report In the technical report the main emphasis is on (i) the methods employed, (ii) assumptions made in the course of the study, (iii) the detailed presentation of the findings including their limitations and supporting data. A general outline of a technical report can be as follows: 1. Summary of results: A brief review of the main findings just in two or three pages. 2. Nature of the study: Description of the general objectives of study, formulation of the problem in operational terms, the working hypothesis, the type of analysis and data required, etc.

3. Methods employed: Specific methods used in the study and their limitations. For instance, in sampling studies we should give details of sample design viz., sample size, sample selection, etc. 4. Data: Discussion of data collected, their sources, characteristics and limitations. If secondary data are used, their suitability to the problem at hand be fully assessed. In case of a survey, the manner in which data were collected should be fully described. 5. Analysis of data and presentation of findings: The analysis of data and presentation of the findings of the study with supporting data in the form of tables and charts be fully narrated. This, in fact, happens to be the main body of the report usually extending over several chapters. 6. Conclusions: A detailed summary of the findings and the policy implications drawn from the results be explained. 7. Bibliography: Bibliography of various sources consulted be prepared and attached. 8. Technical appendices: Appendices be given for all technical matters relating to questionnaire, mathematical derivations, elaboration on particular technique of analysis and the like ones. 9. Index: Index must be prepared and be given invariably in the report at the end. The order presented above only gives a general idea of the nature of a technical report; the order of presentation may not necessarily be the same in all the technical reports. This, in other words, means that the presentation may vary in different reports; even the different sections outlined above will not always be the same, nor will all these sections appear in any particular report. It should, however, be remembered that even in a technical report, simple presentation and ready availability of the findings remain an important consideration and as such the liberal use of charts and diagrams is considered desirable.

(B) Popular Report The popular report is one which gives emphasis on simplicity and attractiveness. The simplification should be sought through clear writing, minimization of technical, particularly mathematical, details and liberal use of charts and diagrams. Attractive layout along with large print, many subheadings, even an occasional cartoon now and then is another characteristic feature of the popular report. Besides, in such a report emphasis is given on practical aspects and policy implications. We give below a general outline of a popular report. 1. The findings and their implications: Emphasis in the report is given on the findings of most practical interest and on the implications of these findings. 2. Recommendations for action: Recommendations for action on the basis of the findings of the study is made in this section of the report. 3. Objective of the study: A general review of how the problem arise is presented along with the specific objectives of the project under study. 4. Methods employed: A brief and non-technical description of the methods and techniques used, including a short review of the data on which the study is based, is given in this part of the report. 5. Results: This section constitutes the main body of the report wherein the results of the study are presented in clear and non-technical terms with liberal use of all sorts of illustrations such as charts, diagrams and the like ones. 6. Technical appendices: More detailed information on methods used, forms, etc. is presented in the form of appendices. But the appendices are often not detailed if the report is entirely meant for general public. There can be several variations of the form in which a popular report can be prepared. The only important thing about such a report is that it gives emphasis on

simplicity and policy implications from the operational point of view, avoiding the technical details of all sorts to the extent possible.
What is research report? Explain the various steps involved in report writing Explain the steps in report writing.

DIFFERENT STEPS IN WRITING REPORT Research reports are the product of slow, painstaking, accurate inductive work. The usual steps involved in writing report are: (a) logical analysis of the subject-matter; (b) preparation of the final outline; (c) preparation of the rough draft; (d) rewriting and polishing; (e) preparation of the final bibliography; and (f) writing the final draft. Though all these steps are self-explanatory, yet a brief mention of each one of these will be appropriate for better understanding. Logical analysis of the subject matter: It is the first step which is primarily concerned with the development of a subject. There are two ways in which to develop a subject (a) logically and (b) chronologically. The logical development is made on the basis of mental connections and associations between the one thing and another by means of analysis. Logical treatment often consists in developing the material from the simple possible to the most complex structures. Chronological development is based on a connection or sequence in time or occurrence. The directions for doing or making something usually follow the chronological order.

Preparation of the final outline: It is the next step in writing the research report Outlines are the framework upon which long written works are constructed. They are an aid to the logical organization of the material and a reminder of the points to be stressed in the report. Preparation of the rough draft: This follows the logical analysis of the subject and the preparation of the final outline. Such a step is of utmost importance for the researcher now sits to write down what he has done in the context of his research study. He will write down the procedure adopted by him in collecting the material for his study along with various limitations faced by him, the technique of analysis adopted by him, the broad findings and generalizations and the various suggestions he wants to offer regarding the problem concerned. Rewriting and polishing of the rough draft: This step happens to be most difficult part of all formal writing. Usually this step requires more time than the writing of the rough draft. The careful revision makes the difference between a mediocre and a good piece of writing. While rewriting and polishing, one should check the report for weaknesses in logical development or presentation. The researcher should also see whether or not the material, as it is presented, has unity and cohesion; does the report stand upright and firm and exhibit a definite pattern, like a marble arch? Or does it resemble an old wall of moldering cement and loose brick.4 In addition the researcher should give due attention to the fact that in his rough draft he has been consistent or not. He should check the mechanics of writinggrammar, spelling and usage. Preparation of the final bibliography: Next in order comes the task of the preparation of the final bibliography. The bibliography, which is generally appended to the research report, is a list of books in some way pertinent to the research which has been done. It should contain all those works which the researcher has consulted. The bibliography should be arranged alphabetically and may be divided into two parts; the first part may contain the names of books and pamphlets, and

the second part may contain the names of magazine and newspaper articles. Generally, this pattern of bibliography is considered convenient and satisfactory from the point of view of reader, though it is not the only way of presenting bibliography.

The entries in bibliography should be made adopting the following order: For books and pamphlets the order may be as under: 1. Name of author, last name first. 2. Title, underlined to indicate italics. 3. Place, publisher, and date of publication. 4. Number of volumes. Example Kothari, C.R., Quantitative Techniques, New Delhi, Vikas Publishing House Pvt. Ltd., 1978. For magazines and newspapers the order may be as under: 1. Name of the author, last name first. 2. Title of article, in quotation marks. 3. Name of periodical, underlined to indicate italics. 4. The volume or volume and number. 5. The date of the issue. 6. The pagination. Example Robert V. Roosa, Coping with Short-term International Money Flows, The banker, London, September, 1971, p. 995. The above examples are just the samples for bibliography entries and may be used, but one should also remember that they are not the only acceptable forms. The only thing important is that, whatever method one selects, it must remain consistent.

Writing the final draft: This constitutes the last step. The final draft should be written in a concise and objective style and in simple language, avoiding vague expressions such as it seems, there may be, and the like ones. While writing the final draft, the researcher must avoid abstract terminology and technical jargon. Illustrations and examples based on common experiences must be incorporated in the final draft as they happen to be most effective in communicating the research findings to others. A research report should not be dull, but must enthuse people and maintain interest and must show originality. It must be remembered that every report should be an attempt to solve some intellectual problem and must contribute to the solution of a problem and must add to the knowledge of both the researcher and the reader.

Explain clearly the various techniques of interpretation of data.

TECHNIQUE OF INTERPRETATION The task of interpretation is not an easy job, rather it requires a great skill and dexterity on the part of researcher. Interpretation is an art that one learns through practice and experience. The researcher may, at times, seek the guidance from experts for accomplishing the task of interpretation. The technique of interpretation often involves the following steps: (i) Researcher must give reasonable explanations of the relations which he has found and he must interpret the lines of relationship in terms of the underlying processes and must try to find out the thread of uniformity that lies under the surface layer of his diversified research findings. In fact, this is the technique of how generalization should be done and concepts be formulated. Extraneous information, if collected during the study, must be considered while interpreting the final results of research study, for it may prove to be a key factor in understanding the problem under consideration.

(ii)

(iii)

It is advisable, before embarking upon final interpretation, to consult someone having insight into the study and who is frank and honest and will not hesitate to point out omissions and errors in logical argumentation. Such a consultation will result in correct interpretation and, thus, will enhance the utility of research results. Researcher must accomplish the task of interpretation only after considering all relevant factors affecting the problem to avoid false generalization. He must be in no hurry while interpreting results, for quite often the conclusions, which appear to be all right at the beginning, may not at all be accurate.

(iv)

Explain the principles of report writing. Explain the contents of research report.

LAYOUT OF THE RESEARCH REPORT Anybody, who is reading the research report, must necessarily be conveyed enough about the study so that he can place it in its general scientific context, judge the adequacy of its methods and thus form an opinion of how seriously the findings are to be taken. For this purpose there is the need of proper layout of the report. The layout of the report means as to what the research report should contain. A comprehensive layout of the research report should comprise (A) preliminary pages; (B) the main text; and (C) the end matter. Let us deal with them separately. (A) Preliminary Pages In its preliminary pages the report should carry a title and date, followed by acknowledgements in the form of Preface or Foreword. Then there should be a table of contents followed by list of tables and illustrations so that the decision-

maker or anybody interested in reading the report can easily locate the required information in the report. (B) Main Text The main text provides the complete outline of the research report along with all details. Title of the research study is repeated at the top of the first page of the main text and then follows the other details on pages numbered consecutively, beginning with the second page. Each main section of the report should begin on a new page. The main text of the report should have the following sections: (i) Introduction; (ii) Statement of findings and recommendations; (iii) The results; (iv) The implications drawn from the results; and (v) The summary. (i) Introduction: The purpose of introduction is to introduce the research project to the readers. It should contain a clear statement of the objectives of research i.e., enough background should be given to make clear to the reader why the problem was considered worth investigating. A brief summary of other relevant research may also be stated so that the present study can be seen in that context. The hypotheses of study, if any, and the definitions of the major concepts employed in the study should be explicitly stated in the introduction of the report. The methodology adopted in conducting the study must be fully explained. The scientific reader would like to know in detail about such thing: How was the study carried out? What was its basic design? If the study was an experimental one, then what were the experimental manipulations? If the data were collected by means of questionnaires or interviews, then exactly what questions were asked (The questionnaire or interview schedule is usually given in an appendix)? If measurements were based on observation, then what instructions were given to the observers? Regarding the sample used in the study the reader should be told: Who were the subjects? How many were there? How were they selected? All these questions are crucial for estimating the probable limits of generalizability of the findings. The statistical analysis adopted must also

be clearly stated. In addition to all this, the scope of the study should be stated and the boundary lines be demarcated. The various limitations, under which the research project was completed, must also be narrated.

(ii) Statement of findings and recommendations: After introduction, the research report must contain a statement of findings and recommendations in non-technical language so that it can be easily understood by all concerned. If the findings happen to be extensive, at this point they should be put in the summarised form. (iii) Results: A detailed presentation of the findings of the study, with supporting data in the form of tables and charts together with a validation of results, is the next step in writing the main text of the report. This generally comprises the main body of the report, extending over several chapters. The result section of the report should contain statistical summaries and reductions of the data rather than the raw data. All the results should be presented in logical sequence and splitted into readily identifiable sections. All relevant results must find a place in the report. But how one is to decide about what is relevant is the basic question. Quite often guidance comes primarily from the research problem and from the hypotheses, if any, with which the study was concerned. But ultimately the researcher must rely on his own judgement in deciding the outline of his report. Nevertheless, it is still necessary that he states clearly the problem with which he was concerned, the procedure by which he worked on the problem, the conclusions at which he arrived, and the bases for his conclusions. (iv) Implications of the results: Toward the end of the main text, the researcher should again put down the results of his research clearly and precisely. He should, state the implications that flow from the results of the study, for the general reader is interested in the implications for understanding the human behaviour. Such implications may have three aspects as stated below: (a) A statement of the inferences drawn from the present study which may be expected to apply in similar circumstances. (b) The conditions of the present study which may limit the extent of legitimate generalizations of the inferences drawn from the study.

(c) The relevant questions that still remain unanswered or new questions raised by the study along with suggestions for the kind of research that would provide answers for them. It is considered a good practice to finish the report with a short conclusion which summarises and recapitulates the main points of the study. The conclusion drawn from the study should be clearly related to the hypotheses that were stated in the introductory section. At the same time, a forecast of the probable future of the subject and an indication of the kind of research which needs to be done in that particular field is useful and desirable. (v) Summary: It has become customary to conclude the research report with a very brief summary, resting in brief the research problem, the methodology, the major findings and the major conclusions drawn from the research results. (C) End Matter At the end of the report, appendices should be enlisted in respect of all technical data such as questionnaires, sample information, mathematical derivations and the like ones. Bibliography of sources consulted should also be given. Index (an alphabetical listing of names, places and topics along with the numbers of the pages in a book or report on which they are mentioned or discussed) should invariably be given at the end of the report. The value of index lies in the fact that it works as a guide to the reader for the contents in the report.