Spinach To Chocolate

Teachers of English to Speakers of Other Languages, Inc.
(TESOL)
"Spinach to Chocolate": Changing Awareness and Attitudes in ESL Writing Teachers Author(s): Lise Winer Source: TESOL Quarterly, Vol. 26, No. 1 (Spring, 1992), pp. 57-80 Published by: Teachers of English to Speakers of Other Languages, Inc. (TESOL) Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/3587369 . Accessed: 13/11/2013 11:42
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1992 Vol.26, No.1, Spring TESOL QUARTERLY,
"Spinachto Chocolate": Awarenessand Attitudes Changing in ESL Writing Teachers

LISE WINER Illinois Southern University-Carbondale
in a TESL writing This paper uses data fromstudent journals ofandreflection which the trace to by practice process practicum toward of and attitudes activities on specific changeawareness four Students of writing. and the teaching highlighted writing orintimidating dreadofwriting, areasas problems: topics, boring skills aboutteaching and insecurity aboutwriting skills, insecurity five also identified Students feedback). providing (particularly in effecting as most on thepartoftheinstructor helpful strategies tasks, designand respondto writing change:havingstudents revision, providing guiding peer coaching, mandatory requiring and developingunderguided practicein topic development, to contemporary of the writing standing process.In contrast the necessityof polarized models, the paper demonstrates inteacher education. and development integrating training Models of language teacher education often use a polarized frameworkof "training"versus "development" or "education." According to Richards and Crookes (1988), teacher training involves a situation-oriented approach, characterized by finite in which trainees master a particular model of teaching. objectives, In contrast, teacher education involves an individual-oriented approach with a focus on developing decision-making and skills, emphasizing process rather than a hypothesis-generating of teaching. Boyd (1989, pp. 195-196) or model method specific for a specific job), developdistinguishes training(skills training ment(skillstraining broader plus subjectssuch as problemsolving), and education (the "developmentof knowledge and skills,as well as attitudes, values, and sensibilities," p. 196); professional education models "a particularview of expertise"combined with in action" (p. 196)-an abilityto think about "reflection reflectively and act deliberately on a broad rangeof educationalproblems.
57
Freeman (1989) similarly describes two strategies: teacher trainingis direct intervention by the collaborator (e.g., teacher trainer)to work on specific aspects of the teacher's teaching; it focuses on specificoutcomes thatcan be achieved through a clear sequence of steps. Teacher development,on the otherhand, is "a strategy of influence and indirect interventionthat works on complex, integrated aspects of teaching; these aspects are idiosyncraticand individual" (p. 40). Through development, the collaborator "works to triggerthe teacher's awareness ... [and] endeavors to startthe teacher on a process of reflection, critique, and refinementof the teacher's classroom practice" (p. 40). In in which specific,albeit fragmented, contrast to training, outcomes can be effectiveindicators of change, changes that result from development cannot be foreseenor expected withina designated time period. They are essentially internal, althoughtheycan have external manifestations through changes in performance or behavior. The solutionsdo not necessarily need to be ones thatthe collaboratorknows or can implement. In conjunctionwithsuch a framework, Freeman (1989) proposes a descriptivemodel of language teacher education which defines teaching as a decision-making process based on the categories of and awareness. Freeman posits attiskills, attitude, knowledge, of teachtude-"the stance one adopts toward oneself,the activity in the one and the learners proengages teaching/learning ing, cess"-as the principal constituentof language teaching that a "bridge thatinfluences the accounts forindividualperformance, in circumof the individualteacher particular effective functioning stances" (p. 32). When teachertrainers duringtheprocess of encourage reflection learningand practicingspecific skills,what insightcan be gained about details of the process of change in awareness and attitudes? What implications does this have on the design of teacher education? For example, awareness of weaknesses in teachingcan motivate improvement,but too much doubt about their own competence can renderteachersso apprehensiveand insecurethat theircapabilitiesare seriously hampered. This paper examinestheprocess ofchangingawarenessabout the and the towardswriting and changes in attitudes process of writing, much in ESL. of change during this Although writing teaching thus best studied and is internal by individual personal, process introspection(Bartlett,1990; Freeman, 1989; Murphy-O'Dwyer, 1985; Porter,Goldstein,Leatherman,& Conrad, 1990), it need not remainopaque. This studyused data fromstudent-teacher dialogue
58 TESOL QUARTERLY
to questionnaires and responses to examine theprocessof journals change. A WRITTEN PRACTICUM COURSE BACKGROUND: is a required Practicum coursein the The Written methodology at Southern Illinois MA-EFL program The University-Carbondale. that students current states as goalsofthecourse should: (a) syllabus into inLi and L2; (b) becomefamiliar writing gaininsight processes with current and practicein the teaching of ESL/EFL theory and materials for (c) develop and practicetechniques writing; classroomuse; and (d) develop professional sensibilities and in writing of writing. The courseis and the teaching capabilities based on a processapproachto writing (Perl,1979;Pianko,1979; Zamel,1982, 1983). This paper describes theprocessof changethatgoes on in this of approximately 100 course,usingas examplesthe experiences in fourpractica. students enrolled Each class comprises graduate 20-28 student teachers(STs) and a teachereducator(TE)-the author. About 60% of the STs are nonnative-speaking (NNS) international almostall nativeEnglish students; (NS) are speakers fromthe U.S. Almost all have had some priorlanguageteaching About one third oftheexperienced NSs and twothirds experience. of the experiencedNNSs have had at least some experience some of theNSs have also taught ESL/EFL writing; Li teaching to NSs. Virtually all theNNSs willbe returning totheir composition native countries toteach. The NSs willbe teaching inbothEFL and ESL situations. skills but are advanced. Writing vary, usually fairly Some are experienced and accomplished whereasothers writers, have minoror seriousproblemsranging fromorganization and to grammar and spelling.All graduate clarityof development students aregiven a composition test the competence uponentering Students whodo notpassmust takea composition classin program. thedepartments ofLinguistics (forNNSs) or English (forNSs). muchof theliterature on teacher education discusses Although in which STs are real ESL practicum experiences classes, teaching thissituation is notalwaysavailable.(For example, NNSs in this course haveteaching intheir rarely assignments except L1 inforeign language classes.) A numberof articles(e.g., Ellis, 1990) have outlined other possible activities, case includingobservation, and Two studies, microteaching, peer teaching. majoradvantages of a practicum coursein whichSTs are not involvedin "real" area reduced on STs, and a greater teaching of pressure uniformity
experience, both making it easier for STs to benefitfromgroup
59 CHANGING ATTITUDES IN ESL WRITING TEACHERS
work and for TEs to structure to shape the learning assignments process. Aftertwo class periods,STs are divided into groupsof 6-8; each All writing tasksand peer coaching group chooses a name foritself. are done among membersof thisgroup. An initialquestionnaireis day of class. This includes questions about given to STs the first what the STs write,like to write,are good/poor at writing;their perceptions of learners' writing problems; and their teaching experience. Studentsare also asked to write at least two dialogue journal entries to the TE during the term; the journals include thoughts, questions, reactions, evaluations, and experiences fromtheirown previousexperiences,readings, concerningwriting or classwork.The TE respondsto the journalsin writing. The questionnaire and journal responses which are quoted this paper as well as comments from teacher-student throughout conversations have been gatheredfromapproximately100 STs, in three classes from 1988, 1989, and 1990. The data illustratethe the resultant problems engenderedby theirexperienceof writing, the of and the towards attitudes writing teaching writing, negative and the these of attitudes course, undergoduring processes change whichappear to help bringabout thesechanges. the strategies
WRITING WRITING AND TEACHING fourareas STs repeatedly individuals differ, highlight Although to be a of dread as problems: writing graded; writing, especially (a) andintimidation with ones; bytechnical general topics (b) boredom about and own their about skills; (d) insecurity writing (c) insecurity in giving own teaching their feedback, marking skills, particularly and errors, grading. DreadofWriting to explorepersonal and encouragement Given an opportunity
the STs in the practicumvividly express opinions about writing, towards engagingin writing: negativefeelings has alwayscome aftera period of a piece of writing 1. Producing suffering. overwriting. andtotal 2. I am now experiencing anxiety complete as evidenced by theuse of words suchas dread, teachingof writing,
"I SAY ITS SPINACH": NEGATIVEATTITUDES TOWARDS
foreach classshowsan entries of thefirst An examination journal and/orthe attitudes towards of negative writing overtexpression
TESOL QUARTERLY
60
forabout 90%of all STs. In theiropportuanxiety,afraid,terrified for advanced study,these STs representa small subgroup of nity to become teachersof Englishwriting theirpeers; theirmotivation mustbe recognizedin spite of theirfearand dislikeof it. When STs themselvesdo not like writing,this fact inevitably which leads to anxietyand lack of enthusiasmabout the writing course: would be involvedin any writing 3. I did not like the idea of havingto take a writing practicum, on each whenI learnedthatwe were goingto practice especially and improve ... anytypeofwriting wouldbe good practice other think I was goingto enjoyit.I viewedthe butI didn't myabilities, as spinach. inthesamecategory courseas belonging withpreto frustrations linksuch feelings STs frequently directly or second language writing vious experiencesas a studentin first classes. Typically,complaintsfocuson an undue emphasison superficial errorsin grammarand spellingwithoutregard to content,a lack of prewriting inputand preparation(both in contentand lanattitudeon the part and a guage), nonsupportive, nonsympathetic of the teacher: 4. All thatmyEnglish or Bahasa Malaysiateachers everdid were:(i) the class with a the No lengthy provide topic,(ii) grade composition. I didn't knowwhatfocus I should discussions weregiven; times many know[how]I survived all giveto a certain composition topic.I don't those classes. 5. Writing in a second language,in French,was sheer hell.., in and interesting content went general. organization, Essay structure, outthewindowas I agonizedovergrammatical perfection. 6. I used to hate composition in highschool.... The teacherwas mistakes. Then alwaysmad becausewe had so manygrammatical she would give us a lectureon the importance of English-ifwe didn't ourEnglish, we weren't improve goingto getin college... itmade me hatecomposition. Such negative feelingstowards theirown writing affect directly theirteachingof compositioncourses,especiallywhen,as teachers, thattheir own students hate writing at theyassume (oftencorrectly) least as much as theydo: 7. In recent I have grown to hatewriting. I used to write a lot years, whenI was younger-everything short from stories to poetry. But, over the years,writing has begun to be a task, ratherthan a
pleasure ... Over the summer,I taughtWriting1 ... I really felt when I can't even do it myself.
likean idiot.ThereI was trying to teachother people how to write,

61
CHANGING ATTITUDES IN ESL WRITING TEACHERS
Nonetheless,the only models theyknow forteachingtend to be ones theythemselvessuffered under as students.The question for the TE, then,becomes how to use their to break thevicious insights cycle of teachingas theyhave been taught: 8. I didn'tlikethebook at all-and I don'tthink thestudents likedit knowwhatelse to do. either-but I didn't 9. I stillcan recallsomeunpleasant of minewhileI was a experiences in to write There two extremes: one student were learning English. was thatI was askedto keep journals without every day in English I did notknowwhatto The result was that thepages I had written. I Soon lostinterest. The other write and howto improve mywriting. intheclassroom two was that within extreme written mycomposition revision hours and without gotso muchred inkon it to mark every I had made,which me so muchthat I had little mistake discouraged to do thesame stupid I was almostalwaystempted guage teacher, thing. Skills AboutOne's Own Writing Insecurity skillsis expressed,although about writing Considerable insecurity and on and spelling, of grammar NSs tendto focuson surfaceerrors rules: of explicitknowledge one shouldknowthegrammarian 10. If one is goingto teachwriting, insideand out.I don'tknowthemthatwell yet.I rulesof English sinceI was a kid. studied haven't grammar English at lack of specific NNSs also express anxiety and frustration as they frustration more but even of knowledge English, linguistic to hard so skills worked of the that realize develop in L1 they many in stead. them are not good standing writing and I was so proudto have developedinparaphrasing 11. Alltheskills in decorating my stylein Spanishare now uselessand dangerous ofEnglish. oftheconciseness front NNSs often assume they will never develop adequate skills in written English,yettheyknow theymustteach it. to ProvideFeedback AboutTeachingSkillsand theAbility Insecurity between teachingand The STs have oftenseen the relationship as tenuous: learningwriting Not seemedsucha mystery. 12. Getting writings [student] interesting do. could that anyone something just
62 TESOL QUARTERLY
any guidance and comments .... All the teacher did was ... count
. . . when I became a foreign lanconfidence left. Unfortunately
linkstudent to learnwriting failures BothNSs and NNSs explicitly in writing classes.It would be easy for skillsto teacher behavior
but in mostcases, themto become defensiveabout their experience, NNSs take pains to explain the handicaps theyfeel thatteachersat and home were workingunder,e.g., large classes, lack of training, orientation onlytowardsexaminations:
to the traditions. are so 13. Teachershave to conform Also,students itis hardforthem toaccept that used to thegrammatical approach anycreative approaches. to the is notpreferable. It givesmorehomework 14. Teaching writing It is time-consuming and it often thanthe other teacher subjects. often mistakes makestheteacher becausestubborn losehertemper is in But since the students' by writing required the writing. appear to sacrifice to teachwriting. be someone there should curriculum, errorsin studentwriting and inability Frustration over persistent feedback have of the STs to deliverwhat theyfeel to be effective been consistent complaints: 15. I taught a coursein writing research papersat a smallcollegein whencorrecting.... I Kenya.... I had no idea of whereto start that [spending]the first half of the semester naivelythought in thestudents' of errors research occurrence papers.Well,I was be so condescending-my wrong.... I shouldn't gradingskills werejustas poor. NSs who feel more confidentin theirlinguistic and writing abilities and have had editingor teachingexperience in L1 oftenfind the transition to teachingL2 compositiondifficult: 16. As an editor on myown-correcting I ... [straightened] up articles tionto do that whengrading students' papersis strong. 17. I'd taught forseveral writing [to native English speakers] years... theenvironment in the[ESL] classroom, was totally difhowever, ferent. I could no longer takeforgranted thatmystudents would I had backpackedthrough although Europeon myown.. . I still had notexperienced thecomplete and language culture shock these students wereexperiencing. Some NSs who are excellentwriters inEnglishexpressfrustration not as writers but as teachers;theyrealize thatdevelopingempathy with L2 learners also means that they have to learn more, about writing consciously, processes:
18. A problem forme is teachinggood writing habits to my students, because I usuallydon'tuse themmyself.
CHANGING ATTITUDES IN ESL WRITING TEACHERS 63
reviewing grammar, usage, punctuation..
could reduce the
... The temptaspellingmistakes, adding or removingpunctuation
understandevery word I said, what topics I referredto .... And
19. Because I enjoywriting and don'tfindit particularly I difficult, think I have certain in teaching it... you can't relatedproblems teachinstinct toyour students. and insecurity, AlthoughSTs are aware of theirfrustrations having to writethejournalsacts as what might be called a powerfultrigger and analysisof to awareness and thusdevelopment;the articulation of writing as a procauses and effectsreflectthe characterization cess of discoveringmeaning(Flower & Hayes, 1981; Zamel, 1982). withTopics Problems Rigidity and boredom associated with typical topics (i.e., cited as content,subject matter)in writingclasses are frequently NNSs: NSs and both towardswriting causes of negativeattitudes by I notlikethecourseof composition? 20. Whydo mostof thestudents think thatone of thereasonsis thatthetopicsare notinteresting. didn't haveanychoice. thestudents Before, in my past experience have centered 21. Most writing assignments in both and form boundaries enforced aroundeither verystrictly content paper) or the completeopposite-no (such as a research The first aboutdeath." aboutyour at all: "Write boundaries feelings ... theseconddoablebut and tedious was doable butnon-creative B.S. Studentswho have taught,or who see a likelihood of teaching, scientific or technical English writing have felt particularly intimidated by the prospect, even before they are aware that are and grammatical discourse functions, patterns particularstyles, that at associated withsuch writing. any topic They despair finding could please everyone: setsa topic Ifa teacher towrite. students 22. It'shardtoselect topicsfor won'tfeellikewriting thestudents that is notinterested by students, ideas. to write don'tknow.what because they and how to generate Thiswillscarethem away. STRATEGIESFOR CHANGING NEGATIVEATTITUDES fivestrategies ST journalsand questionnaires identify consistently and towards attitudes in most as writing helpful changingnegative then and tasks STs of theteaching writing: designwriting (a) having actuallydo them,(b) requiringrevisionof tasks and responses,(c) guiding peer coaching, (d) providing guided practice in topic development, and (e) helping STs analyze and understand the writing journals. writing process through
64 TESOL QUARTERLY
to Writing Assignments Designingand Responding STs do small assignmentsinvolving the course, Throughout or tasks,forexample, writing specific aspects of designingwriting adapting a controlledwritingpassage with an exercise requiring or a guided compositionwith word or sentence-level manipulation, questionson a picture.In mostcases, one ST designsa taskforESL/ EFL students,and another ST in the group responds, that is, actuallydoes thetask.This usuallyproduces an immediatenegative reaction,sometimesbecause the designerrealizes how unappealing because of fearof exposure taskis to do and sometimes theresulting of one's work to peers (based on past experience of ridicule or severe criticism): I thought whenyoutoldus to "do" theexercise 23. The first that thing of the room) was, in class (about the diagram thatwe'd written think It made me really wantto haveto do this!" "Yuck!I wouldn't aboutall theassignments I've givenin thepastand how I wouldn't tohaveto do them. havewanted for 24. Whenyoutoldus to givesomeone elseour"roomassignments" I for I shocked one was theother to write to, clearly responses ... to theidea of some"stranger" and didn'ttaketoo kindly looking at my work.. . It's one thingto be labelled makingcomments to be ridiculed by a stupidby the teacher.. . and quite another fellow classmate. Although this might be considered only a teacher training technique focusingon masteringa particularpiece of the process model of composition,it is anotherlink to teacher development. Recognitionof problemswithtasksleads to sometimesdevastating self-criticism thatcomes with awareness thatpast teachingexperience has been inadequate: 25. This class makesme embarrassed about the writing classes I've Yes-I've madeall those horrible, taught. boring assignments. 26. If anyonewould have suggested thatthe seemingly unwarranted someof mystudents havemade to myassignments poorresponse was partly becauseof me I wouldhavebeen offended. However, theinsight that I havegainedinto ofwriting theprocess a month ago has made me changemy mind.The realization of thistruth has almost beentraumatic. In two respects, ST responses often manifestfewer problems thanwould be thecase in a regularESOL class. First, because of the advanced level of writing skillsin theclass, the numberof errors in the responses is small. Second, the peer responders can often understandwhat the instructions really intended and answer the
thanthe actual instructions. presumed taskrather (For example, an instructionto "change woman to man and all pronouns" is understood as "change the gender of all relevant pronouns.") Nonetheless, "real" problems occur regularly.Perhaps the most lesson is thattaskdesignersget what theyask for,instead important of what theymay have had in mind: 27. It is a good wayto have us playtherolebothas a student and as a teacher by practicingdesigningassignments to studentsand I can to theother's Fromtheseexercises, responding assignments. if the realize what possibledifficulties a student may encounter or unproper. giventaskis unclear Revision I have made revision of virtually all tasks and responses mandatory.Grades are not recorded untilall revisionshave been made, includingrevisionforcontent developmentand organization as well as grammar, vocabulary,and mechanics. and beneficialpart of on revisionas an important The literature the writing process is extensive (e.g., Flower, Hayes, Carey, Schriver, & Strateman, 1986; Rose, 1980; Sommers, 1980). in manywriting classroomsrevisionis stillviewed as Unfortunately, eitheran unaffordableluxuryor as cheating.Even those STs who agree that revision of their own work-for example, research papers-is desirable generallyhave littleidea of what is involved, how to do it,and what it feelslike: fouror fivetimes. the"Magnolia" 28. I findmyself paragraph writing I am writing aboutand Thisreally mademeawareofwhatitis that how I shoulddo it. the revision Given the STs' negative attitudestowards writing, the who to understand first need as writers them addresses policy if writers themselves. are even Second, good they writing process, skills,at theirlevel. Everyone theyalso improve theirown writing makes errorsand produces work which can benefitfromrevision; and practicerevisionas a normal STs need to understand therefore, main ways in which this The of the writing process. part are the is journals,open discussion of understanding encouraged and of difficulties revision,and quotationsfrom (and joys) writing of the difficulties on writers famous writing. but writing of writing, Yet theseare not simplystudents teachers, who need to develop an awarenessofthewriting process-of which revisionis a part-through the tasks,ratherthan being fixatedon their actual writtenproduct. They also need to learn to see the
66 TESOL QUARTERLY
between the tasks they design and the resultant relationship for the responsesto these tasks. This helps them implications ownwriting transfer oftheir to those their processes understanding oftheir students:
29. After forthemuseum outtheexercises tour lastweek,I felt writing at [L's] fantastic unsatisfied aboutit.Especially so after very looking I feltlike throwing exercises! minein the drain!But I refrained I wentto thelibrary and triedto refine myself! my exercises.... The enormous ofbooksinthelibrary amount really helped! At the beginning,the extra work thatrevisionentailsproduces and the criticismgiven, no matterhow constructive, resentment, fromNSs. However, eventuallythe engendersshock, particularly benefitsbecome apparent: 30. I alwayshated,after ofbrilliance one of myburst whilewriting, to back and tie clean and and rethink weak go up up [any]apparent the taskand thatwas it-the pain was through points.I'd gotten andmyproduct was delivered. But... I've learned toedit, reover, findthings thatI wasn'tlooking for: etc.... I often edit,re-read, is ever perfect imperfect organization (as if my organization and problems with I am able anyway), logicor content. Invariably, to improve this mypaperthrough process. Guided Peer Coachingand Feedback STs lack skills and confidence in giving feedback. Often their previous experience as language studentshas left them with a repertoireof feedback techniques of very limited range: a grade alone, a grade plus general vague comments such as "good," or even "unclear,"or "awkward,"or a moreor less detailed marking of all surface errors correcting (Zamel, 1985): 31. WhenI was in grammar school... I alwaysthought that mygrade felt that on dependedmoreon howtheteacher particular day than ones.Some of us are too sensitive to handleso onlygave negative
much criticism without any praise. . ... I sometimeswonderif I will
the qualityof thepaper. . . . The few teachersthatgave comments,
remember whatitis liketo be a student I havebeen teaching after formany years. In orderto provide STs withexperiencein givingmore constructive,process-oriented feedback,in thepracticumfeedbackis initialmodeled and explicitly ly concretely by the TE; it is closelyguided the during peer coaching experiences.I call it feedforwardto enSTs to view thisin a way otherthan punishment or criticourage cism.
Peer coaching is relatedto cooperativelearningprocesses and to peer review (Mittan,1989), but occurs at thelevels of both student one person in (writer)and teacher (coach). For each assignment, each groupis designatedthecoach forthatassignment. That person is responsible for (a) collectingassignments and (tasks responses) from group members, (b) giving initialfeedback, (c) handing in marked assignments and cover sheet to the TE, (d) receivingTE's comments and revisingfeedback if necessary, (e) working with group members on revisions,and (f) collectingand handingin all revisionsto the TE. This close modeling is necessaryin order to forceSTs to practicenew typesof assignments. The firstassignmentis collected by the TE, who gives written thisserves as a model forthe type of feedback to be feedforward; For each assignment, the designatedcoaches meet with practiced. the TE at the end of class to go over theircoaching task.Feedback is required as follows: (a) a content-oriented response to the piece and interest(e.g., of writing, indicatingempathy,understanding, "This sounds like a greatplace "Yes, it'san awfulfeelingto be lost"; to spend a vacation."); (b) comments, queries, criticism,and on organization and developmentof content, including suggestions of meaningof individualsentences(e.g., "Whichpersondoes clarity this?""How about puttingall the descriptionof the outside of the and all the inside of the house afterwards?");and house together, finally(c) markingof individualerrorswitha set of errorsymbols (e.g., ww = wrongword, tns = wrongtense,wo = wrongorder). At first, eithermisssurfaceerrorsor catch only coaches typically more global problems. When do not but address surface errors coaches tendto use vague tangledsentences, respondingto difficult instructions such as "rephrase."In many cases, both NS and NNS thatis, in fact,correct-due to coaches markas incorrect something their own lack of English competence (sometimes in basic or dialect variation): sometimesin stylistic grammar, that as a coach,I've noticed 32. Bothtimes youhavepickedoutwrong out they me. Once pointed uses of wordsthathave goneright by blatant. seemvery Coaches at first usuallyrespond to contentonly with comments Criticismis often not balanced by like "good" or "interesting." praise, for example, "You didn't write about why this singer is popular." (instead of "The descriptionof the singer'slife storyis very good. Why is he so popular?"). Practice, and insistenceon revision in response to'feedforward,alleviates much of the STs' about written response. insecurity
68 TESOL QUARTERLY
For both NSs and NNSs, insecurityabout writingskills and to give specific or helpfulfeedforteachingskillshampers efforts ward. This problem is specificallyaddressed during the stage in which the TE is checkingthe coach's initialfeedforward. Queries, and suggestions fromthe TE are put on the papers on corrections, Post-itnotes, so that the coach can incorporatethese notes into If thesenotesare not immediately clear or commentsto the writer. the coach thereis disagreement between the coach and the writer, and TE discuss theproblems: it wouldbe funto be a coach-to do whatmyteachers 33. I thought used to do on mycompositions. I (HA!) After beinga coachtwice, realizedthatit's notfunto be a coach and it's not easy to be a teacher. 34. I've agonizedover... theexperience ofbeingthecoach.I readand reread the compositions wondering if my responses were If a sentence and meaningful. didn'tseem clear,I appropriate if it was thesentence wondered . . . was it a or myinterpretation bad sentence, or was ita good sentence that I didn't likebecauseit was written ina style than different myown? 35. I despisehaving other people (peers)critique [mywork].... So I understand whenstudents balkatmysuggestion toreadeachother's workand comment on it. Again, direct intervention by the TE (through directed and modeled coachingand feedback) can lead both to a specificchange in classroompractice,and also "startthe teacher[ST] on a process of reflectionand critique" (Freeman, 1989, p. 40). Ellis (1990) describes teacherpreparation practicesas those thatare "experiential" and those that"raise awareness,"but notes thattheyare not The mutuallyexclusive,and can be combined in the same activity. in this this view there that experiencesreported studysupport is, or can be, a veryclose connection in skillsand overall betweentraining education. Specific tensions occasionallyarise between NNSs and NSs, and within individualsover wearingthetwo hatsof student and teacher. Both NSs and NNSs commenton feelingdiscomfort at having to to peers-coaches maintaining thatit is easy to give give criticism feedback to students,but not to equals. This attitudeis easy to understandgiven these STs' past experience of feedback as an important factor in their well-developed dread of (teaching) The guidelineproposed to thecoaches is a simplevariation writing. of thegolden rule:give feedforward to yourstudents as iftheywere
your peers, not vice versa. Learningto do thisis supportedby: (a) guided practice,(b) theface-saving supportof havingtheTE check coaches' feedback before itis seen by thewriter, and (c) the resting of authority with the TE as the only person who can give a final "OK" on any assignment, thatis, can ruleit acceptable, requiring no further revision. NNSs are often reluctantto give commentson discrete errors because theyfeel theylack linguistic competence and also assume that NSs writers'organizationmustbe, by definition, correct.NS coaches are almost always more correct in English, but are nonethelessuncertainabout errorsbecause of theirlack of overt accurate, knowledge of rules. NNSs are usually less linguistically but often have explicit knowledge of rules and are able to give and explanationsthatNSs cannot;nonetheless, theyfeelintimidated withoutthe right to criticizeNSs. 36. To correct nativespeakers' was hardand easy.It was assignments hardbecausetheir skills aremuch better than mine English language and it'salmost to look for a mistake. because all It's impossible easy I could do was write clearlanguage" etc. or to "good organization, catchtheir mistakes. typing STs are oftenunsureto what extentpeers can be asked to redo assignments, particularly when problems arise from incorrect instructions or otherproblems in the originalassignment.In such or other group members may talk to the TE coaches situations, The more severe of privatelyand ask for advice or intervention. these problems are usually handled in TE-coach conferences,in forwordingof feedwhich the TE gives both specificsuggestions stem on "correctness." forwardand rulings Many of theseconflicts frombasic negative assumptions:thatrevisionis punitiveand that forrevisionmustcome froma recognizedauthority. suggestions in internationally mixed STs all recognize thebenefitsof working NNS EFL had no the U.S. NSs who have For experience, groups. STs are an invaluable source of information about specific of topic, or appropriatelevel of considerationssuch as suitability bound NSs not aware of how culturally are Sometimes difficulty. theirassignments are, as evidenced in thisjournal entry-and later on in direct and tactful comments to the task designer-by a Filipina ST: biased.... I don'thave he made ... wereculturally 37. The contexts of this about thebackground history. knowledge part America's ... on"tikog ifI askedhimtomakea composition Whatwouldhe write is? toldhimwhattikog whenI haven't weaving"
70 TESOL QUARTERLY
Of course, the dynamics of group work are importanthere. and reluctanceto expose ignoranceor to criticizepeers is Insecurity to improve: to some extentbalanced by the motivation 38. I freaked I saw someofthework outwhen other peopleweredoing, itseemedso much moreindepth than mine. 39. Thisis thefirst I realizethat time a writing classcan involve a lotof and interaction withthepeersof .. . working peercommunication thesame groupreducestheembarrassment and tenseness brought aboutifthestudent isto facetheteacher alone.In order to comeup witha good assignment, the students of the same groupneed to sharea mutualsenseof devotionand cooperation. Even though some shyand introvert in speaking students out mayfeelinhibited their in groupparticipatheir opinion, theycan overcome shyness tion. of this studyrepeatedly demonstratethe Althoughthe findings similarities ratherthan differences in the experiencesof NSs and NNSs and the benefits of the group-workprocess, there are occasionally problems-potentially excellent vehicles for awareThe dynamicbetween NSs and NNSs peers can lead to ness-raising. coaches becoming emotionally paralyzed. NSs are reluctantto criticizeand thereby hurtthe feelings of people in theirgroup who are already havingproblems and may therefore feel discriminated NSs can also become frustrated with NNSs' "incompeagainst. tence" as supposed peers and become disappointed that they are not getting as muchhelp fromthemas theyare giving.On the other NNSs can become frustratedwith NSs' "arrogance," hand, "condescension,"or incompetent help and feel guiltyasking them formore help. Practicein Topic Development Too often,ESL writingclasses are characterizedby spending shortamounts of time on different topics, sometimeswith undue or on general emphasis on controversial topics to stimulate writing topics to which everyonein the class presumablyhas equal access. The approach followed in thisclass, however,fallswell withinthe approaches to writinggenerallydescribed as content-based(e.g., In the course of Shih, 1986) or "language across the curriculum." forinitialinputcomes fromthe topic development,responsibility is then transferred to the STs when they TE; this responsibility their individual final on their own. A successionof prepare projects topics and projects of increasing complexity and increasing individualresponsibility forresearchare done in class. A numberof
are given first, small, individual,apparentlyunrelatedassignments focusingon areas includingtask type (contextualizedfreewriting, controlled, semicontrolled,and guided); note-taking;discourse of information; formats;and functions;grammarpoints; transfer of natural is given to writingstylescharacteristic styles.Attention science, social science, engineering, business, and humanities writing styles. The firstcomprehensivetopic project is done on a topic for is shared equally by the entire which knowledge and responsibility class. The most frequenttopic has been maple syrup (based on a fieldtripand written texts).All membersof theclass go on the field trip and have access to the same texts. A set of assignments previoustechniquesis givenand coached withingroups. practicing In the second projectstage,each groupworkson developing one albatrosses,Australia). sharks, aspect of a singletopic (e.g., forests, The whole class has a common body and depth of knowledge provided, for example, by viewing the same video or reading the same texts.Each group is thenassigned a subtopic to researchand for example, scientific for which to design writingassignments, study of the basking shark,protectionof Australianbeaches from of sharksbetween tanksin an aquarium. When sharks,and transfer finalrevisedtasksare made all groupshave finished, copies of their available to everyoneelse in the class. In thefinalprojectstage,each ST chooses an individualtopic and tasks.A finalprojectchecklist(see forwriting develops it primarily the Appendix) that is attached to the final project is provided to are included in ensurethatparticular typesof tasksand explanations the project,but thereis a tremendous varietyof design depending on the ST and the topic. at the prospect of doing an STs typicallyenterthe class terrified individualfinalproject: in the like a mountain 40. I see the class building up to something, a I see far but still closer ever project, away. very distance, looming some task,muchlike the mountain: definitely looking, imposing one doesn'tjustshrugoff.We'rebeingshownhow to something willlead toitsbeing tofind thepaththat chipawayat themountain, moved slowly.We aren'tallowed to go around,it's too big for andwe havebeenshown that.... No, we havetomoveitsomehow We are supposed hereand there. takea stone a coupleofwaysthat of other think to to moveother to applythat stones, waysto move and ofrocks, it's But God it'sa bigmountain stones. composed .... rocks can be moved. by the idea thatour class projectwill be They are oftenintimidated about science; both NSs and NNSs are overwhelmedby technical
72 TESOL QUARTERLY
invideosortexts, evenwhenthere is ampleexplanation. vocabulary to is considerable attention Therefore, preparation paid prewriting STs tolikeand understand and to helping thetopic:
41. One thing I reallyenjoyedseeingin class was thatdiversity in interested and subjectmatter keep students helps the instructor makes teachingfun.I suffered manyhoursof English through classesinhighschooland so forth and cannot recallhaving learned much ofanything. It'snicetobe able torecall nowspecific instances of picking that I didn't hereand there knowbefore. things up little and to sharks mind come Maple syrup, garbage immediately. 42. I've been enjoying of sources theendless that can be seeing variety at poetry booksinthelibrary, article, looking every magazine every even postage stamps,as possible picture,everyadvertisement, material fora project.Will I recover, and be able to look at a National forenjoyment everagain? Geographic Since many of the STs in the course are simultaneously teaching ESL compositioncourses,theyoftentry out new techniquesin their own classrooms,takingthe nextstep towardsindividualcontrolof the process by adapting it for theirown needs. Seeing how the techniqueworksand reflecting upon it lead to greaterawarenessof the overall approach: 43. I tookmy... Writing 2 class to theUniversity Museum. Our tour included theforestry and pioneer sections and someofthestudents realizedonce againhow good such"hands on" writing experiences were very clear and their reallyare. The students' descriptions had obviously vocabulary expanded. 44. I havealready tried inmyLevel 1 classanditworked group editing couldn'teven do theirown great!I had been told my students so I hadn't evenconsidered Butthey loveit rewriting group editing. and do learn. I'm regaining forwriting with myenthusiasm L1 and arepicking itup. they In some cases, the trialis not successful;the ST has an opportunity to discuss it withthe TE (oftenin thejournal) to tryto understand what happened and how to improveknowledge of a technique. The attemptsto tryout thisnew approach affectsaspects of life outside of the classroom,forexample: 45. I wanted ... towrite letters toourrelatives andfriends mychildren inColombia.Of course, neither did they write whatthey had tonor
[enjoy] the writingactivity.. . . I gave them two sets of five news my children's friends questions about possible interesting
73
class .... I have slowlydrivenmyselfbatty, exploited in a writing
wandered into the section on Indians .... As I read theiressays, I
would want to know ....In
and theproduct was so neatand organized I really saw that write, preparethe mychildren enjoyedwriting.... The day whenthey willcomesoon. questions
this way it was so easy for them to
theWriting andUnderstanding Process Journals Writing

For me,[this was also a process. is a process. 46. Writing course] Most evident process approach to the learningof teachingwriting. are STs' realizationsthattheir at thebeginning previousunderstandcomes about were based on misconcepings of how good writing tions,supportingimpossible models which guaranteeda sense of dismay if not totalfailure: thatgood to learnfromthe research 47. I was somewhat surprised thando poor writers. morefrequently and rewrite writers outline or write did not outline I assumedthatgood writers Heretofore, to find while I was drafts. that, may mywriting notbe rough pleased in theproper ofwriting abouttheprocess good,I am at leastgoing fashion. Not only does this change in viewpoint refer to the process of of the process of writingas a writer,but to the demystification teachingwriting. in I wasn't theonlyonewhofacesdifficulty I feelthat 48. How relieved thata How relievedI feltwhenourinstructor explained writing. and ofmuchpre-thinking is usually theresult good piece ofwriting to understand me discussion [It] helped [and revision]. pre-writing ofwriting. myownprocess Part of the process of learningabout process is guided introspection. Porter et al. (1990, p. 227) have described the usefulnessof account of what is goingon as [the STs] "learninglogs" ("a running work in a particularcourse") in teacherpreparationin gettingSTs more involved in theirown learningand helpingthemmake more connections between themselves and the course material. The experience of this practicum certainlysupports TE-ST dialogue journalsas a cruciallinkbetween practiceand awareness.Having to foranotherpersonhelps define writereactions,ideas, and insights and focus these, encouraging or even guaranteeingan analytic the overwhelmingmajorityof STs will not mode. Furthermore, reactionsorallywiththeTE. In some cases, thecontent discusstheir is and thewriting or perceived as embarrassing, is personal,painful, distance.The journalsare thus a usefulway to gain some protective
74 TESOL QUARTERLY
a theprocessapproachto writing In thiscourse, complemented
an invaluable way forthe TE to understandwhat is developing in the STs and to gain some insightsinto the reasons for change. A dialogue journalencouragesreal collaborationbetween teacherand studentratherthanone-sided evaluation (Vannett& Jurich, 1990). STs are encouragedto keep diariesof (For ongoingself-awareness, theirown teachingand learningexperiences.) CONCLUSION Most workpublishedon thequestionof how best to teachwriting teachersto teach writing addressesEnglishas a first language (e.g., Krupa, 1982; Papay, 1983; Ruszkiewicz, 1987; Spooner & teachersto teach ESL writing O'Donnell, 1987). Work on training has not addressed the issues raised here, and (e.g., White, 1979) researchon ESL teachereducation (e.g., Richards& Nunan, 1990) has not specifically addressed the teachingof writing. Most issues in teachingwritingare the same for NS and NNS to lack of feedback or teachers,forexample,bothrespondsimilarly to only negativecriticism, and both tend to teach in the ways they have been taught. and However, some sourcesof negativeattitudes insecuritiesare different.NSs may dislike developing further skillsin theirL1, but theyusuallyhave some confidencein writing theirlinguistic whereas NNSs are generallymuch more intuitions, doubtfulabout their L2 abilities.On theotherhand,NSs oftenhave littleinsightinto overtprocesses involved in L2 writing and often feel frustrated to teach or explainwriting, whereas NNSs are trying sometimesmore aware of specific differences between writing in theirL1 and L2 and can sometimesexplain these more easily to learners. NNSs can also usually empathize more specificallyand students thancan NS teachers, easilywiththeir especiallywhen NSs have had littleexperiencewriting in an L2. The overwhelming responseof STs in thisclass to initial questions on how they feel about writinghas been mildly to profoundly abilitiesto perform as negative.This has hamperedtheir effectively teachers of writing.These STs are aware of this problem; they own attitudes towardswriting and recognize thelinkbetween their the teachingof writing. It is essentialthattheirattitudes change to more positiveones. 49. I neverthought I wouldsay anything likethis(write like anything I but miss . .. could thismean this) actually writing compositions that I am actually tolikeit? beginning The principleson whichtheapproach described hereis based are wellknown: and teacher-structured learning by doing,learner-centered
As Young and Lee (1985) point out, consciousness-raising. learning, more attitudes are throughface-tolikely to be transferred "new and by "active participation face communication" by thesubject in some behavior associated with the new attitude" (p. 189). "those teachers who are better able to identifythe Furthermore, a new approach are also more likelyto feel principlesunderlying it is a more effective that way of teaching"(p. 192). in thisprocess of change is to develop One essentialingredient STs both as writersand as writingteachers.By recognizingtheir own strugglesand ways of succeeding and by empathizingwith teachers those strugglesand ways of succeeding in theirstudents, lessen the distance between themselvesand studentsand remove much of the unfairburden of unrealisticmodels of the writing process and of writing competence; STs develop reasonable and replace (or forimproving writing expectationsof responsibility at least supplement) bad writingexperience with a good experience. student 50. We are beingassigneddual roles:one as a EFL graduate ina foreign andartofteaching thetheory language writing studying to writein a foreign as a student and the other learning program how to teachwriting are we On the one hand, learning language. revealed and fromcomposing step by step.By guided processes and redesigning... we are developingan designing assignment of graded and techniques ofthebasic characteristics understanding makes work andrevision On theother hand, doingresponse writing. who a of student a valuable from me experience position something own ina foreign towrite is learning provides response My language. taskdesigned. aboutthewriting feedback an immediate direct (actual teaching) Richards & Crookes (1988) distinguish and indirect(observation)experiencesprovided fornovice teachers in practica. However, the practicumexperience described here is class, yet it somewherein between. The class is not an ESL writing an There is emphasis containsdeveloping second language writers. and directed. on learningby doing,yetthe experienceis structured The development of self-awarenessis also encouraged by the classes. of writing observations in structured journalsand training Could the kind of change described here come about outsidethe structureof an overt teacher trainingenvironmentsuch as a practicum class? Exceptionally motivated and secure teachers could no doubt come to such understandingson their own, through keeping a journal.However, theoverwhelming particularly of anxiety,and dread expressed by these STs feelings insecurity, indicate a block for which some type of outside guidance,
76 TESOL QUARTERLY
and even insistenceis probably necessary in most intervention, cases; the process is too painful,especially at the beginning.The course include their thattheywould quite probablynot recognition have made thischange on theirown:
STs report thebeginning from to theend of the stunning changes

51. I was shocked.... I forone didn'ttaketoo kindly to theidea of some "stranger" looking and making comments at my work.... Whatwas I to do except ... It'sone thing tobe comply?
labelled stupidby theteacher .
. .
classmate for likean uneducated So fear by a fellow writing person. ofappearing infront ofmyclassmates motivated me towork stupid harderto avoid more errors.Now, I'm not "composition-shy" at leastnotas paranoid as I initially was. anymore, 52. Thisproject was really I onlywishI wouldhavedone worthwhile.
it on my own.
and quite anotherto be ridiculed
A TE can move STs to tryto reach new understanding, both by which can encourage the STs' providingguided steps forwriting, awareness and change,and by simplyhavingenough experienceto know that the STs can write and can teach writing,thereby providingconfidencewhen the STs themselvescannotprovide it. The process described here does not support a dichotomy between teachertraining and teachereducation.Clearly,training in can lead to and specific techniques greaterself-awareness, greater of one's own writingprocess can lead directlyto understanding changes in one's teaching: 53. [Now] at the end of thecourse,I willeven admitthatI enjoyed some of thework, once I gotstarted. I actually especially enjoyed of the of such as able toimprove what aspects process writing, being between andchocolate. spinach
was already written. . ... Perhaps [the course] is more like a cross
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
An earlierversionof this paper was presented at the 24th AnnualTESOL Convention in San Francisco, March1990.The author is grateful forcomments from who also suggested theterm JeanMcConochie, Richard coach,and from KateParry, and MonicaHodges.Aboveall,thanks aredue to thestudents Young, inLING 585,whopermitted their tobe quoted. journals
THE AUTHOR
Lise Wineris Assistant Professor in the Department of Linguistics at Southern IllinoisUniversity-Carbondale. Her publications includeESOL readersand a forcollege teacher's she is preparing a handbook guideto Caribbeanliterature; ESOL composition Herresearch and teachers. interests include teacher education ofwriting. theteaching
REFERENCES
In L. (1990). Teacher reflective Bartlett, teaching. through development teacher education & D. Nunan(Eds.),Second J.C. Richards language
Press. (pp. 202-214). Cambridge: Cambridge University A skills: A. F. perspectivederived Boyd, (1989). Developing presentation fromprofessional education. EnglishforSpecific Purposes,8, 195-203. Ellis, R. (1990). Activitiesand procedures for teacher preparation. In
Press. (pp. 26-36). Cambridge: Cambridge University Flower, L., & Hayes, J. R. (1981). A cognitiveprocess theoryof writing. J. (1986). Flower, L., Hayes, J. R., Carey, L., Schriver,K., & Strateman, of revision.College Composition Detection,diagnosis,and thestrategies Freeman, D. (1989). Teacher training, development,and decisionmaking: A model of teaching and related strategies for language teacher education. TESOL Quarterly, 23(1), 27-45. new teachersof writing: H. Book, model, and G. (1982). Helping Krupa, Mittan,R. (1989). The peer review process: Harnessingstudents'commu& D. H. Roen (Eds.), Richnessin writnicativeforce.In D. M. Johnson ESL students (pp. 207-219).New York: Longman. ing: Empowering L. M. (1985). Diary studiesas a methodforevaluating Murphy-O'Dwyer, Englewood Cliffs,NJ:PrenticeHall International. centerforteachers.Teaching Englishin the Papay, T. Y. (1983). A writing
teacher education & D. Nunan(Eds.), Secondlanguage J.C. Richards and Communication, 32,365-387. CollegeComposition
and Communication, 37, 16-55.
and Communication, mirror. 33,442-445. CollegeComposition
Practical In J.C. Alderson teacher Papersin (Ed.), Lancaster training. English Language Education: Vol. 6. Evaluation (pp. 97-128). Two-Year College,9, 157-160.
Perl, S. (1979). The composing processes of unskilled college writers. Pianko, S. (1979). A descriptionof the composing processes of college Porter,P. A., Goldstein,L. M., Leatherman,J., & Conrad, S. (1990). An ongoing dialogue: Learning logs for teacher preparation. In Press. (pp. 227-240). Cambridge: Cambridge University The & practicumin TESOL. TESOL Richards,J. C., Crookes, G. (1988).
in theTeaching Research 18,317-336. ofEnglish,
intheTeaching Research writers. 13,5-22. freshman ofWriting,
education teacher & D. Nunan(Eds.), Secondlanguage J.C. Richards 22(1),9-27. Quarterly,
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TESOL QUARTERLY
Richards,J. C., & Nunan, D. (Eds.). (1990). Second language teacher education. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. of language: Rose, M. (1980). Rigid rules,inflexible plans, and the stilting A cognitivistanalysis of writer's block. College Composition and Ruszkiewicz, J. J. (1987). Training teachers is a process too. College Shih, M. (1986). Content-basedapproaches to teachingacademic writing. Sommers, N. (1980). Revision strategies of student writers and experienced adult writers.College Composition and Communication, 33, 148-156. Spooner, M., & O'Donnell, H. (1987). From cheap labor to junior colleague: TrainingTAs in composition.EnglishEducation,19, 122-126. D. (1990). A context forcollaboration: Teachers and Vannett,L., & Jurich, studentswriting In J. K. Peyton (Ed.), Studentsand teachers together. DC: TESOL. Washington, White,R. V. (1979). Training teachers to teach writing.In S. Holden (Ed.), Teacher training[Special issue]. Modern English Teacher, 3, 26-30. Young, R., & Lee, S. (1985). EFL curriculuminnovationand teachers' attitudes.In P. Larson, E. L. Judd, & D. S. Messerschmitt (Eds.), On TESOL '84: A Brave New WorldforTESOL (pp. 183-194).Washington, DC: TESOL. The process of discoveringmeaning. TESOL Zamel, V. (1982). Writing: Six Zamel, V. (1983). The composingprocessesof advanced ESL students: case studies.TESOL Quarterly, 17(2), 165-187. TESOL Quarterly, Zamel, V. (1985). Respondingto student writing. 19(1), 79-101.
Communication, 31,389-401.
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writing together: Perspectives on journal writing (pp. 49-62).
16(2),195-209. Quarterly,
79
APPENDIX SheetforIndividual FinalProject Grading Name of Student: Title of Project: 0. Student/ClassSetting: 1. Content: 2. Culture: 3. Writing Types: Assignment controlled guided free
reason forwriting, a) context:role,audience, format, place, time are clear b) instructions are workable c) assignments 4. Discourse Functions(variety, appropriate): 5. SupportingExercises: 6. Note-taking Exercise: 7. Reading Texts: 8. Media and Sense Variety: 9. PhysicalActivity: 10. Arithmetic Activity: 11. GeographyActivity: to Teacher (optional): 12. Instructions of Project: 13. Presentation grammar references mechanics (spelling,punctuation) vocabulary overall format vocabulary grammar
80
TESOL QUARTERLY

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Teachers of English to Speakers of Other Languages, Inc.

1992 Vol.26, No.1, Spring TESOL QUARTERLY,

"Spinachto Chocolate": Awarenessand Attitudes Changing in ESL Writing Teachers

"I SAY ITS SPINACH": NEGATIVEATTITUDES TOWARDS

likean idiot.ThereI was trying to teachother people how to write,

CHANGING ATTITUDES IN ESL WRITING TEACHERS

. . . when I became a foreign lanconfidence left. Unfortunately

reviewing grammar, usage, punctuation..

could reduce the

... The temptaspellingmistakes, adding or removingpunctuation

understandevery word I said, what topics I referredto .... And

the qualityof thepaper. . . . The few teachersthatgave comments,

class .... I have slowlydrivenmyselfbatty, exploited in a writing

wandered into the section on Indians .... As I read theiressays, I

CHANGING ATTITUDES IN ESL WRITING TEACHERS

would want to know ....In

this way it was so easy for them to

theWriting andUnderstanding Process Journals Writing

a theprocessapproachto writing In thiscourse, complemented

STs report thebeginning from to theend of the stunning changes

and quite anotherto be ridiculed

and Communication, 37, 16-55.

and Communication, mirror. 33,442-445. CollegeComposition

in theTeaching Research 18,317-336. ofEnglish,

intheTeaching Research writers. 13,5-22. freshman ofWriting,

education teacher & D. Nunan(Eds.), Secondlanguage J.C. Richards 22(1),9-27. Quarterly,

and Communication, 38,461-464. Composition TESOL Quarterly, 20(4),617-648.

writing together: Perspectives on journal writing (pp. 49-62).

CHANGING ATTITUDES IN ESL WRITING TEACHERS

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