Steam Conservation Guidelines PDF

Steam
Conservation
Guidelines for
Condensate
Drainage
HP Steam
LP Steam
H
K
RECEIVER
TANK HEATER
RECEIVER
PUMP
HP Condensate Return
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Table of Contents
Recommendation Charts and Instructions for Use ......................................................................................................................CG-2
Steam Tables .................................................................................................................................................................................CG-3
Steam...Basic Concepts ................................................................................................................................................................CG-5
The Inverted Bucket Steam Trap ..................................................................................................................................................CG-9
The Float & Thermostatic Steam Trap........................................................................................................................................CG-11
The Controlled Disc Steam Trap.................................................................................................................................................CG-12
The Thermostatic Steam Trap ....................................................................................................................................................CG-13
The Automatic Differential Condensate Controller .....................................................................................................................CG-14
Steam Trap Selection ..................................................................................................................................................................CG-15
How to Trap:
Steam Distribution Systems ........................................................................................................................................................CG-17
Steam Tracer Lines .....................................................................................................................................................................CG-21
Superheated Steam Lines...........................................................................................................................................................CG-23
Space Heating Equipment ..........................................................................................................................................................CG-25
Process Air Heaters.....................................................................................................................................................................CG-28
Shell and Tube Heat Exchangers ...............................................................................................................................................CG-29
Evaporators..................................................................................................................................................................................CG-32
Jacketed Kettles ..........................................................................................................................................................................CG-35
Closed Stationary Steam Chamber Equipment .........................................................................................................................CG-37
Rotating Dryers Requiring Syphon Drainage .............................................................................................................................CG-39
Flash Tanks..................................................................................................................................................................................CG-41
Steam Absorption Machines .......................................................................................................................................................CG-43
Trap Selection and Safety Factors .............................................................................................................................................CG-44
Installation and Testing ................................................................................................................................................................CG-45
Troubleshooting ...........................................................................................................................................................................CG-49
Pipe Sizing Steam Supply and Condensate Return Lines ........................................................................................................CG-50
Useful Engineering Tables...........................................................................................................................................................CG-53
Conversion Factors .....................................................................................................................................................................CG-54
Specific Heat - Specific Gravity...................................................................................................................................................CG-55
2011 Armstrong International, Inc.
Armstrong Steam and Condensate Group, 816 Maple St., Three Rivers, MI 49093 USA Phone: (269) 273-1415 Fax: (269) 278-6555
armstronginternational.com
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Bringing Energy Down to Earth

Say energy. Think environment. And vice versa.
Any company that is energy conscious is also environmentally
conscious. Less energy consumed means less waste, fewer
emissions and a healthier environment.
In short, bringing energy and environment together lowers
the cost industry must pay for both. By helping companies
manage energy, Armstrong products and services are also
helping to protect the environment.
Armstrong has been sharing know-how since we invented
the energy-efficient inverted bucket steam trap in 1911. In the
years since, customers savings have proven again and again
that knowledge not shared is energy wasted.
Armstrongs developments and improvements in steam trap
design and function have led to countless savings in energy,
time and money. This section has grown out of our decades
of sharing and expanding what weve learned. It deals with the
operating principles of steam traps and outlines their specific
applications to a wide variety of products and industries.
Youll find it a useful complement to other Armstrong literature
and the Armstrong Steam-A-ware software program for sizing
and selecting steam traps, pressure reducing valves and
water heaters, which can be requested through Armstrongs
Web site, armstronginternational.com.
This section also includes Recommendation Charts that
summarize our findings on which type of trap will give
optimum performance in a given situation and why.
IMPORTANT: This section is intended to summarize

general principles of installation and operation of steam
traps, as outlined above. Actual installation and operation
of steam trapping equipment should be performed
only by experienced personnel. Selection or installation
should always be accompanied by competent technical
assistance or advice. This data should never be used
as a substitute for such technical advice or assistance.
We encourage you to contact Armstrong or its local
representative for further details.
CG-1
Instructions for Using the Recommendation Charts

A quick reference Recommendation Chart appears throughout
the HOW TO TRAP sections of this catalog, pages CG-17 to
CG-43.
A feature code system (ranging from A to Q) supplies you
with at-a-glance information.
The chart covers the type of steam traps and the major
advantages that Armstrong feels are superior for each
particular application.
3. Now refer to Chart CG-2 below, titled How Various

Types of Steam Traps Meet Specific Operating
Requirements and read down the extreme left-hand
column to each of the letters B, C, E, K, N. The letter
B, for example, refers to the traps ability to provide
energy-conserving operation.
4. Follow the line for B to the right until you reach the
column that corresponds to our first choice, in this case
the inverted bucket. Based on tests and actual operating
conditions, the energy-conserving performance of the
inverted bucket steam trap has been rated Excellent.
Follow this same procedure for the remaining letters.
For example, assume you are looking for information

concerning the proper trap to use on a gravity drained
jacketed kettle. You would:
1. Turn to the How to Trap Jacketed Kettles section,
pages CG-35 to CG-36, and look in the lower right-hand
corner of page CG-35. The Recommendation Chart
located there is reprinted below for your convenience.
(Each section has a Recommendation Chart.)
Abbreviations
IB
IBLV
BM
F&T
CD
DC
Inverted Bucket Trap

Inverted Bucket Large Vent
Bimetallic Trap
Float and Thermostatic Trap
Controlled Disc Trap
Automatic Differential
Condensate Controller
CV Check Valve
T
Thermic Bucket
PRV Pressure Reducing Valve
2. Find Jacketed Kettles, Gravity Drain in the first

column under Equipment Being Trapped and read
to the right for Armstrongs 1st Choice and Feature
Code. In this case, the first choice is an IBLV and
the feature code letters B, C, E, K, N are listed.
Chart CG-1. Recommendation Chart
(See chart below for Feature Code References.)
Equipment Being
Trapped
1st Choice and

Feature Code
Alternate Choice
Jacketed Kettles
Gravity Drain
IBLV
B, C, E, K, N
F&T or Thermostatic
Jacketed Kettles
Syphon Drain
DC
B, C, E, G, H, K, N, P
IBLV
Chart CG-2. How Various Types of Steam Traps Meet Specific Operating Requirements
Feature
Code
A
B
C
D
E
F
G
H
I
J
K
L
M
N
O
P
Q
Characteristic
Method of Operation
Energy Conservation (Time in Service)
Resistance to Wear
Corrosion Resistance
Resistance to Hydraulic Shock
Vents Air and CO2 at Steam Temperature
Ability to Vent Air at Very Low Pressure (1/4 psig)
Ability to Handle Start-Up Air Loads
Operation Against Back Pressure
Resistance to Damage From Freezing (6)
Ability to Purge System
Performance on Very Light Loads
Responsiveness to Slugs of Condensate
Ability to Handle Dirt
Comparative Physical Size
Ability to Handle Flash Steam
Mechanical Failure (Open or Closed)
IB
BM
F&T
Disc
Thermostatic
DC
(1) Intermittent
Excellent
Excellent
Excellent
Excellent
Yes
Poor
Fair
Excellent
Good
Excellent
Excellent
Immediate
Excellent
(7) Large
Fair
Open
(2) Intermittent
Excellent
Excellent
Excellent
Excellent
No
(5) NR
Excellent
Excellent
Good
Good
Excellent
Delayed
Fair
Small
Poor
Open
Continuous
Good
Good
Good
Poor
No
Excellent
Excellent
Excellent
Poor
Fair
Excellent
Immediate
Poor
Large
Poor
Closed
Intermittent
Poor
Poor
Excellent
Excellent
No
(5) NR
Poor
Poor
Good
Excellent
Poor
Delayed
Poor
Small
Poor
(8) Open
(2) Intermittent
Fair
Fair
Good
(4) Poor
No
Good
Excellent
Excellent
Good
Good
Excellent
Delayed
Fair
Small
Poor
(9)
Continuous
(3) Excellent
Excellent
Excellent
Excellent
Yes
Excellent
Excellent
Excellent
Good
Excellent
Excellent
Immediate
Excellent
Large
Excellent
Open
(1) Drainage of condensate is continuous. Discharge is intermittent.

(2) Can be continuous on low load.
(3) Excellent when secondary steam is utilized.
(4) Bimetallic and wafer traps good.
(5) Not recommended for low pressure operations.
(6) Cast iron traps not recommended.

(7) In welded stainless steel construction medium.
(8) Can fail closed due to dirt.
(9) Can fail either open or closed, depending upon the design
of the bellows.
CG2
Steam Tables
What They AreHow to Use Them
How the Table Is Used
The heat quantities and temperature/

pressure relationships referred to in
this section are taken from the Properties
of Saturated Steam table.
In addition to determining pressure/

temperature relationships, you can
compute the amount of steam that will
be condensed by any heating unit of
known Btu output. Conversely, the
table can be used to determine Btu

output if steam condensing rate is
known. In the application portion of
this section, there are several references
to the use of the steam table.
Definitions of Terms Used
Absolute and Gauge Pressures

Absolute pressure is pressure in
pounds per square inch (psia) above
a perfect vacuum. Gauge pressure is
pressure in pounds per square inch
above atmospheric pressure, which is
14.7 pounds per square inch absolute.
Gauge pressure (psig) plus 14.7 equals
absolute pressure. Or, absolute pressure
minus 14.7 equals gauge pressure.
Table CG-1. Properties of Saturated Steam

(Abstracted from Keenan and Keyes, THERMODYNAMIC PROPERTIES OF STEAM,
by permission of John Wiley & Sons, Inc.)
Col. 1
Gauge
Pressure
Inches of Vacuum
Saturated Steam is pure steam at the

temperature that corresponds to the
boiling temperature of water at the
existing pressure.
Pressure/Temperature Relationship
(Columns 1, 2 and 3). For every
pressure of pure steam there is a
corresponding temperature. Example:
The temperature of 250 psig pure
steam is always 406F.
Latent Heat or Heat of Vaporization

(Column 5). The amount of heat
(expressed in Btu) required to change
a pound of boiling water to a pound of
steam. This same amount of heat is
released when a pound of steam is
condensed back into a pound of water.
This heat quantity is different for every
pressure/temperature combination, as
shown in the steam table.
Total Heat of Steam (Column 6). The
sum of the Heat of the Liquid (Column
4) and Latent Heat (Column 5) in Btu.
It is the total heat in steam above 32F.
Specific Volume of Liquid (Column 7).
The volume per unit of mass in cubic
feet per pound.
Specific Volume of Steam (Column 8).
The volume per unit of mass in cubic
feet per pound.
PSIG
Heat of Saturated Liquid (Column 4).

This is the amount of heat required
to raise the temperature of a pound
of water from 32F to the boiling point
at the pressure and temperature
shown. It is expressed in British thermal units (Btu).
29.743
29.515
27.886
19.742
9.562
7.536
5.490
3.454
1.418
0.0
1.3
2.3
5.3
10.3
15.3
20.3
25.3
30.3
40.3
50.3
60.3
70.3
80.3
90.3
100.0
110.3
120.3
125.3
130.3
140.3
150.3
160.3
180.3
200.3
225.3
250.3
Col. 2
Absolute
Pressure
(psia)
Col. 3
Steam
Temp.
(F)
Col. 4
Heat of
Sat. Liquid
(Btu/lb)
Col. 5
Latent
Heat
(Btu/lb)
0.08854
0.2
1.0
5.0
10.0
11.0
12.0
13.0
14.0
14.696
16.0
17.0
20.0
25.0
30.0
35.0
40.0
45.0
55.0
65.0
75.0
85.0
95.0
105.0
114.7
125.0
135.0
140.0
145.0
155.0
165.0
175.0
195.0
215.0
240.0
265.0
300.0
400.0
450.0
500.0
600.0
900.0
1200.0
1500.0
1700.0
2000.0
2500.0
2700.0
3206.2
32.00
53.14
101.74
162.24
193.21
197.75
201.96
205.88
209.56
212.00
216.32
219.44
227.96
240.07
250.33
259.28
267.25
274.44
287.07
297.97
307.60
316.25
324.12
331.36
337.90
344.33
350.21
353.02
355.76
360.50
365.99
370.75
379.67
387.89
397.37
406.11
417.33
444.59
456.28
467.01
486.21
531.98
567.22
596.23
613.15
635.82
668.13
679.55
705.40
0.00
21.21
69.70
130.13
161.17
165.73
169.96
173.91
177.61
180.07
184.42
187.56
196.16
208.42
218.82
227.91
236.03
243.36
256.30
267.50
277.43
286.39
294.56
302.10
308.80
315.68
321.85
324.82
327.70
333.24
338.53
343.57
353.10
361.91
372.12
381.60
393.84
424.00
437.20
449.40
471.60
526.60
571.70
611.60
636.30
671.70
730.60
756.20
902.70
1075.8
1063.8
1036.3
1001.0
982.1
979.3
976.6
974.2
971.9
970.3
967.6
965.5
960.1
952.1
945.3
939.2
933.7
928.6
919.6
911.6
904.5
897.8
891.7
886.0
880.0
875.4
870.6
868.2
865.8
861.3
857.1
852.8
844.9
837.4
828.5
820.1
809.0
780.5
767.4
755.0
731.6
668.8
611.7
556.3
519.6
463.4
360.5
312.1
0.0
Col. 7
Col. 8
Col. 6
Specific
Specific
Total Heat
Volume of Volume of
of Steam
Sat. Liquid Sat. Steam
(Btu/lb)
(cu ft/lb)
(cu ft/lb)
1075.8
1085.0
1106.0
1131.0
1143.3
1145.0
1146.6
1148.1
1149.5
1150.4
1152.0
1153.1
1156.3
1160.6
1164.1
1167.1
1169.7
1172.0
1175.9
1179.1
1181.9
1184.2
1186.2
1188.1
1188.8
1191.1
1192.4
1193.0
1193.5
1194.6
1195.6
1196.5
1198.0
1199.3
1200.6
1201.7
1202.8
1204.5
1204.6
1204.4
1203.2
1195.4
1183.4
1167.9
1155.9
1135.1
1091.1
1068.3
902.7
0.016022
0.016027
0.016136
0.016407
0.016590
0.016620
0.016647
0.016674
0.016699
0.016715
0.016746
0.016768
0.016830
0.016922
0.017004
0.017078
0.017146
0.017209
0.017325
0.017429
0.017524
0.017613
0.017696
0.017775
0.017850
0.017922
0.017991
0.018024
0.018057
0.018121
0.018183
0.018244
0.018360
0.018470
0.018602
0.018728
0.018896
0.019340
0.019547
0.019748
0.02013
0.02123
0.02232
0.02346
0.02428
0.02565
0.02860
0.03027
0.05053
CG3
3306.00
1526.00
333.60
73.52
38.42
35.14
32.40
30.06
28.04
26.80
24.75
23.39
20.09
16.30
13.75
11.90
10.50
9.40
7.79
6.66
5.82
5.17
4.65
4.23
3.88
3.59
3.33
3.22
3.11
2.92
2.75
2.60
2.34
2.13
1.92
1.74
1.54
1.16
1.03
0.93
0.77
0.50
0.36
0.28
0.24
0.19
0.13
0.11
0.05
Steam Tables
Flash Steam (Secondary)
What is flash steam? When hot condensate or boiler
water, under pressure, is released to a lower pressure, part
of it is re-evaporated, becoming what is known as flash steam.
Why is it important? This flash steam is important because
it contains heat units that can be used for economical plant
operationand which are otherwise wasted.
How is it formed? When water is heated at atmospheric
pressure, its temperature rises until it reaches 212F,
the highest temperature at which water can exist at this
pressure. Additional heat does not raise the temperature,
but converts the water to steam.
Condensate at steam temperature and under 100 psig

pressure has a heat content of 308.8 Btu per pound. (See
Column 4 in Steam Table.) If this condensate is discharged
to atmospheric pressure (0 psig), its heat content instantly
drops to 180 Btu per pound. The surplus of 128.8 Btu
re-evaporates or flashes a portion of the condensate.
The percentage that will flash to steam can be computed
using the formula:
% flash steam = SH - SL x 100
H
SH =
Sensible heat in the condensate at the higher

pressure before discharge.
Sensible heat in the condensate at the lower
pressure to which discharge takes place.
Latent heat in the steam at the lower pressure
to which the condensate has been discharged.
SL =
The heat absorbed by the water in raising its temperature
to boiling point is called sensible heat or heat of saturated
liquid. The heat required to convert water at boiling point
to steam at the same temperature is called latent heat.
The unit of heat in common use is the Btu, which is the
amount of heat required to raise the temperature of one
pound of water 1F at atmospheric pressure.
If water is heated under pressure, however, the boiling
point is higher than 212F, so the sensible heat required
is greater. The higher the pressure, the higher the boiling
temperature and the higher the heat content. If pressure
is reduced, a certain amount of sensible heat is released.
This excess heat will be absorbed in the form of latent heat,
causing part of the water to flash into steam.
Chart CG-3.
Percentage of flash steam formed when discharging
condensate to reduced pressure.
% flash steam = 308.8 - 180 x 100 =13.3%

970.3
Chart CG-3 shows the amount of secondary steam that
will be formed when discharging condensate to different
pressures. Other useful tables will be found on page
CG-53 (Useful Engineering Tables).
Chart CG-4.
Volume of flash steam formed when one cubic foot of
condensate is discharged to atmospheric pressure.
30
PERCENTAGE OF FLASH STEAM
25
A
20
B
C
15
D
E
F
G
10
CURVE
BACK PRESS.
LBS/SQ IN
A
B
C
D
E
F
G
10
5
0
10
20
30
40
0
20
50
100
150
200
250
CU FT FLASH STEAM
PER CU FT OF CONDENSATE
400
300
200
100
300
100
200
300
400
PRESSURE AT WHICH CONDENSATE

IS FORMEDLBS/SQ IN
PSI FROM WHICH CONDENSATE IS DISCHARGED

9
CG4
SteamBasic Concepts
Steam is an invisible gas generated by adding heat
energy to water in a boiler. Enough energy must be added
to raise the temperature of the water to the boiling point.
Then additional energywithout any further increase in
temperaturechanges the water to steam.
When steam reaches the heat exchangers in the system,

the story is different. Here the transfer of heat from the
steam is desirable. Heat flows to the air in an air heater,
to the water in a water heater or to food in a cooking kettle.
Nothing should interfere with this heat transfer.
Steam is a very efficient and easily controlled heat transfer

medium. It is most often used for transporting energy from a
central location (the boiler) to any number of locations in the
plant where it is used to heat air, water or process applications.
Condensate Drainage
Why Its Necessary
As noted, additional Btu are required to make boiling water

change to steam. These Btu are not lost but stored in the
steam ready to be released to heat air, cook tomatoes,
press pants or dry a roll of paper.
The heat required to change boiling water into steam is
called the heat of vaporization or latent heat. The quantity
is different for every pressure/temperature combination,
as shown in the steam tables.
Condensate is the by-product of heat transfer in a steam

system. It forms in the distribution system due to unavoidable
radiation. It also forms in heating and process equipment
as a result of desirable heat transfer from the steam to the
substance heated. Once the steam has condensed and
given up its valuable latent heat, the hot condensate must
be removed immediately. Although the available heat in a
pound of condensate is negligible as compared to a pound
of steam, condensate is still valuable hot water and should
be returned to the boiler.
Definitions
n The Btu. A BtuBritish thermal unitis the amount of
Steam at Work
How the Heat of Steam Is Utilized
Heat flows from a higher temperature level to a lower
temperature level in a process known as heat transfer.
Starting in the combustion chamber of the boiler, heat
flows through the boiler tubes to the water. When the
higher pressure in the boiler pushes steam out, it heats
the pipes of the distribution system. Heat flows from the
steam through the walls of the pipes into the cooler
surrounding air. This heat transfer changes some of the
steam back into water. Thats why distribution lines are
usually insulated to minimize this wasteful and undesirable
heat transfer.
heat energy required to raise the temperature of one

pound of cold water by 1F. Or, a Btu is the amount of
heat energy given off by one pound of water in cooling,
say, from 70F to 69F.
n Temperature. The degree of hotness with no implication

of the amount of heat energy available.
n Heat. A measure of energy available with no implication

of temperature. To illustrate, the one Btu that raises one
pound of water from 39F to 40F could come from the
surrounding air at a temperature of 70F or from a flame
at a temperature of 1,000F.
1 lb water
at 70F
+ 142 Btu=
Condensate
Steam
1 lb water
at 212F
+ 970 Btu=
1 lb steam
at 212F
Figure CG-1. These drawings show how much heat

is required to generate one pound of steam at
atmospheric pressure. Note that it takes 1 Btu for
every 1 increase in temperature up to the boiling
point, but that it takes more Btu to change water at
212F to steam at 212F.
CG5
1 lb water
at 70F,
0 psig
+ 270 Btu=
1 lb water
at 338F,
100 psig
+ 880 Btu=
1 lb steam
at 338F,
100 psig
Figure CG-2. These drawings show how much heat is required

to generate one pound of steam at 100 pounds per square inch
pressure. Note the extra heat and higher temperature required
to make water boil at 100 pounds pressure than at atmospheric
pressure. Note, too, the lesser amount of heat required to
change water to steam at the higher temperature.
SteamBasic Concepts
The need to drain the distribution system. Condensate
lying in the bottom of steam lines can be the cause of one
kind of water hammer. Steam traveling at up to 100 miles
per hour makes waves as it passes over this condensate
Fig. CG-4). If enough condensate forms, high-speed steam
pushes it along, creating a dangerous slug that grows larger
and larger as it picks up liquid in front of it. Anything that
changes the directionpipe fittings, regulating valves, tees,
elbows, blind flangescan be destroyed. In addition to
damage from this battering ram, high-velocity water may
erode fittings by chipping away at metal surfaces.
The need to drain the heat transfer unit. When steam
comes in contact with condensate cooled below the temperature of steam, it can produce another kind of water hammer
known as thermal shock. Steam occupies a much greater
volume than condensate, and when it collapses suddenly,
it can send shock waves throughout the system. This form
of water hammer can damage equipment, and it signals
that condensate is not being drained from the system.
Obviously, condensate in the heat transfer unit takes up
space and reduces the physical size and capacity of the
equipment. Removing it quickly keeps the unit full of steam
(Fig. CG-5). As steam condenses, it forms a film of water on
the inside of the heat exchanger. Non-condensable gases
do not change into liquid and flow away by gravity. Instead,
they accumulate as a thin film on the surface of the heat
exchangeralong with dirt and scale. All are potential
barriers to heat transfer (Fig. CG-3).
The need to remove air and CO2. Air is always present

during equipment start-up and in the boiler feedwater.
Feedwater may also contain dissolved carbonates, which
release carbon dioxide gas. The steam velocity pushes
the gases to the walls of the heat exchangers, where they
may block heat transfer. This compounds the condensate
drainage problem, because these gases must be removed
along with the condensate.
Figure CG-3. Potential barriers to heat transfer: steam heat

and temperature must penetrate these potential barriers to
do their work.
Figure CG-4. Condensate allowed to collect in pipes or

tubes is blown into waves by steam passing over it until it
blocks steam flow at point A. Condensate in area B causes
a pressure differential that allows steam pressure to push
the slug of condensate along like a battering ram.
Figure CG-5. Coil half full of condensate cant work at

full capacity.
50.3 psig
297.97F
PRV
100 psig
337.9F
Trap
Trap
Trap
Trap
Trap
Trap
Vent
Condensate
Steam
Vapor
Figure CG-6. Note that heat radiation from the distribution system causes condensate to form and, therefore, requires steam
traps at natural low points or ahead of control valves. In the heat exchangers, traps perform the vital function of removing the
condensate before it becomes a barrier to heat transfer. Hot condensate is returned through the traps to the boiler for reuse.
11
CG6
SteamBasic Concepts
When non-condensable gases (primarily air) continue to
accumulate and are not removed, they may gradually fill
the heat exchanger with gases and stop the flow of steam
altogether. The unit is then air bound.
Effect of Air on Steam Temperature

When air and other gases enter the steam system, they
consume part of the volume that steam would otherwise
occupy. The temperature of the air/steam mixture falls below
that of pure steam. Figure CG-7 explains the effect of air
in steam lines. Table CG-2 and Chart CG-5 show the various temperature reductions caused by air at various percentages and pressures.
Corrosion
Two primary causes of scale and corrosion are carbon
dioxide (CO2) and oxygen. CO2 enters the system as
carbonates dissolved in feedwater and, when mixed with
cooled condensate, creates carbonic acid. Extremely
corrosive, carbonic acid can eat through piping and heat
exchangers (Fig. CG-9). Oxygen enters the system as gas
dissolved in the cold feedwater. It aggravates the action of
carbonic acid, speeding corrosion and pitting iron and steel
surfaces (Fig. CG-10).
Effect of Air on Heat Transfer

The normal flow of steam toward the heat exchanger surface carries air and other gases with it. Since they do not
condense and drain by gravity, these non-condensable
gases set up a barrier between the steam and the heat
exchanger surface. The excellent insulating properties of
air reduce heat transfer. In fact, under certain conditions
as little as 1/2 of 1% by volume of air in steam can reduce
heat transfer efficiency by 50% (Fig. CG-8).
Eliminating the Undesirables

To summarize, traps must drain condensate because
it can reduce heat transfer and cause water hammer.
Traps should evacuate air and other non-condensable
gases because they can reduce heat transfer by reducing
steam temperature and insulating the system. They can
also foster destructive corrosion. Its essential to remove
condensate, air and CO2 as quickly and completely as
possible. A steam trap, which is simply an automatic valve
that opens for condensate, air and CO2 and closes for
steam, does this job. For economic reasons, the steam trap
should do its work for long periods with minimum attention.
Table CG-2. Temperature Reduction Caused by Air

Temp. of
Steam, No Air
Present (F)
10.3
25.3
50.3
75.3
100.3
240.1
267.3
298.0
320.3
338.1
Temp. of Steam Mixed With Various

Percentages of Air (by Volume) (F)
10%
234.3
261.0
291.0
312.9
330.3
20%
228.0
254.1
283.5
304.8
321.8
30%
220.9
246.4
275.1
295.9
312.4
ME
IR
NT A
RCE
PE
Figure CG-7. Chamber containing air

and steam delivers only the heat of the
partial pressure of the steam, not the
total pressure.
100
90
80
70
60
OLU
BY V
50
40
30
20
PRE
10
0 300 2
50
SSU
200
RE
150
PSIG
100
75 5
0 25
0
425
400
450
375
425
400
350
375
325
350
300
325
275
250
300
225
275
200
250
225
150
200
100
150
Steam chamber 100% steam

Total pressure 100 psia
Steam pressure 100 psia
Steam temperature 327.8F
100
0
0
300
Steam chamber 90% steam and 10% air

Total pressure 100 psia
Steam pressure 90 psia
Steam temperature 320.3F
250
200
150
100
75 5
0
0 25
0 100 9
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
Chart CG-5. Air Steam Mixture

Temperature reduction caused by various percentages of air at differing pressures. This chart determines the percentage of air with known pressure and temperature by determining the point of intersection between pressure, temperature
and percentage of air by volume. As an example, assume system pressure of 250
psig with a temperature at the heat exchanger of 375F. From the chart, it is determined that there is 30% air by volume in the steam.
12
CG7
450
TEMPERATURE F
Pressure
(psig)
13800 N101-Revised 2-11_838_Cons_Guide.qxd 2/4/11 11:16 AM Page CG8
SteamBasic Concepts
What the Steam Trap Must Do
The job of the steam trap is to get condensate, air and CO2
out of the system as quickly as they accumulate. In addition,
for overall efficiency and economy, the trap must also provide:
1. Minimal steam loss. Table CG-3 shows how costly
unattended steam leaks can be.
2. Long life and dependable service. Rapid wear of
parts quickly brings a trap to the point of undependability.
An efficient trap saves money by minimizing trap testing,
repair, cleaning, downtime and associated losses.
3. Corrosion resistance. Working trap parts should be
corrosion-resistant in order to combat the damaging
effects of acidic or oxygen-laden condensate.
4. Air venting. Air can be present in steam at any time
and especially on start-up. Air must be vented for
efficient heat transfer and to prevent system binding.
5. CO2 venting. Venting CO2 at steam temperature will
prevent the formation of carbonic acid. Therefore, the
steam trap must function at or near steam temperature
since CO2 dissolves in condensate that has cooled
below steam temperature.
7. Freedom from dirt problems. Dirt is an ever-present

concern since traps are located at low points in the
steam system. Condensate picks up dirt and scale in
the piping, and solids may carry over from the boiler.
Even particles passing through strainer screens are
erosive and, therefore, the steam trap must be able to
operate in the presence of dirt.
A trap delivering anything less than all these desirable
operating/design features will reduce the efficiency of the
system and increase costs. When a trap delivers all these
features the system can achieve:
1. Fast heat-up of heat transfer equipment
2. Maximum equipment temperature for enhanced steam
heat transfer
3. Maximum equipment capacity
4. Maximum fuel economy
5. Reduced labor per unit of output
6. Minimum maintenance and a long trouble-free service life
Sometimes an application may demand a trap without
these design features, but in the vast majority of applications the trap which meets all the requirements will deliver
the best results.
6. Operation against back pressure. Pressurized return

lines can occur both by design and unintentionally. A steam
trap should be able to operate against the actual back
pressure in its return system.
Figure CG-8. Steam condensing in a
heat transfer unit moves air to the heat
transfer surface, where it collects or
plates out to form effective insulation.
Figure CG-9. CO2 gas combines with

condensate allowed to cool below
steam temperature to form carbonic
acid, which corrodes pipes and heat
transfer units. Note groove eaten
away in the pipe illustrated.
Figure CG-10. Oxygen in the system

speeds corrosion (oxidation) of pipes,
causing pitting such as shown here.
Figs. CG-9 and CG-10 courtesy of Dearborn
Chemical Company.
Table CG-3. Cost of Various Sized Steam Leaks at 100 psi (69 bar)
(Assuming steam costs $10.00/1,000 lbs)
Condensate
Steam
Size of Orifice (in)
Lbs Steam Wasted

Per Month
Total Cost Per Month

(USD)
1/2
7/16
3/8
5/16
1/4
3/16
1/8
553,000
423,500
311,000
216,000
138,000
78,000
34,500
$5,530.00
4,235.00
3,110.00
2,160.00
1,380.00
780.00
345.50
Total Cost Per Year

(USD)
$66,360.00
50,820.00
37,320.00
25,920.00
16,560.00
9,360.00
4,140.00
The steam loss values assume typical condensate load for drip trap applications.
Armstrong methodology for steam trap management and condensate return is sanctioned by the Clean Development
Mechanism of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change.
13
CG8
The Inverted Bucket Steam Trap

The Armstrong inverted submerged bucket steam trap is a
mechanical trap that operates on the difference in density
between steam and water. See Fig. CG-11. Steam entering
the inverted submerged bucket causes the bucket to float
and close the discharge valve. Condensate entering the
trap changes the bucket to a weight that sinks and opens
the trap valve to discharge the condensate. Unlike other
mechanical traps, the inverted bucket also vents air and
carbon dioxide continuously at steam temperature.
This simple principle of condensate removal was introduced
by Armstrong in 1911. Years of improvement in materials
and manufacturing have made todays Armstrong inverted
bucket traps virtually unmatched in operating efficiency,
dependability and long life.
Long, Energy-Efficient Service Life

At the heart of the Armstrong inverted bucket trap is a unique
leverage system that multiplies the force provided by the
bucket to open the valve against pressure. There are no
fixed pivots to wear or create friction. It is designed to open
the discharge orifice for maximum capacity. Since the bucket is open at the bottom, it is resistant to damage from water
hammer. Wearing points are heavily reinforced for long life.
An Armstrong inverted bucket trap can continue to conserve
energy even in the presence of wear. Gradual wear slightly
increases the diameter of the seat and alters the shape and
diameter of the ball valve. But as this occurs, the ball merely
seats itself deeperpreserving a tight seal.
Reliable Operation
The Armstrong inverted bucket trap owes much of its reliability
to a design that makes it virtually free of dirt problems. Note
that the valve and seat are at the top of the trap. The larger
particles of dirt fall to the bottom, where they are pulverized
under the up-and-down action of the bucket. Since the valve
of an inverted bucket is either closed or fully open, there is
free passage of dirt particles. In addition, the swift flow of
condensate from under the buckets edge creates a unique
self-scrubbing action that sweeps dirt out of the trap. The
inverted bucket has only two moving partsthe valve lever
assembly and the bucket. That means no fixed points, no
complicated linkagesnothing to stick, bind or clog.
Corrosion-Resistant Parts
The valve and seat of Armstrong inverted bucket traps are
high chrome stainless steel, ground and lapped. All other
working parts are wear- and corrosion-resistant stainless steel.
Operation Against Back Pressure

High pressure in the discharge line simply reduces the
differential across the valve. As back pressure approaches
that of inlet pressure, discharge becomes continuous just
as it does on the very low pressure differentials.
Back pressure has no adverse effect on inverted bucket trap
operation other than capacity reduction caused by the low
differential. There is simply less force required by the bucket
to pull the valve open, cycling the trap.
Figure CG-11. Operation of the Inverted Bucket Steam Trap (at pressures close to maximum)
Condensate
Steam
Air
Valve Wide
Open
Flashing Condensate
Valve
Closed
Flow Here
Picks Up Dirt
1. Steam trap is installed in drain line between steam-heated

unit and condensate return header. On start-up, bucket is
down and valve is wide open. As initial flood of condensate
enters the trap and flows under bottom of bucket, it fills trap
body and completely submerges bucket. Condensate then
discharges through wide-open valve to return header.
2. Steam also enters trap under bottom of bucket, where it

rises and collects at top, imparting buoyancy. Bucket then
rises and lifts valve toward its seat until valve is snapped tightly
shut. Air and carbon dioxide continually pass through bucket
vent and collect at top of trap. Any steam passing through
vent is condensed by radiation from trap.
14
CG9
The Inverted Bucket Steam Trap

Types of Armstrong Inverted Bucket Traps
Available to Meet Specific Requirements
The availability of inverted bucket traps in different body
materials, piping configurations and other variables permits
flexibility in applying the right trap to meet specific needs.
See Table CG-4.
1. All-Stainless Steel Traps. Sealed, tamper-proof stainless steel bodies enable these traps to withstand freezeups without damage. They may be installed on tracer
lines, outdoor drips and other services subject to freezing. For pressures to 650 psig and temperatures to
800F.
2. Cast Iron Traps. Standard inverted bucket traps for general

service at pressures to 250 psig and temperatures to 450F.
Offered with side connections, side connections with integral
strainers and bottom inlettop outlet connections.
3. Forged Steel Traps. Standard inverted bucket traps
for high pressure, high temperature services (including
superheated steam) to 2,700 psig at 1,050F.
4. Cast Stainless Steel Traps. Standard inverted bucket
traps for high capacity, corrosive service. Repairable.
For pressures to 700 psig and temperatures to 506F.
Table CG-4. Typical Design Parameters for Inverted Bucket Traps

Cast Iron
Stainless Steel
Forged Steel
Cast Steel
Cast Stainless Steel
1/2" thru 2-1/2"
3/8" thru 1"
1/2" thru 2"
1/2" thru 1"
1/2" thru 2"
Screwed
Screwed, Socketweld
Screwed, Socketweld
or Flanged
Screwed, Socketweld
or Flanged
Screwed, Socketweld
or Flanged
Operating Pressure (psig)
0 thru 250
0 thru 650
0 thru 2,700
0 thru 600
0 thru 700
Capacity (lbs/hr)
To 20,000
To 4,400
to 20,000
To 4,400
To 20,000
Body and Cap Materials

Connections
Type Connections
Valve
Closed
Valve Wide
Open
Self
Scrubbing
Flow
3. As the entering condensate starts to fill the bucket, the

bucket begins to exert a pull on the lever. As the condensate
continues to rise, more force is exerted until there is enough
to open the valve against the differential pressure.
4. As the valve starts to open, the pressure force across

the valve is reduced. The bucket then sinks rapidly and fully
opens the valve. Accumulated air is discharged first, followed
by condensate. The flow under the bottom of the bucket picks
up dirt and sweeps it out of the trap. Discharge continues
until more steam floats the bucket, and the cycle repeats.
15
CG10
The Float and Thermostatic Steam Trap

The float and thermostatic trap is a mechanical trap that
operates on both density and temperature principles. The
float valve operates on the density principle: A lever connects the ball float to the valve and seat. Once condensate
reaches a certain level in the trap the float rises, opening
the orifice and draining condensate. A water seal formed
by the condensate prevents live steam loss.
Since the discharge valve is under water, it is not capable of
venting air and non-condensables. When the accumulation
of air and non-condensable gases causes a significant temperature drop, a thermostatic air vent in the top of the trap
discharges it. The thermostatic vent opens at a temperature
a few degrees below saturation so its able to handle a large
volume of airthrough an entirely separate orificebut at a
slightly reduced temperature.
Armstrong F&T traps provide high air-venting capacity,
respond immediately to condensate and are suitable for
both industrial and HVAC applications.
High Back Pressure Operation

Back pressure has no adverse effect on float and thermostatic
trap operation other than capacity reduction due to low
differential. The trap will not fail to close and will not blow
steam due to the high back pressure.
Table CG-5. Typical Design Parameters for Float and Thermostatic Traps
Cast Iron
Cast Steel
Connections
1/2" thru 3"
1/2" thru 3"
Screwed or Flanged
Screwed, Socketweld
or Flanged
0 thru 250
0 thru 465
Capacity (lbs/hr)
To 208,000
To 280,000
Type Connections
Reliable Operation on Modulating Steam Pressure

Modulating steam pressure means that the pressure in the
heat exchange unit being drained can vary anywhere from
the maximum steam supply pressure down to vacuum under
certain conditions. Thus, under conditions of zero pressure,
only the force of gravity is available to push condensate
through a steam trap. Substantial amounts of air may also
be liberated under these conditions of low steam pressure.
The efficient operation of the F&T trap meets all of these
specialized requirements.
Figure CG-12. Operation of the F&T Steam Trap
1. On start-up, low system pressure

forces air out through the thermostatic
air vent. A high condensate load
normally follows air venting and lifts
the float, which opens the main valve.
The remaining air continues to discharge
through the open vent.
Condensate
2. When steam reaches the trap,

the thermostatic air vent closes in
response to higher temperature.
Condensate continues to flow through
the main valve, which is positioned by
the float to discharge condensate at
the same rate that it flows to the trap.
Steam
3. As air accumulates in the trap, the

temperature drops below that of saturated
steam. The balanced pressure thermostatic
air vent opens and discharges air.
NOTE: These operational schematics of the F&T trap do not represent actual trap configuration.
16
CG11
Air
The Controlled Disc Steam Trap

The controlled disc steam trap is a time-delayed device that operates
on the velocity principle. It contains only one moving part, the disc
itself. Because it is very lightweight and compact, the CD trap
meets the needs of many applications where space is limited. In
addition to the disc traps simplicity and small size, it also offers
advantages such as resistance to hydraulic shock, the complete
discharge of all condensate when open and intermittent operation
for a steady purging action.
Operation of controlled disc traps depends on the changes in
pressures in the chamber where the disc operates. The Armstrong
CD trap will be open as long as cold condensate is flowing. When
steam or flash steam reaches the inlet orifice, velocity of flow
increases, pulling the disc toward the seat. Increasing pressure in
the control chamber snaps the disc closed. The subsequent pressure
reduction, necessary for the trap to open, is controlled by the heating
chamber in the cap and a finite machined bleed groove in the disc.
Once the system is up to temperature, the bleed groove controls
the trap cycle rate.
Figure CG-13. Design and Operation of Controlled Disc Traps
Unique Heating Chamber

The unique heating chamber in Armstrongs controlled disc traps
surrounds the disc body and control chamber. A controlled bleed
from the chamber to the trap outlet controls the cycle rate. That
means that the trap designnot ambient conditionscontrols the
cycle rate. Without this controlling feature, rain, snow and cold
ambient conditions would upset the cycle rate of the trap.
Table CG-6. Typical Design Parameters for Controlled Disc Traps

Steel
Connections
3/8" thru 1"
Type Connections
Screwed, Socketweld or Flanged
10 thru 600
Capacity (lbs/hr)
Condensate
Steam
To 2,850
Air
Condensate and Steam Mixture
Heating Chamber
Control
Chamber
Control Chamber
Control Disc
Disc is held
against two
concentric
faces of seat
High Velocity Flow

Seat
Inlet Passage
Outlet Passages
1. On start-up, condensate and air entering the
trap pass through the heating chamber, around

the control chamber and through the inlet orifice.
This flow lifts the disc off the inlet orifice, and the
condensate flows through to the outlet passages.
2. Steam enters through the inlet passage and
flows under the control disc. The flow velocity across

the face of the control disc increases, creating a
low pressure that pulls the disc toward the seat.
3. The disc closes against two concentric faces
of the seat, closing off the inlet passage and also

trapping steam and condensate above the disc.
There is a controlled bleeding of steam from the
control chamber; flashing condensate helps maintain the pressure in the control chamber. When the
pressure above the disc is reduced, the incoming
pressure lifts the disc off the seat. If condensate is
present, it will be discharged, and the cycle repeats.
The Bimetallic Steam Trap

Bimetallic steam traps have the ability to handle large start-up
loads. As the trap increases in temperature, its stacked nickel-chrome
bimetallic elements start to expand, allowing for tight shutoff as steam
reaches the trap, thus preventing steam loss. In addition to its light
weight and compact size, it offers resistance to water hammer.
Titanium valve and seat on high-pressure bimetallic traps ensure
extremely long service life in the harsh environment of superheated
steam systems.
Table CG-7. Typical Design Parameters for Bimetallic Traps

Carbon Steel
Connection Sizes
Type Connections
Operating psig
Screwed,
Socketweld,
Flanged
Screwed, NPT,
BSPT, Socketweld,
Buttweld, Flanged
0 - 250
200 - 900
up to 11,000
Cold Water Capacity lb/hr
Figure CG-14. Design and Operation of Bimetallic Steam Traps
1. On start-up, the trap is cold, so the elements
are flat and the valve is wide open, which results

in air and condensate being easily removed from
the system by working pressure.
Condensate
2. With increasing temperature of the condensate,

the bimetallic elements will start to expand and flex.
Stainless Steel
1/2", 3/4", 1"
Steam
Air
Flashing Steam
3. When set temperature is reached, the force
of the elements is high enough to close the valve

completely against the system pressure working
on the valve.
17
CG12
The Thermostatic Steam Trap

Armstrong thermostatic steam traps are available with
balanced pressure bellows or wafer-type elements and
are constructed in a wide variety of materials, including
stainless steel, carbon steel and bronze. These traps are
used on applications with very light condensate loads.
Table CG-8. Design Parameters for Thermostatic Traps

Balanced
Pressure Bellows
Body and Cap
Materials
Connections
Thermostatic Operation
Thermostatic steam traps operate on the difference in
temperature between steam and cooled condensate and
air. Steam increases the pressure inside the thermostatic
element, causing the trap to close. As condensate and
non-condensable gases back up in the cooling leg, the
temperature begins to drop, and the thermostatic element
contracts and opens the valve. The amount of condensate
backed up ahead of the trap depends on the load conditions,
steam pressure and size of the piping. It is important to note
that an accumulation of non-condensable gases can occur
behind the condensate backup.
Type
Connections
Stainless
Steel
Bronze
Balanced
Pressure Wafer
Stainless
Steel
Carbon
Steel
Bronze
1/2", 3/4" 1/2", 3/4" 1/4" thru 1" 1/2", 3/4" 1/2", 3/4", 1"
NPT
Screwed,
Screwed, Screwed,
Socketweld Straight, Socketweld Socketweld
Angle
NPT
Straight,
Angle
Operating
Pressure
(psig)
0 - 300
0 - 50
0 - 400
0 - 600
0 - 65
Capacity
(lbs/hr)
To 3,450
To 1,600
To 70
To 85
To 960
NOTE: Thermostatic traps can also be used for venting air

from a steam system. When air collects, the temperature
drops and the thermostatic air vent automatically discharges the
air at slightly below steam temperature throughout the entire
operating pressure range.
Figure CG-15. Operation of the Thermostatic Steam Trap

Steam
Condensate
Condensate and Air

Figure CG-16.
Operation of Thermostatic Wafer
Alcohol
Vapor
Wafer
Bulkhead
1. On start-up, condensate and air

are pushed ahead of the steam directly
through the trap. The thermostatic
bellows element is fully contracted,
and the valve remains wide open until
steam approaches the trap.
2. As the temperature inside the trap

increases, it quickly heats the charged
bellows element, increasing the vapor
pressure inside. When pressure
inside the element becomes balanced
with system pressure in the trap body,
the spring effect of the bellows causes
the element to expand, closing the
valve. When temperature in the trap
drops a few degrees below saturated
steam temperature, imbalanced pressure contracts the bellows, opening the
valve.
Alcohol
Chamber
Balanced Pressure Thermostatic Wafer

operation is very similar to balanced
pressure bellows described in Fig. CG15. The wafer is partially filled with a
liquid. As the temperature inside the
trap increases, it heats the charged
wafer, increasing the vapor pressure
inside. When the pressure inside the
wafer exceeds the surrounding steam
pressure, the wafer membrane is
forced down on the valve seat, and the
trap is closed. A temperature drop
caused by condensate or non-condensable gases cools and reduces the
pressure inside the wafer, allowing the
wafer to uncover the seat.
18
CG13
Alcohol
Liquid
The Automatic Differential Condensate Controller

Armstrong automatic differential condensate controllers (DC)
are designed to function on applications where condensate
must be lifted from a drain point or in gravity drainage
applications where increased velocity will aid in drainage.
Lifting condensate from the drain pointoften referred to
as syphon drainagereduces the pressure of condensate,
causing a portion of it to flash into steam. Since ordinary
steam traps are unable to distinguish flash steam and live
steam, they close and impede drainage.
Increased velocity with gravity drainage will aid in drawing
the condensate and air to the DC. An internal steam by-pass
controlled by a manual metering valve causes this increased
velocity. Therefore, the condensate controller automatically
vents the by-pass or secondary steam. This is then collected for use in other heat exchangers or discharged to the
condensate return line.
Capacity considerations for draining equipment vary greatly
according to the application. However, a single condensate
controller provides sufficient capacity for most applications.
Condensate Controller Operation

Condensate, air and steam (live and flash) enter through the
controller inlet. At this point flash steam and air are automatically separated from the condensate. Then they divert into
the integral by-pass at a controlled rate, forming secondary
steam (See Fig. CG-18).
The valve is adjustable so it matches the amount of flash
present under full capacity operation or to meet the velocity
requirements of the system. The condensate discharges
through a separate orifice controlled by the inverted bucket.
Because of the dual orifice design, there is a preset controlled
pressure differential for the secondary steam system, while
maximum pressure differential is available to discharge
the condensate.
Table CG-9. Typical Design Parameters for the Automatic Differential
Condensate Controller
Connections
Type Connections
Figure CG-17.
Cast Iron
Steel
1/2" thru 2"
1" thru 2"
Screwed
Screwed
0 thru 250
0 thru 650
Capacity (lbs/hr)
To 20,000
To 20,000
DC
Condensate Return
Figure CG-18. Condensate Controller Operation
Condensate Discharge Valve

To Secondary Steam Header
Inlet
For the most efficient use of steam energy, Armstrong

recommends this piping arrangement when secondary
steam is collected and reused in heat transfer equipment.
Dotted Lines Indicate Field Piping
Bucket
Secondary Steam
DC
Manual Metering Valve
Condensate
Condensate Return
Piping arrangement when flash steam and non-condensables

are to be removed and discharged directly to the condensate
return line.
Live and Flash Steam

Condensate and Secondary Steam
Outlet
19
CG14
Trap Selection
To obtain the full benefits from the traps described in
the preceding section, it is essential to select traps of the
correct size and pressure for a given job and to install
and maintain them properly. One of the purposes of this
section is to supply the information to make that possible.
Actual installation and operation of steam trapping equipment
should be performed only by experienced personnel.
Selection or installation should always be accompanied
by competent technical assistance or advice. This section
should never be used as a substitute for such technical
advice or assistance. We encourage you to contact
Armstrong or its local representative for further details.
Basic Considerations
Unit trapping is the use of a separate steam trap on each
steam-condensing unit including, whenever possible, each
separate chest or coil of a single machine. The discussion
under the Short Circuiting heading explains the why of unit
trapping versus group trapping.
Rely on experience. Select traps with the aid of experience
either yours, the know-how of your Armstrong Representative
or what others have learned in trapping similar equipment.
Do-it-yourself sizing. Do-it-yourself sizing is simple with the aid
of Steam-A-ware, Armstrongs sizing and selection software
program, which can be downloaded at www.armstrong-intl.com.
Even without this computer program, you can easily size

steam traps when you know or can calculate:
1. Condensate loads in lbs/hr
2. The safety factor to use
3. Pressure differential
4. Maximum allowable pressure
1. Condensate load. Each How To portion of this
section contains formulas and useful information on
steam condensing rates and proper sizing procedures.
2. Safety factor or experience factor to use. Users have
found that they must generally use a safety factor in sizing
steam traps. For example, a coil condensing 500 lbs/hr
might require a trap that could handle up to 1,500 for
best overall performance. This 3:1 safety factor takes
care of varying condensate rates, occasional drops in
pressure differential and system design factors.
Safety factors will vary from a low of 1.5:1 to a high of
10:1. The safety factors in this book are based on years
of user experience.
Configuration affects safety factor. More important than
ordinary load and pressure changes is the design of the
steam-heated unit itself. Refer to Figs. CG-21, CG-22 and
CG-23 showing three condensing units each producing
500 pounds of condensate per hour, but with safety factors
of 2:1, 3:1 and 8:1.
Short Circuiting
Wrong
Figure CG-19. Two steam-consuming

units drained by a single trap, referred
to as group trapping, may result in
short circuiting.
Right
Figure CG-20. Short circuiting is impossible when each unit is drained by its
own trap. Higher efficiency is assured.
If a single trap connects more than one

drain point, condensate and air from one
or more of the units may fail to reach
the trap. Any difference in condensing
rates will result in a difference in the
steam pressure drop. A pressure drop
difference too small to register on a
pressure gauge is enough to let steam
from the higher pressure unit block the
flow of air or condensate from the lower
pressure unit. The net result is reduced
heating, output and fuel waste
(see Figs. CG-19 and CG-20).
Identical Condensing Rates, Identical Pressures With Differing Safety Factors

Condensate
Steam
10"-12"
6"
20
CG15
Figure CG-21. Continuous coil, constant

pressure gravity flow to trap. 500 lbs/hr
of condensate from a single copper coil
at 30 psig. Gravity drainage to trap.
Volume of steam space very small.
2:1 safety factor.
Figure CG-22. Multiple pipes, modulated

pressure gravity flow to trap. 500 lbs/hr
of condensate from unit heater at 80
psig. Multiple tubes create minor shortcircuiting hazard. Use 3:1 safety factor
at 40 psig.
Figure CG-23. Large cylinder, syphon

drained. 500 lbs/hr from a 4' diameter,
10' long cylinder dryer with 115 cu ft
of space at 30 psig. The safety factor
is 3:1 with a DC and 8:1 with an IB.
Trap Selection
Economical steam trap/orifice selection. While an adequate safety factor is needed for best performance, too
large a factor causes problems. In addition to higher costs
for the trap and its installation, a needlessly oversized trap
wears out more quickly. And in the event of a trap failure, an
oversized trap loses more steam, which can cause water
hammer and high back pressure in the return system.
3. Pressure differential. Maximum differential is the
difference between boiler or steam main pressure or the
downstream pressure of a PRV and return line pressure.
See Fig. CG-24. The trap must be able to open against
this pressure differential.
NOTE: Because of flashing condensate in the return lines,
dont assume a decrease in pressure differential due to
static head when elevating.
4. Maximum allowable pressure. The trap must be able

to withstand the maximum allowable pressure of the
system or design pressure. It may not have to operate
at this pressure, but it must be able to contain it. As an
example, the maximum inlet pressure is 350 psig and
the return line pressure is 150 psig. This results in a
differential pressure of 200 psi; however, the trap must
be able to withstand 350 psig maximum allowable
pressure. See Fig. CG-24.
Factors Affecting Pressure Differential

Except for failures of pressure control valves, differential
pressure usually varies on the low side of the normal or
design value. Variations in either the inlet or discharge
pressure can cause this.
Inlet pressure can be reduced below its normal value by:
Operating differential. When the plant is operating at capacity, the steam pressure at the trap inlet may be lower than
steam main pressure. And the pressure in the condensate
return header may go above atmospheric.
1. A modulating control valve or temperature regulator.

2. Syphon drainage. Every 2' of lift between the drainage
point and the trap reduces the inlet pressure
(and the differential) by one psi. See Fig. CG-25.
If the operating differential is at least 80% of the maximum differential, it is safe to use maximum differential in
selecting traps.
Discharge pressure can be increased above its normal

value by:
Modulated control of the steam supply causes wide changes

in pressure differential. The pressure in the unit drained may
fall to atmospheric or even lower (vacuum). This does not
prevent condensate drainage if the installation practices in
this handbook are followed.
IMPORTANT: Be sure to read the discussion to the right,
which deals with less common but important reductions in
pressure differential.
4psi
1. Pipe friction.
2. Other traps discharging into a return system of
limited capacity.
3. Elevating condensate. Every 2' of lift increases the
discharge pressure (and the differential) by one psi
when the discharge is only condensate. However, with
flash present, the extra back pressure could be reduced
to zero. See Fig. CG-26, noting the external check valve.
9'
Trap
8'
Condensate
Steam
3psi
7'
6'
5'
2psi
4'
Differential Pressure or
Maximum Operating Pressure (MOP)
Steam Main
3'
B
Trap
Inlet Pressure
or Maximum
Allowable Pressure
(MAP)
Back Pressure
or Vacuum
1psi
Pressure
drop over
water seal
to lift cold
condensate
External
Check
Valve
2'
Trap
1'
Water Seal
Lift in feet
Figure CG-24. A minus B is

Pressure Differential: If B is back
pressure, subtract it from A. If B
is vacuum, add it to A.
Figure CG-25. Condensate from gravity

drain point is lifted to trap by a syphon.
Every 2' of lift reduces pressure differential by 1 psi. Note seal at low point
and the traps internal check valve to
prevent backflow.
Figure CG-26. When trap valve opens,

steam pressure will elevate condensate. Every 2' of lift reduces pressure
differential by 1 psi.
21
CG16
How to Trap Steam Distribution Systems

Steam distribution systems link boilers and the equipment
actually using steam, transporting it to any location in the
plant where its heat energy is needed.
The three primary components of steam distribution systems
are boiler headers, steam mains and branch lines. Each
fulfills certain requirements of the system and, together with
steam separators and steam traps, contributes to efficient
steam use.
Drip legs. Common to all steam distribution systems
is the need for drip legs at various intervals (Fig. CG-27).
These are provided to:
1. Let condensate escape by gravity from the
fast-moving steam.
2. Store the condensate until the pressure differential
can discharge it through the steam trap.
Figure CG-27. Drip Leg Sizing
The properly sized drip leg
will capture condensate. Too
small a drip leg can actually
cause a venturi piccolo
effect where pressure drop
pulls condensate out of the
trap. See Table CG-13 on
page CG-19.
Boiler Header
A boiler header is a specialized type of steam main that

can receive steam from one or more boilers. It is most often
a horizontal line which is fed from the top and in turn feeds
the steam mains. It is important to trap the boiler header
properly to assure that any carryover (boiler water and
solids) is removed before distribution into the system.
Steam traps that serve the header must be capable of
discharging large slugs of carryover as soon as they are
present. Resistance to hydraulic shock is also a consideration
in the selection of traps.
Trap selection and safety factor for boiler headers
(saturated steam only). A 1.5:1 safety factor is
recommended for virtually all boiler header applications.
The required trap capacity can be obtained by using
the following formula: Required Trap Capacity = Safety
Factor x Load Connected to Boiler(s) x Anticipated
Carryover (typically 10%).
EXAMPLE: What size steam trap will be required on
a connected load of 50,000 lbs/hr with an anticipated
carryover of 10%? Using the formula:
Required Trap Capacity = 1.5 x 50,000 x 0.10 = 7,500
lbs/hr.
The ability to respond immediately to slugs of condensate,
excellent resistance to hydraulic shock, dirt-handling ability
and efficient operation on very light loads are features that
make the inverted bucket the most suitable steam trap for
this application.

(See Page CG-2 for Feature Code References.)
Equipment Being
Trapped
Boiler Headers
1st Choice and

Feature Code
Alternate Choice
IBLV
M, E, L, N, B, Q
*F&T
Installation. If steam flow through the header is in one

direction only, a single steam trap is sufficient at the downstream end. With a midpoint feed to the header (Fig. CG-28),
or a similar two-directional steam flow arrangement, each
end of the boiler header should be trapped.
*On superheated steam never use an F&T type trap.

Always use an IB with internal check valve and burnished valve and seat.
Equipment Being
Trapped
Steam Mains and
Branch Lines
Non-freezing Conditions
Steam Mains and
Branch Lines
Freezing Conditions
1st Choice, Feature Code

and Alternate Choice(s)
0 - 30
psig
Above
30 psig
B, M, N, L, F, E, C, D, Q
*IB
*IB
Alternate Choice
F&T
**F&T
B, C, D, E, F, L, M, N, Q, J
*IB
*IB
Alternate Choice
Figure CG-28. Boiler Headers

Boiler #1
Boiler #2
Typical Takeoffs
to System
Thermostatic or CD
*Provide internal check valve when pressures fluctuate.

**Use IBLV above F&T pressure/temperature limitations.
NOTE: On superheated steam, use an IB with internal check valve and burnished valve
and seat.
Trap
Header Level
Trap
Drip leg same as the header diameter up to 4.'.'

Above 4'', 1/2 header size, but never less than 4.''
22
CG-17

Steam Mains
One of the most common uses of steam traps is the
trapping of steam mains. These lines need to be kept free of
air and condensate in order to keep steam-using equipment
operating properly. Inadequate trapping on steam mains
often leads to water hammer and slugs of condensate that
can damage control valves and other equipment.
There are two methods used for the warm-up of steam
mainssupervised and automatic. Supervised warm-up
is widely used for initial heating of large-diameter and/or
long mains. The suggested method is for drip valves to be
opened wide for free blow to the atmosphere before steam
is admitted to the main. These drip valves are not closed
until all or most of the warm-up condensate has been
discharged. Then the traps take over the job of removing
condensate that may form under operating conditions.
Warm-up of principal piping in a power plant will follow
much the same procedure.
Automatic warm-up is when the boiler is fired, allowing the
mains and some or all equipment to come up to pressure
and temperature without manual help or supervision.
CAUTION: Regardless of warm-up method, allow sufficient time during the warm-up cycle to minimize thermal
stress and prevent any damage to the system.
Trap selection and safety factor for steam mains
(saturated steam only). Select trap to discharge condensate produced by radiation losses at running load. Sizing
for start-up loads results in oversized traps, which may wear
prematurely. Size drip legs to collect condensate during
low-pressure, warm-up conditions. (See Table CG-13 on
page CG-19.) Condensate loads of insulated pipe can be
found in Table CG-10. All figures in the table assume the
insulation to be 75% effective. For pressures or pipe sizes
not included in the table, use the following formula:
C
A x U x (T1 - T2)E
H
Where:
C = Condensate in lbs/hr-foot
A = External area of pipe in square feet
(Table CG-10, Col. 2)
U = Btu/sq ft/degree temperature
difference/hr from Chart CG-7 (page CG-19)
T1 = Steam temperature in F
T2 = Air temperature in F
E = 1 minus efficiency of insulation
(Example: 75% efficient insulation:
1 - .75 = .25 or E = .25)
H = Latent heat of steam
(See Steam Table on page CG-3)
Table CG-10. Condensation in Insulated Pipes Carrying Saturated Steam

in Quiet Air at 70F (Insulation assumed to be 75% efficient.)
15
Pressure, psig
Pipe Size sq ft Per
(in)
Lineal ft
1
.344
1-1/4
.434
1-1/2
.497
2
.622
2-1/2
.753
3
.916
3-1/2
1.047
4
1.178
5
1.456
6
1.735
8
2.260
10
2.810
12
3.340
14
3.670
16
4.200
18
4.710
20
5.250
24
6.280
30
60
125
180
250
450
600
900
Pounds of Condensate Per Hour Per Lineal Foot

.05
.06
.07
.08
.10
.12
.13
.15
.18
.20
.27
.32
.38
.42
.47
.53
.58
.68
.06 .07
.07 .09
.08 .10
.10 .13
.12 .15
.14 .18
.16 .20
.18 .22
.22 .27
.25 .32
.32 .41
.39 .51
.46 .58
.51 .65
.57 .74
.64 .85
.71 .91
.84 1.09
.10
.12
.14
.17
.20
.24
.27
.30
.37
.44
.55
.68
.80
.87
.99
1.11
1.23
1.45
.12
.14
.16
.20
.24
.28
.32
.36
.44
.51
.66
.80
.92
1.03
1.19
1.31
1.45
1.71
.14
.17
.19
.23
.28
.33
.38
.43
.51
.59
.76
.94
1.11
1.21
1.38
1.53
1.70
2.03
.186
.231
.261
.320
.384
.460
.520
.578
.698
.809
1.051
1.301
1.539
1.688
1.927
2.151
2.387
2.833
.221
.273
.310
.379
.454
.546
.617
.686
.826
.959
1.244
1.542
1.821
1.999
2.281
2.550
2.830
3.364
.289
.359
.406
.498
.596
.714
.807
.897
1.078
1.253
1.628
2.019
2.393
2.624
2.997
3.351
3.725
4.434
Table CG-11. The Warming-Up Load From 70F, Schedule 40 Pipe

Steam Pressure, psig
Pipe Size wt of Pipe
Per ft (lbs)
(in)
1
1.69
1-1/4
2.27
1-1/2
2.72
2
3.65
2-1/2
5.79
3
7.57
3-1/2
9.11
4
10.79
5
14.62
6
18.97
8
28.55
10
40.48
12
53.60
14
63.00
16
83.00
18
105.00
20
123.00
24
171.00
15
30
60
125
180
250
Pounds of Water Per Lineal Foot

.030
.040
.048
.065
.104
.133
.162
.190
.258
.335
.504
.714
.945
1.110
1.460
1.850
2.170
3.020
.037
.050
.059
.080
.126
.165
.198
.234
.352
.413
.620
.880
1.170
1.370
1.810
2.280
2.680
3.720
.043
.057
.069
.092
.146
.190
.229
.271
.406
.476
.720
1.020
1.350
1.580
2.080
2.630
3.080
4.290
.051
.068
.082
.110
.174
.227
.273
.323
.439
.569
.860
1.210
1.610
1.890
2.490
3.150
3.690
5.130
.063
.085
.101
.136
.215
.282
.339
.400
.544
.705
1.060
1.500
2.000
2.340
3.080
3.900
4.570
6.350
.071
.095
.114
.153
.262
.316
.381
.451
.612
.795
1.190
1.690
2.240
2.640
3.470
4.400
5.150
7.150
.079
.106
.127
.171
.271
.354
.426
.505
.684
.882
1.340
1.890
2.510
2.940
3.880
4.900
5.750
8.000
Table CG-12. Pipe Weights Per Foot in Pounds

Pipe Size (in)
1
1-1/4
1-1/2
2
2-1/2
3
3-1/2
4
5
6
8
10
12
14
16
18
20
24
Schedule 40
1.69
2.27
2.72
3.65
5.79
7.57
9.11
10.79
14.62
18.97
28.55
40.48
53.60
63.00
83.00
105.00
123.00
171.00
Schedule 80
2.17
3.00
3.63
5.02
7.66
10.25
12.51
14.98
20.78
28.57
43.39
54.74
88.60
107.00
137.00
171.00
209.00
297.00
Schedule 160
2.85
3.76
4.86
7.45
10.01
14.32
22.60
32.96
45.30
74.70
116.00
161.00
190.00
245.00
309.00
379.00
542.00
XX Strong
3.66
5.21
6.41
9.03
13.69
18.58
22.85
27.54
38.55
53.16
72.42
23
CG18

For traps installed between the boiler and the end of the
steam main, apply a 2:1 safety factor. Apply a 3:1 safety
factor for traps installed at the end of the main or ahead of
reducing and shutoff valves that are closed part of the time.
Install drip legs and drain traps even where there are no
natural drainage points (See Figs. CG-29, CG-30 and CG-31).
These should normally be installed at intervals of about 300'
and never longer than 500'.
The inverted bucket trap is recommended because it can

handle dirt and slugs of condensate and resists hydraulic
shock. In addition, should an inverted bucket fail, it usually
does so in the open position.
On a supervised warm-up, make drip leg length at least

1-1/2 times the diameter of the main, but never less than
10". Make drip legs on automatic warm-ups a minimum of
28" in length. For both methods, it is a good practice to use
a drip leg the same diameter as the main up to 4" pipe size
and at least 1/2 of the diameter of the main above that, but
never less than 4". See Table CG-13.
Installation. Both methods of warm-up use drip legs and

traps at all low spots or natural drainage points such as:
Ahead of risers
End of mains
Ahead of expansion joints or bends
Ahead of valves or regulators
Table CG-13. Recommended Steam Main and Branch Line Drip Leg Sizing
M
Chart CG-7. Btu Heat Loss Curves
BTU PER SQ FT PER HOUR PER F TEMPERATURE DIFFERENCE
150
160
180
Drip Leg Length Min. (in)
TEMPERATURE DIFFERENCE
200
240
300
400 500
700
900
1050
11
10
9
8
11
10
9
8
4.5
4.5
4.0
4.0
3.5
3.3
3.5
3.3
Steam Main
Size (in)
Drip Leg
Diameter (in)
Supervised
Warm-Up
Automatic
Warm-Up
1/2
3/4
1
2
3
4
6
8
10
12
14
16
18
20
24
1/2
3/4
1
2
3
4
4
4
6
6
8
8
10
10
12
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
12
15
18
21
24
27
30
36
28
28
28
28
28
28
28
28
28
28
28
28
28
30
36
3.0
3.0
1"
2.8
2.8
2"
2.6
2.6
3"
2.5
6"
2.4
2.5
E
AC
RF
5"
AT
FL
10"
2.4
SU
2.3
2.3
2.2
2.2
2.15
2.15
1500.3
2400.3
450.3
600.3
900.3
250.3
150.3
75.3
100.3
50.3
25.3
15.3
10.3
5.3
2.10
PSIG

Equipment Being
Trapped
1st Choice and

Feature Code
Alternate Choice
Steam Separator
IBLV
B, M, L, E, F, N, Q
*DC
*DC is 1st choice where steam quality is 90% or less.
PRESSURE IN LBS PER SQUARE INCH
Steam Mains
M
D
Drip leg same
as the header
diameter up to
4''. Above 4'',
1/2 header size,
but never less
than 4''.
Figure CG-29.
Trap draining strainer ahead of PRV.
Figure CG-30.
Trap draining drip leg on main.
24
CG19
Figure CG-31.
Trap draining drip leg at riser. Distance
H in inches 28 = psi static head for
forcing water through the trap.

Branch Lines
Branch lines are take-offs from the steam mains supplying
specific pieces of steam-using equipment. The entire system
must be designed and hooked up to prevent accumulation
of condensate at any point.
Trap selection and safety factor for branch lines. The
formula for computing condensate load is the same as
that used for steam mains. Branch lines also have a recommended safety factor of 3:1.
Installation. Recommended piping from the main to the
control is shown in Fig. CG-32 for runouts under 10' and
Fig. CG-33 for runouts over 10'. See Fig. CG-34 for piping
when control valve must be below the main.
Important factors in trap selection for separators are the

ability to handle slugs of condensate, provide good resistance to hydraulic shock and operate on light loads.
Trap selection and safety factors for separators. Apply
a 3:1 safety factor in all cases, even though different types
of traps are recommended, depending on condensate and
pressure levels.
Use the following formula to obtain the required trap capacity:
Required trap capacity in lbs/hr = safety factor x steam flow
rate in lbs/hr x anticipated percent of condensate (typically
10% to 20%).
Install a full pipe-size strainer ahead of each control valve

as well as ahead of the PRV, if used. Provide blowdown
valves, preferably with IB traps. A few days after starting
the system, examine the strainer screens to see if cleaning
is necessary.
EXAMPLE: What size steam trap will be required on a flow

rate of 10,000 lbs/hr? Using the formula:
Separators
The inverted bucket trap with large vent is recommended

for separators. When dirt and hydraulic shock are not
significant problems, an F&T type trap is an acceptable
alternative.
Steam separators are designed to remove any condensate

that forms within steam distribution systems. They are most
often used ahead of equipment where especially dry steam
is essential. They are also common on secondary steam
lines, which by their very nature have a large percentage
of entrained condensate.
Branch Lines
Required trap capacity =

3 x 10,000 x 0.10 = 3,000 lbs/hr.
An automatic differential condensate controller may be preferred in many cases. It combines the best features of both
of the above and is recommended for large condensate
loads that exceed the separating capability of the separator.
Installation
10' or Less
Connect traps to the separator drain line 10" to 12" below

the separator with the drain pipe running the full size of the
drain connection down to the trap take-off (Fig. CG-35). The
drain pipe and dirt pocket should be the same size as the
drain connection.
Pitch 1/2'' per 1 ft
Runout Oversized
One Pipe Size
or More
Steam Separator
Figure CG-32. Piping for runout less than 10 ft. No trap

required unless pitch back to supply header is less than
1/2'' per ft.
Steam
Separator
More than
10'
Shutoff Valve
Pitch Down 1/2''

per 10 ft
10''-12''
6'' IBLV or
DC
Figure CG-33. Piping for runout greater

than 10'. Drip leg and trap required
ahead of control valve. Strainer ahead
of control valve can serve as drip
leg if blowdown connection runs to
an inverted bucket trap. This will also
minimize the strainer cleaning problem.
Trap should be equipped with an internal
check valve or a swing check installed
ahead of the trap.
Figure CG-34. Regardless of the length

of the runout, a drip leg and trap are
required ahead of the control valve
located below steam supply. If coil is
above control valve, a trap should also
be installed at downstream side of
control valve.
Figure CG-35. Drain downstream side

of separator. Full-size drip leg and dirt
pocket are required to ensure positive
and fast flow of condensate to the
trap.
25
CG20
How to Trap Steam Tracer Lines

Steam tracer lines are designed to maintain the fluid in a
primary pipe at a certain uniform temperature. In most
cases, these tracer lines are used outdoors, which makes
ambient weather conditions a critical consideration.
Trap Selection for Steam Tracer Lines.

The condensate load to be handled on a steam tracer line
can be determined from the heat loss from the product pipe
by using this formula:
The primary purpose of steam traps on tracer lines is to

retain the steam until its latent heat is fully utilized and then
discharge the condensate and non-condensable gases. As
is true with any piece of heat transfer equipment, each tracer
line should have its own trap. Even though multiple tracer
lines may be installed on the same primary fluid line, unit
trapping is required to prevent short circuiting.
See page CG-15.
In selecting and sizing steam traps, its important to consider

their compatibility with the objectives of the system, as
traps must:
1. Conserve energy by operating reliably over a long period
of time.
2. Provide abrupt periodic discharge in order to purge the
condensate and air from the line.
3. Operate under light load conditions.
4. Resist damage from freezing if the steam is shut off.
L x U x T x E
SxH
Where:
Q = Condensate load, lbs/hr
L = Length of product pipe between tracer
line traps in ft
U = Heat transfer factor in Btu/sq ft/F/hr
(from Chart CG-7, page CG-19)
T = Temperature differential in F
E = 1 minus efficiency of insulation
(example: 75% efficient insulation or
1 - .75 = .25 or E = .25)
S = Lineal feet of pipe line per sq ft of surface
(from Table CG-29, page CG-53)
H = Latent heat of steam in Btu/lb
(from Steam Table, page CG-3)
The cost of steam makes wasteful tracer lines an exorbitant

overhead no industry can afford.
Typical Tracer Installation

Figure CG-36.
Figure CG-37.
Check
Valve
FreezeProtection Drain
Table CG-14. Pipe Size Conversion Table (Divide lineal feet of pipe by
factor given for size and type of pipe to get square feet of surface.)
Pipe Size (in)
Iron Pipe
Copper or
Brass Pipe
1/2
3/4
1
1-1/4
1-1/2
2
2-1/2
3
4
4.55
3.64
2.90
2.30
2.01
1.61
1.33
1.09
.848
7.63
5.09
3.82
3.05
2.55
1.91
1.52
1.27
.954

Equipment Being
Trapped
1st Choice and

Feature Code
Alternate Choice
Tracer Lines
*IB
A, B, C, L, J, N, I, K
Thermostatic or CD
*Select a 5/64" steam trap orifice to conserve energy and avoid plugging with dirt
and scale.
26
CG21
How to Trap Steam Tracer Lines

EXAMPLE: Three tracer lines at 100 psig steam pressure
are used on a 20" diameter, 100' long insulated pipe to
maintain a temperature of 190F with an outdoor design
temperature of -10F. Assume further that the pipe insulation
is 75% efficient. What is the condensate load?
Safety factor. Use a 2:1 safety factor whether exposure

to ambient weather conditions is involved or not. Do not
oversize steam traps or tracer lines. Select a 5/64" steam
trap orifice to conserve energy and avoid plugging
with dirt and scale.
Using the formula:
Installation
Q = 100 ft x 2.44 Btu/sq ft -F - hr x 200F x .25 = 72 lbs/hr

0.191 lin ft/sq ft x 800 Btu/lb
Install distribution or supply lines at a height above the

product lines requiring steam tracing. For the efficient
drainage of condensate and purging of non-condensables,
pitch tracer lines for gravity drainage and trap all low spots.
This will also help avoid tracer line freezing.
(See Figs. CG-36, CG-37 and CG-38.)
Now divide by three in order to get the load per

tracer line 24 lbs/hr.
On most tracer line applications, the flow to the steam trap
is surprisingly low; therefore, the smallest trap is normally
adequate. Based on its ability to conserve energy by operating reliably over a long period of time, handle light loads,
resist freezing and purge the system, an inverted bucket
trap is recommended for tracer line service.
Figure CG-38. Typical Tracer Installation
To conserve energy, return condensate to the boiler.

Use vacuum breakers immediately ahead of the traps
to ensure drainage on shutdown on gravity drain systems.
Freeze-protection drains on trap discharge headers are
suggested where freezing conditions prevail.
Chart CG-10. Btu Heat Loss Curves

Unit heat loss per sq ft of surface of uninsulated pipe of
various diameters (also flat surface) in quiet air at 75F for
various saturated steam pressures or temperature differences.
Vacuum
Breaker
Freeze-Protection Drain
BTU PER SQ FT PER HOUR PER F TEMPERATURE DIFFERENCE
150
160
180
TEMPERATURE DIFFERENCE
200
240
300
400 500
700
900
1050
11
10
9
8
11
10
9
8
4.5
4.5
4.0
4.0
3.5
3.3
3.5
3.3
3.0
3.0
1"
2.8
2.8
2"
2.6
2.6
3"
2.5
FA
UR
6"
2.4
2.5
S
CE
5"
2.4
S
AT
FL
10"
2.3
2.3
2.2
2.2
2.15
2.15
1500.3
2400.3
450.3
600.3
900.3
250.3
150.3
75.3
100.3
50.3
25.3
15.3
10.3
5.3
2.10
PSIG
PRESSURE IN LBS PER SQUARE INCH
27
CG22
How to Trap Superheated Steam Lines

At first glance, this may seem confusing due to the idea
that superheated steam produces no condensate; therefore,
the steam lines carrying superheated steam should not have
any condensate in them. This is true once the system is up
to temperature and pressure, but condensate removal is
necessary up to this point. This section will explain what
superheated steam is and the applications for its use.
This water can be removed with separators and traps

in the steam outlets, but they are not 100% efficient. In
applications where dry steam is a necessity, additional
superheating coils are placed in the boiler furnace as
convection passes. More heat is added to the steam to
vaporize the water carryover, which adds a small amount
of superheat to guarantee absolutely dry steam.
The specific heat of any substance (using Btu standards)

is the quantity of heat required to raise the temperature of
1 pound by 1 degree F. With this definition, the specific heat
of water is 1, and the specific heat of superheated steam
varies according to temperature and pressure. Specific heat
decreases as the temperature rises but increases as the
pressure goes up.
Because superheated steam can give up so little heat

before it converts back to saturated steam, it is not a good
heat-transfer medium. Some processes, such as power
plants, require a dry heat in order to do work. Whatever
the type of power unit, superheat helps reduce the amount
of condensation when starting from cold. Superheat also
increases the power output by delaying condensation during
the expansion stages in the equipment. Having drier steam
at the exhaust end will increase the life of turbine blades.
Superheated steam is customarily made by the addition of

an extra set of coils inside the boiler or in the exhaust area
of the boiler so as to use the waste heat from the boiler.
Or, by the addition of a superheat chamber somewhere after
the boiler, attached to the steam main. A schematic diagram
of a steam generator with a superheated section of coil is
shown below.
Superheated steam can lose heat without condensing

whereas saturated steam cannot. Therefore, superheated
steam can be transported through very long steam lines
without losing sufficient heat to condense. This permits the
delivery of dry steam throughout the entire steam system.
Properties of Superheated Steam
Why Trap Superheated Systems?
Superheated steam has several properties that make it

unsuitable as a heat energy exchange medium yet ideal
for work and mass transfer. Unlike saturated steam, the
pressure and temperature of superheated steam are independent. As superheat is formed at the same pressure as
the saturated steam, the temperature and volume increase.
The primary reason for traps on superheat systems is the

start-up load. It can be heavy because of the large size
of the mains. On start-up, manual valves will most likely be
used since time is available to open and to close the valves.
This is known as supervised start-up. A second reason for
steam traps is to handle emergencies such as superheater
loss or by-pass, which might require operation on saturated
steam. In these unscheduled events, there is no time
available for manually opening valves; therefore, steam
traps are a necessity.
In high heat release boilers with relatively small drums,

separation of steam from water is extremely difficult.
The combination of the small volume of water in the drums
and rapid load swings produces severe shrink and swell
conditions in the drum, which promotes water carryover.
Figure CG-39. Steam Generator
Stack
Gases Outlet
Preheated
Air
These are the situations for which proper trap sizing is a

must. Condensate must be removed as it forms in any steam
system to keep efficiency high and to minimize damaging
water hammer and erosion.
Air
Inlet
Superheated Steam
(High Pressure)
Warm
Air
Turbine
Hot Water
Generator
Steam
(Low Pressure)
Vapor
Fuel
Cool Water
Condenser
Low-Temperature
Water
(High Pressure)
Pump
Superheater
Pump
Cool Water
(From Tower or
Lake/River)
CG23
How to Trap Superheated Steam Lines

Sizing Superheat Loads to Traps
Table CG-15. Time Period Table
The condensate load to a trap used on superheat will vary

widely from severe start-up loads to virtually no load during
operation. Consequently, this is a demanding application for
any steam trap.
During start-up, very large lines are being filled with steam
from cold conditions. At this time, only saturated steam at
low pressure is in the lines until the line temperature can
be increased. This is done slowly over a long period so the
lines are not stressed. Large condensate flow combined with
low pressure is the start-up condition that requires the use
of large capacity traps. These oversized traps are then
required to operate at very high pressures with very low
capacity requirements during normal superheat operation.
Typical start-up loads can be roughly calculated as follows:
Using:
C
0.114 Wp (t2-t1)
H
Where:
C
= Amount of condensate in pounds
Wp
= Total weight of pipe
(from Table CG-12 on page CG-18)
H
= Total heat of X pressure minus Sensible heat of Y
Pressure (Latent heat of steam. For long warm-up
times, use the total heat of saturated steam at the
superheat steam supply pressure (X) minus the
sensible heat of saturated steam at the average
pressure (Y) during the warm-up time involved.)
0.114 = Specific heat of steel pipe in btu/lb F
EXAMPLE:
Assuming a 100F/hr (37C/hr) heat-up
14'' (35 cm) diameter Schedule 80 line
Supply superheated steam at 1200 psig 1070F (85 bar, 577C)
Ambient temperature is 70F (21C)
200 feet (61 m) of run between traps
For the first two hours:
W = (200 ft) (107 lb/ft) = 21,400 lb (9727 kg)
t(2) - t(1) = 270 - 70 = 200F (93C)
H = 1184.8 btu/lb - 196.27 btu/lb = 988.5 btu/lb = (474 kJ)
C =
(0.114 btu/lb F) (21,400 lb) (200F)

= 493 lb (224 kg)
988.5 btu/lb
For the second two hours:

The only thing that changes is the sensible heat of the saturated steam at average pressure during the time involved.
C =
(0.114 btu/lb F) (21,400 lb) (200F)

= 573 lb (260 kg)
851.1 btu/lb
Time Period
Average
Pressure
psig (bar)
Temperature at
End of Time Period
F (C)
14" Line
Condensation Rate
lb/hr (kg/hr)
1st 2 hours
2nd 2 hours
3rd 2 hours
4th 2 hours
5th 2 hours
5 (.35)
140 (9.8)
700 (49)
1200 (85)
1200 (85)
270 (132)
470 (243)
670 (354)
870 (465)
1070 (577)
247 (112)
286 (130)
352 (160)
288 (131)
260 (118)
NOTE: For the average pressure of 1,200 psig (85 bar), assume H to be the latent heat
of 1,200 psig (85 bar) steam plus superheat at temperature at the end of the period.
To ensure the condensate is removed efficiently, proper

drip leg sizing and piping recommendations should also
be followed when installing traps on superheat systems.
The Table CG-13 on page CG-19 lists the proper drip leg
size for given pipe sizes.
The question arises whether insulation should be used
on the drip leg, piping leading to the trap, and the trap.
The answer is no; unless it is mandatory for safety reasons,
this section of the steam system should not be insulated.
This ensures that some condensate is continuously being
formed ahead of the trap and going to it, thus prolonging
the traps life.
Types of Superheat Traps

Bimetallic
A bimetallic trap is set to not open until condensate has cooled
to a temperature below saturation. For the existing pressure,
it will remain closed whenever steam of any temperature is
in the trap. As the steam temperature rises, the pull of the
bimetallic element becomes greater, providing a greater sealing
force on the valve. Superheated steam tends to seal the
valve better. The bimetallic trap also has the ability to handle
large start-up loads. For these reasons, this trap is a good
choice for superheat.
During superheat operation, the condensate in the trap
must cool to a temperature below the saturation temperature before the trap can open. Condensate may back up into
the line and cause damage to the lines, valves and equipment
if drip leg size and length before the trap are insufficient.
Inverted Bucket
A water seal prevents steam from getting to the valve,
promoting no live steam loss and long life. The valve at
the top makes it impervious to dirt and permits removal of
air. Large start-up loads can be handled, and the trap can
still accommodate small running loads. There are problems
associated with its application on superheat, mostly associated
with the necessity of maintaining its water seal or prime.
Proper piping is necessary to maintain a prime in the IB.
For proper inverted bucket piping on superheat, refer to
Figure CG-31 on page CG-19. When sizing a superheat
trap, size for start-up load with no safety factor. Body
materials should be selected on the basis of maximum
pressure and temperature, including superheat.
CG24
How to Trap Space Heating Equipment

Space heating equipment such as unit heaters, air handling
units, finned radiation and pipe coils is found in virtually all
industries. This type of equipment is quite basic and should
require very little routine maintenance. Consequently, the
steam traps are usually neglected for long periods of time.
One of the problems resulting from such neglect is residual
condensate in the heating coil, which can cause damage
due to freezing, corrosion and water hammer.
2. CFM and air temperature rise method. If you know

only CFM capacity of fan and air temperature rise,
find the actual Btu output by using this simple formula:
Btu/hr = CFM x 1.08 x temperature rise in F.
Trap Selection and Safety Factors
Using the formula:

3,500 x 1.08 x 80 = 302,400 Btu/hr.
Now divide 302,400 Btu/hr by 904.5 Btu (from the Steam
Tables) to obtain 334 lbs/hr and then multiply by the recommended safety factor 3. The application needs a trap with a
1,002 lbs/hr capacity.
Different application requirements involving constant or

variable steam pressure determine which type and size of
trap should be used. There are two standard methods for
sizing traps for coils.
1. Constant Steam Pressure.
INVERTED BUCKET TRAPS AND F&T TRAPSUse a
3:1 safety factor at operating pressure differentials.
2. Modulating Steam Pressure.
F&T TRAPS AND INVERTED BUCKET TRAPS
WITH THERMIC BUCKETS
n 0-15 psig steam2:1 safety factor at 1/2 psi pressure
differential
n 16-30 psig steam2:1 at 2 psi pressure differential

n Above 30 psig steam3:1 at 1/2 of maximum pressure
differential across the trap.
INVERTED BUCKET TRAPS WITHOUT THERMIC BUCKETS
Above 30 psig steam pressure only3:1 at 1/2 of maximum
pressure differential across the trap.
EXAMPLE: What size trap will drain a 3,500 CFM heater

that produces an 80F temperature rise? Steam pressure
is constant at 60 psig.
Derive the 1.08 factor in the above formula as follows:

1 CFM x 60 = 60 CFH
60 CFH x .075 lbs of air/cu ft = 4.5 lbs of air/hr
4.5 x 0.24 Btu/lb -F (specific heat of air) = 1.08 Btu/hr F - CFM.
3. Condensate method.
Once you determine Btu output:
a. Divide Btu output by latent heat of steam at steam
pressure used. See Column 2 of Table CG-16
(page CG-27) or the Steam Table (page CG-3). This will
give the actual weight of steam condensed. For a close
approximation, a rule of thumb could be applied in
which the Btu output is simply divided by 1,000.
b. Multiply the actual weight of steam condensing by
the safety factor to get the continuous trap discharge
capacity required.
Chart CG-11. Multipliers for Sizing Traps for Multiple Coils
Trap Selection for Unit Heaters

and Air Handling Units
STEAM PRESSURE PSIG

2
10
15
25
50
100 125
180
250
FORCED
AIR CIR
CULATIO
DRYING
N
WET CL
AY
DAMP
ATMOS
PHERE
S
12
10
8
7
12
10
8
7
ORDIN
ARY S
PACE
HEATIN
G
6
5
20
17
15
6
5
4
4
2
10
15
25
50
100 125
180
250

Equipment Being
Trapped
Unit Heaters
Air Handling Units
Finned Radiation &
Pipe Coils
1st Choice and

Feature Code
B, C, E, K, N
Alternate Choice
B, C, E, K, N, O
Alternate Choice
B, C, E, K, N
Alternate Choice
Constant Pressure
0-30 psig
Above 30 psig
IBLV
IBLV
F&T
*F&T
IBLV
IBLV
F&T
*F&T
IBLV
IBLV
Thermostatic
Thermostatic
1st Choice and

Feature Code
B, C, G, H, L
Alternate Choice
B, C, G, H, L
Alternate Choice
B, C, G, H, L
Alternate Choice
Variable Pressure
0-30 psig
Above 30 psig
F&T
*F&T
IBLV
IBLV
F&T
*F&T
IBT
IBLV
F&T
F&T
IBLV
IBLV
*Use IBLV above F&T pressure/temperature limitations.

PLEASE NOTE: 1. Provide vacuum breaker wherever subatmospheric pressures occur.
2. Do not use F&T traps on superheated steam.
30
CG25
MULTIPLIER
1. Btu method. The standard rating for unit heaters and

other air coils is Btu output with 2 psig steam pressure in
the heater and entering air temperature of 60F. To convert
from standard to actual rating, use the conversion factors
in Table CG-16 (page CG-27). Once the actual operating
conditions are known, multiply the condensate load by
the proper safety factor.
MULTIPLIER
You may use three methods to compute the amount of

condensate to be handled. Known operating conditions
will determine which method to use.
20
17
15

Trap Selection for Pipe Coils and Finned Radiation
Pipe coils. Insofar as possible, trap each pipe individually
to avoid short circuiting.
Single pipe coils. To size traps for single pipes or individually trapped pipes, find the condensing rate per linear foot
in Table CG-18 (page CG-27). Multiply the condensing
rate per linear foot by the length in feet to get the normal
condensate load.
For quick heating, apply a trap selection safety factor of
3:1 and use an inverted bucket trap with a thermic vent
bucket. Where quick heating is not required, use a trap
selection safety factor of 2:1 and select a standard inverted
bucket trap.
Multiple pipe coils. To size traps to drain coils consisting
of multiple pipes, proceed as follows:
1. Multiply the lineal feet of pipe in the coil by the
condensing rate given in Table CG-18. This gives
normal condensate load.
2. From Chart CG-11 (page CG-25), find the multiplier for
your service conditions.
3. Multiply normal condensate load by multiplier
to get trap required continuous discharge capacity.
Note that the safety factor is included in the multiplier.
Finned radiation. When Btu output is not known, condensing rates can be computed from Tables CG-17 and CG-19
(page CG-27) with sufficient accuracy for trap selection
purposes. To enter Table CG-19, observe size of pipe, size

of fins, number of fins and material. Determine condensing
rate per foot under standard conditions from Table CG-19.
Convert to actual conditions with Table CG-17.
Safety factor recommendations are to:
1. Overcome the short circuiting hazard created by the
multiple tubes of the heater.
2. Ensure adequate trap capacity under severe operating
conditions. In extremely cold weather the entering air
temperature is likely to be lower than calculated, and the
increased demand for steam in all parts of the plant may
result in lower steam pressures and higher return line
pressuresall of which cut trap capacity.
3. Ensure the removal of air and other non-condensables.
WARNING: For low-pressure heating, use a safety factor
at the actual pressure differential, not necessarily the
steam supply pressure, remembering that the trap must
also be able to function at the maximum pressure differential
it will experience.
Installation
In general, follow the recommendations of the specific
manufacturer. Figs. CG-40, CG-41, CG-42 and CG-43
represent the consensus of space heating manufacturers.
NOTE: For explanation of safety drain trap, see Fig. CG-66
(page CG-47).
Figure CG-40. Trapping and Venting Air Heat Coil
Strainer
Modulating
Steam Control
Valve
Thermostatic
Air Vent
Overhead
Return Main
(Alternate)
Figure CG-42. Generally approved

method of piping and trapping highpressure (above 15 psi) horizontal discharge heaters. Figs. CG-40 and CG41 drip leg should be 10"-12" minimum.
Pitch Down
Steam Main
Inverted Bucket
Trap
Supply
Vacuum
Breaker
Where Return
Is Below Trap
Air
F&T Safety
Trap
Return Main
Broken
Lines Apply
to Overhead
Return
Dirt Pocket
6'' Min.
To Drain
Check
Valve
10'' to 12''
Gate
IB Trap Valve
Return
Primary Trap
Figure CG-41. Trapping and Venting Air Heat Coil
Strainer
Modulating
Steam Control
Valve
Thermostatic
Air Vent
Steam Main
Overhead
Return Main
(Alternate)
Figure CG-43. Generally approved

method of piping and trapping low-pressure (under 15 psi) vertical discharge
heaters.
Pitch Down
Inverted Bucket
Trap
Supply
Air
F&T Safety
Trap
Vacuum
Breaker
Where Return
Is Below Trap
Broken
Lines Apply
to Overhead
Return
10'' to 12''
Dirt Pocket
6'' Min.
Return Main
IB Trap
Gate
Valve
Return
To Drain
Primary Trap
31
CG26

Table CG-16. A Table of Constants for determining the Btu output of a unit heater with conditions other than standard standard being with 2 lbs
steam pressure at 60F entering air temperature. To apply, multiply the standard Btu capacity rating of heater by the indicated constant. (Reprinted from
ASHRAE Guide by special permission.)
Entering Air Temperature F
Steam Pressure
lbs Per
sq in
Latent Heat
of Steam
2
5
10
15
20
30
40
50
60
70
75
80
90
100
966.3
960.7
952.4
945.5
939.3
928.5
919.3
911.2
903.9
897.3
893.8
891.1
885.4
880.0
-10
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
1.640
1.730
1.799
1.861
1.966
2.058
2.134
2.196
2.256
2.283
2.312
2.361
2.409
1.550
1.639
1.708
1.769
1.871
1.959
2.035
2.094
2.157
2.183
2.211
2.258
2.307
1.456
1.545
1.614
1.675
1.775
1.862
1.936
1.997
2.057
2.085
2.112
2.159
2.204
1.370
1.460
1.525
1.584
1.684
1.771
1.845
1.902
1.961
1.990
2.015
2.063
2.108
1.289
1.375
1.441
1.498
1.597
1.683
1.755
1.811
1.872
1.896
1.925
1.968
2.015
1.155
1.206
1.290
1.335
1.416
1.509
1.596
1.666
1.725
1.782
1.808
1.836
1.880
1.927
1.078
1.127
1.211
1.275
1.333
1.429
1.511
1.582
1.640
1.696
1.721
1.748
1.792
1.836
1.000
1.050
1.131
1.194
1.251
1.346
1.430
1.498
1.555
1.610
1.635
1.660
1.705
1.749
0.926
0.974
1.056
1.117
1.174
1.266
1.349
1.416
1.472
1.527
1.552
1.577
1.621
1.663
0.853
0.901
0.982
1.043
1.097
1.190
1.270
1.338
1.393
1.447
1.472
1.497
1.541
1.581
0.782
0.829
0.908
0.970
1.024
1.115
1.194
1.262
1.314
1.368
1.392
1.418
1.461
1.502
0.713
0.760
0.838
0.897
0.952
1.042
1.119
1.187
1.239
1.293
1.316
1.342
1.383
1.424
Table CG-17. Finned Radiation Conversion Factors for steam pressures

and air temperatures other than 65F air and 215F steam.
Steam
Steam Temp.
Pressure
(F)
(psig)
.9
5
10
15
30
60
100
125
175
215.0
227.1
239.4
249.8
274.0
307.3
337.9
352.9
377.4
Entering Air Temperature F

45
55
65
70
75
80
90
1.22
1.34
1.45
1.55
1.78
2.10
2.43
2.59
2.86
1.11
1.22
1.33
1.43
1.66
2.00
2.31
2.47
2.74
1.00
1.11
1.22
1.31
1.54
1.87
2.18
2.33
2.60
.95
1.05
1.17
1.26
1.48
1.81
2.11
2.27
2.54
.90
1.00
1.11
1.20
1.42
1.75
2.05
2.21
2.47
.84
.95
1.05
1.14
1.37
1.69
2.00
2.16
2.41
.75
.81
.91
1.00
1.21
1.51
1.81
1.96
2.21
Table CG-18. Condensing Rates in Bare Pipe Carrying Saturated Steam

Steam Pressure (psig)
Temp. Rise From 70
Pipe Size
(in)
1/2
3/4
1
1-1/4
1-1/2
2
2-1/2
3
3-1/2
4
sq ft Per
Lineal ft
.220
.275
.344
.434
.497
.622
.753
.916
1.047
1.178
Table CG-19. Finned Radiation Condensing Rates with 65F air and 215F
steam (for trap selection purposes only).
Pounds of Condensate Per hr Per Lineal ft

15
180
.13
.15
.19
.23
.26
.33
.39
.46
.52
.58
30
204
.15
.19
.23
.28
.32
.40
.47
.56
.63
.70
60
237
.19
.24
.28
.36
.41
.50
.59
.70
.80
.89
125
283
.26
.33
.39
.49
.55
.68
.81
.96
1.08
1.21
180
310
.30
.38
.46
.57
.65
.80
.95
1.13
1.27
1.43
Pipe Fin Size Fins Per

Size (in)
(in)
Inch
Steel Pipe,
Steel Fins
Painted
Black
Copper Pipe
Aluminum
Fins
Unpainted
250
336
.35
.45
.54
.67
.76
.93
1.11
1.31
1.50
1.72
1-1/4
3-1/4
3 to 4
1-1/4
4-1/4
3 to 4
4-1/4
2 to 3
1-1/4
3-1/4
1-1/4
4-1/4
No. of Pipes
High on
6'' Centers
Condensate
lbs/hr Per
Foot of Pipe
1
2
3
1
2
3
1
2
3
1
2
3
1
2
3
1.1
2.0
2.6
1.6
2.4
3.1
1.5
2.4
3.1
1.6
2.2
2.8
2.2
3.0
3.6
32
CG27
How To Trap Process Air Heaters

Multiplying by a safety factor of 2which is recommended
for all constant pressure process air heatersindicates that
a trap with a capacity of 472 lbs/hr will be required. This is
based on one coil. For higher air temperature rises, additional
coils in series may be required.
Process air heaters are used for drying paper, lumber, milk,
starch and other products as well as preheating combustion
air for boilers.
Common examples of this type of equipment are process
dryers, tunnel dryers, and combustion air preheaters.
Compared with air heaters for space heating, process air
heaters operate at very high temperature, 500F not being
uncommon. These extremely high-temperature applications
require high pressure (and occasionally superheated) steam.
Safety Factors
For constant steam pressure, use a safety factor of 2:1
at operating pressure differential. For modulating steam
pressure, use a safety factor of 3:1 at 1/2 of maximum
Trap Selection and Safety Factor

Determine the condensate load for process air heaters with
the following formula:
Q
Installation
Give piping for an entire piece of process air heating
equipmentincluding all steam trap connectionsadequate
allowance for expansion due to the wide temperature variations. Mount traps 10"-12" below the coils with a dirt pocket
of at least 6". On both constant and modulated pressure
heaters, install a vacuum breaker between the coil and the
steam trap. Install an air vent on each coil to remove air and
other non-condensables that can cause rapid corrosion.
See Fig. CG-44.
F x Cp x d x 60 min/hr x T
=
H
Where:
Q = Condensate load in lbs/hr
F = Cubic feet of air per minute
Cp = Specific heat of air in Btu/lbF
(from Table CG-34, page CG-55)
d = Density of air.075 lbs/cu ft
T = Temperature rise in F
(Steam Table, page CG-3)
Consider a safety drain if condensate is elevated after

the trap or if back pressure is present. See page CG-47
for piping diagram and explanation.
EXAMPLE: What would be the condensate load on a

tunnel dryer coil handling 2,000 CFM of air and requiring
a 100F temperature rise? The steam pressure is 45 psig.
Using the formula:
Q
2000 x .24 x .075 x 60 x 100

915
236 lbs/hr
Figure CG-44. Process Air Heater

Inverted Bucket
Steam Trap
Modulating Steam
Control Valve
Air Vent
Air Vent
Trap Draining
Strainer Ahead
of Modulating
Steam Control
Valve
Vacuum
Breaker
Alternate F&T
with Integral
Vacuum Breaker
Constant Pressure
Equipment
Being Trapped
1st Choice and

Feature Code
Process Air
Heaters
Variable Pressure
1st Choice and
Feature Code
0-30 psig
Above
30 psig
IB
B, C, G, H, L
F&T
*F&T
IBLV
Alternate Choice
IBLV
IBLV
0-30
psig
Above
30 psig
A, B, F, I, K, M
IB
Alternate Choice
F&T
*Use IBLV above F&T pressure temperature limitations.

PLEASE NOTE:
1. Provide vacuum breaker wherever subatmospheric pressures occur.
2. Do not use F&T traps on superheated steam.
33
CG28
How to Trap Shell & Tube Heat Exchangers & Submerged Coils
Submerged coils are heat transfer elements that are
immersed in the liquid to be heated, evaporated or
concentrated. This type of coil is found in virtually every
plant or institution that uses steam. Common examples are
water heaters, reboilers, suction heaters, evaporators and
vaporizers. These are used in heating water for process or
domestic use, vaporizing industrial gases such as propane
and oxygen, concentrating in-process fluids such as sugar,
black liquor and petroleum, and heating fuel oil for easy
transfer and atomization.
Different application requirements involving constant or variable steam pressure determine which type of trap should be
used. Trap selection factors include the ability to handle air
at low differential pressures, energy conservation and the
removal of dirt and slugs of condensate. Three standard
methods of sizing help determine the proper type and size
traps for coils.
Safety Factor
1. Constant Steam Pressure. INVERTED BUCKET
TRAPS OR F&T TRAPSuse a 2:1 safety factor
at operating pressure differentials.
2. Modulating Steam Pressure. F&T TRAPS OR
INVERTED BUCKET TRAPS.
1. 0-15 psig steam2:1 at 1/2 psi pressure differential.
2. 16-30 psig steam2:1 at 2 psi pressure differential.
3. Above 30 psig steam3:1 at 1/2 of maximum
3. Constant or Modulating Steam Pressure with
Syphon Drainage. An automatic differential condensate
controller with a safety factor of 3:1 should be used.
An alternate is an IBLV with a 5:1 safety factor.
Apply the safety factor at full differential on constant steam
pressure. Apply the safety factor at 1/2 maximum differential
for modulating steam pressure.
Shell and Tube Heat Exchangers

One type of submerged coil is the shell and tube heat
exchanger (Fig. CG-45). In these exchangers, numerous
tubes are installed in a housing or shell with confined free
area. This ensures positive contact with the tubes by any
fluid flowing in the shell. Although the term submerged coil
implies that steam is in the tubes and the tubes are submerged in the liquid being heated, the reverse can also be
true, where steam is in the shell and a liquid is in the tubes.
Trap Selection for Shell and Tube Heat Exchangers
To determine the condensate load on shell and tube
heaters, use the following formula when actual rating
is known.* (If heating coil dimensions alone are known,
use formula shown for embossed coils. Be sure to select
applicable U factor):
Q
L x T x C x 500 x sg
H
Where:
Q =
L =
T =
C =
500 =
sg =
H =
Condensate load in lbs/hr

Liquid flow in GPM
Temperature rise in F
Specific heat of liquid in Btu/lb-F (Table CG-33,
page CG-55)
60 min/hr x 8.33 lbs/gal
Specific gravity of liquid (Table CG-33)
Latent heat of steam in Btu/lb (Steam Table, page CG-3)
EXAMPLE: Assume a water flow rate of 50 GPM with

an entering temperature of 40F and a leaving temperature
of 140F. Steam pressure is 15 psig. Determine the condensate load.
Using the formula:
Q=
50 GPM x 100F x 1 Btu/lb-F x 500 x 1.0 sg

= 2,645 lbs/hr
945 Btu/lb
* Size steam traps for reboilers, vaporizers and evaporators

(processes that create vapor) using the formula for
EMBOSSED COILS on page CG-30.
Figure CG-45. Shell And Tube Heat Exchangers
(Typical Piping Diagram)
Steam Main
By-Pass
Strainer
Hot Water Out
Modulating
Steam
Control Valve
Air Vent
Drain
Alternate To
Overhead Return
Heat Exchanger
(Steam in Shell)
Cold Water In
Use safety drain F&T trap
when going to overhead
return. See page CG-47
for explanation.
To Drain
To Low
Pressure Return
34
CG29
Primary Trap
Rule of Thumb for Computing Condensing Rate for
Water Heaters: Raising the temperature of 100 gallons
of water 1F will condense one pound of steam.
Embossed Coils
Very often open tanks of water or chemicals are heated by
means of embossed coils (Fig. CG-46). Upsetting grooves
in the sheet metal of the two halves produce the spaces
for the steam. When welded together, the halves form
the passages for steam entry, heat transfer and
condensate evacuation.
Trap Selection for Embossed Coils
Calculate the condensate load on embossed coils with the
following formula:
Q
A x U x Dm
Where:
Q = Total heat transferred in Btu per hour
A = Area of outside surface of coil in sq ft
U = Overall rate of heat transfer in Btu per hr-sq ft-F.
See Tables CG-20 and CG-21.
Dm = Logarithmic mean temperature difference between
steam and liquid (as between inlet and outlet of a
heat exchanger) in F
Dm =
D1 =
D2 =
D1-D2
Loge (D1)
(D2)
U values are determined by tests under controlled conditions.

Tables CG-20 and CG-21 show the commonly accepted range
for submerged embossed coils. For trap selection purposes,
use a U value that is slightly greater than the conservative
U value selected for estimating actual heat transfer.
EXAMPLE:
A = 20 sq ft of coil surface
U = 175 Btu/sq ft-hr-F
Conditions:
Water in: 40F
Water out: 150F
Steam pressure: 125 psig or 353F
D1 = 353 - 40, or 313
D2 = 353 - 150, or 203
Dividing by 4 to get within range of Chart CG-16
(page CG-34), we have:
D1 = 78.25
D2 = 50.75
Mean difference from chart is 63F.
Multiplying by 4, the mean temperature difference for the
original values is 252F. Substituting in the equation:
Q = 20 x 175 x 252 = 882,000 Btu/hr
Btu transferred per hour.
Latent heat of steam at 125 psig = 867.6
882,000
= 1,016 lbs condensate per hr
867.6
Greatest temperature difference

Least temperature difference
To determine trap capacity required, multiply condensing

rate by the recommended safety factor.
Logarithmic mean temperature difference can be determined

with slightly less accuracy using the nomograph, Chart CG-16
(page CG-34).
Table CG-21. Embossed Coil U Values in Btu/hr-sq ft-F

Type of Service
Table CG-20. Pipe Coil U Values in Btu/hr-sq ft-F

Circulation
Type of Service
Natural
50-200
180
200
10-30
300-800
50-150
Steam to Water
1-1/2" Tube Heaters
3/4" Tube Heaters
Steam to Oil
Steam to Boiling Liquid
Steam to Boiling Oil
Forced
150-1200
450
500
50-150
Steam to Watery Solutions

Steam to Light Oil
Steam to Medium Oil
Steam to Bunker C
Steam to Tar Asphalt
Steam to Molten Sulphur
Steam to Molten Paraffin
Steam to Molasses or Corn Syrup
Dowtherm to Tar Asphalt
Circulation
Natural
Forced
100-200
150-275
40-45
60-110
20-40
50-100
15-30
40-80
15-25
18-60
25-35
35-45
25-35
40-50
20-40
70-90
15-30
50-60
Figure CG-46. Thermostatic Controlled Embossed Coil,

Syphon Drained
Figure CG-47. Continuous Coil, Syphon Drained
DC
IB Trap
IB Trap
Water Seal
35
CG30
Pipe Coils
Installation
Pipe coils are heat transfer tubes immersed in vessels

that are large in volume compared to the coils themselves
(Fig. CG-47, page CG-30). This is their primary difference
when compared to shell and tube heat exchangers. Like
embossed coils, they may be drained by gravity or syphon
drained, depending on the conditions prevailing at the
installation site. Unlike embossed coils, most pipe coils
are installed in closed vessels.
When gravity drainage is utilized on shell and tube heat

exchangers, embossed coils and pipe coils, locate the steam
trap below the heating coil. Under modulating pressure, use
a vacuum breaker. This can be integral in F&T traps or
mounted off the inlet piping on an inverted bucket trap. Place
an ample drip leg ahead of the trap to act as a reservoir. This
ensures coil drainage when there is a maximum condensate
load and a minimum steam pressure differential.
Trap Selection for Pipe Coils
Avoid lifting condensate from a shell and tube heat exchanger,

embossed coil or pipe coil under modulated control.
However, if it must be done, the following is suggested:
1. Do not attempt to elevate condensate more than 1' for
every pound of normal pressure differential, either before
or after the trap.
2. If condensate lift takes place after the steam trap, install
a low-pressure safety drain. (See page CG-47.)
3. If condensate lift takes place ahead of the steam trap
(syphon lift), install an automatic differential condensate
controller to efficiently vent all flash steam.
Determine the condensate load for pipe coils by applying

one of the formulas, depending on known data. If capacity
is known, use the formula under shell and tube heat
exchangers. When physical dimensions of coil are known,
use the formula under embossed coils.
For Pounds of Steam Condensed Per sq ft Per Hour of

Submerged Coil Surface, see Chart CG-17 (page CG-34).

Constant Pressure
Equipment Being
Trapped
Shell and Tube

Heat Exchangers
Embossed Coils
and Pipe Coils
Syphon Drain
Embossed Coils
and Pipe Coils
Gravity Drain
1st Choice and

Feature Code
0-30
psig
Above 30
psig
B, C, E, F, G, I, K,
N, Q
IBLV
IBLV
Alternate Choice
DC
F&T
B, C, E, F, G, H, I,
K, N, Q
Variable Pressure
1st Choice and
Feature Code
0-30
psig
Above
30 psig
B, C, G, H, I, L
F&T
F&T
DC
*F&T
Alternate Choice
DC
IBT
DC
IBLV
DC
DC
B, C, G, H, I, L
DC
DC
Alternate Choice
IBLV
IBLV
Alternate Choice
IBT
IBLV
B, C, E, F, G, I, K,
N, Q
IBLV
IBLV
B, C, G, H, I, L
F&T
*F&T
Alternate Choice
DC
F&T
DC
F&T
Alternate Choice
DC
IBT
DC
IBLV
*Use IBLV above pressure/temperature limitations.
If dirt and large volumes of air must be handled, an inverted bucket trap with an external thermostatic air
vent can be used effectively.
Please Note:
1. Provide vacuum breaker wherever subatmospheric pressures occur.
2. Provide a safety drain when elevating condensate on modulating service.
36
CG31
How to Trap Evaporators

Evaporators reduce the water content from a product
through the use of heat. They are very common to
many industries, especially paper, food, textiles, chemical
and steel.
An evaporator is a shell and tube heat exchanger where
the steam is normally in the shell and the product is in the
tubes and in motion. Depending upon the type of product
and the desired results, more than one stage or effect of
evaporation may be required. The triple effect is the most
common, although as many as five or six can be found on
some applications.
Single Effect
While the product is being forced through the tubes of the
evaporator, heat is added to remove a specific amount of
moisture. After this is completed, both the product vapor
and the concentrated product are forced into the separating
chamber where the vapor is drawn off and may be used
elsewhere. The concentrate is then pumped off to another
part of the process (Fig. CG-48).
Multiple Effect
In using the multiple effect method, there is a conservation
of heat as steam from the boiler is used in the first effect,
and then vapor generated from the product is used as
the heat source in the second effect. The vapor generated
here is then used as the heat source in the third effect and
finally heats water for some other process or preheats the
incoming feed (Fig. CG-49).
There are many variables in the design of evaporators

due to their wide application to many different products.
The steam capabilities for evaporators can vary from
approximately 1,000 lbs per hour to 100,000 lbs per hour,
while steam pressures may vary from a high of 150 psig
in the first effect to a low of 24'' mercury vacuum in the
last effect.
Because evaporators are normally run continuously, there is
a uniform load of condensate to be handled. Its important
to remember that traps must be selected for the actual
pressure differential for each effect.
The three major considerations when trapping evaporators are:
1. Large condensate loads.
2. Low pressure differentials in some effects.
3. The evacuation of air and contaminants.
Safety Factor
n When load is fairly constant and uniform, a 2:1 safety
factor should be adequate when applied to an actual
condensing load in excess of 50,000 lbs/hr.
n Below 50,000 lbs/hr, use a 3:1 safety factor.

For single and multiple effect evaporators, automatic
differential condensate controllers are recommended.
In addition to offering continuous operation, DC traps
vent air and CO2 at steam temperature, handle flash
steam and respond immediately to slugs of condensate.
Figure CG-49. Triple Effect Evaporator System
Figure CG-48. Single Effect Evaporator System

Steam
Steam
Steam
Steam
Concentrate
Concentrate
Feed
Feed

Equipment Being
Trapped
Evaporator Single
Effect
Evaporator Multiple
Effect
1st Choice, Feature Code

and Alternate Choice(s)
0-30
psig
Above
30 psig
A, F, G, H, K, M, P
DC
IBLV
F&T
DC
IBLV
F&T
DC
IBLV
F&T
DC
IBLV
F&T
Alternate Choices
A, F, G, H, K, M, P
Alternate Choices
37
CG32

Installation
Because an evaporator is basically a shell and tube heat
exchanger with the steam in the shell, there should be
separate steam air vents on the heat exchanger. Place
these vents at any area where there is a tendency for air
to accumulate, such as in the quiet zone of the shell. Install
a separate trap on each effect. While the condensate from
the first effect may be returned to the boiler, condensate
from each successive effect may not be returned to the
boiler due to contamination from the product.
Trap Selection for Evaporators

When calculating the condensate load for evaporators, take
care in selecting the U value (Btu/hr-sq ft-F). As a general
rule, the following U values can be used:
n 300 for natural circulation evaporators with low pressure
steam (up to 25 psig)
n 500 on natural circulation with high pressure (up to 45 psig)

n 750 with forced circulation evaporators
Use the following formula to compute heat transfer for
constant steam pressure continuous flow heat exchangers.
EXAMPLE:
A = Heat transfer tubes: eight 3/4" OD tubes 12' long
8 x 12' = 20 sq ft of coil surface
5.09 (from Table CG-24)
U
125 psig or 353F steam pressure:

D1 = 353F - 40F, or 313F
D2 = 353F - 150F, or 203F
Dividing by 4 to get within range of Chart CG-16, we have:
D1 = 78.25F
D2 = 50.75F
Mean difference from chart is 63F. Multiplying by 4,
the mean temperature difference for the original value
is 252F. Substituting in the equation:
Dm =
A x U x Dm
Where:
Q = Total heat transferred in Btu per hour
A = Area of outside surface of coil in sq ft
U = Overall rate of heat transfer in Btu/hr-sq ft-F
(See Tables CG-20 and CG-21 on page CG-30)
Dm = Logarithmic mean temperature difference between
steam and liquid (as between inlet and outlet of a
heat exchanger) in F
500 Btu/hr-sq ft-F
Conditions:
Water in: 40F
Water out: 150F
Q
Q
20 x 500 x 252 = 2,520,000 Btu/hr

transferred per hour
Latent heat of steam at 125 psig = 867.6

2,520,000
= 2,900 lbs condensate per hour
867.69
To determine trap capacity required, multiply the condensing
rate by the recommended safety factor.
D1-D2
Loge (D1)
(D2)
Where:
D1 = Greatest temperature difference
D2 = Least temperature difference
Logarithmic mean temperature difference can be estimated
by using the nomograph, Chart CG-16 (page CG-34).
38
CG33

Table CG-22. Pipe Coil U Values in Btu/hr-sq ft-F
Table CG-24. Pipe Size Conversion Table (Divide lineal feet of pipe by
factor given for size and type of pipe to get square feet of surface)
Circulation
Type of Service
Natural
50-200
180
200
10-30
300-800
50-150
Steam to Water
1-1/2" Tube Heaters
3/4" Tube Heaters
Steam to Oil
Steam to Boiling Liquid
Steam to Boiling Oil
Forced
150-1200
450
500
50-150
Pipe Size (in)

1/2
3/4
1
1-1/4
1-1/2
2
2-1/2
3
4
Iron Pipe
4.55
3.64
2.90
2.30
2.01
1.61
1.33
1.09
.848
Copper or Brass Pipe

7.63
5.09
3.82
3.05
2.55
1.91
1.52
1.27
.954
Table CG-23. Embossed Coil U Values in Btu/hr-sq ft-F
Steam to Watery Solutions

Steam to Light Oil
Steam to Medium Oil
Steam to Bunker C
Steam to Tar Asphalt
Steam to Molten Sulphur
Steam to Molten Paraffin
Steam to Molasses or Corn Syrup
Dowtherm to Tar Asphalt
Chart CG-16.
Mean Temperature Difference Chart for Heat Exchange Equipment
D1
Equipment
D2
100
100
90
90
90
80
80
80
70
70
70
60
55
50
45
60
55
50
45
40
40
35
35
30
60
55
50
45
40
35
30
25
20
15
10
LOGARITHIC MEAN TEMPERATURE DIFFERENCE
100
Chart CG-17. Pounds of Steam Condensed Per sq ft Per

Hour of Submerged Coil Surface
(See Conditions conversion factors below chart)
30
20
POUNDS PER HR PER SQ FT OF SURFACE
Circulation
Natural
Forced
100-200
150-275
40-45
60-110
20-40
50-100
15-30
40-80
15-25
18-60
25-35
35-45
25-35
40-50
20-40
70-90
15-30
50-60
Type of Service
50
40
100
80
150
125
250
200
400
300
400
300
300
250
250
200
200
150
150
125
125
100
90
80
70
60
50
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
40
30
30
25
25
COPPER
BRASS
IRON
LEAD
20
15
20
15
10
10
30
25
25
20
20
20
40
30
15
15
10
10
80
50
125
100
200
150
300
250
TEMP. DIFFERENCE BETWEEN LIQUID AND STEAM
Condition Factors
(Divide chart figures by proper factor)
5
Connect greatest temperature difference on scale D1 with

least temperature difference on scale D2 to read logarithmic
mean temperature difference on center scale.
CONDITIONS
FACTOR
Will remain bright 1
Moderate scale 2
Liquid contains up to 25% solids 3-5
Thick viscous liquids 4-8
39
CG34
How to Trap Jacketed Kettles

Steam jacketed kettles are essentially steam jacketed cookers or concentrators. They are found in all parts of the world
and in almost every kind of application: meat packing, paper
and sugar making, rendering, fruit and vegetable processing
and food preparationto name a few.
EXAMPLE: Select a trap for a 250-gallon kettle using 25 psig

steam to heat a product with a specific gravity of 0.98 and a
specific heat of 0.95 Btu/lb-F. Starting at room temperature
of 70F, the product will be heated to 180F in 1/2 hour.
(Assume 3:1 safety factor.) Using the formula:
There are basically two types of steam jacketed kettles

fixed gravity drain and tilting syphon drain. Each type
requires a specialized method for trapping steam, although
the major problems involved are common to both.
=
=
=
The most significant problem encountered is air trapped within

the steam jacket, which adversely affects the temperature.
Jacketed kettles usually perform batch operations, and
maintaining a uniform or cooking temperature is critical. With
an excessive amount of air, wide variations in temperature
occur and may result in burnt product and/or slow production.
To be more specific, under certain conditions as little as
1/2 of 1% by volume of air in steam can form an insulating
film on the heat transfer surface and reduce efficiency as
much as 50%. See pages CG-7 and CG-8.
250 gal x 0.98 x 0.95 Btu/lb-F x 110F x 8.3 lbs/gal

933 Btu/lb x 0.5 hr
212,500
466.5
455 lbs/hr
Now simply multiply by a safety factor of 3 to get 1,365 lbs/hr

of condensate and select the proper type and capacity trap.
Based on the standard requirements and problems involved
with fixed gravity drained kettles, the most efficient type trap
to use is the inverted bucket.
A second basic concern in the use of steam jacketed kettles

is the need for a steady, thorough removal of condensate.
Accumulation of condensate in the jacket leads to unreliable
temperature control, reduces the output of the kettle and
causes water hammer.
The inverted bucket trap vents air and CO2 at steam temperature and provides total efficiency against back pressure.
The primary recommendation for tilting syphon drained
kettles is the automatic differential condensate controller.
In addition to providing the same features as the IB, the DC
offers excellent air venting ability at very low pressure and
excellent flash steam handling ability. If an IB trap is selected for syphon drained service, use a trap one size larger.
Trap Selection for Jacketed Kettles
General Recommendations for Maximum Efficiency
Table CG-25 gives the required trap capacities for various

size kettles based on the following assumptions:
U = 175 Btu/hr-sq ft-F
Safety factor of 3 included.
Desirable Cooking Speed. Because the product cooked

has such an important bearing on trap selection, a plant with
many jacketed kettles should conduct experiments using different sizes of traps to determine the size giving best
results.
EXAMPLE: What would be the recommended trap capacity

for a 34" gravity drained kettle at 40 psig steam? Reading
directly from the chart, a trap with a capacity of 1,704 lbs/hr
at the operating pressure is required.
For an alternative method of determining condensate, use
the following formula:
Q
G x sg x Cp x T x 8.3
=
Hxt
Where:
Q =
G =
sg =
Cp =
T =
8.3 =
H =
t
=
Condensate loads (lbs/hr)

Gallons of liquid to be heated
Specific gravity of the liquid
Specific heat of the liquid
Temperature rise of the liquid F
lbs/gal of water
Latent heat of the steam (Btu/lb)
Time in hours for product heating
Steam Supply. Use steam lines of ample size to supply

steam to the kettles. Locate the inlet nozzle high up on
the jacket for best results. It should be slotted so as to give
steam flow around the entire jacket area.
Installation
Install traps close to the kettle. You can further increase
the dependability and air-handling capability by installing
a thermostatic air vent at high points in the jacket. See Figs.
CG-50 and CG-51.
Never drain two or more kettles with a single trap.
Group drainage will invariably result in short circuiting.
Equipment Being
Trapped
1st Choice and

Feature Code
Alternate Choice
Jacketed Kettles
Gravity Drain
IBLV
B, C, E, H, K, N
F&T or Thermostatic
Jacketed Kettles
Syphon Drain
DC
B, C, E, G, H, K, N, P
IBLV
40
CG35
How to Trap Jacketed Kettles

Figure CG-50. Fixed Gravity Drained Kettle
Figure CG-51. Tilting Syphon Drained Kettle
Control Valve
Thermostatic
Air Vent
Steam In
Relief
Valve
Strainer
Rotary
Joint
Joint
Air Discharge to
Drain or Return
Line
Steam Trap
DC
To
Return
Line
Steam In
Product
Drain Line
Condensate to
Return Line
Table CG-25. Condensate Rates in lbs/hr for Jacketed KettlesHemispherical Condensing Surface
Safety factor 3:1 is included. Assume U = 175 Btu/hr-sq ft-F, 50F starting temperature.
Steam Pressure
Kettle
Diameter
(in)
Heat Transfer
Surface (sq ft)
18
19
20
22
24
26
28
30
32
34
36
38
40
42
44
46
48
54
60
72
3.50
3.90
4.35
5.30
6.30
7.40
8.50
9.80
11.20
12.60
14.10
15.70
17.40
19.20
21.10
23.00
25.30
31.70
39.20
56.40
U.S. Gallons of U.S. Gals. Water

per in. of Height
Water in
Above Hemisphere
Hemisphere
7
8
9
12
16
20
25
31
37
45
53
62
73
84
97
110
123
178
245
423
1.10
1.20
1.35
1.65
1.95
2.30
2.65
3.05
3.50
3.95
4.40
4.90
5.45
6.00
6.60
7.20
7.85
9.90
12.30
17.70
5 psig
227F
339
378
420
513
609
717
822
948
1,086
1,221
1,365
1,521
1,686
1,860
2,043
2,229
2,451
3,076
3,798
5,469
10 psig 15 psig 25 psig 40 psig 60 psig 80 psig 100 psig 125 psig
240F 250F 267 F 287F 307F 324F 338F 353F
366
408
456
555
660
774
891
1,026
1,173
1,320
1,476
1,644
1,821
2,010
2,208
2,409
2,649
3,324
4,104
5,910
387
432
483
588
699
822
942
1,089
1,242
1,398
1,566
1,743
1,932
2,130
2,343
2,553
2,808
3,523
4,350
6,264
426
477
531
648
768
903
1,038
1,197
1,368
1,539
1,722
1,917
2,124
2,343
2,577
2,808
3,087
3,875
4,785
6,890
474
528
588
717
852
1,002
1,149
1,326
1,515
1,704
1,908
2,124
2,355
2,598
2,856
3,111
3,423
4,296
5,304
7,638
522
582
651
792
942
1,107
1,269
1,464
1,674
1,881
2,106
2,346
2,601
2,868
3,153
3,435
3,780
4,743
5,856
8,433
564
630
702
855
1,017
1,194
1,371
1,581
1,809
1,944
2,277
2,535
2,808
3,099
3,405
3,711
4,083
5,125
6,327
9,111
603
669
747
912
1,083
1,272
1,461
1,686
1,926
2,166
2,424
2,700
2,991
3,300
3,627
3,954
4,350
5,458
6,738
9,703
642
714
798
972
1,155
1,356
1,557
1,797
2,052
2,310
2,586
2,877
3,189
3,519
3,867
4,215
4,638
5,820
7,185
10,346
41
CG36
How to Trap Closed, Stationary Steam Chamber Equipment

Closed, stationary steam chamber equipment includes platen
presses for the manufacture of plywood and other sheet
products, steam jacketed molds for rubber and plastic parts,
autoclaves for curing and sterilizing and retorts for cooking.
Product Confined in Steam Jacketed Press

Molded plastic and rubber products such as battery cases,
toys, fittings and tires are formed and cured, and plywood
is compressed and glue-cured in equipment of this type.
Laundry flatwork ironers are a specialized form of press
with a steam chamber on one side of the product only.
The condensate load for closed, stationary steam chamber
equipment is determined by use of the following formula:
Q
AxRxS
Where:
A = Total area of platen in contact with product in sq ft
R = Condensing rate in lbs/sq ft-hr (For purposes of
sizing steam traps, a 3 lbs/sq ft-hr condensing rate
may be used)
S = Safety factor
EXAMPLE: What is the condensate load for a mid
platen on a press with 2' x 3' platens, upper and lower?
Using the formula:
Installation
Although the condensate load on each platen is small,
individual trapping is essential to prevent short circuiting,
Fig. CG-52. Individual trapping ensures maximum and uniform temperature for a given steam pressure by efficiently
draining the condensate and purging the non-condensables.
Direct Steam Injection Into Product Chamber

This type of equipment combines steam with the product
in order to cure, sterilize or cook. Common examples are
autoclaves used in the production of rubber and plastic
products, sterilizers for surgical dressings and gowns, and
retorts for cooking food products already sealed in cans.
Calculate the condensate load using the following formula:
Q
W x C x T
Hxt
Where:
W = Weight of the material in lbs
C = Specific heat of the material in Btu/lb-F
(See page CG-55)
T = Material temperature rise in F
(See Steam Tables on page CG-3)
t
= Time in hours
EXAMPLE: What will be the condensate load on an autoclave containing 300 lbs of rubber product which must be
raised to a temperature of 300F from a starting temperature
of 70F? The autoclave operates at 60 psig steam pressure
and the heat-up process takes 20 minutes. Using the formula:
Q = 12 sq ft x 3 lbs/sq ft-hr x 3 = 108 lbs/hr

End platens would have half this load.
The safety factor recommended for all equipment
of this type is 3:1.
The inverted bucket trap is the recommended first choice

on steam jacketed chambers, dryers and ironers because
it can purge the system, resist hydraulic shock and conserve energy. Disc and thermostatic type traps may be
acceptable alternatives.
300 lbs x .42 Btu/lb-F x 230F

904 Btu/lb x .33 hr
= 96 lbs/hr
Multiply by a recommended safety factor of 3:1 to get the

required capacity288 lbs/hr.
Figure CG-52. Product Confined In Steam Jacketed Press

Strainer
Valve
Steam Trap
Steam
Trap
Condensate
Discharge
42
CG37
How to Trap Closed, Stationary Steam Chamber Equipment

Since steam is in contact with the product, you can anticipate
dirty condensate. In addition, the vessel is a large volume
chamber that requires special consideration in the purging
of condensate and non-condensables. For these reasons,
an inverted bucket trap with an auxiliary thermostatic air
vent installed at the top of the chamber is recommended.
Where no remote thermostatic air vent can be installed,
incorporate the large volume air purging capabilities in
the steam trap itself. An automatic differential condensate
controller should be considered a possible first choice on
large chambers. As an alternative, an F&T or thermostatic
trap should be used and be preceded by a strainer, the
latter receiving regular checks for free flow.
Installation
Because the steam and condensate is in contact with
the product, the trap discharge should almost always be
disposed of by some means other than return to the boiler.
In virtually all cases this equipment is gravity drained to the
trap. However, very often there is a condensate lift after the
trap. Because steam pressure is usually constant, this does
not present a problem. For thorough air removal and quicker
warm-up, install a thermostatic air vent at a high point of the
vessel. See Fig. CG-53.
Product in ChamberSteam in Jacket

Autoclaves, retorts and sterilizers are also common
examples of this equipment; however, the condensate
is not contaminated from actual contact with the product
and can be returned directly to the boiler. Steam traps
with purging ability and large volume air venting are still
necessary for efficient performance.
The inverted bucket trap is recommended because it conserves steam, purges the system and resists hydraulic shock.
Use the IB trap in combination with a thermostatic air vent
at the top of the chamber for greater air-handling capability.
As an alternative, an F&T or thermostatic trap could be
used. On large chambers, where its not possible to install
the air vent, an automatic differential condensate controller
should be considered a possible first choice.
Installation
With product in chambersteam in jacket equipment,
the steam and condensate do not come in contact with the
product and can be piped to the condensate return system.
Where possible, install an auxiliary thermostatic air vent at
a remote high point on the steam chamber. See Fig. CG-54.
1st Choice and
Feature Code
Alternate Choices
Product Confined
Steam Jacketed Press
IB
A, B, E, K
CD and
Thermostatic
Direct Steam Injection

into Product Chamber
*IB
A, B, E, H, K, N, Q
Product in Chamber
Steam in Jacket
*IB
A, B, E, H, K
Equipment Being Trapped
**DC
Thermostatic
and F&T and **DC
*An auxiliary air vent is recommended.

**First choice on large volume vessels.

Size steam traps for product in chambersteam in jacket
equipment by using the same formula outlined for direct
steam injection. The safety factor is also 3:1.
Figure CG-53. Direct Steam Injection Into Product Chamber
Steam
Control Valve
Figure CG-54. Product in ChamberSteam in Jacket
Steam
Control Valve
Air Vent
Air Vent
Strainer
Door
Strainer
Door
Steam Jacket
Steam Trap
Steam Trap
43
CG38
How to Trap Rotating Dryers Requiring Syphon Drainage

There are two classifications of rotating dryers which
vary significantly in both function and method of operation.
The first dries a product by bringing it into contact with
the outside of a steam-filled cylinder. The second holds the
product inside a rotating cylinder where steam-filled tubes
are used to dry it through direct contact. In some applications a steam jacket surrounding the cylinder is also used.
Safety Factor
The safety factor for both kinds of dryers depends on the
type of drainage device selected.
n If an automatic differential condensate controller (DC) is

installed, use a safety factor of 3:1 based on the maximum load. This will allow sufficient capacity for handling
flash steam, large slugs of condensate, pressure variations and the removal of non-condensables. The DC performs these functions on both constant and modulated
pressure.
If an inverted bucket trap with large vent is used, increase

the safety factor in order to compensate for the large volume
of non-condensable and flash steam that will be present.
Under constant-pressure conditions, use a safety factor
of 8:1. On modulated pressure increase it to 10:1.
Rotating Steam Filled Cylinder with Product Outside

These dryers are used extensively in the paper, textile,
plastic and food industries, where common examples are
dry cans, drum dryers, laundry ironers and paper machine
dryers. Their speed of operation varies from 1 or 2 rpm to
surface velocities as high as 5,000 rpm. Operating steam
pressure ranges from subatmospheric to more than 200 psig.
Diameters can vary from 6" or 8" to 14' or more. In all cases
syphon drainage is required and flash steam will accompany
the condensate.
Trap Selection
Condensate loads can be determined
by use of the following formula:
Q
Where:
Q =
D =
R =
W =
3.14D x R x W
Condensate load in lbs/hr
Diameter of the dryer in ft
Rate of condensation in lbs/sq ft-hr
Width of dryer in ft
EXAMPLE: Determine the condensate load of a dryer

5 ft in diameter, 10 ft in width and with a condensing rate
of 7 lbs/sq ft-hr. Using the formula:
Condensate load = 3.14(5) x 7 x 10 = 1,100 lbs/hr
Based on its ability to handle flash steam, slugs of condensate and purge the system, a DC is the recommended first
choice. An IBLV may be adequate if proper sizing procedures
are followed.
Equipment Being
Trapped
Rotating Dryers
1st Choice and

Feature Code
Alternate Choice
DC
A, B, K, M, P, N
IBLV*
*On constant pressure use 8:1 safety factor, and on modulated pressure use 10:1.
Figure CG-55. Product Outside Dryer
Rotary
Joint
10''-12''
Steam
Trap
6''
A revolving cylinder drained with a syphonan internal syphon surrounded by

steam. Some condensate flashes back to steam due to the steam jacketed
syphon pipe and syphon lifting during evacuation.
44
CG39
How to Trap Rotating Dryers Requiring Syphon Drainage

Product Inside a Rotating Steam Heated Dryer
This type of dryer finds wide application in meat packing as
well as food processing industries. Common examples are
grain dryers, rotary cookers and bean conditioners.
EXAMPLE: What will be the condensate load on a rotary

cooker containing 30 1-1/4" steel pipes 12' in length with a
condensing rate of 8 lbs/sq ft-hr?
Using the formula:
Q
Trap Selection
The condensate load generated by these dryers can be
determined through use of the following formula:
Installation
Where:
Q =
N =
L =
R =
P
NxLxR
P
Condensate in lbs/hr
Number of tubes
Length of tubes in ft
Condensing rate in lbs/sq ft-hr
(typical 6-9 lbs/sq ft-hr)
Lineal ft of pipe per sq ft of surface
(see Table CG-26)
30 x 12 x 8
2.30
Their speed of rotation is relatively slow, usually limited to a

few rpm, while steam pressure may range from 0-150 psig.
These slower rotating speeds permit the condensate to
accumulate in the bottom of the collection chamber in practically all cases. Again, syphon drainage is required and flash
steam is generated during condensate removal.
= 1,252 lbs/hr
A differential controller is recommended on these dryers

for its purging and flash steam handling ability.
The IBLV again requires proper sizing for certain applications.
In all cases, condensate drainage is accomplished through

a rotary joint, Figs. CG-55 and CG-56. The DC should then
be located 10"-12" below the rotary joint with an extended
6" dirt pocket. These provide a reservoir for surges of condensate and also a pocket for entrained scale.
Table CG-26. Pipe Size Conversion Table (Divide lineal feet of pipe
by factor given for size and type of pipe to get square feet of surface)
Pipe Size (in)
Iron Pipe
Copper or
Brass Pipe
1/2
3/4
1
1-1/4
1-1/2
2
2-1/2
3
4
4.55
3.64
2.90
2.30
2.01
1.61
1.33
1.09
.848
7.63
5.09
3.82
3.05
2.55
1.91
1.52
1.27
.954
Figure CG-56. Product Inside Dryer
Rotary Joint
10''-12''
DC
6''
A revolving cylinder drained with a syphonan internal syphon surrounded by steam.

Some condensate flashes back to steam due to the steam jacketed syphon pipe and
syphon lifting during evacuation.
45
CG40
How to Trap Flash Tanks

When hot condensate or boiler water, under pressure, is
released to a lower pressure, part of it is re-evaporated,
becoming what is known as flash steam. The heat content
of flash is identical to that of live steam at the same pressure, although this valuable heat is wasted when allowed to
escape through the vent in the receiver. With proper sizing
and installation of a flash recovery system, the latent heat
content of flash steam may be used for space heating;
heating or preheating water, oil and other liquids; and low
pressure process heating.
If exhaust steam is available it may be combined with the
flash. In other cases, the flash will have to be supplemented
by live make-up steam at reduced pressure. The actual
amount of flash steam formed varies according to pressure
conditions. The greater the difference between initial pressure and pressure on the discharge side, the greater the
amount of flash that will be generated.
Refer to Chart CG-3 (page CG-4) for percentage of flash

steam formed when discharging condensate to reduced
pressure.
A third type of device that may be the preferred selection
in many cases is the automatic differential condensate
controller. It combines the best features of both the IB and
F&T and is recommended for large condensate loads that
exceed the separating capability of the flash tank.
Safety Factor
The increased amount of condensate at start-up and
the varying loads during operation accompanied by low
pressure differential dictates a safety factor of 3:1 for
trapping flash tanks.
Figure CG-57. Typical Flash Tank Piping Sketch
Reducing Valve
To determine the exact amount, as a percentage, of flash

steam formed under certain conditions, refer to page CG-4
for complete information.
Make-up
Valve Strainer
Trap Selection
The condensate load can be calculated using the following
formula:
Q
L-
Alternate
Vent
Location
LxP
100
Where:
(to be handled by steam trap)
L = Condensate flow into flash tank in lbs/hr
P = Percentage of flash
Relief Valve
5,000 - (5,000 x 10.5)

100
To Drain
Flash Tank
In some cases, the float and thermostatic type trap is an

acceptable alternative. One particular advantage of the F&T
is its ability to handle heavy start-up air loads.
Flash Tanks
High Pressure
Condensate
Return Line
4,475 lbs/hr
IBLV Steam Trap
Due to the importance of energy conservation and operation

against back pressure, the trap best suited for flash steam
service is the inverted bucket type with large bucket vent.
In addition, the IB operates intermittently while venting air
and CO2 at steam temperature.
Equipment Being
Trapped
Gauge
To Low
Pressure
Steam Use
Air Vent
EXAMPLE: Determine the condensate load of a flash tank

with 5,000 lbs/hr of 100 psig condensate entering the flash
tank held at 10 psig. From page CG-4, the flash percentage is
P = 10.5%. Using the formula:
Q
CV
1st Choice and

Feature Code
Alternate Choice
IBLV
B, E, M, L, I, A, F
F&T or *DC
To Low Pressure
Condensate Return
Flash steam tank with live steam make-up, showing

recommended fittings and connections. The check valves
in the incoming lines prevent waste of flash when a line is
not in use. The by-pass is used when flash steam cannot
be used. Relief valves prevent pressure from building up
and interfering with the operation of the high pressure steam
traps. The reducing valve reduces the high pressure steam
to the same pressure as the flash, so they can be combined
for process work or heating.
*Recommended where condensate loads exceed the separating capability of the

flash tank.
46
CG41
How to Trap Flash Tanks

Installation
Flash Tank Dimensions
Condensate return lines contain both flash steam and condensate. To recover the flash steam, the return header runs
to a flash tank, where the condensate is drained, and steam
is then piped from the flash tank to points of use, Fig. CG-57.
Since a flash tank causes back pressure on the steam traps
discharging into the tank, these traps should be selected to
ensure their capability to work against back pressure and
have sufficient capacity at the available differential pressures.
The flash tank can usually be conveniently constructed from

a piece of large diameter piping with the bottom ends welded
or bolted in position. The tank should be mounted vertically.
A steam outlet is required at the top and a condensate
outlet at the bottom. The condensate inlet connection should
be 6''-8'' above the condensate outlet.
Condensate lines should be pitched toward the flash tank,

and where more than one line feeds into a flash tank, each
line should be fitted with a swing check valve. Then, any line
not in use will be isolated from the others and will not be
fed in reverse with resultant wasted flash steam. If the trap
is operating at low pressure, gravity drainage to the condensate receiver should be provided.
Generally, the location chosen for the flash tank should
meet the requirement for maximum quantity of flash steam
and minimum length of pipe.
Condensate lines, the flash tank, and the low pressure
steam lines should be insulated to prevent waste of flash
through radiation. The fitting of a spray nozzle on the inlet
pipe inside the tank is not recommended. It may become
choked, stop the flow of condensate, and produce a back
pressure to the traps.
Low pressure equipment using flash steam should be
individually trapped and discharged to a low pressure
return. Large volumes of air need to be vented from the
flash tank; therefore, a thermostatic air vent should be
used to remove the air and keep it from passing through
the low pressure system.
The important dimension is the inside diameter. This should

be such that the upward velocity of flash to the outlet is low
enough to ensure that the amount of water carried over
with the flash is small. If the upward velocity is kept low, the
height of the tank is not important, but good practice is to
use a height of 2'-3'.
It has been found that a steam velocity of about 10' per
second inside the flash tank will give good separation of
steam and water. On this basis, proper inside diameters
for various quantities of flash steam have been calculated;
the results are plotted in Chart CG-22. This curve gives
the smallest recommended internal diameters. If it is more
convenient, a larger tank may be used.
Chart CG-22 does not take into consideration pressureonly
weight. Although volume of steam and upward velocity are
less at a higher pressure, because steam is denser, there is
an increased tendency for priming. Thus it is recommended
that, regardless of pressure, Chart CG-22 be used to find
the internal diameter.
Chart CG-22.
Determination of Internal Diameter of Flash Tank
to Handle a Given Quantity of Flash Steam
Find amount of available flash steam (in pounds per hour)
on bottom scale, read up to curve and across to vertical
scale, to get diameter in inches.
Figure CG-58. Flash Steam Recovery from an Air Heater Battery

Flash is taken from the flash tank and combined with live
steam, the pressure of which is reduced to that of the flash
by a reducing valve.
High
Pressure
Steam
Low
Pressure
Section
Flash
Tank
Heater
Battery
Air
Flow
INTERNAL DIAMETER OF FLASH TANK IN INCHES
30
25
20
15
10
Condensate
1,000
2,000
3,000
4,000
5,000
POUNDS FLASH STEAM PER HOUR
6,000
47
CG42
How to Trap Absorption Machines

An absorption refrigeration machine chills water for air
conditioning or process use by evaporating a water solution,
usually lithium bromide. Steam provides the energy for the
concentration part of the cycle and, except for electric
pumps, is the only energy input during the entire cycle.
A steam trap installed on a steam absorption machine
should handle large condensate loads and purge air at low
pressure, modulated conditions.
Determine the condensate load produced by a low pressure
(normally 15 psig or less) single-stage steam absorption
machine by multiplying its rating in tons of refrigeration by
20, the amount of steam in lbs/hr required to produce a ton
of refrigeration. This represents consumption at the rated
capacity of the machine.
EXAMPLE: How much condensate will a single-stage
steam absorption machine with a rated capacity of
500 tons produce?
Multiply the 500-ton machine capacity rating x 20 lbs/hr to
get the condensate load10,000 lbs/hr.
A 2:1 safety factor should be applied to the full capacity
condensate load, and the steam trap must be capable of
draining this load, at a 1/2 psi differential. In other words,
the machine in the example would require a trap capable
of handling 20,000 lbs/hr of condensate at 1/2 psi, and
the capability of functioning at the maximum pressure
differential, usually 15 psi.
In comparison, two-stage absorption machines operate at a
higher steam pressure of 150 psig. They have an advantage
over single-stage units in that their energy consumption per
ton of refrigeration is less (12.2 lbs steam/hr/ton of refrigeration at rated capacity).
On two-stage steam absorption machines, a 3:1 safety

factor should be used. Therefore, the example requires
a steam trap with a capacity of 9,000 lbs/hr. At pressures
above 30 psig, the trap capacity must be achieved at
1/2 maximum pressure differential, which in the example
is 75 psi. At pressures below 30 psig, trap capacity must
be achieved at 2 psi differential pressure. However, the
trap must still be capable of operating at a maximum inlet
pressure of 150 psig.
The F&T trap with an integral vacuum breaker is ideally
suited for draining both single- and double-stage steam
absorption machines. It provides an even, modulated condensate flow and energy-conserving operation. An inverted
bucket trap with an external thermostatic air eliminator may
also be acceptable.
Installation
Mount the steam trap below the steam coil of the absorption
machine with a drip leg height of at least 15" (Fig. CG-59).
This ensures a minimum differential pressure across the
trap of 1/2 psi. Whichever trap is used, a standby trapping
system is recommended for this service. In the event that
a component in the drainage system needs maintenance,
the absorption machine can operate on the standby system
while the repairs are being made. This ensures continuous,
uninterrupted service.
In some cases, very heavy condensate loads may require
the use of two traps operating in parallel to handle the
normal load.
Figure CG-59. Generally approved method of piping steam

absorption machine with standby trapping system.
EXAMPLE: How much condensate will a two-stage steam

absorption machine with a rated capacity of 300 tons produce?
H2O Vapor
Steam Supply
15 psig Single Stage
150 psig Two Stage
Multiply the 300-ton machine capacity rating x 10 lbs/hr to

get the condensate load3,000 lbs/hr.
Steam
LB Mixture & H2O
15''

Equipment Being
Trapped
Steam Absorption
Machine
1st Choice and

Feature Code
Alternate Choice
F&T
A, B, G
*IB
F&T Trap w/Integral Vacuum Breaker
Draining to Gravity Return
NOTE: Vacuum breaker and standby system should be provided.

*With external thermostatic air vent.
48
CG43
Trap Selection and Safety Factors

This table provides recommendations for traps likely to be
most effective in various applications. The recommended
safety factors ensure proper operation under varying
conditions. For more specific information on recommended

traps and safety factors, contact your Armstrong Representative.
Table CG-27.
Application
1st Choice
2nd Choice
Safety Factor
IBLV
F&T
1.5:1
IBCV
Burnished
Wafer
Start-Up Load
IB (CV if pressure varies)
F&T
2:1, 3:1 if @ end of main,

ahead of valve, or on branch
Same as above
Boiler Header
(Superheat)
Steam Mains & Branch Lines
(Non-Freezing)
(Freezing)
Steam Separator
IB
Thermostatic or Disc
IBLV
DC
DC
IB
Thermostatic or Disc
IBLV
F&T
3:1
Steam quality 90% or less
Tracer Lines
2:1
Unit Heaters and Air Handlers

(Constant Pressure)
(0-15 Variable Pressure)
(16-30 Variable Pressure)
3:1
2:1 @ 1/2 psi Differential
F&T
IBLV
(>30 Variable Pressure)
2:1 @ 2 psi Differential

3:1 @ 1/2 Max. Pressure Differential
Finned Radiation & Pipe Coils

(Constant Pressure)
IB
Thermostatic
(Variable Pressure)
F&T
IB
3:1 for quick heating

2:1 normally
Process Air Heaters

(Constant Pressure)
IB
F&T
2:1
(Variable Pressure)
F&T
IBLV
3:1 @ 1/2 Max. Pressure Differential
F&T
IB Ext. Air Vent
2:1 @ 1/2 psi Differential
(Constant Pressure)
IB
DC or F&T
2:1
(Variable Pressure)
F&T
DC or IBT
(If >30 psi IBLV)
<15 psi 2:1 @ 1/2 psi

16-30 psi 2:1 @ 2 psi
>30 psi 3:1 @ 1/2 Max. Pressure
Differential
DC
IBLV or F&T
2:1, If load 50,000 lbs/hr use 3:1
IBLV
F&T or Thermostatic
Steam Absorption Machine (Chiller)

Shell & Tube Heat Exchangers, Pipe &
Embossed Coils
Evaporator Single Effect

& Multiple Effect
Jacketed Kettles
(Gravity Drain)
3:1
(Syphon Drain)
Rotating Dryers
Flash Tanks
IBLV
IBCV
IBT
F&T
DC
=
=
=
=
=
DC
IBLV
DC
IBLV
3:1 for DC, 8:1 for

IB constant pressure, 10:1 for
IB variable pressure
IBLV
DC or F&T
3:1
Inverted Bucket Large Vent

Inverted Bucket Internal Check Valve
Inverted Bucket Thermic Vent
Float & Thermostatic
Differential Condensate Controller
Use an IB with external air vent above the F&T pressure

limitations or if the steam is dirty. All safety factors are at
the operating pressure differential unless otherwise noted.
49
CG44
Installation and Testing of Armstrong Steam Traps

Before Installing
Run pipe to trap. Before installing the trap, clean the line
by blowing down with steam or compressed air. (Clean any
strainer screens after this blowdown.)
By-passes (Figs. CG-64 and CG-65) are discouraged, for if

left open, they will defeat the function of the trap. If continuous service is absolutely required, use two traps in parallel,
one as a primary, one as a standby.
Unions. If only one is used, it should be on discharge side
of trap. With two unions, avoid horizontal or vertical in-line
installations. The best practice is to install at right angles as
in Figs. CG-60 and CG-64, or parallel as in Fig. CG-65.
Trap Location ABCs

Accessible for inspection and repair.
Below drip point whenever possible.
Close to drip point.
Trap Hookups. For typical hookups, see Figs. CG-60 (below)
through CG-71, pages CG-45 through CG-48.
Shutoff Valves ahead of traps are needed when traps
drain steam mains, large water heaters, etc., where system
cannot be shut down for trap maintenance. They are not
needed for small steam-heated machinesa laundry press,
for example. Shutoff valve in steam supply to machine is
usually sufficient.
Shutoff Valves in trap discharge line are needed when trap
has a by-pass. It is a good idea when there is high pressure
in discharge header. See also Check Valves.
Figure CG-60.
Typical IB Hookup
Standard Connections. Servicing is simplified by keeping

lengths of inlet and outlet nipples identical for traps of a
given size and type. A spare trap with identical fittings and
half unions can be kept in storeroom. In the event a trap
needs repair, it is a simple matter to break the two unions,
remove the trap, put in the spare and tighten the unions.
Repairs can then be made in the shop and the repaired
trap, with fittings and half unions, put back in stock.
Test Valves (Fig. CG-60) provide an excellent means of
checking trap operation. Use a small plug valve. Provide a
check valve or shutoff valve in the discharge line to isolate
trap while testing.
Figure CG-61.
Typical IB Bottom InletTop Outlet Hookup
Test Valve
Check
Valve
Shutoff
Valve
Union
Union
Dirt Pocket
Shutoff Valve
50
CG45

Strainers. Install strainers ahead of traps if specified or
when dirt conditions warrant their use. Some types of traps
are more susceptible to dirt problems than otherssee
Recommendation Chart on page CG-2.
Some traps have built-in strainers. When a strainer blowdown valve is used, shut off steam supply valve before
opening strainer blowdown valve. Condensate in trap body
will flash back through strainer screen for thorough cleaning.
Open steam valve slowly.
Dirt Pockets are excellent for stopping scale and core
sand, and eliminating erosion that can occur in elbows when
dirt pockets are not provided. Clean periodically.
Syphon Installations require a water seal and, with the
exception of the DC, a check valve in or before the trap.
Syphon pipe should be one size smaller than nominal size
of trap used but not less than 1/2" pipe size.
Figure CG-62.
Typical IB Bottom InletSide Outlet Hookup
Elevating Condensate. Do not oversize the vertical riser.

In fact, one pipe size smaller than normal for the job will
give excellent results.
Check Valves are frequently needed. They are a must if no
discharge line shutoff valve is used. Fig. CG-63 shows three
possible locations for external check valvesArmstrong
inverted bucket traps are available with internal check
valves, while disc traps act as their own check valve.
Recommended locations are given in Fig. CG-63.
Discharge Line Check Valves prevent backflow and isolate
trap when test valve is opened. Normally installed at location B,
Fig. CG-63. When return line is elevated and trap is
exposed to freezing conditions, install check valve at location A.
Inlet Line Check Valves prevent loss of seal if pressure
should drop suddenly or if trap is above drip point in IB
traps. Armstrong Stainless Steel Check Valve in trap body,
location D, Fig. CG-63, is recommended. If swing check is
used, install at location C.
Figure CG-63.
Possible Check Valve Locations
A
Test Valve
Plug
Check
Valve
C
D
Figure CG-64.
Typical IB By-pass Hookup
Figure CG-65.
Typical IB By-pass Hookup, Bottom InletTop Outlet
Valve
Valve
Valve
Test Valve
Union
Union
Test Valve
Dirt Pocket
51
CG46

A Safety Drain Trap should be used whenever there is a
likelihood that the inlet pressure will fall below the outlet
pressure of a primary steam trap, especially in the presence
of freezing air. One such application would be on a modulated
pressure heating coil that must be drained with an elevated
return line. In the event of insufficient drainage from the
primary trap, condensate rises into the safety drain and is
discharged before it can enter the heat exchanger. An F&T
trap makes a good safety drain because of its ability to handle
large amounts of air and its simplicity of operation. Safety
drain trap should be same size (capacity) as primary trap.
Figure CG-66. Typical Safety Drain Trap Hookup
The proper application of a safety drain is shown in Fig. CG-66.

The inlet to the safety drain must be located on the heat
exchanger drip leg, above the inlet to the primary trap.
It must discharge to an open sewer. The drain plug of the
safety drain is piped to the inlet of the primary trap. This
prevents the discharge of condensate formed in the safety
drain by body radiation when the primary trap is active. The
safety drain has an integral vacuum breaker to maintain
operation when pressure in the heat exchanger falls below
atmospheric. The inlet of the vacuum breaker should be fitted with a gooseneck to prevent dirt from being sucked in
when it operates. The vacuum breaker inlet should be provided with a riser equal in elevation to the bottom of the heat
exchanger to prevent water leakage when the vacuum breaker
is operating, but the drip leg and trap body are flooded.
4'' Typical
Figure CG-67.
Check Valve
Protection Against Freezing

A properly selected and installed trap will not freeze as long
as steam is coming to the trap. If the steam supply should
be shut off, the steam condenses, forming a vacuum in the
heat exchanger or tracer line. This prevents free drainage of
the condensate from the system before freezing can occur.
Therefore, install a vacuum breaker between the equipment
being drained and the trap. If there is not gravity drainage
through the trap to the return line, the trap and discharge
line should be drained manually or automatically by means
of a freeze protection drain. Also, when multiple traps are
installed in a trap station, insulating the traps can provide
freeze protection.
Outdoor installation to permit ground level trap testing and

maintenance when steam supply and return lines are high
overhead. Drain line and trap discharge line are insulated
together to prevent freezing. Note location of check valve in
discharge line and blowdown valve A that drains the steam
main when trap is opened for cleaning or repair.
Anti-Freeze Precautions.
1. Do not oversize trap.
2. Keep trap discharge lines very short.
3. Pitch trap discharge lines down for fast gravity discharge.
4. Insulate trap discharge lines and condensate return lines.
5. Where condensate return lines are exposed to ambient
weather conditions, tracer lines should be considered.
6. If the return line is overhead, run vertical discharge line
adjacent to drain line to top of return header and insulate
drain line and trap discharge line together. See Fig. CG-67.
Figure CG-68.
Typical F&T Hookup
NOTE: A long horizontal discharge line invites trouble.

Ice can form at the far end, eventually sealing off the pipe.
This prevents the trap from operating. No more steam can
enter the trap, and the water in the trap body freezes.
52
CG47

Testing Armstrong Steam Traps
Testing Schedule.
For maximum trap life and steam economy, a regular schedule
should be set up for trap testing and preventive maintenance.
Trap size, operating pressure and importance determine
how frequently traps should be checked.
Table CG-28. Suggested Yearly Trap Testing Frequency
Operating Pressure
(psig)
0-100
101-250
251-450
451 and above
Application
Drip
1
2
2
3
Tracer
1
2
2
3
Coil
2
2
3
4
Process
3
3
4
12
How to Test
The test valve method is best. Fig. CG-60 (page CG-45)
shows correct hookup, with shutoff valve in return line to
isolate trap from return header. Here is what to look for
when test valve is opened:
1. Condensate DischargeInverted bucket and disc traps
should have an intermittent condensate discharge. F&T
traps should have a continuous condensate discharge,
while thermostatic traps can be either continuous or
intermittent, depending on the load. When an IB trap
has an extremely small load it will have a continuous
condensate discharge which causes a dribbling effect.
This mode of operation is normal under this condition.
2. Flash SteamDo not mistake this for a steam leak
through the trap valve. Condensate under pressure
holds more heat unitsBtuper pound than condensate
at atmospheric pressure. When condensate is discharged, these extra heat units re-evaporate some
of the condensate. See description of flash steam on
page CG-4.
How to Identify Flash: Trap users sometimes confuse
flash steam with leaking steam. Heres how to tell
the difference: If steam blows out continuously, in a
blue stream, its leaking steam. If steam floats out
intermittently (each time the trap discharges) in a
whitish cloud, its flash steam.
Figure CG-69.
Typical DC Hookup
3. Continuous Steam BlowTrouble. Refer to

page CG-49.
4. No FlowPossible trouble. Refer to page CG-49.
Listening Device Test. Use a listening device or hold one
end of a steel rod against the trap cap and the other end
against your ear. You should be able to hear the difference
between the intermittent discharge of some traps and the
continuous discharge of others. This correct operating condition can be distinguished from the higher velocity sound of
a trap blowing through. Considerable experience is required
for this method of testing, as other noises are telegraphed
along the pipe lines.
Pyrometer Method of Testing. This method may not give
accurate results, depending on the return line design and
the diameter of the trap orifice. Also, when discharging
into a common return, another trap may be blowing through,
causing a high temperature at the outlet of the trap being
tested. Better results can be obtained with a listening device.
Request Armstrong Bulletin 310.
Figure CG-70.
Typical Disc Trap Hookup
Figure CG-71.
Typical Thermostatic Hookup
Test
Valve
53
CG48
Troubleshooting Armstrong Steam Traps

The following summary will prove helpful in locating and
correcting nearly all steam trap troubles. Many of these
are actually system problems rather than trap troubles.
A. Valve may fail to seat.

1. Piece of scale lodged in orifice.
2. Worn parts.
More detailed troubleshooting literature is available for

specific products and applicationsconsult factory.
B. IB trap may lose its prime.

1. If the trap is blowing live steam, close the inlet valve
for a few minutes. Then gradually open. If the trap
catches its prime, chances are the trap is all right.
2. Prime loss is usually due to sudden or frequent
drops in steam pressure. On such jobs, the installation
of a check valve is called forlocation D or C in
Fig. CG-63 (page CG-46). If possible, locate trap
well below drip point.
Whenever a trap fails to operate and the reason is not

readily apparent, the discharge from the trap should be
observed. If the trap is installed with a test outlet, this
will be a simple matterotherwise, it will be necessary
to break the discharge connection.
Cold TrapNo Discharge
If the trap fails to discharge condensate, then:
C. For F&T and thermostatic traps, thermostatic elements

may fail to close.
A. Pressure may be too high.

1. Wrong pressure originally specified.
2. Pressure raised without installing smaller orifice.
3. PRV out of order.
4. Pressure gauge in boiler reads low.
5. Orifice enlarged by normal wear.
6. High vacuum in return line increases pressure
differential beyond which trap may operate.
B. No condensate or steam coming to trap.
1. Stopped by plugged strainer ahead of trap.
2. Broken valve in line to trap.
3. Pipe line or elbows plugged.
Continuous Flow
If an IB or disc trap discharges continuously, or an F&T or
thermostatic trap discharges at full capacity, check the following:
A. Trap too small.
1. A larger trap, or additional traps, should be installed
in parallel.
2. High pressure traps may have been used for a low
pressure job. Install right size of internal mechanism.
B. Abnormal water conditions. Boiler may foam or prime,
throwing large quantities of water into steam lines.
A separator should be installed or else the feed water
conditions should be remedied.
C. Worn or defective mechanism.

Repair or replace as required.
Sluggish Heating
When trap operates satisfactorily, but unit fails to heat properly:
D. Trap body filled with dirt.

Install strainer or remove dirt at source.
A. One or more units may be short-circuiting. The remedy

is to install a trap on each unit. See page CG-15.
E. For IB, bucket vent filled with dirt. Prevent by:

1. Installing strainer.
2. Enlarging vent slightly.
3. Using bucket vent scrubbing wire.
B. Traps may be too small for job even though they may
appear to be handling the condensate efficiently. Try next
larger size trap.
F. For F&T traps, if air vent is not functioning properly,

trap will likely air bind.
G. For thermostatic traps, the bellows element may rupture
from hydraulic shock, causing the trap to fail closed.
H. For disc traps, trap may be installed backward.
Hot TrapNo Discharge
A. No condensate coming to trap.
1. Trap installed above leaky by-pass valve.
2. Broken or damaged syphon pipe in syphon
drained cylinder.
3. Vacuum in water heater coils may prevent drainage.
Install a vacuum breaker between the heat exchanger
and the trap.
Steam Loss
If the trap blows live steam, the trouble may be due to any
of the following causes:
C. Trap may have insufficient air-handling capacity, or the

air may not be reaching trap. In either case, use auxiliary
air vents.
Mysterious Trouble
If trap operates satisfactorily when discharging to atmosphere, but trouble is encountered when connected with
return line, check the following:
A. Back pressure may reduce capacity of trap.
1. Return line too smalltrap hot.
2. Other traps may be blowing steamtrap hot.
3. Atmospheric vent in condensate receiver may be
pluggedtrap hot or cold.
4. Obstruction in return linetrap hot.
5. Excess vacuum in return linetrap cold.
Imaginary Troubles
If it appears that steam escapes every time trap discharges,
remember: Hot condensate forms flash steam when released
to lower pressure, but it usually condenses quickly in the return
line. See Chart CG-4 on page CG-4.
54
CG49
Pipe Sizing Steam Supply and Condensate Return Lines

Sizing Charts
Chart CG-25, page CG-51, is the basic chart for determining
the flow rate and velocity of steam in Schedule 40 pipe for
various values of pressure drop per 100 ft, based on 0 psig
saturated steam. Using the multiplier chart (Chart CG-24),
Chart CG-25 can be used at all saturation pressures between
0 and 200 psig (see Example).
These Charts are based on the Moody Friction Factor, which
considers the Reynolds number and the roughness of the
internal pipe surfaces.
Notes: Based on Moody Friction Factor where flow of
condensate does not inhibit the flow of steam. See Chart
CG-24 for obtaining flow rates and velocities of all saturation
pressures between 0 to 200 psig: see Example.
Pipe Sizing
Two principal factors determine pipe sizing in a steam system:
1. The initial pressure at the boiler and the allowable pressure drop of the total system. The total pressure drop in
the system should not exceed 20% of the total maximum
pressure at the boiler. This includes all dropsline loss,
elbows, valves, etc. Remember, pressure drops are a loss
of energy.
Chart CG-24. Velocity Multiplier Chart for CG-25.

5
10
20
40
40,000
40,000
30,000
30,000
20,000
20,000
10,000
8,000
10,000
8,000
6,000
6,000
4,000
4,000
3,000
3,000
2,000
2,000
1,000
800
1,000
800
600
600
400
400
300
300
200
200
100
0
10
20
40
Use of Basic and Velocity Multiplier Charts

Example.
Given a flow rate of 6,700 lb/hr, an initial steam pressure of
100 psig, and a pressure drop of 11 psi/100 ft, find the size
of Schedule 40 pipe required and the velocity of steam in
the pipe.
Solution: The following steps are illustrated by the broken
line on Chart CG-25 and Chart CG-24.
1. Enter Chart CG-25 at a flow rate of 6,700 lb/hr, and move
vertically to the horizontal line at 100 psig.
2. Follow inclined multiplier line (upward and to the left) to
horizontal 0 psig line. The equivalent mass flow at 0 psig
is about 2,500 lb/hr.
3. Follow the 2,500 lb/hr line vertically until it intersects the
horizontal line at 11 psi per 100 ft pressure drop. Nominal
pipe size is 2-1/2 in. The equivalent steam velocity at 0 psig
is about 32,700 fpm.
4. To find the steam velocity at 100 psig, locate the value of
32,700 fpm on the ordinate of the velocity multiplier chart
(Chart CG-24) at 0 psig.
60 80 100 140 200

60,000
5. Move along the inclined multiplier line (downward and to

the right) until it intersects the vertical 100 psig pressure
line. The velocity as read from the right (or left) scale is
about 13,000 fpm.
VELOCITY OF STEAM, FPM
VELOCITY OF STEAM, FPM
0
60,000
2. Steam velocity. Erosion and noise increase with velocity.

Reasonable velocities for process steam are 6,000 to
12,000 fpm, but lower pressure heating systems normally
have lower velocities. Another consideration is future
expansion. Size your lines for the foreseeable future.
If ever in doubt, you will have less trouble with oversized
lines than with ones that are marginal.
NOTE: Steps 1 through 5 would be rearranged or reversed

if different data were given.
Reproduced with permission of the American Society of Heating, Refrigerating
and Air-Conditioning Engineers from the 1997 ASHRAE Handbook.
100
60 80 100 140 200
SATURATED STEAM PRESSURE, PSIG
55
CG50
Pipe Sizing Steam Supply and Condensate Return Lines
Chart CG-25. Flow Rate and Velocity of Steam in Schedule 40 Pipe at Saturation Pressure of 0 psig
/2
0.04
0.03
0.02
/2
LE
4
5
6
2
10
31
/2
21
DU
HE
80
0
66,00
0000
PRESSURE DROP, OUNCES PER SQ IN PER 100 FT
40
11
SC
IN.
R2
NO
11,00
0000
77,00
0000
55,00
00
44,55 00
0000
44,00
0000
33,66
0000
33,22
0000
22,88
0000
00P
PSS
IIGG
MI
11,22
0000
0.1
0.08
0.06
16
10
,00
99,00 0
0000
88,00
0000
TE
22,00
0000
11,88
000
11,66 0
0000
11,44
0000
2,44
0000
FFPP
MM
AATT
32
0F
12
,00
0
ME
TY
24
,00
0
20
PM
18
,00
AT
0
16
0P
,00
SIG
0
14
,00
0
DIA
CI
IPE
LO
0.2
LP
VE
TY
,00
NA
0.3
CI
/2
55,00
00
44,55 00
0000
44,00
0000
33,66
0000
33,22
0000
22,88
0000
0.4
LO
66,00
0000
1
0.8
0.6
VE
77,00
0000
3/4
12
1/2
10
,00
0
99,00
0000
88,00
0000
12
12
,00
0
4
3
10
50
,00
0
45
,00
0
40
,00
0
36
,00
0
32
,00
0
28
,00
0
14
,00
0
70
,00
0
60
,00
0
20
,0
18 00
,00
0
16
,00
0
10
8
PRESSURE DROP, PSI PER 100 FT
28
,00
0
24
,00
0
31
20
/2
30
40
,0
36 00
,00
0
32
,00
0
FLOW AND
VELOCITY BASED
ON 0 PSIG
21
50
40
2/3
1/2
22,44
0000
22,00
0000
11,88
0000
60
0
10
5
20
10
5
20
30
30
40
50
60
40
50
60
80
80
100
120
100
120
160
200
160
200
50,000 100,000
5 6
8 10
20
40
80
100
200
400 800 1,000
2,000
4,000 6,000 10,000 20,000
FLOW RATE, POUNDS PER HOUR
56
CG51
0.01
How to Size Condensate Return Lines

The sizing of condensate return lines presents several
problems that differ from those of sizing steam or water
lines. The most significant of these is the handling of flash
steam. Although a return line must handle both water and
flash steam, the volume of flash steam is many times
greater than the volume of condensate. For the values in
Chart CG-26 the volume of flash steam is 96% to 99% of
the total volume. Consequently, only flash steam is considered in Chart CG-26.
Condensate return lines should be sized to have a
reasonable velocity at an acceptable pressure drop. Chart
CG-26 is based on having a constant velocity of 7,000 feet
per minute or below, using Schedule 40 pipe. Additional
factors that should also be considereddepending on water
conditionsare dirt, fouling, corrosion and erosion.
For a given supply pressure to the trap and a return line
pressure, along with an assumed pressure drop per 100
feet of pipe (P/L) and knowing the condensate flow rate,
the proper pipe diameter can be selected from Chart CG-26.
Solution: Since the system will be throttling the condensate

from 30 psig to 0 psig, there will be flash steam (assuming
no subcooling), and the system will be a dry-closed (not
completely full of liquid and not vented to atmosphere)
return. The data in Chart CG-26 can be used. A pressure
of 1/4 psig per 100 feet is selected. In Chart CG-26 for a
30 psig supply and a 0 psig return for P/L = 1/4, a pipe
size for the return line of 2" is selected.
Example 2: A condensate return system has the steam supply at 100 psig and the return line is non-vented and
at 0 psig. The return line is horizontal and must have a
capacity of 2,500 lbs/hr. What size pipe is required?
Solution: Since the system will be throttling non-subcooled
condensate from 100 psig to 0 psig, there will be flash steam,
and the system will be a dry-closed return. Selecting a
pressure drop of 1 psi per 100 feet yields from Chart CG-26
a non-recommended situation (a). Select a pressure drop of
1/4 psi per 100 feet and then a 2-1/2" pipe can be used for
this system.
How to Use Chart CG-26

Example 1: A condensate system has the steam supply at
30 psig. The return line is non-vented and at 0 psig. The
return line is to have the capacity for returning 2,000 lbs/hr
of condensate. What must be the size of the return line?
Chart CG-26. Flow Rate (lbs/hr) for Dry-Closed Returns
P/L
Supply Pressure = 5 psig
psi/100'
D, in
1/2
3/4
1
1-1/4
1-1/2
2
2-1/2
3
4
6
8
P/L
psi/100'
Return Pressure = 0 psig

1/16
240
510
1,000
2,100
3,170
6,240
10,000
18,000
37,200
110,500
228,600
1/4
520
1,120
2,150
4,500
6,780
13,300
21,300
38,000
78,000
a
a
1
1,100
2,400
4,540
9,500
14,200
a
a
a
a
a
a
1/16
95
210
400
840
1,270
2,500
4,030
7,200
14,900
44,300
91,700
1/4
210
450
860
1,800
2,720
5,320
8,520
15,200
31,300
a
a
1
450
950
1,820
3,800
5,700
a
a
a
a
a
a
1/16
60
130
250
520
780
1,540
2,480
4,440
9,180
27,300
56,400
1/4
130
280
530
1,110
1,670
3,270
5,250
9,360
19,200
a
a
1
274
590
1,120
2,340
3,510
a
a
a
a
a
a
D, in
1/16
1/4
1
1/16
1/4
1
1/16
1/4
1
1/2
28
62
133
23
51
109
56
120
260
3/4
62
134
290
50
110
230
120
260
560
1
120
260
544
100
210
450
240
500
1,060
1-1/4
250
540
1,130
200
440
930
500
1,060
2,200
1-1/2
380
810
1,700
310
660
1,400
750
1,600
3,320
2
750
1,590
a
610
1,300
a
1,470
3,100
6,450
2-1/2
1,200
2,550
a
980
2,100
a
2,370
5,000
10,300
3
2,160
4,550
a
1,760
3,710
a
4,230
8,860
a
4
4,460
9,340
a
3,640
7,630
a
8,730
18,200
a
6
13,200
a
a
10,800
a
a
25,900
53,600
a
8
27,400
a
a
22,400
a
a
53,400
110,300
a
a
For these sizes and pressure losses the velocity is above 7,000 fpm. Select another combination of size and pressure loss.
Reprinted by permission from ASHRAE Handbook - 1985 Fundamentals.
Supply Presssure = 50 psig

1/16
42
91
180
370
560
1,110
1,780
3,190
6,660
19,600
40,500
1/4
92
200
380
800
1,200
2,350
3,780
6,730
13,800
a
a
1
200
420
800
1,680
2,520
a
a
a
a
a
a

1/16
43
93
180
380
570
1,120
1,800
3,200
6,620
19,600
40,500
1/4
93
200
390
800
1,210
2,350
3,780
6,710
13,800
40,600
83,600
1
200
420
800
1,680
2,500
4,900
7,800
a
a
a
a
57
CG52
Useful Engineering Tables

Table CG-29. Schedule 40 Pipe, Standard Dimensions
Diameters
Size
(in)
1/8
1/4
3/8
1/2
3/4
1
1-1/4
1-1/2
2
2-1/2
3
3-1/2
4
5
6
8
10
12
14
16
18
20
24
Circumference
External
(in)
Approximate
Internal (in)
0.405
0.540
0.675
0.840
1.050
1.315
1.660
1.900
2.375
2.875
3.500
4.000
4.500
5.563
6.625
8.625
10.750
12.750
14.000
16.000
18.000
20.000
24.000
0.269
0.364
0.493
0.622
0.824
1.049
1.380
1.610
2.067
2.469
3.068
3.548
4.026
5.047
6.065
7.981
10.020
11.938
13.125
15.000
16.874
18.814
22.626
Nominal
Thickness
(in)
0.068
0.088
0.091
0.109
0.113
0.133
0.140
0.145
0.154
0.203
0.216
0.226
0.237
0.258
0.280
0.322
0.365
0.406
0.437
0.500
0.563
0.593
0.687
Internal
(in)
External
(sq in)
Internal
(sq in)
Metal
(sq in)
External
Surface
Feet
Internal
Surface
Feet
1.272
1.696
2.121
2.639
3.299
4.131
5.215
5.969
7.461
9.032
10.996
12.566
14.137
17.477
20.813
27.096
33.772
40.055
43.982
50.265
56.548
62.831
75.398
0.845
1.114
1.549
1.954
2.589
3.296
4.335
5.058
6.494
7.757
9.638
11.146
12.648
15.856
19.054
25.073
31.479
37.699
41.217
47.123
52.998
59.093
71.063
0.129
0.229
0.358
0.554
0.866
1.358
2.164
2.835
4.430
6.492
9.621
12.566
15.904
24.306
34.472
58.426
90.763
127.640
153.940
201.050
254.850
314.150
452.400
0.057
0.104
0.191
0.304
0.533
0.864
1.495
2.036
3.355
4.788
7.393
9.886
12.730
20.006
28.891
50.027
78.855
111.900
135.300
176.700
224.000
278.000
402.100
0.072
0.125
0.167
0.250
0.333
0.494
0.669
0.799
1.075
1.704
2.228
2.680
3.174
4.300
5.581
8.399
11.908
15.740
18.640
24.350
30.850
36.150
50.300
9.431
7.073
5.658
4.547
3.637
2.904
2.301
2.010
1.608
1.328
1.091
0.954
0.848
0.686
0.576
0.442
0.355
0.299
0.272
0.238
0.212
0.191
0.159
14.199
10.493
7.747
6.141
4.635
3.641
2.767
2.372
1.847
1.547
1.245
1.076
0.948
0.756
0.629
0.478
0.381
0.318
0.280
0.254
0.226
0.203
0.169
Length in Feet to Be Added Run
1/2
3/4
1
1-1/4
1-1/2
2
2-1/2
3
3-1/2
4
5
6
8
10
12
1.3
1.8
2.2
3.0
3.5
4.3
5.0
6.5
8.0
9.0
11.0
13.0
17.0
21.0
27.0
3
4
5
6
7
8
11
13
15
18
22
27
35
45
53
Globe
Valve*
Angle
Valve*
14
18
23
29
34
46
54
66
80
92
112
136
180
230
270
7
10
12
15
18
22
27
34
40
45
56
67
92
112
132
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.8
1.0
1.1
1.4
1.6
1.9
2.2
2.8
3.7
4.6
5.5
Length of Pipe Per sq ft
External
(in)
Table CG-30. Equivalent Length of Pipe to Be

Added for FittingsSchedule 40 Pipe
Pipe
Size (in) Standard Side Outlet Gate
Elbow
Tee
Valve*
Transverse Areas
*Valve in full open position
Table CG-31. Thermal Expansion of Pipe

Elongation in Inches Per 100 ft From -20F Up
Temp (F)
Cast Iron
Pipe
Steel Pipe
Wrought
Iron Pipe
Copper
Pipe
-20
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
160
180
200
240
280
320
360
400
500
600
0.000
0.127
0.255
0.390
0.518
0.649
0.787
0.926
1.051
1.200
1.345
1.495
1.780
2.085
2.395
2.700
3.008
3.847
4.725
0.000
0.145
0.293
0.430
0.593
0.725
0.898
1.055
1.209
1.368
1.528
1.691
2.020
2.350
2.690
3.029
3.375
4.296
5.247
0.000
0.152
0.306
0.465
0.620
0.780
0.939
1.110
1.265
1.427
1.597
1.778
2.110
2.465
2.800
3.175
3.521
4.477
5.455
0.000
0.204
0.442
0.655
0.888
1.100
1.338
1.570
1.794
2.008
2.255
2.500
2.960
3.422
3.900
4.380
4.870
6.110
7.388
Nominal Weight
Per Foot
Length of Pipe
Containing One
Cubic Foot
Plain Ends
Threaded
and
Coupled
0.244
0.424
0.567
0.850
1.130
1.678
2.272
2.717
3.652
5.793
7.575
9.109
10.790
14.617
18.974
28.554
40.483
53.600
63.000
78.000
105.000
123.000
171.000
0.245
0.425
0.568
0.852
1.134
1.684
2.281
2.731
3.678
5.819
7.616
9.202
10.889
14.810
19.185
28.809
41.132
Feet
2533.775
1383.789
754.360
473.906
270.034
166.618
96.275
70.733
42.913
30.077
19.479
14.565
11.312
7.198
4.984
2.878
1.826
1.288
1.069
0.817
0.643
0.519
0.358
Number of
Threads Per
Inch of Screw
27
18
18
14
14
11-1/2
11-1/2
11-1/2
11-1/2
8
8
8
8
8
8
8
8
From Piping Handbook, by Walker

and Crocker, by special permission.
Table CG-31 gives the expansion
from -20F to temperature in question.
To obtain the amount of expansion
between any two temperatures, take
the difference between the figures
in the table for those temperatures.
For example, if cast iron pipe is
installed at a temperature of 80F
and is operated at 240F, the expansion
would be 1.780 - 0.649 = 1.131 in.
Table CG-32. Diameters and Areas of Circles and Drill Sizes

Drill Size
Diameter
Area
Drill Size
Diameter
Area
Drill Size
Diameter
Area
Drill Size
Diameter
Area
3/64
55
54
53
1/16
52
51
50
49
48
5/64
47
46
45
44
43
42
3/32
41
40
39
38
37
36
7/64
35
34
33
32
31
1/8
30
29
28
9/64
.0469
.0520
.0550
.0595
.0625
.0635
.0670
.0700
.0730
.0760
.0781
.0785
.0810
.0820
.0860
.0890
.0935
.0938
.0960
.0980
.0995
.1015
.1040
.1065
.1094
.1100
.1110
.1130
.1160
.1200
.1250
.1285
.1360
.1405
.1406
.00173
.00212
.00238
.00278
.00307
.00317
.00353
.00385
.00419
.00454
.00479
.00484
.00515
.00528
.00581
.00622
.00687
.00690
.00724
.00754
.00778
.00809
.00850
.00891
.00940
.00950
.00968
.01003
.01039
.01131
.01227
.01242
.01453
.01550
.01553
27
26
25
24
23
5/32
22
21
20
19
18
11/64
17
16
15
14
13
3/16
12
11
10
9
8
7
13/64
6
5
4
3
7/32
2
1
A
15/64
B
.1440
.1470
.1495
.1520
.1540
.1562
.1570
.1590
.1610
.1660
.1695
.1719
.1730
.1770
.1800
.1820
.1850
.1875
.1890
.1910
.1935
.1960
.1990
.2010
.2031
.2040
.2055
.2090
.2130
.2188
.2210
.2280
.2340
.2344
.2380
.01629
.01697
.01705
.01815
.01863
.01917
.01936
.01986
.02036
.02164
.02256
.02320
.02351
.02461
.02545
.02602
.02688
.02761
.02806
.02865
.02941
.03017
.03110
.03173
.03241
.03268
.03317
.03431
.03563
.03758
.03836
.04083
.04301
.04314
.04449
C
D
1/4
E
F
G
17/64
H
I
J
K
9/32
L
M
19/64
N
5/16
O
P
21/64
Q
R
11/32
S
T
23/64
U
3/8
V
W
25/64
X
Y
13/32
Z
.2420
.2460
.2500
.2500
.2570
.2610
.2656
.2660
.2720
.2770
.2810
.2812
.2900
.2950
.2969
.3020
.3125
.3160
.3230
.3281
.3320
.3390
.3438
.3480
.3580
.3594
.3680
.3750
.3770
.3860
.3906
.3970
.4040
.4062
.4130
.04600
.04753
.04909
.04909
.05187
.05350
.05515
.05557
.05811
.06026
.06202
.06213
.06605
.06835
.06881
.07163
.07670
.07843
.08194
.08449
.08657
.09026
.09281
.09511
.10066
.10122
.10636
.11045
.11163
.11702
.11946
.12379
.12819
.12962
.13396
27/64
7/16
29/64
15/32
31/64
1/2
33/64
17/32
9/16
19/32
5/8
21/32
11/16
23/32
3/4
25/32
13/16
27/32
7/8
29/32
15/16
31/32
1
1-1/16
1-1/8
1-3/16
1-1/4
1-5/16
1-3/8
1-7/16
1-1/2
1-5/8
1-3/4
1-7/8
2
.4219
.4375
.4531
.4688
.4844
.5000
.5156
.5312
.5625
.5937
.6250
.6562
.6875
.7187
.7500
.7812
.8125
.8437
.8750
.9062
.9375
.9687
1.0000
1.0625
1.1250
1.1875
1.2500
1.3125
1.3750
1.4375
1.5000
1.6250
1.7500
1.8750
2.0000
.13920
.15033
.16117
.17257
.18398
.19635
.20831
.22166
.24850
.27688
.30680
.33824
.37122
.40574
.44179
.47937
.51849
.55914
.60132
.64504
.69029
.73708
.78540
.88664
.99402
1.1075
1.2272
1.3530
1.4849
1.6230
1.7671
2.0739
2.4053
2.7612
3.1416
58
CG53
Conversion Factors
By
Boiler hp
33,472
Boiler hp
Horsepower
Horsepower
Horsepower
Horsepower
Horsepower
Kilowatts
Kilowatts
Watts
Watts
Watts
Tons refrig.
Tons refrig.
Btu/hr
lbs H2O evap.
at 212F
Btu/hr
ft-lbs/sec
ft-lbs/min
Btu/min
Kilowatts
Btu/hr
Btu/min
ft-lbs/min
ft-lbs/sec
Btu/min
Btu/hr
Btu/min
34.5
2,540
550
33,000
42.42
0.7457
3,415
56.92
44.26
0.7378
0.05692
12,000
200
0.00002986
0.0290
0.000393
0.00182
0.0000303
0.0236
1.341
0.000293
0.01757
0.02259
1.355
1.757
0.0000833
0.005
To Get
Btu/hr
lbs H2O evap.
at 212F
Btu/hr
ft-lbs/sec
ft-lbs/min
Btu/min
Kilowatts
Btu/hr
Btu/min
ft-lbs/min
ft-lbs/sec
Btu/min
Btu/hr
Btu/min
Boiler hp
Boiler hp
Horsepower
Horsepower
Horsepower
Horsepower
Horsepower
Kilowatts
Kilowatts
Watts
Watts
Watts
Tons Refrig.
Tons Refrig.
Energy
Multiply
Btu
Btu
ft-lbs
latent heat}
of ice
lbs H2O evap.}
at 212F
lbs H2O evap.}
at 212F
ft-lbs
hp-hrs
kw-hrs
lbs H2O evap.}
at 212F
Watt-hrs
Watt-hrs
0.0010307
0.293
0.3765
To Get
ft-lbs
hp-hrs
kw-hrs
{lbs H2O evap.)
at 212F
Watt-hrs
Watt-hrs
143.33
Btu/lb H2O
0.284
kw-hrs
Btu/lb H2O
0.006977
Btu
Btu
Btu
By
778
0.000393
0.000293
0.381
0.001287
2,540
3,415
hp-hrs
Btu
Btu
Btu
970.4
3.415
2,656
Btu
Btu
ft-lbs
{Latent heat
of ice
{lbs H2O evap.
at 212F
{lbs H2O evap.
at 212F
kw-hrs
3.52
hp-hrs
2.63
Weight
Pressure
Power
Multiply
Multiply
By
0.881
To Get
{in Mercury
(at 62F)
{in H2O
(at 62F)
{ft. H2O
(at 62F)
lbs/in 2
ton/ft2
{in. Mercury
(at 62F)
{in. Mercury
(at 62F)
0.4335
lbs/in 2
62.37
lbs/ft 2
atmospheres
29.92
atmospheres
406.8
atmospheres
atmospheres
atmospheres
in. H2O}
(at 62F)
ft H2O}
(at 62F)
ft H2O}
(at 62F)
ft H2O}
(at 62F)
in. Mercury}
(at 62F)
in. Mercury}
(at 62F)
in. Mercury}
(at 62F)
in. H2O}
(at 62F)
ft. H2O}
(at 62F)
lbs/in2
ton/ft2
in. Mercury}
(at 62F)
in. Mercury}
(at 62F)
33.90
14.70
1.058
0.0737
70.73
lbs/ft 2
0.4912
lbs/in 2
0.03342
atmospheres
0.002458
atmospheres
0.0295
0.0680
0.945
atmospheres
atmospheres
atmospheres
{in. H2O
(at 62F)
{ft H2O
(at 62F)
{ft H2O
(at 62F)
{ft H2O)
(at 62F)
{in. Mercury
(at 62F)
{in Mercury
(at 62F)
Bar
kg/cm 2
Multiply
lbs
lbs H2O
(60F)
lbs H2O
(60F)
tons (long)
tons (short)
grains
By
7,000
To Get
grains
0.01602
cu ft H2O
0.1198
2,240
2,000
0.000143
gal H2O
lbs
lbs
lbs
lbs H2O
(60F)
lbs H2O
(60F)
tons (long)
tons (short)
cu ft H2O
62.37
gal H2O
lbs
lbs
8.3453
0.000446
0.000500
Circular Measure
Multiply
Degrees
Minutes
Diameter
Radians
Radians
Circumference
By
0.01745
0.00029
3.142
57.3
3,438
0.3183
To Get
Radians
Radians
Circumference
Degrees
Minutes
Diameter
Volume
13.57
1.131
lbs/in 2
2.309
lbs/ft 2
0.01603
lbs/ft 2
0.014138
lbs/in 2
lbs/in 2
lbs/in 2
2.042
0.0689
0.0703
Velocity of Flow
Multiply
ft/min
ft/min
cu ft/min
cu ft/sec
miles/hr
ft/sec
gal/sec
gal/min
By
0.01139
0.01667
0.1247
448.8
88
60
8.02
0.002228
To Get
miles/hr
ft/sec
gal/sec
gal/min
ft/min
ft/min
cu ft/min
cu ft/sec
Temperature
F = (C x 1.8) + 32
C = (F - 32) 1.8
Multiply
Barrels (oil)
cu ft
cu ft
cu in
gal (oil)
cu in
gal
gal
By
42
1,728
7.48
0.00433
0.0238
0.000579
0.1337
231
To Get
gal (oil)
cu in
gal
gal
barrels (oil)
cu ft
cu ft
cu in
Heat Transmission
Multiply
Btu/in}
/sq ft
/hr/F)
Btu/ft}
/sq ft
/hr/F)
By
0.0833
12
To Get
{Btu/ft
/sq ft
/hr/F)
{Btu/in
/sq ft
/hr/F)
Fractions and Decimals

Multiply
By
To Get
Sixty-fourths
0.015625
Decimal
Thirty-seconds
0.03125
Decimal
Sixteenths
0.0625
Decimal
Eighths
0.125
Decimal
Fourths
0.250
Decimal
Halves
0.500
Decimal
Decimal
64
Sixty-fourths
Decimal
32
Thirty-seconds
Decimal
16
Sixteenths
Decimal
8
Eighths
Decimal
4
Fourths
Decimal
2
Halves
Gallons shown are U.S. standard.
59
CG54
Specific HeatSpecific Gravity

Table CG-33. (cont.) Physical Properties of Liquids and Solids
Table CG-33. Physical Properties of Liquids and Solids

Liquid (L)
or
Solid (S)
Acetic acid 100%
Acetic acid 10%
Acetone, 100%
Alcohol, ethyl, 95%
Alcohol, methyl, 90%
Aluminum
Ammonia, 100%
Ammonia, 26%
Aroclor
Asbestos board
Asphalt
Asphalt, solid
Benzene
Brickwork & Masonry
Brine - calcium chloride, 25%
Brine - sodium chloride, 25%
Clay, dry
Coal
Coal tars
Coke, solid
Copper
Cork
Cotton, cloth
Cottonseed oil
Dowtherm A
Dowtherm C
Ethylene glycol
Fatty acid - palmitic
Fatty acid - stearic
Fish, fresh, average
Fruit, fresh, average
Gasoline
Glass, Pyrex
Glass, wool
Glue, 2 parts water
1 part dry glue
Glycerol, 100% (glycerin)
Honey
Hydrochloric acid, 31.5% (muriatic)
Hydrochloric acid, 10% (muriatic)
Ice
Ice Cream
Lard
Lead
Leather
Linseed oil
Magnesia, 85%
Maple syrup
Meat, fresh, average
Milk
Nickel
Nitric acid, 95%
Nitric acid, 60%
Nitric acid, 10%
No. 1 Fuel Oil (kerosene)
No. 2 Fuel Oil
No. 3 Fuel Oil
No. 4 Fuel Oil
No. 5 Fuel Oil
No. 6 Fuel Oil
sp gr @
60-70F
L
L
L
L
L
S
L
L
L
S
L
S
L
S
L
L
S
S
S
S
S
S
S
L
L
L
L
L
L
S
S
L
S
S
L
1.05
1.01
0.78
0.81
0.82
2.64
0.61
0.90
1.44
0.88
1.00
1.1-1.5
0.84
1.6-2.0
1.23
1.19
1.9-2.4
1.2-1.8
1.20
1.0-1.4
8.82
0.25
1.50
0.95
0.99
1.10
1.11
0.85
0.84
L
L
L
L
S
S
S
S
S
L
L
L
S
L
S
L
L
L
L
L
L
L
L
L
1.26
0.73
2.25
0.072
1.09
1.15
1.05
0.90
0.92
11.34
0.86-1.02
0.93
0.208
1.03
8.90
1.50
1.37
1.05
0.81
0.86
0.88
0.90
0.93
0.95
sp ht @
60F
Btu/lb-F
0.48
0.96
0.514
0.60
0.65
0.23
1.10
1.00
0.28
0.19
0.42
0.22-0.4
0.41
0.22
0.689
0.786
0.224
0.26-0.37
0.35@40
0.265
0.10
0.48
0.32
0.47
0.63
0.35-0.65
0.58
0.653
0.550
0.75-0.82
0.80-0.88
0.53
0.20
0.157
0.89
0.58
0.34
0.60
0.75
0.50
0.70
0.64
0.031
0.36
0.44
0.27
0.48
0.780
0.90-0.93
0.11
0.50
0.64
0.90
0.47
0.44
0.43
0.42
0.41
0.40
Liquid (L)
or
Solid (S)
API Mid-continent crude
API gas oil
Paper
Paraffin
Paraffin, melted
Phenol (carbolic acid)
Phosphoric acid, 20%
Phosphoric acid, 10%
Phthalic anhydride
Rubber, vulcanized
SAE - SW (#8 machine lube oil)
SAE - 20 (#20 machine lube oil)
SAE - 30 (#30 machine lube oil)
Sand
Sea water
Silk
Sodium hydroxide, 50% (caustic acid)
Sodium hydroxide, 30%
Soybean oil
Steel, mild @ 70
Steel, stainless, 300 series
Sucrose, 60% sugar syrup
Sucrose, 40% sugar syrup
Sugar, cane & beet
Sulfur
Sulfuric acid, 110% (fuming)
Sulfuric acid, 98%
Sulfuric acid, 60%
Sulfuric acid, 20%
Titanium (commercial)
Toluene
Trichloroethylene
Tetrachloride carbon
Turpentine, spirits of
Vegetables, fresh, average
Water
Wines, table, dessert, average
Woods, vary from
Wool
Zinc
L
L
S
S
L
L
L
L
L
S
L
L
L
S
L
S
L
L
L
S
S
L
L
S
S
L
L
L
L
S
L
L
L
L
S
L
L
S
S
S
sp gr @
60-70F
.085
0.88
1.7-1.15
0.86-0.91
0.90
1.07
1.11
1.05
1.53
1.10
0.88
0.89
0.89
1.4-1.76
1.03
1.25-1.35
1.53
1.33
0.92
7.90
8.04
1.29
1.18
1.66
2.00
1.84
1.50
1.14
4.50
0.86
1.62
1.58
0.86
1.00
1.03
0.35-0.9
1.32
7.05
0.44
0.42
0.45
0.62
0.69
0.56
0.85
0.93
0.232
0.415
0.19
0.94
0.33
0.78
0.84
0.24-0.33
0.11
0.12
0.74
0.66
0.30
0.203
0.27
0.35
0.52
0.84
0.13
0.42
0.215
0.21
0.42
0.73-0.94
1.00
0.90
0.90
0.325
0.095
Table CG-34. Physical Properties of Gases

Air
Ammonia
Benzene
Butane
Carbon dioxide
Carbon monoxide
Chlorine
Ethane
Ethylene
Freon - 12
Hydrogen
Hydrogen sulfide
Methane
Nitrogen
Oxygen
Propane
Sulfur dioxide
Water vapor (steam)
sp gr @ 60-70F
sp ht @ 60F Btu/lb-F
1.00
0.60
0.24
0.54
0.325
0.455
0.21
0.255
0.118
0.50
0.45
0.16
3.42
0.25
0.60
0.253
0.225
0.46
0.162
0.453
2.00
1.50
0.97
2.50
1.10
0.97
0.069
1.20
0.55
0.97
1.10
1.50
2.30
60
CG55
sp ht @
60F
Btu/lb-F
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reduce environmental emissions while providing an enjoyable experience.
P Steam to Plant
RBINE
LP Steam to Plant
LP Steam
REACTOR
FLASH
TANK
FLASH
TANK
LP Steam
JACKETED
KETTLE
ROTATING
DRYER
RE
PUMP
Condensate Return
Condensate Return
Armstrong International
North America Latin America India Europe / Middle East / Africa China Pacific Rim
Handbook P-101-A
Printed in U.S.A. - 2/11
Armstrong provides intelligent system solutions that improve utility performance, lower energy consumption,and
reduce environmental emissions while providing an enjoyable experience.
P Steam to Plant
RBINE
LP Steam to Plant
LP Steam
REACTOR
FLASH
TANK
FLASH
TANK
LP Steam
JACKETED
KETTLE
ROTATING
DRYER
RE
PUMP
Condensate Return
Condensate Return
Armstrong International
North America Latin America India Europe / Middle East / Africa China Pacific Rim
Handbook P-101-A
Printed in U.S.A. - 2/11

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Steam

13800 N101-Revised 2-11_838_Cons_Guide.qxd 2/8/11 10:13 AM Page 5

2011 Armstrong International, Inc.

13808 N101-Revised 2-11_838_Cons_Guide.qxd 2/3/11 12:24 PM Page CG1

Bringing Energy Down to Earth

IMPORTANT: This section is intended to summarize

13808 N101-Revised 2-11_838_Cons_Guide.qxd 2/3/11 12:24 PM Page CG2

Instructions for Using the Recommendation Charts

3. Now refer to Chart CG-2 below, titled How Various

For example, assume you are looking for information

Inverted Bucket Trap

2. Find Jacketed Kettles, Gravity Drain in the first

1st Choice and

(1) Drainage of condensate is continuous. Discharge is intermittent.

(6) Cast iron traps not recommended.

13808 N101-Revised 2-11_838_Cons_Guide.qxd 2/3/11 12:24 PM Page CG3

How the Table Is Used

The heat quantities and temperature/

In addition to determining pressure/

table can be used to determine Btu

Definitions of Terms Used

Absolute and Gauge Pressures

Table CG-1. Properties of Saturated Steam

Saturated Steam is pure steam at the

Latent Heat or Heat of Vaporization

Heat of Saturated Liquid (Column 4).

13808 N101-Revised 2-11_838_Cons_Guide.qxd 2/3/11 12:24 PM Page CG4

Condensate at steam temperature and under 100 psig

Sensible heat in the condensate at the higher

% flash steam = 308.8 - 180 x 100 =13.3%

PERCENTAGE OF FLASH STEAM

PRESSURE AT WHICH CONDENSATE

PSI FROM WHICH CONDENSATE IS DISCHARGED

13808 N101-Revised 2-11_838_Cons_Guide.qxd 2/3/11 12:24 PM Page CG5

When steam reaches the heat exchangers in the system,

Steam is a very efficient and easily controlled heat transfer

As noted, additional Btu are required to make boiling water

Condensate is the by-product of heat transfer in a steam

heat energy required to raise the temperature of one

n Temperature. The degree of hotness with no implication

n Heat. A measure of energy available with no implication

Figure CG-1. These drawings show how much heat

Figure CG-2. These drawings show how much heat is required

13808 N101-Revised 2-11_838_Cons_Guide.qxd 2/3/11 12:24 PM Page CG6

The need to remove air and CO2. Air is always present

Figure CG-3. Potential barriers to heat transfer: steam heat

Figure CG-4. Condensate allowed to collect in pipes or

Figure CG-5. Coil half full of condensate cant work at

13808 N101-Revised 2-11_838_Cons_Guide.qxd 2/3/11 12:24 PM Page CG7

Effect of Air on Steam Temperature

Effect of Air on Heat Transfer

Eliminating the Undesirables

Table CG-2. Temperature Reduction Caused by Air

Temp. of Steam Mixed With Various

Figure CG-7. Chamber containing air

Steam chamber 100% steam

Steam chamber 90% steam and 10% air

Chart CG-5. Air Steam Mixture

13800 N101-Revised 2-11_838_Cons_Guide.qxd 2/4/11 11:16 AM Page CG8

7. Freedom from dirt problems. Dirt is an ever-present

6. Operation against back pressure. Pressurized return

Figure CG-9. CO2 gas combines with

Figure CG-10. Oxygen in the system