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CHAPTER 1
PHYSICAL PRINCIPLES OF ELECTROMAGNETIC METAL FORMING




1.1 BASIC EQUATIONS OF ELECTROMAGNETIC FORMING TECHNIQUE
The procedure of electromagnetic metal forming is described by a system of differential equations characterizing the
electromagnetic, mechanical and heat thermal phenomena.
Let us present the equations, describing the electromagnetic processes:
rot = ; (1.1)
rot ; (1.2)
(1.3)
Here
div =0, (1.4)
div (1.5)
where - is the electric field intensity; is magnetic permeability of metal; - is the magnetic field intensity; is
thematerial electrical conductivity; is the current density; is the velocity of the moving conductor.
If we consider the variation of (u) as a function of temperature, the last equation of the system transforms to:
= , (1.6)
where 0 - the electrical conductivity at zero temperature, |t - is the temperature coefficient; cm - material specific heat
capacity and u is the temperature of the conductor.
The thermal processes in electromagnetic forming are described by the equation:
(1.7)
where Q is a heat generated in the conductor, t - specific thermal conductivity of the conductor.
The boundary conditions on the workpiece surface - heat convection through the free surface should be considered:
, (1.8)
where n is the normal to the surface, u0is the ambient temperature; k0 is the heat exchange coefficient.
The force per unit volume acting on the conductor placed in the magnetic field with field intensity H is equal to:
(1.9)
Considering (1.2) the equation (1.9) assumes the form:
(1.10)
Finally, to obtain the complete picture of electromagnetic forming technique, the aforementioned equations must be
supplemented by the elastic-plastic characteristics of the workpiece deformation.
Denoting the total force, acting on the workpiece elements as Fc, we obtain the equation of the elastic deformation of
the system:
D1 (1.11)
where is the workpiece displacement vector; D1(S) is an operator that depends on the workpiece shape and the
applied theory of elastic deformation. For instance, in the general case of elastic body
(1.12)
where, is the Lame constant, Gl .is the shear modulus.
The equation of plastic deformation can be written in the general form:
D2 (1.13)
where is the velocity vector of the workpiece displacement; D2( ) is the operator describing the plastic deformation
that depends on the workpiece shape and the plastic deformation theory used. For instance, in the general case the
rigid-plastic body D2( ), the resistance to the plastic deformation and the pressure in metal are taken into account:
D2( )= - grad pm + D3( ) (1.14)
where D3( ) includes the resistance to plastic deformation; pm is the pressure in metal.
Von Mises and Tresca conditions can be used as a yield criteria.
The equations of elastic (1.11) and plastic (1.13) deformation can be solved along with boundary conditions.


1.2 CAPACITOR BANK DISCHARGE THROUGH THE SYSTEM OF TWO AND MORE INDUCTIVELY
CONNECTED CIRCUITS.
Electrical schematic of the inductors of different type can be represented in the form of one, two and more inductively
connected circuits.

Fig.1
Lc- the self-inductance of the discharge circuit; Rc -self-resistance of the discharge circuit; L
u3
; R
u3
- are the inductance and active resistance of the single circuit
system.
The single circuit systems are inherent to the technological schemes, where the operations are performed by
discharging the main circuit through the workpiece. The two-circuit systems are typical to the wound spiral inductors
and single turn solenoids; multi-circuit systems are characteristic of the induction systems with the magnetic field
concentrators and inductors with matching circuits.
Figures 1a, 2a and 3a show the technological operations, carried out by the three previously indicated methods (1-
workpiece, 2 - induction coil, 3, 4, 5 - matching circuits made in the form of split turns). Figures 1b, 2b and 3b
represent the equivalent diagrams corresponding to the single circuit, two- and multi-circuit systems, respectively,
where C is the capacitance, Lc, Rc are the self-inductance and resistance of the circuit; L i-w Ri-w are the inductance and
active resistance of the single circuit system; LiRi are the inductance and resistance of the inductor; LwRw are the
inductance and resistance of the workpiece; L1R1 are an inductance and resistance of the primary winding of the
matching circuit; L2, L3, Ln .....,Ln+1,R2, R3....Rn+1 - the inductances and resistances of the matching circuit; i d - is the
current in the discharge circuit; i w is the current in the workpiece; i1, i 2 , in......in+1are the currents in the matching circuit.
These schematics are designed for the compression. Electrical schematics for other operations (expansion, sheet metal
forming) will be the same.
From electrical point of view an inductor together with the workpiece connected to the discharge circuit of the
magnetic pulse device can be interpreted as a chain of magnetically connected circuits with the capacitor in the primary
circuit.

Fig.2
L1R1 are an inductance and resistance of the primary winding of the matching circuit; L2, L3, Ln .....,Ln+1,R2, R3....Rn+1 - the inductances and resistances of
the matching circuit; i1, i 2 , in......in+1 are the currents in the matching circuit, Lu, Ru - inductance and resistance of the inductor.

Fig.3
Lc- the self-inductance of the discharge circuit; Rc -self-resistance of the discharge circuit; L
3
, R
3
are the workpiece inductance and resistance, Lu, Ru -
inductance and resistance of the inductor.
Solving the equation for the single-circuit by the operator procedure (t=0, I=0, Uc=U0), and denoting:

introducing the dimensionless time e0 t =|0 and o1/e0 =o, we can find the relative value of the discharge current for
three cases:

1. e0 > o1 or o1 <1:
(1.15)
2. e0= o1 or o1 =1:
; (1.16)
3. e0< o1 or o1 >1:
. (1.17)

Correspondingly, for the relative voltage on the inductor:

1. o1 <1:
(1.18)
where ;
2. o1 =1:
; (1.19)
3. o1 >1:
(1.20)

Fig. 4
Fig.4 shows the family of curves =f (|0) for different values of o1. As is obvious from the figure,
increasing o1 results in the decrease of discharge current amplitude; for instance if o1=1 id equals to 0.36 of the non-
damped discharge current value. The primary goal is to reach minimum value of o1 .As a rule, o1 has a value of 0.1 to
0.3. Consequently, for the further analysis of the electromechanical processes primary attention should be given to the
first discharge process (o1 < 1), since this process has the greatest practical significance.
In solving the equations describing the electromagnetic processes in the two-circuit system for the primary and
secondary currents during the discharge, we find the primary component of the discharge current:
(1.21)
where oi is the scattering coefficient,
; (1.22)
e- is the angular frequency,
; (1.23)
o-is the damping decrement,
, (1.24)
where

The current in the workpiece
(1.25)
If we consider that in the cases of practical importance e >>o2, the expressions for the primary and secondary currents
in the workpiece will have the form
(1.26)
(1.27)
respectively, where Le is the equivalent inductance of the inductor-workpiece system,
Le=oiLi (1.28)
Under the given assumptions the damping coefficient is
(1.29)
Here Re is an equivalent resistance of the two-circuit system, which can be approximately determined from the
expression:
Re = R1 + R2 (1-oi ). (1.30)








1.3 ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES IN METAL
Usually in the electromagnetic forming equipment the frequency of the discharge current reaches several tens of
kilohertz. For such frequencies the magnetic field outside the metal can be considered quasistationary; on the contrary,
the field in the metal has a wave nature.
Neglecting the e.m.f. of the workpiece movement, from equations (1.1) to (1.3) we obtain the equation of the magnetic
field diffusion in the metal for the uniaxial case:
(1.31)
The system of coordinates (fig. 5) is selected, where the origin is placed on the surface, through which the magnetic
field enters the plate, the axis coincides with the positive direction of vectors , ; the y axis coincides with the
positive direction of vector ; z axis points inside the workpiece. It points the direction of motion of the forward wave
of the field and positive direction of the vector Umov-Pointing:
(1.32)
It is of interest to solve an equation (1.31) with the following boundary conditions:
H(0,t) =0 if - <t<0,
H(t) if 0 < t < . (1.33)
Together with the initial conditions
H(z, 0)=0 if 0<z<(1.34)



Fig.5
Let us assume the current history in the inductor in the form of damping sine wave
i= . (1.35)
Then the magnetic field intensity on the surface of the inductor will be expressed by the formula:
H(0,t)= . (1.36)
Considering (1.36) the solution of the equation (1.31) is represented in the form:
H(z, t) = Hs(z,t) - Ht (z, t), (1.37)
where Hs(z,t) is the magnetic field intensity for the steady-state regime. The second term of the right-hand side of Ht (z,
t) is a free term caused by the transition process. When t it vanishes.
Solving the equation (1.31) along with (1.33)-(1.35) we can obtain the first half-wave of the discharge current:
(1.38)
where kh is the harmonic number; ad is the damping coefficient,
; (1.39)
and is the phase coefficient,
. (1.40)
For the electric field intensity
(1.41)
For the stationary process
; (1.42)
. (1.43)
respectively.
Assuming o=0 in (1.39), (1.40) and substituting ||, ad in equations (1.42) and (1.43), for the stationary sinusoidal
process, we obtain:
, (1.44)
where
; (1.45)
. (1.46)
Solving the equations (1.3) and (1.46) jointly, we find the magnitude of the current density on the workpiece surface
(z=0)
. (1.47)
For the current density at any point through the thickness of the workpiece:
. (1.48)
From equation (1.48) for induction on the workpiece surface we find:
. (1.49)
The magnetic induction in the workpiece is analogous to also represents a traveling wave:
. (1.50)
The total current in the workpiece per unit length is:
. (1.51)
Integrating this equation and considering the equality (1.48), we have:
. (1.52)
From the equation it is clear, that the equivalent current could be generated by a layer of thickness with uniformly
distributed current density , where the equivalent current would have a phase shift of t/4 with respect to the actual
current density on the surface at z=0. The thickness determined by (1.45) is called the equivalent depth of
penetration of the magnetic field into the metal (skin depth). As is obvious from (1.45), depends on the frequency of
the induced current and the physical constants of the material.
The total current through the skin depth of the workpiece is
, (1.53)
where l
w
is the workpiece length. By integrating we can obtain:
i=Hmlw sin et. (1.54)
The magnetic flux through the entire half-space per unit length is
. (1.55)
Substituting the value of Bs.s from (1.50) in this equation and integrating we finally find:
. (1.56)
Then for the original
. (1.57)
Consequently for the sinusoidal regime the magnitude of the equivalent layer of the magnetic flux in metal for the
time et=t:
. (1.58)
In the most general situation the equivalent depth of penetration of the magnetic field can be found in terms of the
induction on the workpiece surface. Then, if we consider that the magnetic permeability remains constant, the
following expression is valid:
. (1.59)
Considering the base value of , the value obtained for it during the sinusoidal process (1.58) is equal to:
. (1.60)
Let us substitute the value of Hs(z,t) from (1.42) in (1.60). If the magnetic field intensity varies as the damping sine
wave with time, considering (1.39), (1.40) the relative value transforms to:
. (1.61)
Finally, substituting the value of H (z,t) from (1.38) in (1.60) for the value of in the transient regime we obtain:
(1.62)








The values of the relative depth of the magnetic flux in the stationary regime, calculated by the formula (1.61) for
different values of o, are listed in Table 1, where the values of is less than one, which indicates the deceleration of
the penetration of the magnetic field in the damping sine wave regime.
Lets determine the value of the relative depth of penetration of the magnetic flux for the mostly essential practical
cases during the electromagnetic metal forming: | = t/2, | = t. The values of calculated for different o,| are listed
in Table 1.
Table 1.
o 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4
, |=1
1.42 1.425 1.49 1.56 1.75
,|=1/2
1.56 1.46 1.45 1.5
Table 2.

o 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4
,
1 0.95 0.91 0.89 0.86


Consequently, the equivalent value of Ae.t is appreciably greater than its value in the stationary sinusoidal regime.
However, as shown in Table 2, its relative value varies insignificantly within a wide range of values of o, |.
For instance, for the practically important range o = 0.1 - 0.3, |=t varies from 1.425 to 1.56; which can be
considered in the practical calculations as the mean coefficient equal to 1.46.
Considering the expressions ; |=et, od and || are converted respectively:
; (1.63)
. (1.64)
Applying equation (1.38) we can plot the graphical dependence for o=0.2, 0.3 and | =1.57; 3.14.
The maximum value in the first half period is taken as the base value of the intensity Ho.



Figures 6, 7 show the magnetic field intensity distribution with respect to the workpiece thickness for two values
of oand for the two most typical points in time respectively (curves 1 and 3). For the comparison the plots of the
stationary process are shown on the same figures (curves 2 and 4).


1.4. PRESSURE ON THE WORKPIECE DURING ELECTROMAGNETIC METAL FORMING
It is well known that the lateral surface of the magnetic field tube experiences pressure numerically equal to the specific
energy density of the magnetic field per unit volume at the same space point:
. (1.65)
The total pressure on the workpiece corresponds to the pressure difference on the surface tubes of the workpiece field
located on both sides of it:
. (1.66)
where H1, H2 are the magnetic field intensities on the workpiece surface on the field input side and on the opposite side.
The formula (1.66) is universal. It expresses an instant pressure in terms of instant values of H and it corresponds to
any law of magnetic field variation in time and space. However, it doesnt allow determination of the force distribution
per unit volume with respect to the workpiece thickness.
Lets find the force distribution per unit volume with respect to the workpiece thickness, assuming that the magnetic
wave damps completely in the metal. Lets isolate an elementary volume dvm inside the workpiece, as shown in Fig. 5.
The base area of the elementary parallelepiped will be taken as equal to one. According to the equation (1.9) an
elementary force acting on the current in the volume dvm, is:
dF =oBdvm. (1.67)
Since E = o and B = 0H, we obtain
dF = 0EHdz. (1.68)
The specific force density
f = 0EH. (1.69)
Substituting the values of Hc, Ec from (1.42) and (1.43) in equation (1.69), after all transformations we have:
(1.70)
Integrating expression (1.70) from zero to z and considering |=et, o = , we obtain the pressure distribution with
respect to the workpiece thickness:
(1.71)
The pressure distribution with respect to the workpiece thickness for variouso and time moment t/4 is shown in Fig.
8. As shown here, there is no pressure on the surface.
Curves 1, 2, 3 correspond to the values o =0, 0.2, 0.3. The total force per unit workpiece surface or the pressure on the
workpiece is equal:
(1.72)
or
. (1.73)









The law of variation of the specific force density in the transition regime can be obtained by substituting the values of
H, E from (1.38), (1.41) in equation (1.69). As it was shown numerically, the transient process of establishing the
electrodynamics forces practically lasts one period, however in the first half-period the difference between the
magnitudes of the dynamic forces in the stationary and transient regimes are negligible and do not exceed 6 to 12%.
The incomplete damping of the magnetic field waves in the workpiece wall can happen during the metal forming of
thin-walled sheets and tubes, and also products made of metals with high resistivity. The minimum skin depth A for the
given material corresponds to the maximum frequency. If the workpiece thickness aw < 3A, then the field waves dont
damp completely traveling the path z, and, besides the forward wave, there will be waves reflected on the boundary
surfaces of the layer. The mean pressure on the workpiece is equal:
. (1.74)
Here H1, H2 are the magnetic field intensities at the entrance and exit surface of the workpiece. The expression
=kat is called the pressure attenuation coefficient. This coefficient is a complex function that depends on the equipment
characteristics, the workpiece, the inductor, the mutual arrangement of the workpiece and inductor and also the
environmental characteristics around the workpiece. For example, for compression this coefficient can be calculated as:
, (1.75)
where ; b= .
For convenience can be determined from nomograms (Fig.9), where a =f(f, w, yw), b=f(w, dw).

Fig. 9
The attenuation coefficient can be found from Fig. 10.




Fig. 10






CHAPTER 2
EQUIVALENT INDUCTANCES AND RESISTANCES OF THE TWO-CIRCUIT AND MULTI-CIRCUIT
SYSTEMS





2.1 GENERAL REMARKS AND BASIC EQUATIONS
The circuit diagram of the inductor-workpiece system represents a combination of magnetically bound circuits (in the
simplest case - two magnetically bound circuits). In the more complex systems there can be significantly more such
circuits and they can be connected in series or in parallel or in series-parallel groups, which is shown in Fig. 11, a,b,
respectively.



Fig. 11
However, there are always two magnetically connected circuits in the inductor systems which are formed by the
workpiece and the inductor or by the other elements of the complex inductor systems, for instance, with magnetic field
concentrators or with the matching circuits. Therefore, any inductor with a large number of circuits can be represented
in the form of two single-turn circuits, included in the discharge circuit through the air transformer or the transformer
with ferromagnetic core which has a single-turn winding with one or several parallel branches at the output.
The primary windings of the transformer can have any number of turns, any schematic and can be included directly in`
the discharge circuit or be connected to it through the analogous devices with any number of turns both in the primary
and secondary windings as well.
Inasmuch, as was explained, two single-turn circuits (or one single-turn and another multi-turn circuit) are the common
element for any electric schematic of the inductor, the equivalent parameters of the inductor system can be determined
in two steps: first, determine the equivalent parameters of the simplest system, then they have to be generalized for a
more complex electrical circuit.
The determination of the inductance of the simple or complex inductive system is related to the calculation of the
magnetic fields of this system.
The exact calculation of the electric and magnetic fields of the inductor-workpiece system is a quite a complicated
problem. The general nature of the current distribution in the inductor cross-section and in the workpiece can be
determined as a result of studying the pattern of the resultant magnetic field of the system considering the skin-effect at
high frequencies characteristics of the oscillating capacitor discharge (tens of thousands Hertz).
At such high frequencies the electromagnetic field distribution is characterized by a strong skin effect. The depth of
penetration of the magnetic field into the metal usually has a value on the order of fractions of millimeter, or simply is
very small compared to the diameters of the inductor and the workpiece; therefore the magnetic field is primarily
concentrated in the gap between the inductor and the workpiece, and in the surface layers of the inductor and the
workpiece. The inductor and the workpiece currents leak in the surface layers. Therefore, the currents in the inductor
and the workpiece are always concentrated in the surface layers faced to each other, independently of whether the
workpiece is inside or outside the inductor.
If the magnetic circuit doesnt contain ferromagnetic materials, for the flux coupling in the air gap (hereafter called the
flux coupling of the circuit):
=Li (2.1)
where L is the circuit inductance; I- is the instant current in the circuit, i=Imsin et.
The overall flux coupling of the circuit is:
, (2.2)
where di is the elementary current tube of the circuit; u- is the magnetic induction flux coupled to the elementary
current tube.
Usually if there is a phase shift between the current and the flux, the circuit inductance is a variable, the value of which
during the half period varies within quite broad limits; therefore, to built the equivalent schematic, it is necessary to use
the mean inductance value.
Averaging expressions (2.1), (2.2) in the interval of the first half-period of harmonic current function, we obtain:
(2.3)
and
, (2.4)
where Lm is the mean value of the circuit inductance over the first current half-period.
From the last two equations it follows that:
. (2.5)
If the investigated schematic is reduced to the given circuit, the determination of its equivalent inductance is, according
to (2.5) reduced to finding the self external and internal flux couplings of the circuit obtained. The equivalent circuit
resistance is:
(2.6)
where i is the resistivity of the circuit element; Ai- is the equivalent depth of the penetration of the magnetic field wave
into the circuit element; Vm is the integrated volume of the metal.


2.2 EQUIVALENT INDUCTANCE AND ACTIVE RESISTANCE OF THE TWO-CIRCUIT SYSTEMS
In the general case the two single-turn circuits formed by the forming workpiece and the operating surface of the
inductor adjacent to it (hereafter called the "inductor") can be represented by the system shown in Figure 12, where the
conical workpiece 1 placed into the single-turn (Fig. 12,a), multi-turn (Fig. 12, b), coaxial (Fig.12,c), conical
inductor 2 is illustrated, through which the discharge current of the capacitor bank is leaking. The semi-angle at the
apexes of the circuit is oi. The diameters of the upper and lower bases are denoted by D and d, respectively. The length
of the generatrix of the inductor is l.. The magnitude of the air gap is ha,aw is the workpiece wall thickness, ai is the
thickness of the inductor.
The following assumptions are made here:
1. The air gap between the inductor and the workpiece is small compared to the outer diameter of the
workpiece : h<d, a; l>d.
2. The electromagnetic wave damps completely in the workpiece and inductor thickness: aw>3Aw, ai>3Ai.
3. The total flux coupling in the air gap is constant along the entire length of the workpiece for the single-
turn inductor.
4. The workpiece is stationary with respect to the inductor.
5. The induction in the air gap of the coaxial inductor varies according to the law:
. (2.7)
Consequently, the equivalent inductance of the two-circuit system
Ltc=Lg+Lw +Li (2.8)
where Lg is the inductance of the air gap; Lw is the workpiece self-inductance and Li is the self-inductance of the
inductor.



Fig.12





Defining the corresponding terms from (2.5) we finally obtain:
conical inductor:

single-turn
; (2.9)
multi-turn
; (2.10)
coaxial:
; (2.11)

cylindrical inductor:

single-turn
; (2.12)
multi-turn
; (2.13)
coaxial
(2.14)

disk inductor:

single-turn
; (2.15)
multi-turn
; (2.16)
coaxial
; (2.17)

Considering the equivalent active resistance of indicated systems and (2.6) we can obtain:
conical inductor:

single-turn
(2.18)
multi-turn
; (2.19)
coaxial
(2.20)

cylindrical inductor:

single-turn
; (2.21)
multi-turn
; (2.22)
coaxial
; (2.23)

disk inductor:

single-turn
; (2.24)
multi-turn
; (2.25)
coaxial
; (2.26)

For a small workpiece length of significantly developed toroidal zones which occurs in the massive single-turn
solenoids and magnetic field concentrators, the indicated factors can affect the magnitudes of the equivalent
parameters. For instance, for the standard schematic (Fig.13), the coefficient describing the decrease in the equivalent
inductance has the form:
, (2.27)
where lw - is the length of the operating zone; |k is the slope of the toroidal generatrix to the inductor axis; D0 =2R0 - is
the large diameter of the toroidal zone.
The ratio of the toroidal currents to the total current in the inductor is represented by the function:
(2.28)


Consequently, for the actual ratios =10 to 12, , hg=(1-1.5) x10-3 m for exclusion of the significant effect of the
end current on the magnitude of the working current, the following relationship should be satisfied:
(2.29)







2.3 DETERMINATION OF EQUIVALENT PARAMETERS OF MULTI-INDUCTOR SYSTEMS
The electric schematic of an inductor-workpiece system with a cylindrical (conical, flat) workpiece typically can be
represented in the form of two magnetically connected circuits, to one of which a capacitor bank discharges. The
electric schematic of the inductor with magnetic field concentrator in which there are several inductively connected
circuits connected through a linear split inductance instead of two inductively connected circuits can be represented
similarly.
In Figure 14 the general view of the inductor and the groove separately are shown, respectively. The general view of
the inductor is as follows: 1- operating winding; 2- magnetic field concentrator; 3 - workpiece; Ds, ds - are the outer and
inner diameters of the groove, respectively. In this case the electric circuit diagram of the inductor can be represented in
the form of the parallel-series inclusion of inductively connected circuits. The working windings related to one groove
(section) can be connected in parallel or in series, and also as in parallel- series groups (Fig. 11). All of the secondary
windings (grooves, annular grooves) are included in parallel to the common load (the working surface of the
concentrator).
Considering that the currents in the section leak through the surfaces of the turns in adjacent to the groove walls, the
latter together with the winding can be interpreted as two inductively connected disk systems, where the primary and
secondary windings are connected in parallel (Fig.14).
In Fig. 14 , are the inductances of surfaces of the working winding and the wall of the groove faced to each other,
respectively; - is the mutual inductance between the indicated surfaces.
In order to determine the equivalent inductance of one-half of the groove we can write:
(2.30)
where ks is the coupling coefficient; ; p-is the number of turns of the concentrator; p=mn ( n - is the number of
sections of the winding connected in series; m- is the number of groups of the series included sections connected in
parallel).
For the equivalent inductance of the inductor considering the number of grooves and the circuit diagram of the working
winding we have:
(2.31)
To determine ks let us write the following system of equations:
(2.32)
(Le.hg - is the equivalent inductance of one half of the groove for L ep =0).
Omitting the intermediate conversions for the coupling coefficient we find:
(2.33)
In order to find the equivalent inductance of the groove with the surface of the working winding Le.gs going with it, let
use the equation (2.16) for a disk type multi-turn winding. Instead of D, d the outer and inner diameters of the groove
are substituted respectively, and the equivalent depth of penetration AI, Aw are replaced by As,Aw - where A
g is the depth of
penetration of the magnetic field into the wall material of the concentrator grooves;
Aw is the depth of magnetic field penetration into the material of
the working winding. The parameter h, just as in the initial formula, represents the magnitude of the air gap. Formula
(2.16) is used due to the constant inductance in the air gap between the working winding and the wall of the groove.
This is explained by the adopted system of current distribution, which indicates the existence of two identical current
layers in the working winding located near the groove walls. Since the currents in the indicated layers leak in one
direction, even in the case of the multi-turn working winding the flux cannot leak between the turns, and the magnetic
coupling between them is absent.
Considering the given remarks:
(2.34)
(where e - is the number of turns in the groove).
The inductance of the current layer in the groove wall can be determined by the approximate expression for the
inductance of the pancake (disk) coil [7], which is accurate enough in the range of variation of expressions Dg dg:
. (2.35)
Solving the system of equations (2.33)-(2.35) and considering the fact that eg= ng, we finally find:
. (2.36)
Now let us transform the equation (2.30):
. (2.37)
Substituting the inductance value from (2.9) instead of Le.p, and also Lc.s., Ld.s.s from (2.12), (2.15) considering (2.35), we
obtain the expression for the equivalent inductance of the inductor with the magnetic field concentrator.

The conical shape of the working surface of the inductor:

(2.38)

Cylindrical shape of the work surface:

(2.39)
Disk shape of the work surface:

(2.40)







For the inductor that has a concentrator with a smooth surface, equation (2.37) will be reduced to the form:
(2.41)
where es - is the number of turns of the cylindrical working winding; Le.w - is the equivalent inductance of the working
zone defined, just as before, as a function of the form of the working surface by the formulas ( 2.9), (2.12), (2.15).
Finally, in order to find L2 we have to use the expression:
, (2.42)
where uI is the value determined by the curves in Fig. 15, 16 plotted in terms of functions lo /(do- Ao ), (do -Ao) /l o,
respectively, then the expression for kI acquires the form:
, (2.43)
where do - is the outer diameter of the smooth surface of the concentrator; lo - is the outer axial dimension of the
concentrator; hI - is the insulating gap between the outer smooth surface of the concentrator and the surface of the
working winding adjacent to it.




CHAPTER 3
MECHANICAL PROCESSES DURING ELECTROMAGNETIC FORMING

3. 1 THE DETERMINATION OF THE WORK OF DEFORMATION OF THE WORKPIECE DURING
ELECTROMAGNETIC FORMING
One of the important values characterizing the process of molding during electromagnetic forming is the work of
deformation. Usually, the specific work of deformation during the tube and sheet metal forming is defined by the
equation:
(3.1)
where as - is the intensity of the specific work of deformation; c is the deformation intensity; B, m m are the mechanical
characteristics of the forming materials.
In the most general case the deformation intensity is equal:
(3.2)
(c 1,c 2,c 3 are the components of the deformation in three mutually perpendicular directions).
Then the total deformation work:
A=asVw (3.3)
(V w is the total volume of deformed material).
In practical sheet metal forming the mean intensity value is used which can be determined by the averaging of the true
values of c.
Figure 17 shows the features of the tube metal forming and the corresponding diagrams of strain distribution (the dotted
line gives the mean value of strain), Fig. 17, a shows the cylinder forming, where the mean value of strain is:
(3.4)
Fig. 17, b shows the forming of the cone, sphere and rift, where ca is equal:
(3.5)
(3.6)
(3.7)




Fig. 17
During the sheet metal forming the elements formed can be shown in Fig. 18, where the forming of the sphere (fig. 18,
a), the conical form (Fig. 18, b) and the flat stamping (Fig. 18, c) is illustrated. Let us give the values of the mean strain
for the given shapes of sheet metal forming:
(sphere) (3.8)
(conical shapes) (3.9)
(flat stamping) (3.10)
The mean strain of the toroidal spherical shape (Fig. 19)
(3.11)
When determining the specific work of deformation of complex parts it is necessary to isolate the elementary
configurations for which we then determine the work of deformation.
The values of the mechanical constants Bm for some materials are listed in Table 2a. The approximate values of these
constants can be obtained by the method of direct tension [43], and mm =cn, the B value can be calculated at the moment
when necking takes place.
(3.12)

Fig. 18

Here
(3.13)
If there is a diagram of the tensile testing in terms of P - load and Al - total elongation, then this diagram must be
reconstructed in the following coordinates: true stress- true strain.
By the magnitude of the total elongation Al taken from the initial diagram, the true strain can be determined:
; (3.14)
and the true stress:
. (3.15)
If only reference data are available (the yield point, UTS and non-uniform elongation at the necking on ) then:
. (3.16)
The constant B can be found from equation (3.12).
Consequently, having the set of formulas for determining the work of deformation of the simplest configurations, we
can find the work of deformation of more complex configurations, breaking them down into the simplest ones.

Fig. 19
Table 2a.

Material
o
b x
10
7
N/m
2

B x
10
7
N/m
2

m
m
Material
o
b x
10
7
N/m
2

B x
10
7
N/m
2

m
m

Sheet steel 30 50 0.3 Lead 1.5 3.2 0.37
10 kp
Steel 3 43 77 0.24 Tin 2.6 6.3 0.51
Steel 20 45 72 0.17 Zinc 11 13 0.05
1X18H9T
Steel
62 118 0.29 Nickel 50 103 0.36
Annealed
Al
AnnealedCopper 23 48 0.38
Duralumin
AMn-Am
D16-Am
B-25M
12
21
21
22
33
31
0.2
0.15
0.12
Brass:
L-68
LMn-58
30
40
74
72
0.44
0.24
Ti alloy BT-1.D 47 90 0.12




3.2 EFFICIENCY OF ELECTROMAGNETIC FORMING
The efficiency of electromagnetic forming depends on numerous parameters (C, U, f) and in the first approximation
can be represented by the ratio of the sum of the maximum kinetic energy of the moving workpiece and the total work
of deformation to the capacitor bank total discharge energy:
, (3.17)
or in the more detailed form:
. (3.18)
Substituting the maximum velocity in equation (3.18) we find the efficiency for the deformation of the cylindrical
workpiece and the sheet metal workpiece:
(3.19)
,
where
; (3.20)
Let us write the expressions for the efficiency of the deformation of the cylindrical and flat workpieces, respectively, in
somewhat simplified form:
(3.21)
, (3.22)
where

Analogously (3.22) we can write for the launching of the disk by the single -turn inductor:
, (3.23)
where
.
It is interesting to note that in the disk launching or sheet metal forming the maximum efficiency occurs when
, (3.24)
or
. (3.25)
In both cases
, (3.26)
means that efficiency depends only on the active losses in the circuit.









CHAPTER 4
TECHNOLOGICAL OPPORTUNITIES OF ELECTROMAGNETIC FORMING
4.1 GENERAL REMARKS
As the experience in introducing this method has indicated, the electromagnetic metal forming has the following
advantages compared to other metal forming techniques:
1. High efficiency of the technological process. The major factor limiting the efficiency increase is the very
significant time spent on the process preparation (installation of the workpiece, adjustment and taking out
the finished part). If necessary electromagnetic equipment can be designed with an output capacity of
3600 operations per hour or even more.


2. The technological process can be easily automated and mechanized. It is possible to control the equipment
remotely. The tool (inductor), creating the magnetic field, is not connected to the workpiece mechanically.
The forming energy can be dosed precisely up to 1% and with the remote control.


3. The great technological flexibility of the process. The same inductor can be used to form the workpieces
of different configurations.


4. Simplicity of the technological equipment. Only one die or plunger is used.


5. Absence of a transfer medium during forming process. This feature allows to form the metallic
workpieces through insulating coatings or the wall of a vacuum chamber.


6. The possibility of obtaining high specific pressures. Nowadays the pressures of up to 108 H/m2 can be
obtained without destroying the inductor and pressures of up to 109 H/m2 can be obtained with the
disposal inductors.


7. High culture of production and simplicity of equipment maintenance. The modern EMF equipment
operates noiselessly. The tool and the assemblies of the electromagnetic equipment dont need lubrication.
There is no aggressive environment. The equipment is completely automated. The monitoring and control
of the operation can be performed by single worker.


8. The improvement of the characteristics of the formed materials. The majority of aluminum alloys formed
electromagnetically show an increased ductility when compared to the static deformation. The
microstructure of the alloys with the same amount of strain has fewer distortions while formed by EMF if
compared to the static deformation.


9. It is possible to perform EMF in hard-to-reach areas. The tool (inductor) can be connected to the capacitor
bank by a flexible bus bar, which allows to perform the technological operations far away from the
capacitor bank (expanding the long tubes in the central section, corrugation and punching holes in large
area metal sheets).
EMF disadvantages:
1. It is difficult to obtain parts with deep drawing by using electromagnetic forming procedure. In order to
obtain deep drawings it is necessary to form the workpiece by various inductors. Each subsequent
operation must be performed by the inductor, the shape of which repeats the shape of the formed
workpiece.


2. Not all metals and alloys can be formed using EMF. Low-conductive materials require high-conductive
"drivers" to be formed.


3. Not any shape is suitable for forming electromagnetically. The forming forces are created as a result of the
interaction of the current induced in the workpiece with the magnetic field of the inductor. In order to
obtain the induced current the defined conditions must be met.


4. Not all the geometries of the workpiece are suitable for EMF. There are some restrictions with respect to
thickness and diameter of the tubular workpieces.


5. The low mechanical strength of the inductors in the case of deformation of steel workpieces. The
mechanical and electrical characteristics of the modern inductors permit multiple repetition of
technological operations without destruction of the inductor during metal forming of relatively light
metals and their alloys (aluminum, copper and magnetic alloys). On metal forming of the steel workpieces
the strength of the inductor decreases significantly.
The presented advantages and disadvantages must be considered when introducing EMF. Considering all those
features, it is necessary to remember that the application of EMF is not always economically justified. The significant
cost benefits can be obtained in the case where the workpiece is especially designed as applied to the new technique so
all the possible advantages can be used.


4.2 REQUIREMENTS IMPOSED ON THE SHAPES OF THE WORKPIECES
Since EMF is performed due to interaction of the magnetic field with the induced current in the forming workpiece, it
is necessary that the shape of the workpiece provide for continuity of the path of the induced current. Fig. 20 shows the
admissible and the inadmissible versions of the initial workpieces for all types of possible technological operations. It
shows that when a cylindrical workpiece is formed with cylindrical inductor, currents leak along its periphery. If the
cylindrical workpiece has a through slit along the generatrix of the cylinder or a large number of through openings, the
forces acting on the workpiece are weakened and forming is low-effective.
Due to low duration of the pressure pulse, it does not appear possible to use EMF for forming of solid metal
workpieces.
Forming procedure is suitable for sheet and tubular workpieces with the thickness aw up to 5 mm. The lower limit of
the thickness is determined by the operating frequency of the discharge circuit
aw>=0.5 (4.1)
under the condition of forming of the workpiece in a non-conductive die or a mandrel (compression of metal tube on
ceramic mandrel, sheet metal forming in a glass-plastic die, etc.)
aw>=2.0 (4.2)
under the condition of forming of the workpiece in a die or a mandrel (compression of metal tube on the metal mandrel,
sheet metal forming in to metal die, etc.)
Note, that the failure to satisfy the condition (4.1) lowers the efficiency of the forming process, and the failure to satisfy
the condition (4.2), in addition, leads to the formation of the so-called "magnetic cushion", which prevents filling of the
die or the mandrel. The upper limit of the thickness of the workpiece depends on the energy consumption of the
magnetic pulse device, material specific density and the strength of the inductor. With the same loading conditions the
strength of the inductor decreases if massive workpieces are formed. The geometry of the workpiece (diameter, the
machined area) are determined by the energy stored in the capacitor bank, the thickness of the machined material, the
structural execution of the inductor and the technological process equipment.
The maximum diameter of the workpiece can reach 2 m, and the area - up 1m2.


Efficient forming Low-efficient forming

Fig. 20
The workpieces for EMF can be welded. The quality of the weld must be high. As a result of the high forming
velocities an extra mass of the metal of the weld distorts the symmetry of the deformation.
Removing the weld metal it is necessary to preserve its integralness. The destruction of integrity of the weld prevents
the induced current from leaking in the workpiece, and hence, lowers the forming efficiency.
The dimensions and the shape of the workpiece are established the same way as for the conventional forming.


4.3 REQUIREMENTS IMPOSED ON THE DEFORMED MATERIALS
The forming efficiency depends on the electrical conductivity of the material.
EMF with the discharge circuit frequency range of 10-20 kHz is the most efficient for materials which have the specific
electrical conductivity four times higher than the one of copper (silver, gold, copper, magnesium, aluminum and their
alloys). Table 3 lists the electrical and mechanical properties of the materials most suitable for forming. The groups of
materials that marked by an asterisk can be formed by means of "drivers" only.
To form materials of low conductivity it is necessary to use the EMF machines with high discharge frequency (60-100
kHz) or drivers (highly conductive inserts) placed between the inductor and the workpiece. The thickness of the driver
is selected from the condition:
(4.3)
The proper material for the driver is well-annealed M1 type copper. Its dimensions are limited by the deformation zone.
It is desirable to extend the driver beyond the limits of the deformed workpiece.
The same requirements are imposed on the shape of the driver as on the deformed workpiece (it must provide all
conditions for continuity of the current path in the driver). To form tubular workpieces a tape winding of thin copper
can be used as the driver. Here it is necessary to provide good contact between the turns of the tape.
The galvanic coatings can be used only if it is economically justifiable. The same requirements are imposed on the
thickness of the galvanic coating as on the driver. Non-metallic materials can also be formed by means of drivers.
The significant ductility increase due to simultaneous induction heating of the workpiece has not been noticed.

Table 3

Material Elastic
strengthx107N/m2
Yield
strengthx107N/m2
Strain
to
failure,
%
Specific
electrical
resistance,
x10-8* .m
Skin
depth,,
mm
1kHz
Skin
depth,
,
mm




5kHz
Skin
depth,,
mm


10kHz
Skin
depth,,
mm


20kHz
Skin
depth,
,
mm




50kHz
Gold
Silver
Copper
8-15
15-30
24
-
-
7
-
-
50
2.2
1.6
1.78
2.36
2.01
2.12
1.055
0.898
0.95
0.746
0.636
0.67
0.527
0.449
0.48
0.334
0.285
0.3
Brass
L96
L90
L80
L70
L68
L62
LMz 58-
2
LC 59-1
24
26
32
32
32
33
40
40
6
6
12
12
10
10
11
16
14
50
45
50
55
55
50
40
45
4.3
4.0
6.0
6.9
7.2
7.2
10.8
6.8
3.3
3.18
3.9
4.18
4.25
3.86
6.23
4.15
1.48
1.42
1.74
1.87
1.91
1.73
2.34
1.86
1.04
1.01
1.23
1.32
1.35
1.22
1.65
1.31
0.82
0.71
0.87
0.93
0.95
0.86
1.17
0.93
0.467
0.45
0.552
0.592
0.602
0.546
0.881
0.587
Bronze 40 25 65 17.6 6.67 4.1 2.11 1.49 0.945
BrOF65-
04
BrOz4-3
BrA5
BrAMn9-
2
BrKMn-1
BrB-2
35
38
40
40
50
65
16
30
20
30
40
65
25
50
30
8.7
9.95
11
15
6.8
4.69
5.02
5.28
6.16
4.15
2.1
2.25
2.36
2.75
1.86
1.48
1.59
1.67
1.95
1.31
1.05
1.12
1.18
1.38
0.93
0.664
0.71
0.748
0.872
0.587


Table 3 continued

Aluminum
alloys high
melting
ADM
ADM
AMnM
AMnN



8
15
13
22



3
10
5
18



35
6
23
5



2.92
2.98
3.76
4.45



2.72
2.75
3.08
3.34



1.22
1.23
1.38
1.5



0.86
0.87
0.98
0.06



0.61
0.61
0.69
0.75



0.385
0.389
0.436
0.473
AMgM
AMg3M
AMg6M
DIM
DIT
19
19
30
21
42
10
9
15
11
24
23
15
18
18
15
5.09
4.95
7.1
3.72
3.7
3.59
3.54
4.24
3.08
3.06
1.6
1.58
1.9
1.37
1.37
1.13
1.12
1.34
0.97
0.97
0.8
0.79
0.95
0.7
0.68
0.508
0.501
0.6
0.436
0.433
DI6M
DI6AT
DI6M
DI6T
B95M
B95T
18
42
21
46
22
55
10
28
11
30
10
46
18
18
18
11
15
10
4.35
5.87
4.15
5.95
4.15
4.2
3.32
3.85
3.25
3.88
3.25
3.82
1.48
1.72
1.45
1.74
1.43
1.46
1.05
1.22
1.02
1.23
1.02
1.03
0.74
0.86
0.72
0.87
0.74
0.73
0.47
0.545
0.46
0.548
0.46
0.54
Magnesium
alloys
MA8M-M
MA-IM
26
21
19
12
18
8
5.1
6.1
3.6
3.93
1.61
1.76
1.15
1.24
0.8
0.88
0.51
0.556
Low-
carbon
steels
CT3
CT10



38
40



24
25



37
35



16.4
19.25



6.45
7.0



2.9
3.12



2.04
2.21



1.44
1.56



0.913
0.99
CT20 48 30 33 24.2 6.0 2.7 1.9 1.34 0.85
Alloyed
steels
30XGSA
1X18H9T
70
99
45
30
22
50



72



13.5



6.04



4.2



3.02



1.91
Titanium
alloys
BT5-1
Bt14
90
100
80
90
14
10
138 18.7 8.36 5.91 4.18 2.65
In order to form magnesium, titanium and their alloy it is necessary, just as for other forming procedures, to provide the
preliminary heating and also to consider an increase in the specific electrical resistance, and, hence, the depth of
penetration of the magnetic field due to heating must be taken in to account.


4.4 REQUIREMENTS ON THE PROCESS EQUIPMENT
The dies used in the high-velocity forming operations must have the holes for exit of the air. In each closed cavity holes
must be made, the number of which is selected from the workpiece design and the volume of the closed cavities. The
spacing between the holes lp=(20-40)x10-3 m. The holes in the die must be located where the contact of the workpiece
with the die in its deformation process takes place in the next turn.
The hole diameter is calculated so that d<a3.
In order to improve the exit of the air (Fig. 21) the hole with large diameter: D=(2-3)d is made from the outside the die.
The depth of the hole l1=(6-10)x10-3 m. The die geometry can be found in [13]. The die must have geometry and shape
such as to insure free removal of the formed part. This can be done by placing a small cone along the knockout path.
The proper selection of the die material or an insert and their heat treatment is one of the basic factors that determines
their productivity. To select the die material one has to consider the production scale (series or experimental), the type
of operation, the geometry and the shape of the workpiece, material properties and the depth of penetration of the
magnetic field in the workpiece.
If magnetic field leaks through the deformed workpiece w>aw and the dies made of highly conductive materials are
used, then the damping effect can occur because of counterpressure created by the magnetic field between the die and
the workpiece.
Sometimes this can result in the separation of the deformed material and the distortion of the workpiece shape; arcing
can occur in the contact parts of a segment die due to inductive current inside the die, and forming efficiency decreases.
Considering what has been discussed, and when it is possible with the production conditions and the workpiece design,
dies made of insulating epoxy-based materials with different fillings or metal alloys with high electrical resistivity are
preferred.
To form the workpieces of aluminum and copper alloys with the thickness of aw<2mm and large curvature radii >3
different epoxy-based composites can be used as the die and mandrel's materials [13].

Fig. 21
For the forming of solid materials and also materials with relatively small radius of curvature <3, dies made of the
following types of steel must be used:
a. simple shape - 8XF, X12F1;


b. complex shape -X12M, 6XBF;


c. dies or mandrels for punching holes of simple shape -X12F1, SHX15, X12M, 6XBF;


d. dies or mandrels for punching holes of complex shape -X12M, 6XBF. The hardness of the dies - HRc 56-
60.
In experimental production of the small quantities (10 pieces) the dies or the mandrels can be made of delta wood, glass
textolite and other similar materials.
Depending on the shape of the workpiece the dies are divided into integral and sectioned dies. For a convenient
removal of tubular workpieces after forming dies are made sectioned. The parting plane can be chosen from the shape
of the workpiece.
The half-dies can be insuring that they will not come open on the discharge. Because of the short pulse load the number
of bolts pulling the die together and also the joining force are inverse proportional to the die mass. Sometimes under
unit production conditions it is sufficient to use a heavy weight to avoid opening of the half-dies. If it is necessary to
reduce the weight of the large dies and maintain their stiffness, dies can be made with stiffening ribs.


4.5 CLASSIFICATION OF THE TECHNOLOGICAL OPERATIONS
All of the workpieces formed by EMF technique can be divided into three schematics with respect to the inductor used
and technological equipment according to the proposal of the Kharkov Polytechnical Institute.
1. The helical solenoid with the coaxial tubular workpiece inside. These type operations are called
"compression".


2. The helical solenoid with the coaxial workpiece outside. These type operations are called " bulging"
operations.


3. The spiral flat inductor (pancake type) or the concentrator located above the flat workpiece ("sheet metal
forming").
Depending on the type of technological operation the workpieces are divided in to groups and sub-groups.
The first group: workpieces obtained by assembling several parts (the assembly operations); the second group:
workpieces obtained with shape changing operations (bending, drawing, dressing, relief stamping, bulging, rifling,
etc.); third group: with separating operations. EMF can provide combined operations consisting of all three groups and
schematics.




"COMPRESSION"-TYPE OPERATIONS (FIG. 22)
The workpiece is a cylindrical tube. The pressure is created by a helical solenoid or inductor with magnetic field
concentrator. Depending on the energy consumption, the diameter of the workpieces can be in the range of 3x10-3 to 2
m. The thickness of the workpiece can be up to 5x10-3 m. For multi-action inductors with copper concentrators the
specific pressure must not exceed 108N/m2.
Note that during "compression"-type operations a short pressure pulse can heat the workpiece surface and subsequently
cool it down. As a result, additional stresses occur which promote improvement of the compression quality in the
assembly operations. When the forming and separation-type operations with metal mandrels are performed, the
indicated effect complicates the workpiece removal from the mandrel. The mandrels must be made sectioned or it is
necessary to provide a small cone insuring easy removal of the parts from the mandrel.
Due to complexity of the picking up of the finished part from the mandrel and loss of stability of the workpiece wall
(buckling) the forming operations of "compression" type have not found broad application. Compression is the most
widely accepted in assembly and welding operations.
The combined operations made up of any combinations of operations with respect to position 6 to 25 (Fig. 22) are also
possible.
Assembly and welding operations. Joining of metal parts to ceramics, glass, plastics and other non-metallic
materials (1). The brittle materials such as glass, glazed pottery, porcelain, etc. if not specially protected, can be
destroyed during EMF. The surface of the metal workpiece and of the compressed brittle workpiece must have no
scratches and unevenness. The pressed surface of the brittle workpiece must experience compressive stresses only, and
the gap between the workpiece and the pressed part must be minimal and uniform with respect to entire surface.
Observation of the condition mw<<m0 is mandatory, where m0 - is a mass of the compressed body (the base); mw - is a
mass of the pressed workpiece.
Pressing of cable tips, joining of two wires by a connecting tube, pressing of the tips on the cables, etc.(2). The quality
of the joint is very high. As the investigation shows, the tensile strength of the joint is not inferior to the tensile strength
of cable or wire cross-section.
Assembly and welding operations Forming operations Separation operations

Fig. 22
The electric contact resistance of the joint obtained by EMF is 1.5 to 2 times less than the electrical contact resistance
of the joint obtained by conventional hydraulic press. The filling coefficient of the pressed part is close to one.
The length of the pressed part of the cable l can be found by the ratio = 1.5 to 2.0, and the length of pressed part of the
cable or line operating under tension can be found by the expression = 2.5 to 3.5.
Pressing of high-pressure hoses (3). The hose with a union nipple is sealed by pressing of the tube fitted on the hose. In
order to improve the quality of pressing, the surface of the connection is made rifled. The length of the pressed part of
the connection = 2.5-3.0. Tin order to avoid destruction of the hose during pressing, the pressure of the magnetic field
at the end of the tube on the hose side at a length of l1=(4-5)x10-3 is not created.
Pressing of the tube on metal tips. (4). It is possible to obtain sealed joints that can stand the test pressures up to
107N/m2. These joints can substitute the same joints made with nipples, rivets, threads and are typically stronger than
those.
In order to provide solid and sealed joint on the metal tips, two or three grooves 2aw deep and (3-4) aw wide are made.
In order to avoid cutting the tube, the sharp edges of the groove must be blunted. If aw<2 w, in order to increase the
efficiency, the material of the metal tip must have an electrical resistance higher than the same resistance of the tube
material.
Welding of tubular workpieces (5). Copper-copper, copper-aluminum, aluminum-aluminum, etc. can be used as the
welded materials. In order to obtain the welded joint by compression, an impact velocity of the moving tube wall must
reach maximum when it hits the stationary tube. This is achieved by selecting the gap between tubes is in the range of
hb=1.0-1.5 mm.
In order to eliminate the damping of the welded tubes and lower the collision rate of the welded tube, the discharge
circuit frequency must be selected so, that the magnetic field completely attenuates in the moving tube wall. Typically
the practical frequency is in the range of 20-60 kHz.
To obtain the maximum impact velocity an active (deformed) tube must have the smaller mass of the wall per unit
surface area.
Fig. 23 shows two possible inductor schematics: a - outer tube compression; b- outer tube compression and
simultaneous bulging of the inside tube.
For a sufficiently large diameter of the welded tubes (d0>50 mm) the inductor 3 can be placed inside the tubes. Then an
internal tube 1 is accelerated and hits the outer one. As shown in Fig. 23, two inductors, connected in series can be
used. With that schematic tubes 1, 2 are accelerated towards each other.
Considering what has been discussed , and when it is possible with the production conditions and the workpiece design,
dies made of insulating epoxy-based materials with different fillings or metal alloys with high electrical resistivity are
preffered.
To form the workpieces of aluminum and copper alloys with the thickness of aw<2mm and large curvature radii >3
different epoxy-based composites can be used as the die and mandrel's materials [13].
To prevent the deformation of the passive tube (Fig. 23) a metallic insert 4 is placed inside the tube for giving it
mechanical strength. Prior to welding surfaces must be cleaned by using metal brush until they shine. Directly before
welding the joined surfaces of the tube are degreased. The gap between tubes can be made by bulging of one of the
tubes and further aligning them in the inductor.

Fig. 23
Forming operations. Transverse undulating dressing (Fig.22, positions 6,13) d1/d0>0.8. Strain distribution with
respect to the workpiece thickness is
aw2=aw aw1>aw aw3<aw.
Transverse plane dressing in the cross-section (Fig. 22, position 7) d1/d0>0.9. Strain distribution is
aw2>aw aw1<aw.
Trough formation (Fig.22, position 10) b/d0<0.2. Strain distribution through the thickness is
aw2>aw aw1<aw.
Longitudinal dressing(Fig.22, positions 9, 10).
d1/d0>0.9 a/aw>0.5
Strain distribution through the thickness is aw2>aw aw1<aw.
Cone forming (Fig. 22, positions 11, 14)
d1/d0>0.9 aw1<aw
If ratio d1/d0 has to be decreased, than cone forming can be performed in two or three operations using cylindrical and
conical inductors.
Tube reduction (Fig. 22, position 12) d1/d0>0.8. To preserve the circular shape of the tube without loss in stability, it is
necessary that d0/aw<=10. To reduce the ratio d1/d0 reduction can be performed in two or three steps, using inductors of
given shapes. If there are no rigid requirements on the cross-section configuration (forging of the ends of the tube prior
to drawing), the ratio d1/d0 can be less than 0.4.
During cone forming and tube reduction, the ratio d1/d0 can be decreased without the loss of stability of the tube wall
by creating axial tensile forces during tube compression. The tensile forces can be generated according to Fig. 24 by
compression the tube on the mandrels 2, 4 with subsequent cutting of the tube 1 into two equal parts.
Flanging 15 (Fig. 22, position 15) d1/d0>0.8. Flanging can be performed in two operations with the further sizing of the
flange by inductor.
Dimpling, making of shreads, rifling, sizing (Fig. 22, positions 16-20).
The subgroup includes the technological operations that change the outer shape of the workpiece insignificantly: d1-
d0= (1-2)aw, but the curvature of the deformed surface is significant: r=(1-5) aw.
To perform those operations, the diameter of the workpiece must be taken (1-2)aw larger than the mandrel diameter.

Fig. 24
The workpiece must be centered in the inductor relatively to the insert. The gap between the workpiece and insert must
be uniform.
Separation operations. Hole punching and blanking (Fig. 22, positions 21-24).
Holes can be punched in the mandrels having a hole with a cutting edge. Long holes located along the generatrix of the
workpiece23 are not recommended since they destroy the continuity of induced current. The corner of the rectangular
hole must have a radius of r=3aw. To increase the process efficiency, a gap between a workpiece and a die must be
fixed.
To perform the separation operations, the cut-off edge on the cutting tool side has burrs and on the inductor side,
rounding. During EMF procedure the burrs are less than with conventional press hole punching.

Fig. 25
The precision of punched holes depends on the workpiece geometry and is in the range of precision class 2-4, and the
finish of the cut corresponds to the class of surface roughness 4-5. It is possible to punch the faceted holes. The
efficiency of the process depends on the ratio of the diameter of the punched hole and the ratio of the width of the
groove to the thickness of the formed workpiece. It is recommended that d1/aw>8 a/aw>8.
Cutting of tubes (Fig. 22, position 25) is performed in mandrels by ring punching. Fig. 25 shows the workpieces made
by "compression" technique.


"BULGING" OPERATIONS (FIG. 26)
The forming workpiece is a cylindrical tube. The pressure is created by a helical solenoid, placed inside the workpiece.
The diameter of the forming workpieces, depending on the energy capacity of the machine, can vary from 30x10-3 to 2
m. The wall thickness can be up to 5x10-3m.
The bulging of the tubes with diameters less than 40 mm has some difficulties, since the inductor does not have
sufficient mechanical strength. However, it is possible to form the tubular workpieces with d0<40 mm with disposal
inductors.
According to the bulging schematic, combined operations made of various combinations of positions 6-25 (Fig. 26) are
possible.
Assembly and welding operations. Bimetallic joints (Fig.26, position 1). It necessary that the electrical conductivity
of the formed workpiece on the inductor side be greater than the electrical conductivity of the workpiece on the die
side.
Hinge joints (Fig. 26, position 2). The required shape of the hinge joint can be provided by an outer die. If the hinge
joint is made of non-uniform materials, than the electrical conductivity of the inside tube must be higher than the one of
the outside tube.
Welding of tubular workpieces (Fig. 26, position 3). To limit the deformation of the outer tube a sectioned die is used.
All the requirements on the welded workpieces and on the accessories are discussed in the section "compression".
Compression of tubes in disks, tubular panels, etc. (Fig. 26, position 4). To provide the high quality of the joint in the
tube panel or disc, two to three grooves are made. Two insulating or metal workpieces can be joined by tube bulging
with simultaneous facing (5): d1/d0=1.1-1.3.
Forming operations. Note, that the forming operations by "bulging" procedure, compared to the similar operations by
"compression" technique, have significant advantages, for they don't require complex process equipment. The shape of
the workpiece is determined by the outer easily opened sectioned die. That's why if the workpiece has sufficiently large
diameter d0 > 0.1 m, the given shape can be obtained by bulging technique.
Transverse undulated dressing (Fig. 26, position 6, 13) d1/d0<=1.3. Strain distribution throughout the thickness is.
aw2=aw aw2<aw aw3<aw2.
If dressing has to be done on the end of the tubular workpiece, the solenoid of the inductor must go beyond the limits of
the tubular workpiece in order to create uniform pressure. In this case as a result of the field boundary effect (the
increase of the magnetic field intensity at the tube face) the face of the tube can melt and insulation can be destroyed.
To improve the quality of the workpiece and increase the strength of the inductor, the parts of the inductor going
beyond the limits of the workpiece must be shielded by highly conductive rigid metal ring. Fig. 27 shows the
recommended forming schematic, where 1- is an inductor, 2 - a workpiece, 3- a die, 4 - ring shield.
Transverse flat dressing in cross-section (Fig. 26, position 7) d1/d0<1.2. Strain distribution is:
aw2<aw aw1<aw2.
Projection formation (Fig.26, position 8) b/d0<0.2. Strain distribution is
aw2<aw aw1<aw2.
Longitudinal dressing Fig.26, positions 9, 10).
d1/d0<1.2 a/aw>5
Cone forming (Fig. 26, positions 11, 14)
d1/d0<1.3 aw1<aw
Tube ends bulging (12) Strain distribution is aw2<aw aw1<aw2.
Assembly and welding operations Forming operations Separation operartions

Fig. 26
d1/d0<1.2 o<600
Strain distribution is aw2<aw aw1<aw2.
Flanging (Fig. 26, position 15) d1/d0<1.3. It can be conducted by partial removal of the inductor coil beyond the limits
of the die and the workpiece. Flanging can be performed in two operations with the further sizing of the flange by
inductor.

Fig. 27
Dimpling, shread making, rifling, sizing (Fig. 26, positions 16-20).
Just as in the section " compression" this subgroup includes the operations that change the outer shape of the workpiece
insignificantly: d1- d0= (1-3)aw, but the curvature of the formed surface is significant:
r< aw.
To perform the indicated operations the diameter of the workpiece must be (1-2)aw less than the inside die diameter.
The workpiece must be centered in the inductor relatively to the die. The gap between the workpiece and the die must
be uniform.

Fig. 28
Separation operations.Hole punching, blanking and trimming (Fig. 26, positions 21-25).
All the features of the process are described in section "compression".
Assembly and welding operations Forming operations Separation operartions

Fig. 29
"SHEET METAL FORMING" (FIG. 29)
The forming workpiece is a sheet. The pressure is created by a flat spiral inductor or flat concentrator, placed above the
workpiece. The shape of the workpiece and the deformation process are determined by the die. The area of the formed
workpieces depends on the power consumption of the machine fluctuates from 10-4 to 0.02 m2. The thickness of the
workpiece can be up to 5x10-3 m.
To built the technological procedure it is necessary to remember that it is quite difficult to create the uniform field
pressure over the entire area of the workpiece. Practically during EMF (technique of induced currents in the formed
workpiece) the magnetic field pressure in the central part of the inductor (the normal component) is almost zero, and
the workpiece is not subject to pressure in the central part over the area limited to (0.5-6)x10-4m2.
Fig. 29 shows all the technological operations with indicated EMF features.
With "sheet metal forming" schematic the combined operations made up of any variety of combinations of positions 6-
25 (Fig. 29) can be performed.
Assembly and welding operations. Assembly of the disk with the shaft (Fig. 29, position 1). If the helical inductor has
the larger diameter, than the workpiece, than magnetic field component arises, that tries to decrease the inside opening
in the disk. This way it is possible to reduce the hole in the disk by compressing it on the axis and also insignificantly
diminish the holes in the sheets. Strain distribution : aw1>aw.
Disk flanging (Fig. 29, position 2) with subsequent compression on a cylindrical base a/d1<0.2.
Welding of two sheets (fig. 29, position 3) is performed by acceleration and collision. The acceleration of metal sheets
is performed by magnetic forces generated by two inductors, connected in series. To provide the high quality welding
the magnetic field must not penetrate the welding zone. This technique allows to weld different materials and alloys.
The requirements on the welded surface are the same as for the tube welding (section "compression").
Pressing bushings on the shaft and pressing inserts into tubes (Fig. 29, position 4, 5).
Technological operations are performed by a flat inductor. Multiple pulses are possible.
Forming operations. EMF can be applied to produce different shapes of the flat sheet with relatively small drawing of
the material. EMF is especially efficient under the conditions of experimental and small-series production.
The process equipment is quite simple - usually either the female die or the plunger is used - that reduces the
expenditures on the equipment material by a factor of two and lowers the labor consumption of its manufacture by
three or four times. If sheet is formed in a solid die the hole for the air exit must be provided, sometimes - die must be
evacuated.
Dishing operations (Fig. 29, position 6).Since pressure in the central part is zero, workpieces of "dish" type can be
formed on the punch with flanging of the outline of the sheet. The depth of the drawing is
b/d0<0.1.
Annular bead forming (Fig. 29, position 7) is performed in the die. The drawing depth is b< 15aw. Strain distribution
through the workpiece thickness is
aw2=aw aw1>aw .
Transverse and longitudinal bead forming (Fig. 29, positions 8,9).Performed in the die. The depth of dimple drawing is
b<10aw. Strain distribution through the workpiece thickness is
aw2=aw aw2<aw.
The recessing (Fig. 29, position 10) is performed in the die: r=(2-15) aw.
The shallow flanging along the periphery of the disk and rectangle (Fig. 29, positions 11, 12). The flanging depth
depends on the diameter of the disk and rectangle dimensions, and also on the thickness of material. Flanging is
performed in a plunge. It is recommended to take a/d1<0.1; a/b<0.1; r1>3aw, r2>5aw.
The shallow flanging of the annular and rectangular grooves (Fig. 29, positions 13, 14). The flanging depth is
determined by the dimensions of the grooves d1, b, radius r1, r2 and also by the material thickness. Flanging is
performed in the die. It is recommended to take a<10aw; r1>3aw, r2>5aw, a/d1<0.2.
Forming of toroidal covers (Fig. 29, 15). The radius of the cross-section of the tore r1 depends on the thickness of the
material and the inside diameter of the tore d1. The forming can be performed on a plunge or a die. It is recommended
to take r/d1<0.2; r<20aw.
The release forming with the simultaneous dressing of a non-strained part of the workpiece (Fig. 29, positions 16-20).
These are technological operations where the outside geometry of the workpiece does not change significantly during
forming: a-aw=(1-2)aw at the curvature r=(1-0.5)aw. The indicated operations are performed in a die.
To increase the efficiency of the process a gap of (1-0.5)x10-3 m between the die and the workpiece must be set up.
Sizing of the sheets (Fig. 29, position 17). It is carried out on a plate. The gap between the plate and the workpiece is (1-
0.5)x10-3 m. It is possible to repeat sizing process several times to obtain the required condition.

Fig. 30
Separation operations. Hole punching, blanking and trimming (Fig. 29, positions 21-25).
The characteristics and the requirements are described in the section "compression".
Fig. 30 shows the workpieces formed by electromagnetic sheet metal forming technique.








CHAPTER 5
ELECTROMAGNETIC FORMING EQUIPMENT
5.1 GENERAL COMMENTS
Irrespective of the purpose and the accepted schematic electromagnetic forming equipment can be interpreted as a
complex consisting of technological processes and power equipment.
The power equipment (see the functional schematic of EMF Fig. 31) consists of storage capacity C; the charging unit
including the step-up device (the high-voltage transformer) PY and the rectifying device BY; the commuting device P;
the inductor I; the start regulator PPY; the igniting circuit BPY, the automation module BA and the controller Z; the
shielding device made up of the short-circuiting device KS; the blocking and other elements; measuring equipment,
including the voltage divider DH.

Fig. 31
C- storage capacity; 3- a controller; BA- the automation module; BH Y- the igniting circuit; DH - the voltage divider; H PY- the start regulator; H Y-the high-
voltage transformer; BY- the rectifying device; K3- the short-circuiting device; U - the inductor.
Depending on the output capacity, consumed energy, operating conditions and the purpose of EMF equipment, the
schematics and design of individual elements making it up and the device as a whole are defined.


5.2 ENERGY DISTRIBUTION IN THE EMF DISCHARGE CIRCUIT
To estimate the efficiency of the magnetic pulse device, the relation of the work required to deform the workpiece to
the discharge circuit parameters can be derived from the equation of the energy balance in EMF discharge circuit. For
the time moment t we have:
(5.1)
where is the magnetic energy, stored in the machine inductance (the capacitor, the busbar and the discharge
device);
- is the kinetic energy, associated with the work of deformation of the elements of the magnetic
pulse device and the movement of the arc in the switch;
- is the magnetic energy, stored in the inductor-workpiece system;
- are the active losses in the machine elements (the capacitor bank, the busbar and the switch);
- are the active losses in the inductor-workpiece system;
- is the kinetic energy required to deform the workpiece;
- is the energy of the capacitor bank at time t1.

As follows from (5.1) to design EMF with the maximum work of deformation, the following conditions must be met:
1. The self-parameters of the discharge circuit Rc and Lc determined by the active resistances and
inductances of the capacitors, the switches and the busbar and also the equivalent resistance of inductor-
workpiece system Rie must be minimized.


2. The parameters Li, Lc can not vary during the discharge, that means that the busbar, the coil of the
inductor, the clamping elements of the switch and the capacitor should not be deformed by the
electrodynamic forces.


3. The magnetic energy stored in the inductor-workpiece system must be much larger than the magnetic
energy, stored in the machine self-inductances.
By neglecting the work required to deform the workpiece, the equation of the energy balance in the discharge circuit
assumes the form:
, (5.2)
where the active resistance of the individual inductor elements in accordance to the given assumptions, is determined
by equation (2.6).
For a concentrator with annular grooves the resistance of the working winding of the concentrator is determined by:
(5.3)
(br - is the size of the wire of the working winding in the radial direction).
The resistance of the groove surfaces adjacent to the working winding is:
; (5.4)
The resistance of the working surface of the concentrator is:
; (5.5)
The resistance of the workpiece is:
. (5.6)
The relations I2=f (I3) and I1 =f (I3) can be represented by the expressions:
; (5.7)
. (5.8)
The inductance of the workpiece L4 and the inductance of the working zone of the concentrator L3 can be found by
formula (2.42):
; (5.9)
(5.10)
(u3, u4 - are the values that can be determined from the curves in Figures 15, 16, if
put on the abscissa axis instead of and , respectively.
Applying equations (5.2) for the equivalent resistance of the inductor with annular grooves, we have:
; (5.11)
or, for the inductor with a smooth surface, respectively:
(5.12)
(L2 can be obtained from (2.42)).
Applying equations (5.2), (5.7)-(5.10), after the transformations for the relative losses in the discharge circuit we have
The losses in the working winding:
; (5.13)
The losses in the surfaces of the grooves adjacent to the working winding:
; (5.14)
The losses in the operating surface of the concentrator:
; (5.15)
The losses in the workpiece:
(5.16)
The presented expressions for the distribution of losses in the inductor-concentrator system with deep annular grooves
are valid also for the concentrators with a smooth surface with the only difference that it is necessary to take n=1 and
2p=1, and calculate the resistance according to (2.6).
If consider the self-resistance of the discharge circuit, the determination of the relative losses in the device are similar
to (5.13):
, (5.17)
The relative losses of the remaining elements can be found according to (5.13)-(5.16), where R1 should be substituted
with R1+Rc.
Applying the expressions for the equivalent resistance of the operating surface-workpiece system, we can find the
equivalent resistance:
. (5.18)
The formula (5.18) is valid for the workpiece of cylindrical shape. For the workpieces of the disk-type and conical
shapes the corresponding values of the equivalent resistance can be determined by formulas in Section 2.2 and then
substituted into (5.18) instead of Re.c,.
Let us present the expressions for the relative losses:
The losses in the discharge circuit
; (5.19)
The losses in the working winding
; (5.20)
The losses in the surfaces of the grooves adjacent to the working winding
; (5.21)
The losses in the working surface
; (5.22)
The losses in the workpiece
; (5.23)







5.3 AUTOMATION OF THE DISCHARGE CIRCUIT PARAMETERS CONSIDERING THE INDUCTOR SYSTEM
AND THE WORKPIECE
If neglect the movement of the workpiece, which in practice is always valid for the first current maximum, the
efficiency of the conversion of the magnetic field energy to the work of deformation is:
(5.24)
where qm is the coefficient characterizing the transfer of the magnetic energy to the inductor -workpiece system; qa - is
the coefficient corresponding to the energy losses in the active resistance of the discharge circuit.
For the first current maximum the coefficients qm, qa can be expressed in terms of the parameters of the discharge
circuit and inductor:
; (5.25)
. (5.26)
Using the expressions for the equivalent inductance and equivalent resistance, and considering (1.45), we can find the
value of the relative attenuation coefficient:
. (5.27)
Using the value of the self-frequency of the discharge circuit e0, formula (5.25) can be converted to the following
expression:
(5.28)
(e0 is the working cycle frequency, equal to 2tf).
From (5.28)
. (5.29)
Solving equations (5.24), (5.26), (5.27), (5.29) simultaneously, for the pressure amplitude we have:
(5.30)
Investigating the function (5.30) for the extremum with respect to qm and performing the numerical calculations, the
maximum value of Pm that corresponding to the qm, can be found in the range of 0.8-0.9.
In the inductors with the matching circuit (concentrator, transformer) the energy of the capacitor bank is expended also
on the creation of the scattering fluxes in the primary winding; therefore the energy efficiency coefficient can be
expressed analogously to (5.24):
(5.31)
(qk is the transfer coefficient of the magnetic energy of the concentrator to the working zone). Since the value of qk is
always less than one, the total energy use coefficient of capacitor bank+concentrator is slightly less than in the typical
inductor, therefore the value of the coefficient must be maximal. Applying equations (5.7), (5.8), (2.37), we obtain the
coefficient:
. (5.32)
Investigating the function (5.33) with respect to to the extremum, we find the relative value of the groove
inductance:
. (5.33)
Considering (2.36), (2.43), for concentrators with deep grooves and a smooth outer surface, we obtain:
; (5.34)
. (5.35)
Substituting the value of the optimal inductance from (5.33) in equation (5.32), we obtain:
. (5.36)
If consider (2.36), (2.43) we can determine the value of the energy transfer coefficient from equation (5.36)
for the concentrator with deep grooves:
; (5.37)
for the concentrator with a smooth surface:
. (5.38)
Thus it becomes clear from equation (5.36), that the optimum energy transfer coefficient depends on the coupling
coefficient for the primary winding only, and according to equations (2.36), (2.43), it depends on Dg and dg, and on the
gap between the winding and the wall or the outer cylindrical surface of the concentrator. All those circumstances must
be taken into account in the design of inductors which include magnetic field concentrators.
Usually in actual constructions the value of kg is in the range of 0.95-0.98. The coefficient qs is in the range 0.5-0.7.




5.4 SELECTION OF OPERATING VOLTAGE FOR THE CAPACITOR BANK IN THE MAGNETIC PULSE UNIT
The value of Uc at Wc = const determines the discharge circuit frequency:
(5.39)
and the insulation distances, and, therefore, the design parameters of the elements in the discharge circuit of the
capacitor bank and of the inductor. So in order to design or purchase the machine this value must be determined first,
whereas the C value can be found from Wc, Uc.
To select the rational value for Uc the following aspects should be considered: 1) the cost of the unit; 2) pressure of the
magnetic field developed in the inductor-workpiece system; 3) duration of the pressure pulse; 4) expenditures
associated with manufacture of inductors; 5) convenience of operation and safety conditions.
Let us examine the technique for selecting the nominal voltage of the capacitor bank for given energy Wc in order to
provide the maximum magnetic field pressure on the workpiece.
For the case of a "massive" workpiece, when [6], the maximum magnetic field pressure in " compression"-type
operation is equal to:
(5.40)
(kois a coefficient that depends on ratio).
The analysis shows that value of Uc at Wc=const and qm=const determines the pressure maximum primarily in terms of
scattering coefficient oi. At low voltages, oi increases since the skin depth of the inductor and of the workpiece
increases (C goes up, egoes down), at high voltages oi increases since h I - the thickness of the inductor insulation
increases.
There exists an optimum voltage Uc at which oi is minimum, and Pm1 is close to maximum. For given geometry of the
inductor, the coefficient oi depends mainly on the calculated gap:
(5.41)
(hi is the insulation thickness between the inductor and the workpiece).
Therefore, Uc may be determined in accordance with the condition of the minimum calculated gap. From (5.41) we
have:
(5.42)
where
.
Applying the relationship between the cast insulation thickness and the nominal voltage we can obtain:
(5.43)
(k3 - is a coefficient, accounting for the reserve strength of the insulation). For epoxy insulation we assume =2.38x10-
11, n=1.6.
Finding an extremum of (Uc) we have:
(5.44)
If i=1.75x10-8, qm =0.8; k3 =3; =2.38x10-11, n=1.6 (epoxy insulation) formula (5.44) can be used to calculate the
nominal voltages Uopt =f(w , Wc, , Lself ). Fig. 32 shows the nomogram for determining Uc . The dashed lines represent
the nominal voltage of the capacitor bank.
In the case of a "semi-transparent" workpiece, when Aw >a w the value of Uc affects the attenuation coefficient kat only,
that drops from one to zero if Uc decreases lower than a certain value.



Fig.32
The determination of the EMF nominal voltage for a series of technological operations with variable electrical
conductivity of the workpieces is a highly complicated problem, that can not always be solved uniquely. The most
efficient range of voltages for the machines with 5-50 kJ energy and materials with a specific resistance of 1.75x10-8;
5x10-8 ohms-m is: a) for the "massive" workpieces Uc =4-12 kV; b) for the " semi-transparent" ones -- Uc =4 -30 kV. In
the last case the higher voltage is selected for the metal forming of the "semi-transparent" workpieces in the metal dies
or mandrels.


5.5 CAPACITOR BANK
Capacitor bank is the most expensive power unit of electromagnetic forming equipment.
It must satisfy the following requirements: 1) low self-inductance and ability to stand the high number of pulse
discharges; 2) minimum weight, dimensions and magnitude of the depreciation deductions for one process operation.
The parameters of the capacitor bank to a significant degree determine the technical and economic characteristics of the
EMF equipment (lifetime, operation cost, overall dimensions and weight). Hence, in order to design and select the
equipment right parameters of capacitor bank must be chosen.
The capacitor bank energy, Wc is the basic parameter that determines the number of capacitors, the overall dimensions
of the capacitor bank and weight. It can be determined from the required work of deformation for the heaviest and the
most complicated operation:
, (5.45)
where A - is the work of deformation. For the simplest shapes of the workpieces it can be found according to
expressions in section 3.1.
The calculations of the energy required for the forming process were performed on the machines of the Kharkov
Polytechnical Institute. They showed that in the case of optimal structural design of the inductor and the workpieces of
good conductivity, the efficiency can assume different values depending on the type of the operation, the material of
the workpiece, the deformation conditions (free forming, forming in a die), the die material, the size of the gap between
the inductor and the workpiece, the frequency of the discharge circuit and the diameter of the workpiece.



Fig. 33
The approximate values of the efficiency are listed in Table 4 for different operations; the characteristics of the low-
inductive pulse capacitors produced in the USSR are shown in Table 5 [8]. Figures 33 and 34 show the dimensions of
the low-inductive pulse capacitors used in electromagnetic forming equipment.

Fig. 34
To design the capacitor bank a number and type of capacitors can be determined in terms of basic parameters, Wc, Uc.
The number of capacitors:
(5.46)
where Wic - is the nominal energy of one capacitor. If (5.46) gives the fractional number, the number of capacitors
should be rounded to the larger number.
The capacitance of the capacitors will be calculated by the formula:
(5.47)
The inductance of nc capacitors connected in parallel is equal to:
, (5.48)
where Lk is the inductance of one capacitor.


Table 4.

Technological operation Efficiency,
%
Compression:
Free compression 10-25
Compression in a die or assembly; non-
conductive media outside the workpiece
4-8
Compression in a die or assembly; good 2-4
conductive media outside the workpiece
Bulging
Free bulging 10-25
Bulging in an insulated die 6-10
Bulging in a metallic die 4-8
Holes punching 2-4
Sheet metal forming
Faces bending 4-8
Forming 3-4
Hole punching 2-4
In order to select the number of capacitors, the guaranteed number of charges and the cost of capacitor depreciation
must be considered besides the specific characteristics.
Fig.35 shows the dependence of the specific cost of the capacitor bank S and N - the number of quarantined discharges
before breakdown. From that Figure the cost of one discharge can be determined:
(5.49)


Fig. 35 Fig. 36


This chart is constructed by the results of the experimental work of the capacitors in the nominal regime at Kharkov
Polytechnical Institute. If the charge voltage is less than the nominal one, the number of quarantined discharges
increases and can be approximated by:
, (5.50)
where W
pi
- is the energy of the capacitor bank required to perform one operation;
pi- is the number of discharges, performed at the energy level Wpi; np- is the empirical coefficient that depends on the
capacitor bank regime, usually np =2+3; Np-is the quarantined number of discharges for the nominal energy.

Example 1.
Given a capacitor bank with N =2000; W =20 kJ. It is proposed to perform three technological operations with the following energy distribution: 70 % of the
discharges for Wp1 =5kJ; 20%- fort Wp2 =10 kJ; 10%- fort Wp3 =20kJ. Then according to (5.50) we have:
discharges.

On introduction of EMF, it is necessary to consider the cost of the technological operation determined by capacitor
bank depreciation. Figure 36 shows the approximate relation for the cost of one discharge as a function of the energy
stored in the capacitor bank. The curve is plotted for the machine MUY-20 XPI, W=20kJ. The capacitors are of type
KIM-17; there are two capacitors. As shown in Figures 35 and 36, in order to perform a high number of operations at
the energy level close to nominal one, more expensive capacitors with the longer lifetime might be used. Then the cost
of one operation can be reduced.


5.6 BUSBAR
From the conditions of effective operation of the magnetic pulse device, the following requirements are imposed on the
busbar.
1. The structural design of the busbar must be mechanically strong and capable of withstanding large
electrodynamic forces.


2. The inductance of the busbar L
b
and the active resistance R
b
must minimized (should be no more than
20% of Lc, Rc.).


3. The elastic deformation of the current conductor of the busbar during the discharge process is not
permitted.


4. The temperature of insulation of the busbar must not exceed the admissible value of the temperature for
this insulation class for the maximum output capacity of EMF.
The busbar of the basic elements of the discharge circuit of the machine is made 1) from plane parallel closely arranged
buses; 2) of standard coaxial cable. The cost, the production time and the operation conditions determine the selection
of the busbar.
As the design experience showed the flat buswork doesnt have flexibility, requires the rigid mechanical clamping and
continuous care during work process. The coaxial buswork design performed from the parallel branches of coaxial
cables is slightly more expensive. However, the design comfort, smaller losses and internal force distribution between
the central vein and the shell give the preference to the cable buswork.


FLAT BUSBAR
Figure 37 shows the structural design of the flat busbar: 1, 2 - are the forward and return current conductors, 3-
insulation, 4 - the mounting elements.
Neglecting the edge effect (the current concentration at the edge of the buses), the inductance of the flat buses in Figure
38 can be determined by the formula:
, (5.51)
where hi -is the thickness of the insulation; l - is length of the bus; hb-is the width of the busbar; kb-is the coefficient
depending on the ha/hb ratio.
The value of kb can be determined form the following conditions:

ha/hb 0.05 0.1 0.2 0.5 1 2 5 10
kb 0.05 0.06 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.45 0.62 0.75

The inductance of the diverging buses (Fig. 38, b) can be calculated by the formula:
. (5.52)
Let's determine the active resistance of the flat busbar approximately:
, (5.53)
where b - is the specific electrical resistance of the bus material; b - is the equivalent depth of penetration of the
current.

Fig.37
If the load is concentrated in the center of the rectangular buses and the current is brought to the opposite sides of the
busbar (Fig. 38, c) the inductance of the rectangular bus is equal:
, (5.54)
where g= . If , the value of f(g) can be found from the conclusions presented below:


g 1 1.5 2 3 4 5 6
f(g) 0.22 0.11 0.06 0.15 0.33 0.58 0.92

If the width of the buses and the radius r1 are invariant, the buses with the width of the conductor equal to A has
the least inductance.

Fig. 38
The flat busbar experiences large dynamic loads during the discharge, therefore it has to be bolted (Fig.37). The
number of bolts pulling the buses together can be found from the relation:
, (5.55)
where Tt - is the discharge time constituent; Sb - is the bolt cross-section; lb- is the bolt length; mb- is the bolt mass; [o] -
is the admissible stress; E- is the Young modulus, fm-is the electrodynamic force acting on the buses,
(5.56)
(ku - is the shape factor of transverse cross-section of the rectangular buses).
The value of ku is found as a function of q= for Ab<<hb from the following conclusions

q 0.05 0.1 0.2 0.4 0.5 0.6
ku 0.10 0.18 0.35 0.6 0.68 0.74

The buses are made of the good conductive materials (copper, aluminum). It is possible to use the bimetall. For the
insulation between the buses textolite, glass-textolite, viniplast, polyfluoroethylene, lavsan and rubber are used. The
thickness of the solid insulation depends on the operating voltage.
Let us show the insulation thickness in the voltage range 5-30 kV:
Textolite, polyvinylchloride, glass textolite - hi=(4 -6 )mm;
Vacuum rubber - hi = (3-5) mm;
Polyfluoroethylene, lavsan, polyethylene - hi = (2-4) mm.
The insulation of the end sections of the buses (Fig. 37) is taken beyond their limits. It can reach up to li=50-200 mm in
the voltage range of 5-30 kV.

CABLE BUS
The cable type bus (Fig.38, g) allows to design the machines with relatively low inductance of the discharge circuit. Its
inductance can be determined from:
(5.57)
where Lcable - is the inductance of 1 meter of cable; nc - is the number of parallel cables.
The running inductance of certain types of cable used for the bus of the magnetic pulse device is shown in Table 6.
In the absence of the value of the running inductance it can be found from [28]:
(5.58)
To insulate the coaxial cables polyethylene is used. As the studies have demonstrated, the electric strength of the
polyethylene at t> 700C decreases significantly. Hence, to design the bus and operate the equipment, the cable
temperature has to be reduced. The number of parallel cables will be determined as the largest value off the following
two conditions:
a) The condition of thermal stability of the insulation:
, (5.59)
where Imax - is the maximum admissible prolonged current of the cable corresponding to the overheating temperature of
30-400C (for the most popular PK50-9-11 type cable Imax=35-40 A); tc - is the cycle time of the operation of the
magnetic pulse device;
Table 6.

Cable
type
Insulation
thickness,
mm
Diameter
of the
solid or
hollow
cable,
mm
The
outer
diameter
with
shielding
shell,
mm
Inductance
per 1m,
nH
Working
voltage,
kV
The
mean
working
field
intensity,
kV/mm
Life
cycle at
an
average
field
intensity,
pulses
Insulation
KHB1/75 8.0 15.0 40.0 160 120 15.0 104 Polyethylene
KHB1/75 6.5 17.2 40.0 140 75 11.5 105 Polyethylene
KHB1/50 2.5 4.1* 15.8 220 50 20.0 103 Polyethylene
KHB1/50 4.0 4.1* 17.2 230 50 11.1 104 Polyethylene
KHB1/35 7.2 22.2 42.2 110 35 4.9 107 Polyethylene
MKHBM
1/75
1.75 7* 14.6 100 30 17.0 104 Polyethylene
KHB1/20 6.5 4.1 - 310 20 3.1 108 Polyethylene
KHB1/20 5.5 11.0 27.5 138 100 18.0 104 Polyethylene
PK 50 9-
11
3.0 3.0 13.0 220 40 13.0 104 Polyethylene
b) The condition of the given inductance:
. (5.60)
When installing a cable bus, the mechanical stresses can occur in the insulation which are inadmissible in polyethylene,
since its electrical strength drops in this case.
End Splicing of Cables The inductance of the collectors with end cable splices is a significant proportion in the overall
bus inductance. Therefore it is necessary to design low- inductive end splices in the cables and low-inductive assembly
of small collectors.
The cable splicing length is determined by the magnitude of the discharge voltage over the surface of cable insulation.
Figure 39 shows the relation for the discharge voltages as a function of the length of the cable splices for the KHB 1/50
and PK50-9-11 types cables with the insulation thickness of 4 mm. Therefore the suitable length of the cable splices
can be found. For the chosen length the operating voltage must be 10-15% lower than the discharge voltage (Figure
39).
The structural design of the simple cable splices is shown in Figure 40. Here 1- is the forward current conductor of the
cable, 2- is the return current conductor, 3 - is the cable insulation, 4- is the protection tube, 5 - is the contact plate, 6 -
is the outer sheathing, 7 - is the clamping chuck , 8 - is the sectional contact cone, 9 - is the clamping plate.

Fig. 39

Fig. 40
Assuming the balance of the currents of all cables, the inductance of one row of cable splices (Figure 38) can be
determined from the expression:
, (5.61)
where N - is the number of cables, tk - is the spacing between the centers of the cable strands; r0 - is the radius of the
central cable strands; b0- is the spacing of the center of the cable strand from the return current.


5.7 CHARGING DEVICE

Irrespective of the accepted schematic and the operating conditions of the magnetic pulse device, the charging device
(ZU) must provide 1) the preset charge time; 2) high reliability of the equipment; 3) minimum cost of depreciation
deductions per single operation.
The capacitor bank can be charged by two principally different circuits: the charge from the invariant voltage source
supply; the charge from the invariant current source supply. In the first case the schematic of the charger is very simple
and consists of three basic elements: the step-up transformer, the rectifier and the current limiting device. The active or
inductive resistance connected to the rectifier circuit in series is used as the current limiting device. In the second case,
the additional elements providing the automatic control of the charge current are included. However, the second
schematic variant can provide the higher efficiency of the charge. Table 7 shows the approximate values of the
different efficiencies of the different circuits of the charging device.
Table 7.


Type of schematic Current limiting
device
Efficiency of the
charging device
Invariant voltage
power supply
Active resistance
Inductively active
resistance
0.3 - 0.5
0.5-0.7
Invariant current
power supply
Automatic current
control
0.7-0.9

In order to select the schematic of the charging device the economic expediency of creating the charging device with
high charge efficiency must be checked since this schematic results in the increase of cost of the elements of the
charging device.
The savings of the electric energy in rubles for I3 = const schematic instead of Us =const will be:
, (5.62)
where qc is the efficiency of the charging device with constant charge current supply (the efficiency of the charging
device with constant charge voltage supply is 0.5); a s - is the cost of one kWt x hour of electric energy; N c- is the
number of charge-discharge cycles of the magnetic pulse device to complete depreciation of the device.
The constant charge current schematic is economically expedient only in the case where
(5.63)
(AZ - is the difference in cost of the equipment of two investigated schematics).

Example. An equipment with the maximum energy Wc =20 kJ is designed. According to the annual production plan we calculate, that it has to have 300, 000
charge-discharge cycles with maximum energy annually. It has to be under operation for five years. Then Nd=300,000 x 5 =1,500 000:
doubles

The savings of electric power (75 rubles) during 5 years of operation does not compensate the expenses associated
with the additional increase in cost of charge device schematic. To design the machine the simplest charge circuit
schematic must be selected. The design and operation experience in Kharkov Polytechnics Institute has shown that the
single phase circuit with constant charge voltage is preferable in selecting the charge device.
Increasing the spacing between the high and low voltage windings at the core results in an increasing the dispersion
flux of the windings of the step-up transformer. The resulting inductive resistance can be used as the current limiting
device. Figure 41 shows the schematic for the recommended charge device with restriction of the charge current
achieved by means of increased scattering of transformer windings.

Fig. 41
Let us determine the required parameters of the charging device (CD) for the given machine characteristics (Wc, Cc, Uc,
U, t3, f, tz . For this purpose let us use the procedure developed by Kharkov Polytechnics Institute. On the simulator of
the charging device operating on a capacitive load ( in the experiment the capacitive load was replaced by a variable
counter e.m.f.), expressions were obtained for the relative values of the circuit currents of the charging device as a
function of the relative value of the counter e.m.f. The relative charge times and the typical value of the power of the
transformer versus relative counter e.m.f for the single half-period rectification schematic were calculated. On the basis
of the formulas obtained the following relative parameters providing the nominal transformer regime with the core
made of E42 transformer steel were obtained:

counter e.m.f value kck=0.8;
charging time t3=2.36;
the primary and secondary current values at charging time: I*=0.45.

The secondary voltage of the transformer can be determined from the following expressions:
, (5.64)
where Ub - is the maximum direct voltage instance on the rectifier. To choose Ub lets determine the parameters of the
rectifier.
The reverse voltage on the rectifier is:
; (5.65)
the mean value of the rectified current during the discharge time:
(5.66)
the same during the total charge cycle:
. (5.67)
Knowing I2cp, Uback, we can select the valve type and the number of its elements.
Silicon, germanium, selenium semi-conductive elements; thyratrons, gasotrones and high-voltage kenotrons are used as
rectifiers. As the design experience has shown, the most compact CD can be obtained when using the silicon semi-
conductive elements. Table 8 lists the basic electrical parameters of the silicon semi-conductive diodes at t0 =20 50C.
The selenium rectifiers can be used also. The kenotrons are not recommended as a result of x-ray radiation.
Table 8.


Type of
valve
Nominal
current, A
Maximum
return
voltage, V
Maximum
return
current,
mA
Maximum
drop in
voltage in
the forward
direction, V
Maximum
body
temperature,
0C
D205 0.4 400 0.05 1.0 +125
D211 0.1 600 0.1 1.0 +125
D217 0.1 800 0.05 0.5 +125
D218 0.1 1000 0.05 0.5 +125
D222 0.4 600 0.05 1 +125
D229B 0.4 400 0.05 1 +125
D230B 0.3 400 0.05 1 +125
D231 10 300 3.0 1 +130
D232 10 500 3.0 1 +130
D1004 0.1 2000 0.1 4 +140
D1005B 0.1 4000 0.1 6 +140
D1006 0.1 6000 0.1 6 +140
D1007 0.075 8000 0.1 6 +140
D1010 0.3 2000 0.1 1.1 +85
D1010A 0.3 1000 0.1 5.5 +85

The number of valve elements connected in series (columns):
, (5.68)
where - is the maximum return voltage on the rectifier (when selecting selenium rectifier the maximum ac voltage
must be substituted in (5.68)); kv- is the coefficient of the voltage fluctuation in the circuit, kv=1.1.
The number of valves connected in parallel can be determined from the condition of the maximum load of the rectifier:
, (5.69)
where kd - is the coefficient accounting for the non-uniform current distribution between the parallel branches ( for the
silicon semi-conductive valves kd =1.2); I B.N.- is the nominal valve current; kH - is the coefficient, accounting for the
valve load during the provisional time t3 (according to the ampere-second characteristic of the valve used)

Fig. 42
If the valves are connected in series, problems associated with the difference in the volt-ampere characteristics can
occur. Since valves connected in series have different return resistance and, hence, different return voltages, breakdown
of certain valves can occur. To prevent this, special auxiliary devices are used. An active resistance of 10-15 kO per
each 100V return voltage amplitude can be connected in parallel to each valve. To increase the reliability it is useful to
establish the return voltage to be 20% lower than its nominal value. If the diodes are connected in parallel, the
resistance of 5-8 O can be connected with each of them in series.

Fig. 43
Selenium rectifiers do not require the preset voltage and current distribution in the in series-parallel connection and
therefore they are widely used practically. Besides, the selenium rectifiers allow the short-time overloads, that are ten
times higher than the nominal ones. Table 9 lists the electrical parameters of the selenium rectifiers at t=200C. The
schematics of the valve connection is double-arm circuit diagram(Fig. 42). The overall dimensions are shown in Fig.
43.
The maximum direct voltage drop on the rectifier is:
, (5.70)
where n
E
is the number of elements in column; - is the direct voltage drop in one element (for the selenium
rectifier =(1.0-1.1 V).
Substituting (5.70) in (5.64) we can obtain . The transformation coefficient
. (5.71)



Table 9


Selenium
rectifier,
Max
alternating
voltage
Nominal
rectified
voltage,
Nominal
current
(mean)
Dimensions,
l1
Dimensions,
l2
Dimensions Accepted
temperat
Weight,
kg
type (effective),
V
V A 0C
30DD24A 720 275 0.15 165 144 30x30 75 0.15
30DD28A 840 320 0.15 185 164 30x30 75 0.17
30DD32A 960 370 0.15 210 186 30x30 75 0.2
40DD24A 720 275 0.3 180 154 40x40 75 0.26
40DD28A 840 320 0.3 200 176 40x40 75 0.3
40DD32A 960 370 0.3 220 198 40x40 75 0.34
40ED24G 840 325 0.3 180 154 40x40 80 0.26
40ED28G 980 380 0.3 200 176 40x40 80 0.3
40ED32G 1120 430 0.3 220 198 40x40 80 0.34
60DD24A 720 275 0.6 220 190 60x60 75 0.58
60DD28A 840 320 0.6 250 218 60x60 75 0.67
60DD32A 960 370 0.6 275 246 60x60 75 0.75
75DD24A 720 275 1.2 220 190 75x75 75 0.75
75DD28A 840 320 1.2 250 218 75x75 75 0.83
75DD24G 840 325 1.2 220 190 75x75 80 0.72
75DD28G 980 380 1.2 250 218 75x75 80 0.83
100DD164 480 185 2 195 160 100x100 75 0.76
100DD20A 600 230 2 225 194 100x100 75 0.95
100ED20G 700 270 2 285 194 100x100 80 0.95
100ED24G 840 325 2 255 224 100x100 80 1.11
100HD20G 800 310 2 255 194 100x100 80 0.95
100HD24G 960 370 2 255 224 100x100 80 1.11
100KD20G 900 360 2 255 194 100x100 80 0.95
100KD24G 1080 430 2 255 224 100x100 80 1.11

The actual values of the primary and secondary currents during the total cycle are:
; (5.72)
. (5.73)
The standard transformer power is:
. (5.74)
The required charge inductance reduced to the secondary winding of the transformer is:
. (5.75)
Then the reactive component of the short-circuit voltage is:
100%, (5.76)
where
Uv=U2; Iv= .
The transformer with given increased scattering reactance ep is designed with alternating low and high voltages
windings. The magnetic carrier usually is a core type circuit. It is recommended to place the low and high voltage
windings equally on both cores in the form of insulated sections; the low-voltage winding near the armature, and the
high-voltage winding at the center. The sectional high-voltage winding can ease the winding insulation problem and
allows to design the transformer with an output charge voltage of 5, 10, 15, 20 kV by simple switching of the windings.
By varying the distance between the high voltage and low voltage windings, the primary charge current can be
regulated. The calculation of the windings on the design of the transformer can be found elsewhere.
The transformer and the CD rectifier can be placed in a common tank or in the individual tanks filled with transformer
oil.
The efficiency of the charging device with inductive-active limiting current schematic is typically 0.6-0.7.
The operation experience shows that this CD schematic operates highly reliably, providing the required work cycle in
the range of accumulated energies of 10-100 kJ.

5.8 COMMUTING DEVICE

To control the beginning of the discharge, an ignitron, thyratron, vacuum and different air three-electrode dischargers
(trigatrones) are used, and also various two-electrode mechanical switches are used.
The diagram of the switching device must provide: 1) minimum inductance and active resistance of the main circuit;
2)the high fitness; 3) easy replaceability of the worn parts (electrodes); 4) low-inductive attachment of the busbar; 5)
the ability to switch the currents up to 200 kA at the frequencies of 5-50 kHz.
The three-electrode air dischargers and ignitron switches are the most typical for EMF. The vacuum three-electrode
dischargers despite some advantages if compared to the air dischargers (longer service life, low self-inductance), have
not found broad application in EMF for the necessity for constant pumping of the discharger to the residual pressures of
10-2-10-3 torr that prevents from their application in the machines with high output capacity.
Three-electrode air switches. Due to the absence of industrially produced three-electrode switches that are in
accordance with specifications, dischargers are used which were specially manufactured for the Soviet EMF devices.

Fig. 44
Figure 44 shows the design of a three-electrode discharger of the MUY-20XHU [4, 58] machine. It consists of the
upper cover 1 that is fastened to the process bench 2, and the housing 3. The upper cover has an opening for connecting
the contact output of the inductor. The inductor housing is connected to the upper cover of the discharger, and the
central inductor lead is connected to the discharger contact lead 4. The parallel-connected coaxial cables 10, connecting
the discharger to the capacitor bank are fastened to the lower part of the housing by rings 11, 12, 13 and bolts 14. The
outer braids of the cables are connected to the housing. The insulators 5, 9, the sleeve 7 and the housing of the lower
electrode 8 are located inside the housing. The lead of the discharger 4 is clamped against the contact lead of the
inductor using the springs 6. The main electrodes of the discharger 17, 18 are made of copper. The ignitron
electrode 16 is fastened to the insulator 19 in the central part of the contact lead of the of discharger. The discharger is
fired through the coaxial cable 21.
The main electrodes of the discharger and the ignitron electrode are conveniently replaced during the service. The
discharger provides the current commutation within the operating voltage range of 5-20 kV.
The structural design of the dicharger provides the possibility of varying the length of the spark gap as a function of the
operating voltage. The length of the spark gas is preset semi-automatically using the contact lead of the inductor. The
electrode of the inductor, being clamped to the contact lead of the discharger determines the length of the spark gap
between two main electrodes by pressing the switch contact.
The electrodes of the discharger can be cooled down by passing compressed dry air through channels 15, 20.

Basic electrical characteristics of the Discharger:
Self-inductance 50 nH
Operating voltage 4-25 kV;
Output capacity up to 360 operations/hour;
Maximum discharge energy up to 30 kJ.

Fig. 45
Fig.45 shows the design of the low-inductive three-electrode discharger for MIY -20/4 PP machine. The positions
numbers and the names of the basic parts of the discharger are the same as in Fig. 44.
The basic distinguishing feature of this discharger is the low inductive execution of the coaxial conductor. The coaxial
cable 10 from the capacitor bank is connected to the housing of the discharger from the direction of the upper cover 1.
The current in the central conductor of the coaxial cable passes through the spark gap between the main electrodes 17,
18 and then comes back through the internal conductor 22 to the output of the discharger 4, that is connected to the
contact lead of the inductor. The second end of the inductor is connected to the braid of the coaxial cable through the
upper cover 1 over the shortest distance. In addition to lowering the inductance the return current
conductor 22 provides electrodynamic effect on the arc that on response of the commutator shifts from the central part
of the main electrode to the annular part. As the operating experience has shown, by moving the arc, the more uniform
wear of the main electrodes is achieved. With an output capacity of the magnetic pulse device of 100 and more
operations per hour, the main electrodes are blown with compressed dry air through the holes of the internal
conductor 22.

Basic electrical characteristics of the discharger:
Self-inductance 20 nH;
Working voltage 4-25 kV;
Output capacity up to 360 operations/hour;
Maximum discharge energy up to 30 kJ.

Fig. 46
Figure 46 shows the structural design of the industrially produced ignitron discharger of IRT-1. As follows from Table
12, the discharger is used in the ENIKMASH and Kharkov Polytechnics Institute EMF machines as the switching
device. The metal housing - the ignitron cathode - consists of the outer 8 and the inner 9 cylindrical shells. The hollow
spacing between the shells is filled with circulating water through the union nipple 7, 14 for cooling purposes. The
water flow rate in the nominal regime is 1 liter per minute. The upper part of the housing is welded to the contact
flange 6 , the lower part is welded to the bottom 10 through the faced washer 13. The molybdenum anode of the
ignitron 16 is led out to the outer surface by means of the contact rod 3 and the glass wall insulator 4.
The outer busbar is connected to the anode by means of the washers 1, 2 and the clamping nut 19. The housing - the
ignitron cathode is connected to the busbar by the washer 5 and the bolts 18. The igniting electrode 11 is inserted into
the volume 15 , filled with mercury through the wall insulator 12. The technical specifications for the IRT-1 ignitron
are listed in Table 10.
Ignition device. The three-electrode dischargers - the thyratron and ignitron require the special ignition devices. The
voltage pulse is fed to the ignition electrode, and it is formed by special ignition devices. Fig. 47, a illustrates the
simplest schematic of the ignition device. The ignition capacitance C is charged from the step-up transformer
Tp through the resistance R. The ignition capacitance discharges through the ignition electrode by pushing the switch
button KY. A disadvantage of this schematic is the complexity of the high-voltage commutation by the button KY and
the impossibility of synchronizing the starting of the device with the oscilloscope and the other measuring devices.
Fig. 47, b shows the ignition schematic for the MIY-20 KhPI machine, that consists of the pulse transformer IT. The
precharged capacitance C2 is discharged to the primary winding of the transformer through the controlled thyristor T1.
The pulse transformer has a core made of material with rectangular hysteresis loop and a magnetization winding for
more complete use of the material of the magnetic circuit. In the bias circuit there is a barrier choke DP, that protects
the feed circuit from the pulse inductions. The normally open contact of the relay P that drives the voltage from the
capacitance C1 to the igniting electrode T1, is closed after response of the automation unit. The high-voltage igniting
pulse with an amplitude of 25 kV is formed in the secondary winding of the pulse transformer IT. The schematics
provides the reliable response of the commutator and the magnetic pulse device with different tolerances between the
main electrodes in the range of 3-20 kV.

Fig. 47
Tp-transformer; KY- ignition button; IT-pulse transformer; Dp-choke
An igniting device with automobile ignition coil (spark coil) is used in the machines. The schematic (Fig. 47, b)
operates as follows. On pushing the ignition button KY the alternating voltage goes to the primary winding of the
igniting transformer Tp; from the secondary winding it goes through the rectifier to the winding of the spark coil. A
pulse from the high-voltage winding fires basic discharger of the device.
Automatic Ignition Device. In the magnetic pulse device the ignition system is usually supplied with an automatic
ignition device that automatically stops further charging and simultaneously gives the command to fire the discharger
after the capacitor bank reaches a preset energy. The automatic control block of MIY -20 SPI consists of a voltage relay
with the controller [15].
The charge energy depends on the voltage of the capacitor bank, therefore the voltage controls the stored energy. The
high-voltage booster resistance is used for that purpose. The semi-conductor voltage relay is a highly sensitive dc
amplifier that has an electromagnetic relay connected at its output. The dc amplifier consists of three amplifying
cascades assembled from the semi-conductor triodes. A stabilitron with the voltage drop used as a source of reference
threshold voltage is included in the emitter circuit of the input triodes. To increase the reliability of schematic and
prevent it from false responses with an increase in ambient temperature, a diode is included in the triode emitter circuit.
The direct voltage drop on the diode is used to provide the positive bias to the base. The automatic ignition works as
follows.
Table 10

Basic electrical parameters Maximum values
Anode voltage, kV
no more than
10
Anode pulse current, kA 100
Pulse repetition frequency,
pulse/min
10
Number of chargers in 103
maximum regime
Voltage pulse amplitude in the
ignitron circuit, kV
not less than
not more than
2
3
Current pulse amplitude in the
ignitron circuit, A
not less than
no more than
200
300
Negative voltage in the ignitron
circuit, kV
5
Voltage pulse duration, m/s
not less than
20
Accepted single pulse
(emergency regime), kA
200
The voltage of the capacitor bank is divided in a defined proportion (set up by switch P) by means of the voltage
divider and goes to the input of the voltage relay. With accumulating the charge the input voltage reaches the response
threshold of the device. Then the relay contacts PH connected at the output of the circuit close. The relay contacts
commute the circuits controlling the disconnection of the charging unit from the power supply and ignition of the
discharger. The controller has 15 positions corresponding to 15 discrete values of the capacitor bank energy values in
the operating range of 1.5-20 kJ.


5.9 BUILT-IN-SAFETY
Since the energetic blocks with the voltage of 4-30 kV are used the general safety regulations provided by " The Rules
for Technical Maintenance and Safety of Servicing the Electrical Equipment with a Voltage of 1000 V" are required.
The present section provides special safety questions only determined by EMF features.
As the operating experience shows, EMF built-in safety must provide:
1. Disconnection of the device from the network and discharge of the capacitor bank in the presence of an
open access to the high-voltage circuits (the capacitor bank doors are opened etc.)


2. Disconnection of the device from the network and shunting of the capacitor bank when installing and
removing the workpiece;


3. Protection of the service personnel if a disposal inductor is destroyed;


4. Protection of the service personnel if the multi-time inductor is destroyed in the emergency operating
regime of the magnetic pulse device (the charge of the capacitor bank is higher than the preset value);


5. Protection of the service personnel if the workpiece experiences the high voltage (breakdown of the
inductor);


6. Protection of the low-voltage circuits from the commutation over-voltages during the work cycle;


7. Protection of the service personnel from the effect of the pulse magnetic fields on the organism.
Fig. 48 shows the EMF built-in-safety elements according to these requirements. The complex consists of the
electromagnetic short-circuiting device 2, a ball discharger 3, a protective housing 4, a capacitor shorting bar 5and the
over-voltage fault 6.
As the operation experience has demonstrated, the protection system reliably protects of the service personnel. When
the workpiece is removed with the housing 4 opened the high-voltage circuit closes twice by the short-circuiting
contacts 1, 2 to the discharge resistance 7. To do so the contact blocks of the mechanical short-circuiting device must
break the firing circuit of the magnetic pulse device.

Fig. 48
C- storage capacity; 3- a controller; BA- the automation module; BH Y- the igniting circuit; DH - the voltage divider; H PY- the start regulator; H Y-the high-
voltage transformer; BY- the rectifying device; K3- the short-circuiting device; U - the inductor
The machine can be turned on and the electromagnetic timing circuit can be on only after the safety housing 4 and all
the doors are closed. In the "bulging" type operation the halves of the outer dies can be used as the protective housing.
The material of the protective housing is steel 3-5 mm thickness or aluminum 8-10 mm thickness.
If it is necessary to observe the operation of the inductor, the inspection window is protected by impact resistant
organic glass no less than 20 mm thick. The ball discharger 3 mechanically connected to the axis of the energy
controller provides the reliable personnel protection if the capacitor bank charge is higher than the preset energy level.
The magnitude of the air gap between the ball electrodes is selected in such a way, that if the voltage becomes higher
than a preset one the air gap breaks down and the capacitors will discharge through the discharge resistance. The table
shows the breakdown voltage of the ball discharger at the atmospheric pressure of 760 torr and an air temperature of
200C for ac and dc voltages. The ball diameter is 20 mm.

Distance
between
balls, mm
0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0 7.0 10
Breakdown
voltage,
kV
2.8 4.7 6.4 8.0 11.2 14.4 17.4 23.2 30.7
To protect the low-voltage circuits from the over-voltages, the shunting capacitors 6 of 4-6 F capacitance and a
voltage of 1000V are used. The schematic must provide the light signals 8, 9 that prevent the service personnel from
connecting the short circuiting devices and turning on the pilot ignitron switch.
To protect the main circuit from dangerous over-heating occurring in the case of a break in the insulation of the
transformer windings of the charger, the thermal relays are used. To protect the main and the auxiliary circuits during
short-circuiting the fuses are usually used.
The service personnel must be protected from the effects of the pulse magnetic fields. The highest accepted level of the
pulse magnetic field intensity in the work area is 100 A/m for frequencies from 1 to 30 kHz [6].
The main sources of the pulse magnetic fields are primarily the inductors, the bus leads, the switches and the
capacitors. If the discharger, the busbars and the inductor clamps are of coaxial design, the inductor is the basic source
of the pulse magnetic field in the machine zone.
The inductors must be designed and operated with the proper protective shield.
1. In the bulging-type operation the inductor is placed inside the workpiece. In that case the role of the shield
is performed by the workpiece and partially, the split metal die. The process must be designed in such a
way that the tubular workpiece protrudes along its length beyond the ends of the inductor. If this cannot
be done by design conditions, the good conducting shielding rings must be used (Fig.27). If during
forming of the "semi-transparent" workpieces these safety measures are low- effective, it is necessary to
use outside.


2. To perform the "compression"-type operations the outside cylindrical hood-screen must be used. It should
be longer than the inductor coil or the concentrator and be covered on the ends by disks with a hole for the
workpiece.


3. To perform the "sheet metal forming"-type operation metal disks must be applied to the ends of the die
squeezed by the press and the inductor, and from the side the inductor must be shielded by a solid metal
ring.
It is possible to use a protective hood to keep the service personnel from rupturing the inductor coil as the outer shield
for all three types of operations. The efficiency of the outside shield depends on its material and structural design. The
well annealed low-carbon steel no less than 1 mm thickness is typically used.
The structural design of the local shields or the hood-screen design must provide continuity of the induced current.
Long slits and inspection openings that cross the path of the induced current significantly reduce the shielding
efficiency.
The magnetic field intensity in the working zone can be measured by the induction technique [6].


5.10 SCHEMATIC AND STRUCTURAL DESIGN OF THE MAGNETIC PULSE DEVICE

Depending on the energy stored in the capacitor bank, the schematic solution and the purpose of the device, the parts of
the magnetic pulse device can be assembled in the same unit with the process equipment or in separate, structurally
disconnected units.
Considering the weight and the overall dimensions of the parts of the magnetic pulse device and also the safety and
maintenance purposes, the following design can be recommended for all-purpose magnetic pulse unit (Table 11.).
The presence of several modules allows to place the EMF parts in different compartments according to fire safety
requirements. The capacitor bank module is connected to the process unit by a coaxial cable. In the cases where by
process conditions the operating inductor must be removed far away from the capacitor bank (more than 5m away), the
high-frequency oscillations with an amplitude twice as high as the charge voltage can occur in the inductor winding
(transient regime).
Table 11.

Energy stored, kJ Number of blocks Purpose of unit
2-10


10-20
1


2
Capacitor bank and
high-voltage power
supply block
Inductor and control
panel block
20-100 3 Capacitor bank and
high-voltage block
Process equipment
and operating
inductor
Control panel block
Table 12 lists the technical specifications of EMF machines designed in the USSR and abroad.

Fig. 49 Fig. 50
Fig. 49 shows the overall schematic of the MIY-20/5 KhPI machine. It consists of two blocks: 1 - capacitor bank, the
charger and the high-voltage power supply; and 2- is the control panel, the inductor and the commuting device (in
front). The blocks can be 2-3 m apart.
Table 12

Machine type Max
energy
stored,
kJ
Nominal
voltage,
kV
Self
frequency
of
discharge
circuit,
kHz
Productivity
operations/
hour
Capacitor
type
Switch
type
Number
of
switches
Weight,
kg
Dimensions
(service
area), m2
Purpose
HPI

MIY-6 6 6 20 360 MIOM-4 mech
trigatron
1 800 1.2x1.0 General
MIY-20/1 20 20 50 360 KIM-6m - 1 2400 3.0x3.0 -
MIY-20/5 20 20 50 360 KIM-17 - 1 1500 2.0x3.0

IY-20/4PP 20 20 60 360 KIM-17 - 1 1550 2.0x3.0 Tube
welding
IY-20/PH 10 10 20 80 KIM-17b - 1 1600 3.0x3.0 Metal
forming
with
preheating
MIY-30 30 20 50 200 KIM-17 - 1 2000 4.0x3.0 General
MIY-100 100 20 30 60 KIM-17 - 10 5500 10.0x2.3 -
MIY-0506/1 5 6 30 600 IK-6-150 ignitron
IRT-1
2 300 1.2x1.0 -
ENIKMASH
MIYA 10/5
10 5.2 24 600 IK-6-150 ignitron
IRT-2
1 1600 3.5x3.5 -
MIYA-20/5 20 5.2

420 - -

2310 3.3x3.5 -
MIYA 40/10 40 9.5

360 - -

4200 5.0x5.5 -
MIYA 80/10 80 9.5

240 - -

6215 7.3x5.0 -
Different
companies

MIY-3.5 3.5 5

250 IMY-5-
140
trigatron 1 352 2.0x1.5 General
MIC-5 40 30 150 100

1600 3.5x2.5 Sealing of
heat
exerting
elements
USA
"Magneform"
Type-1
3 8.3 - 360 - ignitron - 550 - General
Type-12 12 8.3 - 360 - - - 1200 - -
Type-24 24 8.3 - 360 - - - - - -
Type-48 48 8.3 - - - - - - - -
Type-84 84 8.3 - - - - - - - -
DDR
R-1
5.5 19.1 40 - - - - 900 - -
CSSR
Electromagnetic
press "Elmag"
7.5 10 15 - - - - 800 - -






Fig. 50 shows the overall view of MIY-0506/1 KhPI machine. It is assembled in the same unit including capacitors and
IRT-type ignitron dischargers.
Fig. 51 shows the circuit diagram of MIY-20/5 KhPI EMF machine. It can be connected to a line voltage of 380 V or to
a phase voltage of 220 V depending on the consumed energy. This can be performed by the package switch PP that has
three positions: 380 V, O (disconnected) and 220 V. When energy is supplied to the control panel the signal lamp LZ
and the display TC are lighted. That means that the high-voltage capacitor C is grounded and that there is no high
voltage on it. The contacts VK-1, VK-2 are blocking contacts; they are closed on closure of the bay doors of the
capacitor bank. The schematic works as follows: on pressing the "Start" button the short-circuiting electro-magnet pulls
the armature and the main contacts KZ closed; the "grounded" light display goes out since contact block KZ 1-25 open;
the intermediate relay 1RP is connected through the NO contact blocks 91-27 the contact block 91-27; supplying power
to the coil of the 2KL contactor. The "Start" button is shunted by the contacts 1RP (1-9). The primary winding of the
transformer Tp1 is turned on by the main contacts 2KL to the network voltage. A red signal lamp LK is switched on.
The contacts 27-29 of the relay 1RP prepare the relay circuit 3RP for inclusion. The capacitor bank C is charged. Its
voltage increases up to the value preset by controller BA. The voltage is controlled by a kilovolt-kilojoule meter
connected to the capacitor bank through the divider DH. When the charge voltage reaches the preset value the
electromagnetic relay responds at the output of the BA automation unit. This relay, deenergizing the 2KL coil,
disconnects the power transformer Tp1 from the network. Simultaneously the contacts RN (1-27) turn on the relay
3RP. The latter triggers and after closing NZ, the contact module 2KL (27-29) turns on the relay RP. The pre-charged
battery C1 of the igniting circuit discharges through the pulse igniting transformer.
The heating capacitance C3 for increasing the energy of the ignition pulse is connected to the secondary winding of the
pulse transformer. The capacitance C4 is used for protection of capacitor from discharge through transformer. A high-
voltage ignitron pulse with an amplitude of 25 kv is formed on the discharger. The counter of the number of
dischargers SCh, responding to the RKZ contacts (37-35) indicates the next discharge number. The normally closed
contacts RK3 (11-13 and 191-192) disconnect the contactor 2KL and the short-circuiting device KZ. The latter closes
the main contacts and shunts the storage element, removing the possible residual charge of the capacitors. The contacts
1-25 switch on the grounded display TS. When it is necessary to disconnect the device with charged storage element
without discharge to the inductor it is necessary to push the "high-voltage deenergizier" button. Then the KZ short-
circuiting device is deenergized, and its main contacts close the capacitor bank to the ballast resistance SR.
In working with the remote control panel the jumper 9-99 is removed. In this case the device is controlled using the
redundant "Start" and "high-voltage deenergizer" buttons located on the remote panel.
In case of failure in the operation of the automation unit and continuing increase in the charge voltage in the main
circuit of the device, in order to avoid damage to the insulation, a rectifier protection unit against overvoltage is
provided. The ball discharge ShR is connected in series to the ballast resistance SRl. The magnitude of the gap ShR is
established so that the voltage is higher than that required to break down the ball discharger and the capacitor bank is
shunted. In series with the resistance SRl there is a current relay RMT, through the winding of which a current flows
proportional to the discharge current of the storage element. On response of the relay, the device is completely
disconnected. In order to protect the power circuit against overvoltages occurring discharge of the storage element,
three capacitors K are connected at the input of the circuit.
The thermal protection is realized using RT-1, RT-2 relays. In the case of short circuits the device is protected by the
PR1, PR2 tubular protectors.

Fig. 51
1. 220/380 volts, 50 hertz; 2. PP network; 3. 2KL; 4. RT...; 5. PR...; 6. start; 7. high-voltage deenergizer; 8. SD...; 9. 2RP; 10. 1RP; 11. RMT; 12. RN; 13. RK3;
14. 2RP; 15. grounded; 16. power supply module; 17. automation module; 18. choke; 19. RK (without copper braiding); 20. RK50-9-11 (RK-106) cable; 21.
volts; 22. RMT.
An electric circuit diagram of the MIU-0506/1 machine is presented in Fig. 52. The notation for the basic elements of
the circuit is analogous to the notation for the described MIU-20/5 circuit. The device is connected to 380 volts line
voltage. The capacitor bank C is charged from a single-halfperiod circuit. In order to decrease the natural inductance of
the device, two IRT-l type ignitrons are used as the commutator in the circuit, the ignition of which is realized from the
ignition circuit. The igniting pulse, just as in the preceding circuit, is fed by including the RR contact C4-16, as a result
of which the RL discharger responds, and the charged capacitance C7 of the ignition storage element discharges to the
controlling electrodes of the ignitrons. The circuits C3R3-R4; C4R6, R7 are used to insure reliable parallel ignition of
two dischargers. The signal, protection, automation, measurement and control circuits are analogous to the circuitry of
the MIU-20/5 device. The operator switches on the discharger for the unit by both hands for which two "Start" buttons
are used simultaneously. Emergency disconnection of the unit is accomplished by the "high-voltage deenergizer"
button. When this switch is thrown, the in-house power supply for the unit is disconnected, and the short-circuiting
device KZ shunts the capacitor bank.



5.11 OPERATION AND SERVICE
When operating in the automatic regime by the previously developed process program, the magnetic pulse device is
serviced by one operator; when developing the process regime and adjusting the device two qualified persons must be
working together. The qualifications of the person responsible for the work being done must be no less than group IV,
and the qualifications of the operator, no lower than group III.
It is categorically forbidden for one person to work on a failed unit and to provide service and maintenance procedures
while being alone. On introduction of new process equipment, changing the structural design of the workpiece, it is
necessary to go through a brief temporary instruction period with respect to the technical maintenance and service
safety.
The area of the magnetic pulse facility, the width of the capacitors must correspond to the safety precautions imposed
upon facilities for electrical units operating above 1000 V. The artificial lighting for the magnetic pulse device must
correspond to the requirements of the "construction Norms and Rules" P-A N0 0-71.
The section equipped with the magnetic pulse device can be located directly in the production shop, but in this case
there should be a barrier preventing entry of outside people.
The inside contour of the device must be reliably connected to the outside qround by copper or iron solid cable with the
16 mm2 in cross-section. If the control panel and the capacitor bank cabinets are separated, the connecting coaxial cable
must be placed in a metal grounded jacket to protect the cable from mechanical damaging.
There should be a set of protective means: 1) insulating cords that can stand the maximum operating voltage of the
magnetic pulse device no less than one meter long to perform the high-voltage operations and to make temporary
ground; 2) insulating wires for removing and installing the tubular protectors; 3) dielectric gloves and boots; 4) portable
dielectric rugs; 5) protective glasses with plain glass; 6) two carbon dioxide fire extinguishers.
The structural design of the protective means, the conditions of their maintenance and application must satisfy the "
Rules of Using and Testing Protective Devices", that are used in electrical installations.
If "trigatron" type switches are used for the high-productivity machines the noise, created by them must be limited and
the air-cooling of the switch must be provided. The air is directed perpendicular to the axis of the electric discharge
between the electrodes. The removed air must be discharged into the atmosphere above the roof of the shop building

Fig. 52
1. PP, L1, 2KL, RT1; 2. high-voltage deenrgizer; 3. 220 volts; 4. power supply pack; 5. DR1 choke; 6. KI1; 7. I; 8. KZK; 9. voltage divider; 10. RMT; 11. D9 to
D13 diodes; 14. automation unit; 15. network; 16. high voltage; 17. grounded; 18. L3; 19. PK; 20. TC; 21. ignitron module; 22. 24 volts; 23. 1PH .
The operator is obligated to trace the instrument readings and the condition of the inductor. Operation with a damaged
inductor is categorically forbidden. If the short-circuiting doesnt respond or there is no light signal about it, it is
forbidden to remove a workpiece or to perform any operation without high-voltage circuit grounding, machine shut-
down and capacitor bank shunting.
On deformation of very long workpieces it is forbidden to touch the workpiece parts outside the protective housing
during operation of the device.
If any problem such as crackling in the capacitor bank, a spark in the control panel, a visible spark in the inductor
contacts, failure of the signal system, apparent deviation of the deformation of the workpiece from the norm, it is
necessary to disconnect the device immediately.
Failures are eliminated in the presence of the person responsible for the operations performed on the device.











CHAPTER 6
INDUCTOR - A TOOL FOR ELECTROMAGNETIC METAL FORMING


6.1 INDUCTORS CLASSIFICATION
According to performed operations inductors can be divided into three groups:
1) designed for compression of workpieces by magnetic field energy (blocks assembly, hood compression, tube
reduction);
2) applied for bulging operations by means of magnetic field (assembly, flanging, punching holes in the side wall of the
workpiece);
3) flat stamping (flanging, cutting, recessing).
According to operating principle inductors are divided into single-stage, multi-stage inductors and inductors with direct
feed of the current to the forming workpiece.
The single-stage inductors have an operating winding (single-turn or multi-turn) that creates magnetic field that acts
directly on the workpiece. In multi-stage inductors the operating winding does not transfer the pressure directly to the
formed workpiece. In this case the deformation the deformation is achieved through the intermediate turn, that is
inductively connected to the operating winding and forming workpiece. The forming effect in an inductor with direct
current leak is a result of dynamics effect of the current leaking in the current carries and workpiece, that are connected
in series.

Fig. 53
According to their design all inductors can be divided into the following groups: 1) helical; 2) with magnetic field
concentrators; 3) single-turn; 4) single-turn with matching device; 5) coaxial; 6) loop-type.
Inductors of the first group can have cylindrical, conical, flat or any other shape according to their technological
operation. The operating winding is made of an insulated conductive bus of rectangular cross-section or by machining
the helical turns with their subsequent insulation. The design of helical inductors is shown in Fig.53: 1- the inductors
spiral; 2- insulation; 3 - workpiece. Fig. 53, a shows the expansion coil; Fig. 53, b - compression coil; Fig. 53.c shows
the pancake coil.
The magnetic field concentrators for inductors of second group can include concentrators with smooth cylindrical
surface with helical turns or annular grooves.
The operating winding of the concentrator with smooth surface is performed similarly to the inductors helix. Magnetic
field concentrator is placed inside or outside of the operating winding of inductor. In the remaining cases the winding is
laid in the corresponding slots of the concentrator. Fig. 54 shows some examples of inductors+concentrators design,
where 1 is a workpiece; 2-is a winding and 3 is a concentrator.

Fig. 54
Fig. 54 shows the inductors with magnetic field concentrators with smooth cylindrical surface; inductors with ring and
helical-type slots for bulging, inductors for compression and sheet metal forming.
Single-turn solenoids (third group) are designed as a massive single turn of cylindrical shape ( for bulging and
compression) or as a flat turn (for sheet metal forming). Low energetic characteristics of these systems prevent them
from wide application. Single-turn systems are usually used with matching devices. An example of single-turn solenoid
is shown in Fig. 55.

Fig. 55
Inductors of the fourth group are similar to the magnetic field concentrators, but in those systems there are clamping
devices that provide a reliable connection of single-turn inductors. Sometimes the matching device is designed in one
with the single-turn solenoid.
Different types of single-turn inductors with matching transformers are shown in Fig. 56. Fig. 56, a, b shows the single-
turn inductors with matching transformers, where the windings are placed in the helical and ring-type slots ( 1- single-
turn inductor with transformer; 2 - workpiece; 3- winding).
Fig. 57 shows coaxial inductors with direct current access to the workpiece, Fig. 58 shows the loop-type inductor for
bulging. Each inductor has a device for connecting the operating winding to the machine, shielding hoop and also the
device for mechanical reinforcing of the whole system.

Fig. 56






6.2 BASIC REQUIREMENTS FOR EMF INDUCTORS


An inductor must provide:
1. High conversion coefficient of the capacitor bank energy to the work of deformation of the workpiece;


2. High mechanical resistance to the dynamic forces during forming process;


3. Optimal frequency of the discharge current;


4. Required magnetic field distribution or concentration in the work zone;


5. Resistance to the electrical over-voltages;


6. Reliable connection to the leads of the EMF machine;


7. Simple design performance.

Fig. 57 Fig. 58



6.3 MATERIALS USED TO MANUFACTURE THE INDUCTORS

Metals of good conductivity, their alloys, insulation materials and materials used for constructive elements are used.
Insulation materials in the inductors perform two main functions:
1) they are used as inter-turn ( inter-winding) or body insulation; 2) they are used as a mean to create the preliminary
mechanically stressed connection of current conductive parts.
Lavsan, ftoroplast and polymid films, mica, glasstextolite, different epoxies and composites; glass fibers pottered into
epoxy are typically used.
Materials for the solenoid and the body of inductor with magnetic field concentrator must have the high electrical
conductivity and high mechanical characteristics. From the electrical conductivity point of view copper is the suitable
material, but it has low mechanical parameters, so the more mechanically strong materials have to be used. These are
brass, bronze and low carbon steels.
Good results can be obtained in case of beryllium bronzes, zirconium and cadmium coppers, and also pure materials
with high strength such as tungsten and molybdenum. Zirconium copper is especially perspective, since its electrical
conductivity is only 10-15% lower that coppers one, but mechanical parameters are 3-4 times higher.
For constructive elements of inductors such materials as low-carbon steels, textolite, delta-wood, glass-epoxy
composites, ftoroplast and others are being used.
The main electrical and mechanical characteristics of metals and alloys are listed in Table 13. Electrical and mechanical
parameters of insulation materials - in Table 14.


Table 13

Material Density
x103kg/m3
Specific
resistance
at 00x10-
8, Omm
Ultimate
strength
x108
newton/
m2
Young
modulus
x1010,
N/m2
Heat
capacity
x102
Joule/kg
0C
Melting
point,
0C
Thermal
coefficient
of
resistivity,
x10-3
Aluminum 2.7 2.62 1.5 7.2 0.95 660 4.2
Beryllium
bronze
8.22 7.2-9.0 3.4-4.6 - 0.14 - -
Tungsten 19.3 3.1 10-30 35 0.14 3410 4.2
Duralumin 2.75 3.3 3.5 7.1 0.93 650 2.2
Cadmium 8.64 7 0.7-0.9 5-7 0.23 321 4.3
Brass L68 8.5 7 4-6 11 0.38 900 1.5
Brass L62 8.9 7.2 4.1-6.4 10 - 900 -
Brass L59 8.9 7.2 3.4-4.2 9-10 - 900 -
Solid copper 8.7 1.58 4.1 11-63 1 1083 4.3
Cadmium
solid drawn
copper
8.9 2.1 6 12.6 - - 4
Molybdenum 10.2 4.5-5 14-25 35 0.272 2.620 4.3
Silver 10.5 1.5 3.8 7.5 0.234 960 4
Steel 7.8 10-33 4-6 21-22 0.47 1300 9
Nickel 8.5 7.2 4-4.5 21 0.46 1450 6.1
XOT Alloy 8.87 2.5-2.9 7-7.5 11 - 1200 -
Zirconium
bronze
8.85 2.08 48 13.7 - 1250 -
Zr 0.4

Table 14

Name and type of
dielectric
Density
x103kg/m3
Operating
temperatures
limits, 0C
Breakdown
voltage
x103 kV/m
Water
absorb-
ability
in 24
h, %
Ultimate
strength
x108
newton/
m2
Specific
impact
toughness
x 105
newton/
m2
Glass textolite: 1.6-1.84 200 11-26 0.15- 0.8-1.1 4.5-6
KAST
Sheet KAST-B
Pile KAST-B
KAST-K
1.85
1.7-1.8
1.6-1.85
11-24
23
-
0.35
1.5-30
0.15-
0.3
1.55-2.7
2.35-3.2
2.6
8.5-11.5
6-11.5
40
Mica 2.68-2.84

95-175 0 0.1-0.3 -
DSP layered wood
plastics types B, V,
G
1.3-1.4 80-90 2.3-3.1 0.8-5.0 1.1-2.6 7-8
Polyethylene
terephthalate
(lavsan)
1.4 -60+125 160 0 1.6-2 -
Polyimide 1.42 -270+300 240 0 1.2-1.5 -
Tetrafluoroethylene 2.2 -60+250 50 0 0.3-0.8 -


6.4 CALCULATION OF INDUCTORS WITH THE MAGNETIC FIELD CONCENTRATORS ("COMPRESSION")

Lets determine the basic concentrator parameters for the most interesting practical cases. For instance, for a given a)
relative maximum strain cm ; b) maximum impact velocity; c) magnetic field intensity in the air gap; d) work of
deformation of the workpiece.
As a result the main dimensions of inductor Dg, dg, number of turns in the groove eg, the winding cross-section, the
operating voltage and energy must be found.
A. Calculation for the given maximum strain
Given data. With respect to the workpiece: material- density - m; the specific electrical resistance w, the yield
point os; geometry - diameter d=2r; the wall thickness aw; the length of the machined zone lw. With respect to the
device: the capacitance of the capacitor bank C; the self-inductance Lc or self-frequency of the discharge circuit -
fc=ec/2t.
Calculation procedure

1. According to formula (5.29), we can find the operating frequency of the inductor e for the given optimal value of
which usually is 0.8-0.9. For the inductors with concentrators it is necessary to take n =0.9. Here it is necessary to
consider the expression
(6.1)
If the condition (6.1) is not satisfied, it is necessary to increase the value of the operating frequency in accordance with
our recommendations (section 1.4).
2. Let us determine the preliminary value of the intensity of the magnetic field in the operating zone:
(6.2)
In the preliminary calculations it is possible to set a=0.25 to 0.3.
3. By Table 15 for the value H0 obtained, we select the concentrated material in the same table and find g.
Table 15
Parameters Copper Brass
L62, L63
Low
carbon
steel
Beryllium
bronze
Tungsten
H0. A/m 2.15x107 2.5x107 5.58x107 5.97x107 6.35x107
pHO.m 1.73x10-8 7x10-8 15x10-8 6x10-8 5.0x10-8

Here, the limiting values of the magnetic field intensity are presented. In order to insure the strength of the concentrator
during long-term operating conditions, the values of H0 must be taken 10 to 20% smaller than indicated in the Table.
4. Let us find the equivalent inductions of the inductor with the magnetic field concentrator:
(6.3)
5. By formula (2.12) we determine the equivalent inductance of the operating zone Leq. The depth of the magnetic field
penetration into the concentrator and the workpiece can be calculated by formula (1.45). The gap between the inside
(operating) surface of the concentrator and the workpiece will be assumed from design arguments to be equal to hg=(0.7
to 1.5)x10-3 m.
6. Let us calculate the energy of the operating zone of the concentrator:
(6.4)
7. Let us find the energy of the capacitor bank:
(6.5)
In the preliminary calculations we set qk=(0.4 to 0.5); qz=(0.8 to 0.9).
8. Let us define the magnitude of the amplitude of the discharge current Iohm
(6.6)
9. Let us find the amplitude of the discharge voltage
(6.7)
10. Let us derive the number of turns eg in the groove by formulas (2.31), (2.37), (5.34):
(6.8)
Usually in the concentrator the number of turns in the groove does not exceed 10 to 12 turns; in this case n=1. If eg
>12, the series-parallel inclusion of windings is used; here n=2.
11. Let us determine the number of grooves of the concentrator:
(6.9)
The magnitude of the current in the groove for the dimensions of the copper conductor of rectangular cross-section
recommended in Table 16 for operating frequencies of 10 to 20 kilohertz is taken to be 25 to 35 kiloamps. It is
necessary to take a large value for the higher frequencies and large dimensions of the conductors.
Table 16
Dimensions of
the conductor:
height, width,
mm
1 x 6.9 1.95 x 8 2.95 x 8
Then let us define the mechanical stresses in the insulation
(6.10)
The value of Vbm in equation (6.10) is found from
(6.11)
The values of tb, nb, agwill be obtained considering the recommendations discussed in section 6.7:
t b= 12x10-3 m; nb =p.
In the general case it is possible to find the value of I0m, knowing the mechanical properties of the insulation of the
conductors and the structural dimensions of the inductor leads. If the number of grooves found to be fractional, it must
be rounded to the next highest integer. Practice shows that the concentrators must be made with p=1 to 8 grooves.
12. The optimal value of the groove inductance from (5.33) is:
(6.12)
In the preliminary calculations we assume kg =0.96 to 0.97; it is recommended that L'2op be determined by formula
(6.12) for a value of Leq=10 to 20 nanoHenries. In the case of large values of Leq it is necessary to select the geometry of
the concentrator by the recommendations of section 6.2 and then to perform the check calculations.
13. Let us determine the depth of the groove considering the adapted profile for the lead in the cross-section aHxbH and
the insulation level
hg=(eg+1)(ag+2Ains) (6.13)
where Ains is the thickness of the insulation of the winding wire in one direction. If Uoms 10 kV, it is recommended
that Ains = 0.75x10-3 m; for Uom> 10 kV Ains = 1.0x10-3 m . When selecting the wire cross-section for n=1, it is
recommended that wire be used with a large ratio of bH/aH; and for n>1, with small ratio.
14. From Figures 59 and 60 we find

for the values of L'2op, hg obtained. Then we determine the average groove diameter of the concentrator. The next step is
finding Dg and dg:
(6.14)
(6.15)

Fig. 59
15. By the structural data obtained in accordance with the recommendations of section 6.5, let us construct the drawing
of the concentrator.
16. By formula (2.31) let us check the value of kg, by (5.36) we determine qk; by (2.27) , qz. If the calculated values of
kg, qk, qz, differ from the given ones, the calculations must be repeated.
17. The active resistances of the inductor's elements are determined by formulas (5.3) to (5.6), (5.17).
18. By formula (5.11) we find the reduced resistance of discharge circuit Re.
19. Let us find the damping decrement of the discharge circuit
(6.16)
and let us check . In the case of divergence with the previously adopted values ofo, the calculation must be
repeated.

Fig. 60
20. Let us calculate the voltage in the radial section:
(6.17)

B. Calculation for the givem speed of impact with the die
Given: the workpiece parameters d=2r; aw, lw; m; w; os the parameters of the machine C, Lc, ec; the impact velocity
Vmax; the relative gap between the workpiece and the die cm. It is necessary to determine the inductor's parameters p; Dg;
dg; eg.
Calculation procedure

1. The frequency of the discharge circuit is
(6.18)
2. The magnetic field intensity in the operating zone is:
(6.19)
3. Beginning with item 3 the calculation is performed analogously to the case of the given finite deformation except
that qy is defined by the formula
(6.20)
C. Calculation for the given magnetic field intensity in the operating gap of the inductor
The calculation theoretically does not differ in any way from the calculation of the maximum deformation cm. Its small
difference consists in the fact that item 2 is excluded from the calculation since H0 is given.
The given calculation procedure can be recommended in the case where an inductor is designed not for the specific
part, but in general, for performance of a defined class of operations for the given field intensities. The calculation is
performed for the maximum value of the latter.
Calculation for the Given work of Deformation of the Workpiece. The same parameters are given as in calculation for
the relative maximum deformation. Let us find the principal dimensions Dg, dg, the number of grooves p, the number of
turns per groove, the cross section of the winding wire, the operating voltage of the inductor and the energy. The
calculation by the given procedure differs somewhat from the previously proposed calculation for maximum
deformation; therefore let us indicate the differences which must be considered.
Calculation Procedure

1. Let us determine the work of deformation of the workpiece:
(6.21)
For a cylindrical workpiece considering (61) we have
(6.22)
In other cases, the work of deformation will be found by the procedure in section 3.1.
2. Let us determine the energy of the capacitor bank:
(6.23)
In the preliminary calculations we set qk=(0.4 to 0.5); qz =(0.8 to 0.9); qm =(0.1 to 0.2).
3. Let us find the magnitude of the amplitude of the discharge current Imo by (6.6) of item 8, determining Lei, by (6.24)
of item 4 in advance.
4. Let us calculate the magnetic field intensity of the working zone:
(6.24)
5. By Table 15 we select the material of the concentrator for the value of H0 obtained.
6. By item 5 of the calculation forcm we determined Leq,. Hereafter the calculation is performed by version A, beginning
with item 9. Only in item 16 is it necessary to find the value of qm by the formula (5.29) in addition to determining
kg; qk,q z.

6.5. RECOMMENDATIONS WITH RESPECT TO THE DESIGN OF THE INDUCTOR WITH MAGNETIC FIELD
CONCENTRATOR
After completing the calculation by one of the procedures that we have discussed, the concentrator diagram is drawn.
The inductor with the magnetic concentrator is made up of the following basic units: the massive housing with
operating hole and grooves in which the working winding is located; contact leads for connecting the potential end of
the working winding to the terminal of the device; structural elements serving for rigid attachment of the inductor to the
process unit and also performing the functions of a protective jacket and grounding contact.

Figure 61
The concentrator (Fig 61) is a massive housing 1, in the body of which annular grooves 2 are made, connected by an
annular slit 3 to the operating hole 4. In the vicinity of the radial slit in the ribs, oval holes 5 are made in which the
shielded inserts are placed [21, 23]. The width of the radial dimension hs in the region adjacent to the operating winding
depends on the magnitude of the voltage Upw , and it is selected by the following expressions


Upw V 500 750 1000 1500 2000
ns 1x10-3 1.5x10-3 2x10-3. 3X10-3. 4x10-3
The depth of the radial section is made 7x10-3 meters greater than the calculated depth of the groove . For the
remaining depth the groove is made with a width of no more than 1x10-3 meters.
It is recommended that the width of the ribs between the grooves be taken no less than 12x10-3 meters. For this case the
dimensions of the oval holes are indicated in Fig 61. The depth of milling of the oval holes must be 2 to 3x10-3meters
greater than the depth of the groove. The width of the ribs between the grooves can be less than or greater than l2x10-
3 meters, but the maximum wall thickness of the oval hole adjacent to the winding must be taken no less than 2x10-
3 meters. The width of the lateral ribs of the grooves is determined by the structural peculiarities of the concentrators
(usually no less than 15x10-3 meters). The diameter of the working hole is selected so that the gap between the
machined part and the operating surface of the concentrator will be minimal. Usually the magnitude of the gap
ha fluctuates from 0.5x10-3 to 1.5x10-3 meters. The length of the working hole is determined from the conditions of
insuring the required zone of deformation of the cylindrical part.

Fig. 62
In order to obtain high efficiency of the concentrator, the angle |k is selected from the conditions (2.29). The conditions
(2.29) cannot always be satisfied; therefore it is possible to recommend an angle of .
For small diameters of the part and the ratio , it is recommended that the end surfaces be made in accordance
with the instructions of Figure 61 (the dotted line). The diameter d0 is taken equal for the inductor without forced
cooling
d0=dg -20x10-3 m; (6.25)
for the inductor with forced cooling
d0=dg -30x10-3 m (6.26)
The concentrator groove width
c = bg + 2Ains. (6.27)
Another execution of the concentrator is possible.
Figure 62 shows the magnetic field concentrator with longitudinal segmental shielded inserts. The given structural
design is recommended for execution of a concentrator made of soft material, for example, copper. In Figure 62 the
same notation is used as in Figure 61, with the exception of position 5 which corresponds to the segmented grooves
made in ribs here. The groove width is taken as 4 to 5 mm with a total rib thickness of no less than 12 mm. The depth
of milling of the segmented grooves, just as the rest, is made (2 to 3)x10-3 meters greater.


6.6 RECOMMENDATIONS WITH RESPECT TO THE DESIGN OF THE OPERATING WINDING

The working winding of the inductor with magnetic field concentrator is made in the form of disc sections made of
insulated wires which are connected in parallel, series or in series-parallel groups.
With parallel inclusions, the ends of the sections of the disc windings are pressed by a rack against the depression in the
bottom part of the groove. The force is applied to the rack by screws located in the concentrator ribs. The free leads of
the sections of the working winding are passed through the openings in the insulating box; then they are connected in
parallel using the assembly bus. Fig 63 shows the structural design of the attachment of the winding with parallel
sections: 1 -- housing of the magnetic field concentrator; 2 -- insulating box; 3 -- collecting bus; 4 -- clamping screw; 5
-- disc winding section; 6 -- clamping rack; 7 -- depression in the bottom part of the grooves.

Figure 63 Figure 64
In the case of series inclusion of the sections, the initial group is a group of two disc sections of adjacent grooves
connected through the skew section in the rib adjacent to both sections [20]. The skew section is made the depth of the
groove. Part of the space after winding the first turn of the section is filled with the current conducting insert insulated
from the body of the concentrator. The leads of the two series included sections in this case are found to be insulated
from the body of the concentrator, and therefore they can be included in series with the analogous groups or in the
series parallel groups. The leads of the groups of sections are fastened by the installation box to the holes for the leads.
Figure 64 shows the structural design of the concentrator with two groups of sections included In series and parallel: 1 -
- the conducting insert; 2 -- the concentrator rib; 3 -- a group of two disc sections; 4 -- the concentrator body; 5 the
insulation box; 6 -- the leads of the group of sections; 7 -- the oblique section.
In Fig 65, a, b, a top view is presented for the insulation box of the concentrator depicted in Figure 64 with series
inclusion of two groups of sections. The number of groups included both parallel and series can be more than two. The
scheme for laying the first turn of the two adjacent sections with series inclusions of the group is shown in Fig 66 (1 --
the winding wire; 2 -- concentrator). The arrows indicate the direction of winding of the sections.
The insulation of the bus of rectangular cross section with the working winding is realized by high strength film made
of lavsan 20xl0-6 meters thick and (10 to l5)Xl0-3 meters wide or from another material (for example, the polyimide
films). The insulation is applied to the bus with 1/4 overlap in several layers. The process of winding the insulation is
depicted in Figure 67 (1 -- tape; 2 -- bus). Depending on the operating voltage, it is recommended that four layers be
wound to 20 kv and three layers to 10 kv.






When laying the insulated bus in the groove to increase the mechanical strength of the insulation it is recommended
that the bus be wound with a strip of polyfluoroethylene 200 microns thick. The process of laying the bus in the groove
with the application of additional insulation of polyfluoroethylene tape is shown in Fig 68, a. The wire cross section in
the groove is shown in Figure 68,b, where 1 is the insulated wire; 2 is the polyfluoroethylene tape.
The height of the insulating box depends on the operating voltage of the inductor:

for U = 20 kV, l=30xl0-3 m;
for U = 10 kV, l=20Xl0-3 m.

6.7. CALCULATION OF THE THERMAL REGIME OF THE INDUCTOR WITH CONCENTRATOR

The temperature is established quite quickly in time with respect to the thickness of the inductor or the concentrator;
therefore in the practical calculations it is provisionally assumed that the concentrator is heated uniformly over the
entire thickness of the massive housing. For practical purposes, the natural convection regime and the forced cooling
regime is of the greatest interest for practical purposes.

Fig. 68
Natural Convection Regime.
The admissible operating cycle of the concentrator is determined by the heating temperature of the winding insulation.
The energy released in the inductor in the form of heat
(6.28)
The energy Wk is determined, summing the losses found by formulas (5.21), (5.22):
(6.29)
Then the admissible operating cycle time of the concentrator is
(6.30)
where is the heat transfer coefficient equal to equal 14 Watts/m2 ; td is the admissible heating temperature of the
insulation; S0 is the cooled surface.
Forced Cooling Regime.
With large output capacity of the inductor, a significant amount of heat is generated in it, and therefore from cooling,
for purposes of maintaining the required thermal regime, artificial cooling in the most heated sections is required. Thus,
an operating hole is present in the concentrator for which about 30 to 40% losses of the discharge circuit are needed.
Inasmuch as the losses in the operating hole are concentrated in a very small volume, the greatest effect of picking up
the heat can be insured by water cooling of the inductor. The amount of heat released in the operating zone is
(6.31)
The values of , will be found from the equations (5.14), (5.15). The temperature of the cooling water at the exit
must not exceed 40 to 500C. Beginning with this, let us determine the required amount of water:
(6.32)
where uex is the water temperature at the exit; uent is the water temperature at the entrance.
The amount of heat removed from the inductor by the water is
(6.33)
where is ab the heat transfer coefficient; Sk.is the cooled surface of the channel; uc the wall temperature of the cooled
channels of the inductor (40 to 500C); ub is the average temperature of the cooling water
(6.34)
The heat loss coefficient depends on the nature of the movement of the liquid which, in turn, is determined by the
Reynolds number:
(6.35)
where vb is the speed of the cooling water in the channel; dk is the diameter of the cooling channel; v b is the kinematic
viscosity of the water.
The speed of the water in the channels is
(6.36)
If Re<2200, the heat transfer coefficient
, (6.37)
where Re, Prb are the Reynolds and Prandtl numbers respectively for the average water temperature; Pre is the Prandtl
number for the average wall temperature of the inductor (uc= 45 t0 550C); b is the coefficient of thermal conductivity
of the water for the mean temperature.
For Re>l04 the heat transfer coefficient is
(6.38)
(Dk is the jet turning diameter).
The inside surface of the cooling channels is
Sk=tdklmean (6.39)
Here lmean is the total length of the cooling channel (determined by the concentrator diagram - see section 6.8).
In order to insure the required speed of the liquid in the cooling channel, it is necessary to achieve a defined pressure
gradient at the exit and entrance to the channels. When using tap water for cooling, the pressure gradientoHb must not
exceed 23 meters of water. If this requirement is not satisfied, it is necessary to increase the diameter of the cooling
channel or take several parallel branches. The pressure gradient depends on the nature of the motion of the liquid in the
channel,
for Re<2200
; (6.40)
for Re>104
(6.41)
where is the number of bends in the channel; , is the drag in the turning of the stream.
Table 17

D
k
/d
k
Reynolds number
3000 10000 50000 100000 250000 500000
3 0.400 0.270 0.184 0.161 0.1393 0.1273
10 0.391 0.264 0.180 0.1573 0.1362 0.1246
12 0.344 0.218 0.1485 0.1298 0.1124 0.1030
15 0.294 0.198 0.1350 0.1180 0.1024 9.36x10
-2

20 0.2540 0.1715 0.1170 0.1023 0.85x10
-
2

8.12x10
-2

25 0.205 0.1385 9.45x10
-
2

8.25x10
-
2

7.15x10
-
2

6.54x10
-2

30 0.1715 0.1185 7.89x10
-
2

6.90x10
-
2

5.97x10
-
2

5.46x10
-2

40 0.1436 9.68x10
-
2

6.60x10
-
2

5.77x10
-
2

5.00x10
-
2

4.57x10
-2

50 9.80x10
-
2

6.61x10
-
2

4.51x10
-
2

3.94x10
-
2

3.42x10
-
2

3.19x10
-2



The coefficient of the tube , is determined for Re<2000 by the Poiseuille formula
(6.42)
for 2000<Re<l04, by the Blasius formula:
(6.43)
The drag , at the 3600 turn in the stream is found from Table 17 for different Re and Dk/dk; the values of b, vb, ob ,Pr
are found by Table 18.
Table 18

u
0
C
b,kcal/m hour

b, kg/cm
v
b m2/sec
a
b
,
m2/hour
P
r

0 0.474 1.825x10
-
6

1.790x10
-
6

4.7x10
-4
13.7
10 0.494 1.330x10
-
4

1.300x10
-
4

4.9x10
-4
9.56
20 0.515 1.020x10
-
4

1.000x10
-
6

5.1x10
-4
7.06
30 0.531 8.17x10
-5
0.05x10
-7
5.3x10
-4
5.50
40 0.545 6.66x10
-5
6.59x10
-7
5.5x10
-4
4.30
50 0.557 5.60x10
-5
5.66x10
-7
5.6x10
-4
3.56
60 0.567 4.80x10
-5
5.79x10
-7
5.8x10
-4
4.00
70 0.574 4.16x10
-5
4.15x10
-7
5.8x10
-4
2.56
80 0.580 3.63x10
-5
3.66x10
-7
5.9x10
-4
2.23
90 0.585 3.21x10
-5
2.26x10
-7
6.0x10
-4
1.95




6.8. RECOMMENDATIONS WITH RESPECT TO THE DESIGN OF THE CONCENTRATOR WITH WATER
COOLING REGIME FOR COMPRESSION
With high output capacity, the cooling of the natural convection can turn out to be insufficient; therefore in the
concentrator it is necessary to provide a forced cooling system. Depending on the structural design of the concentrator
it is possible to propose several methods of water cooling.

Fig. 69
If the concentrator has the value of the operating zone lw of appreciably smaller dimensions of its outside part in the
axial direction, it is possible to propose a structural design shown in Fig 69. Inasmuch as the most heated part of the
concentrator 1 in this design is the operating zone 2, the cooling channels 3, 4 and 5 are made in the central thickened
rib of the concentrator 1. The entrance and exit of the water are shown by the arrows in Fig 69. The hole 7 is a process
hole, and it is later covered by a blind flange when it is assembled.
In the concentrator in which the working zone is made with respect to the maximum axial size, the water cooling is
achieved using axial channels adjacent to the operating zone. The structure of this concentrator is presented in Fig 70: 1
-- concentrator housing, 2 -- operating zone; 3 -- axial channels; 4 -- channels connecting the axial channels 3 in pairs
in the end zones. The supply and removal of water are shown by the arrows. The channels 4 and the end zone are
covered by covers, the seal of which is achieved by soldering or welding.

Fig. 70



6.9 EXAMPLE OF CALCULATING AN INDUCTOR WITH MAGNETIC FIELD CONCENTRATOR FOR THE
GIVEN MAXIMUM STRAIN
The initial data for the workpiece: r=l7.5xl0-3 meters; aw=l.5Xl0-3 m; m=2700 kg/m3; =4xl03 meters; os=4x103
newtons/m2; lw =30Xl0-3 meters; 0 =4x l0-7 henries/meter; c =0.1.
The initial data for the device are as follows: C=l00xl0-6 microfarads; ec =284x103 1/sec; Lc=120xl09 henries.
It is necessary to determine ew; Dg dg; ; eg -- the structural parameters of the inductor.
Calculation Procedure.

1. We find the operating frequency of the inductor by formula (5.30)
;
Let us check the expression (6.1):

2. Let us determine the magnetic field intensity

3. Let us select L62 brass, k=7x10-8 ohm-meter for the value obtained for H0=1.6x107 amps/meter.
4. Let us find the equivalent inductance of the inductor

5. By the formula (2.12), let us define the equivalent inductance of the operating zone

The values of Ak, Aw will be found by formula (1.45) for the given k, w, fw = = 14 kilohertz.
6. Let us calculate the energy of the operating zone

7. Let us define the energy of the capacitor bank

8. Let us find the magnitude of the amplitude of the discharge current

9. Let us define the amplitude of the discharge voltage

10. The number of turns in the groove is

Thus, n can be left equal to one.
11. Let us define the number of grooves of the concentrator

Let us take p=3. By formula (6.10) let us find the mechanical stresses in the insulation.

Fig. 71
12. Let us calculate the optimal value of the groove inductance

13. Let us determine the depth of the groove. Let us select the conductor with the dimensions l.95X8; then

14. From the graph in Fig 59 the values of L2 opt, hg obtained, let us establish the mean diameter or the concentrator
groove, and then Dg and dg:

15. By the data obtained let us construct the diagram of the concentrator (Fig 71).
16. By formula (2.36) let us calculate

The clearance between the working winding and the groove is taken as og=10-3 meters.
17. By formula (5.36), (2.27) we determine

We find the structural parameters from Fig 71 considering the recommendations of section 6. 6: d0/2=R = 55x10-
3m; |k=0.51; c=8+2.07 =9.4x10-3m; let us set c=l0Xl0-3 meters; the thickness of the intermediate rib l2Xl0-3 m; the
edge ribs are made in accordance with the recommendations l5Xl0-3 meters thick.
Let us calculate the active resistance of the inductor elements by the formulas (5.3), (5.4) (5.6):

18. Let us define the reduced active resistance (5.11)

19. Let us find the damping decrement of the discharge circuit

Thus, as a result of the tested calculation the values of the coefficients qk, k g, q c, o are obtained which differ
insignificantly from the values taken in the preliminary calculations; therefore a repeated calculation is not required.
20. Let us establish the voltage on the radial section (6.47)

Knowing Ur.s, by the recommendations of section 6.7, we select the dimensions of the radial section.

6.10. EXAMPLE OF THERMAL CALCULATION OF AN INDUCTOR WITH MAGNETIC FIELD
CONCENTRATOR
The thermal calculation is performed for the concentrator, the calculated parameters of which are obtained in section
6.9. In accordance with the recommendations of the section, the calculation is performed for two cases.
Natural Convection Regime
Let us determine the energy released in the form of heat in an inductor by formula (6.28):

The admissible operating cycle of the concentrator for the rated energy will be found by formula (6.30), determining S0
in advance (Fig 66):

Let us set =l4 watts/gram-m2. td=85
0
C
Forced Cooling Regime

1. Let us establish the amount of heat released in the working zone for tc=10 seconds according to the formula (6.31):

The values of will be found by the equations (5.13), (5.14), (5.15): =0.22; =0.24; =0.25.
2. Let us determine the required amount of water (6.32):

Let us set Qout=4000C; Qin=2000C.
3. By equation (6.36) we calculate the velocity of the water in the channel:

4. Using expression (6.33), let us calculate the quantity of heat removed from the inductor by the water:

The value of Sk is determined by Fig 71 considering the. recommendations of section 6.8. For uniform removal of the
heat in the concentrator, let us make six axial channels: Sk =6000 10-6 m2.
Let us find the Reynolds number (6.58)

The kinetic viscosity of the water is established from Table 18 for ub=300C; v b =0.05x10-7 m2/sec. Inasmuch as
Re<2200, the heat transfer coefficient is defined by formula (6.37);

(for ub=300C, Prc =5.5; foruc =500C, Prc c=3.56; foru c =300C, b =0.531);

5. Let us check the loss of head in the cooling channels of the concentrator (6.40);

Let us calculate the value of by the formula (6.42), for Re<2200:

According to the diagram in Fig 71 we find the diameter Dk of a 3600 turn by the stream: Dk=78x10 m-3. The number of
bends in the channel k c =5. Thus, the pressure gradient found is appreciably lower than is visible for the ordinary tap
water network. It is not necessary to decrease the diameter of the cooled channels for structural arguments, for this
complicates the manufacture of the concentrator.


6.11. CALCULATION OF INDUCTORS WITH MAGNETIC FIELD CONCENTRATORS (SHEET METAL
FORMING)
The calculation is performed for three of the most interesting cases: a) for the given speed of the impact with the die; b)
maximum field intensity in the operating zone; c) for the given work of deformation of the workpiece.
A. Calculation for the Given Speed of Impact with the Die
Given: the material, specific weight m the specific electrical resistance w the workpiece diameter D, workpiece
thickness aw, the speed of impact with the die vm; the device, capacitance of the storage element C, self- inductance
Lc or self- frequency of the discharge circuit fc=ec /2t.
Calculation Procedure

1. By formula (5.29) we find the operating frequency er. The value of qy is assumed equal to (0.8 to 0.9).
2. Being given the insulation gap hg, the magnitude of which is usually is taken as (1 to l.5)Xl0-3 m, let us calculate the
hole diameter in the central zone:
(6.44)
( is the number of holes).
3. Let us define the calculated diameter of the operating zone d in accordance with recommendations of section 6.12:
d-3d0+2/5 to 10/10-3. (6.45)
4. We obtain the current amplitude in the operating zone:
(6.46)
In the preliminary calculation o=0.2 to 0.3.
5. For the spacing between the die and the workpiece for which the speed of their encounter is maximal, as a result we
establish
(6.47)
6. The maximum intensity in the operating zone
(6.48)
7. In accordance with the recommendations of section 6.5 according to Table 15 for Hm we select the concentrator
material.
8. By formula (2.15) we calculate the equivalent inductance of the inductor-workpiece:

The values of Aw, Ak will be found by formula (1.45) for the given

9. Let us define the equivalent inductance by the formula (6.3).
10. Let us calculate the energy of the operating zone:
(6.49)
11. We find the energy of the capacitive storage element by formula (6.5).
12. We obtain the amplitude of the discharge current by the formula (6.6).
13. We calculate the magnitude of the amplitude of the discharge voltage (6.7).
14. We establish the number of turns in the groove (6.8).
15. We calculate the number of grooves of the concentrator .9).
16. We define the magnitude of the inductance of the groove (6.12).
17. We calculate the depth of the groove (6.13).
18. From Fig 59, 60, for the values of L'2opt , h we find Dg , dg (6.14), (6.15).
19. By the structural data obtained and in accordance with the recommendations of section 6.13, we construct the
diagram of the concentrator.
20. By formula (2.36) we obtain kg, by (5.36), we obtain qg . For qc, using (2.15), (2.42), we find
(6.50)
The values of uIB defined by the curves in Fig 15, 16, in which along the uI axis is uIB as a function of lB/dB or dB/lB.
If kg, qk and qc differ significantly from the given values, the calculation must be repeated, being given new values of
the indicated coefficients.
21. The values of R1, R2 will be found by equations (5.3), (5.4).
For R3, R4 we have
(6.51)
(6.52)
respectively.
22. We calculate the reduced active resistance (5.11).
23. We determine the damping decrement of the discharge circuit (6.16).
24. We establish the voltage on the radial section (6.17).

B. Calculation for Maximum Intensity in the Operating Zone
Given: workpiece -- outside diameter of the working zone D, specific electrical resistance w; device -- energy
consumption of the storage element Wc; voltage of the capacitor bank Uc; self-frequency of the discharge circuit of the
device fc=wc/2t; self- inductive device Lc capacitance of the storage element C.
As a result of the calculation, the structural and electrical diameters of the inductor must be found. The given procedure
for the calculation is used in the case where it is proposed that various parts be formed, the maximum dimensions of
which must correspond to the working zone of the inductor. This calculation differs somewhat from the preceding one.
Its basic difference is that items 4 to 7 are excluded from the calculation, and the value of Im is determined by formula
(6.48):
(6.53)
C. Calculation for the Given Work of Deformation
If the specific work of deformation ay is known, by the given volume of the deforming part of the workpiece, it is easy
to find the required work of deformation:
(6.54)
where ay is the specific work of deformation; is the volume of the deformed part of the workpiece.
Knowing A, let us determine energy of the capacitor bank:
(6.55)
(qP is the mechanical efficiency, see Table 5).
The procedure for the calculation for this case is in practice kept the same as for the maximum speed of impact with the
die with the exceptional fact that certain items of the calculation can be excluded.



6.12. RECOMMENDATIONS WITH RESPECT TO THE DESIGN OF THE CONCENTRATORS FOR SHEET
METAL FORMING
In the inductors with the magnetic field concentrators for formed flat parts the operating section is the end zone which
causes certain structural peculiarities of the given device. Just as in the preceding structures for reduction of the basic
part of the inductor with the magnetic field concentrator for working flat parts [22] is the concentrator 1 (Fig 72).
Annular grooves 5 connected by the radial slit 2 to the working surface 4 are run in the body of the concentrator. The
width of the ribs between the grooves, the oval openings for the shielded inserts 3 and the radial section 3 are made in
accordance with the recommendations of section 6.5.
The diameter of the inside cavity of the concentrator
d w =dg -(20-30)x10-3 (6.56)
The axial dimension of lb will be determined by the diagram during the calculations. A characteristic feature of the
concentrator for the flat damping is the presence of matching holes in the concentrator 6. Usually in the practice of
building an inductor, five holes are made (Fig 72). The size of the section joining the holes depends on the diameter of
the working zone and it fluctuates from 2Xl03 to l0Xl03 meters. The large value of the section is characteristic for the
inductors with large diameter of the working zone. If the workpiece has a sufficiently narrow worked zone (the
flanging on the annular hole), instead of the matching holes it is possible to make one hole no less than the calculated
diameter d in diameter.
Just as for the concentrators for reduction, the segmented shielded inserts can be made in accordance with Fig 62. If the
outside diameter of the concentrator Dg and the diameter of the working zone D coincide, the concentrator is made
without a shoulder (Fig 72, the dotted line).

Figure 72
For high output capacity, it is necessary to provide the forced cooling (Fig 73) in the inductor for flat stamping with the
magnetic field concentrator. The intense cooling of the concentrator is achieved as a result of the application of the
system of communicating axial channels 1, radial channels 2 and segmented channels 3. The sealing of the segmented
channels is realized by the covers 4. The axial channels in the end type nonoperating zone are joined by groups 5
covered with the cover 6. The supply and removal of the cooling water takes place from the direction opposite to the
working surface in the vicinity of the radial section. The arrows A and B in Fig 73 correspondingly indicate the supply
and removal of the cooling water. When executing the working winding, all of the recommendations of section 6.6
remain in effect.
The thermal calculation of the inductor is made by the procedure of section 6.7.

Figure 73
6.13. EXAMPLE OF CALCULATING A FLAT INDUCTOR WITH MAGNETIC FIELD CONCENTRATOR FOR
THE GIVEN SPEED OF IMPACT OF THE WORKPIECE WITH THE DIE


Given: the workpiece- m=2700kg/m3; w =4xl0-3 ohm-meter; D=l50Xl0-3m; aw=2Xl0-3m;
0
=4x10-7 g/meter;
Vm=200 m/sec; the device: -C=100x10-6 microfarads; ec=280x103 sec-1; L =l20Xl0-9
It is necessary to determine ep ; Dg ; dg; p; eg; d0, d.
Calculation Procedure

1. Let us determine
2. By formula (6.44) we calculate:

3. By formula (6.45) we determine d=3d0+2.5x =3x12x +2x5x =46x m.
4. We find the current amplitude in the operating zone (6.46):

In the presented calculation o=0.25.
5. By (6.47) we obtain the value of

6. We calculate the maximum intensity in the working zone by (6.48):

7. By Table 13 we select the concentrator material for the value found for Hmw=l.6Xl07amps/meter. Brass type L62
with a specific resistance k=7x10-8 ohm-meter is most suitable for this case.
8. Let us establish the equivalent inductance of the working zone

The values of Ak, Aw will be found by formula (l.45) for the given k; w and fp=ep /2t=l4.2 kilohertz.
9. Let us discover the equivalent inductance of the inductor (6.3):

10. Let us determine the energy of the working zone (6.49):

11. We calculate the energy of the capacitor bank (6.5):

12. We find the magnitude of the discharge current amplitude (6.5);

13. From the equation we obtain the amplitude of the discharge voltage (6.7):

14. We calculate the number of turns per groove (6.8):

15. We establish the number of concentrator grooves (6.9):


Figure 74
16. We find the value of the groove induction (6.12):

17. We determine the depth of the groove (6.13), we select the wire with dimensions l.55x8 mm in advance:
hg=(eg+1)(og+2Ains)=(10+1)(1.95+2x1)x10-3 m.
18. From Fig 60, for the values of L2 opt and h obtained we calculate
Dg=(205+45) x10-3= 250 x10-3m; dg=(205-45)x10-3 =160 x10-3m.
19. By the data obtained we make the concentrator drawing (Fig 74).
20. We calculate the value of (2.36):

By formula (5.37) we find

by (6.50)

For the given ratio we establish the value of uIB(Fig 15):

The structural parameters will be found from Fig 74 considering the recommendations of section 6.12: lb=l05xl0-3
meters; db=127Xl0-3. The intermediate ribs are made 12Xl0-3 meters. The edges of the ribs were made in accordance
with the recommendations of section 6. 6 to 15x10-3 meters. Inasmuch as the outside diameter of the concentrator Dg
is greater than the diameter of the working zone D, the concentrator must be made in accordance with Fig 72.
21. Let us determine the values of R1, R2, R3, R4 by the formulas (5.3); (5.4); (6.51); (6.52):

22. We calculate the reduced active resistance (5.11)

23. We establish the damping decrement of the circuit (6.16);

24. We find the voltage on the radial section (6.17):

The test calculation established that the values of the coefficients kg, qc,o differ insignificantly from the values taken at
the beginning of the calculations; therefore the repeated calculation should not be performed.




6.14. CALCULATION OF CYLINDRICAL MULTITURN INDUCTORS
The following versions of the calculation are of the greatest practical interest:
a) The given relative maximum deformation;
b) Maximum speed of impact of the workpiece with the die;
c) The intensity of the magnetic field in the operating zone of the inductor;
d) The work of deformation of the workpiece.

Given: the workpiece -- os-the yield point of the material; m --the specific weight of the material; workpiece
dimensions- d=2r; aw; lp; electrical parameters --0, w, cm the device -- capacitance of the capacitor bank C; self-
frequency of the discharge circuit fc=ec/2t the self-inductance of the discharge circuit Lc; rated voltage of the
capacitor bank Uc.


A. Calculation of the Given Relative Maximum Deformation


Calculation Procedure

1. Let us calculate the operating frequency of the inductor e (5.29) being given the optimal value of qy which for the
given type of inductor usually is 0.35 to 0.95. Here it is necessary to observe the expression (6.1).
2. We find the value of o(5.27). The value of the insulation gap for the cylindrical inductors hg fluctuates within the
limits of (l.5 to 2.5) Xl0-3 meters.
3. Let us determine the value of the magnetic field intensity in the operating zone H0(6.2).
4. We calculate the equivalent inductance of the inductor and the workpiece (6.3).
5. Using equation (2.13), we obtain the expression for determining the number of turns of the inductor:
(6.57)
The plus sign in equation (6.57) pertains to compression, and the minus sign, to bulging.
6. We calculate the energy of the inductor and the workpiece:
(6.58)
7. We obtain the energy of the capacitor bank;
(6.59)
8. We find the magnitude of the discharge current (6.6).
9. We establish the magnitude of the amplitude of the discharge voltage (6.7).
10. We determine the size of the turn considering the insulation
(6.60)
where is the thickness of the turn insulation which is selected as a function of the operating voltage: for Uom<l0
kv; =0 75X10-3 meters; for Uom>l0 kv - .=1xl0-3 meters. With respect to bi we establish the dimensions of the
standard copper bus. In order to increase the mechanical strength, the size and the radial direction of the bus ai is taken
greater than bi, that is, the winding is made "on the rib."
11. Forming equations (1.28), (2.13) and (2.42) jointly, we find the expression for determining the dispersion
coefficient of the inductor-workpiece system;
(6.61)
12. As experience shows, in the cylindrical inductors the insulation of the edge turns is ruptured first of all; therefore
considering the scattering coefficient for mechanical loads in the insulation, we have
(6.62)


B. Calculation for the Given Maximum Speed of Impact with the Die
In contrast to the preceding calculation of the additional value, Vrnax, the maximum velocity of impact with the die, c,
the relative clearance between the die and the workpiece are given. The calculation procedure remains as before here,
but the values of ep, H0, qc will be found by equations (6.18), (6.19), (6.20) for the analogous version of the calculation
for an inductor with magnetic field concentrator.
The calculation or versions c) and d) must be made by the version a) except that in the former case they are given H0,
and in the latter case, by the work of deformation of the workpiece (formula 6.22) we determine the energy of the
capacitor bank from expression (6.23), where qk , qc are assumed equal to one.




6.15. EXAMPLE OF CALCULATING A CYLINDRICAL MULTITURN INDUCTOR FOR A GIVEN RELATIVE
DEFORMATION
Given: os= 4X103newtons/m; cm=0.1; m=2700 kg/m3; pw=4Xl0-8 ohm-m; d=2 farads; r=47Xl0-3meters; aw=lXl0-
3meters; lw=100Xl0-3meters; 0=4txl0-7grams/m; C=l00Xl06 microfarads; fc =45 kilohertz; e a=284Xl031/sec;
L c=120Xl0-9 henries; Uc =2000 volts.
Calculation Procedure

1. Let us find the operating frequency of the inductor, being given the optimal value of qc=0.92 (5.29):

2. We determine (5.27):

The value of hb is assumed equal to 1.5x10-3 meters. The material of the inductor coil is copper; ph=l.7x10-8 ohm-meter.
3. We obtain the intensity of the magnetic field in the working zone H0 (6.2):

4. We calculate the equivalent inductance of the inductor and the workpiece (6.3):

5. We obtain the number of turns of the inductor (6.50):

We set ei=18 turns.
6. We determine the energy of the inductor and the workpiece (6.58):

7. We calculate the energy of the capacitor bank (6.59):

8. We find the magnitude of the discharge current (6.60):

9. We obtain the amplitude of the discharge voltage (6.7):

10. We establish the size of the turn considering the insulation (6.60):

By the dimension bi we find the dimensions of the standard bus. In the radial direction the thickness of the bus ai=5Xl0-
3 m.
11. We determine the scattering coefficient of the system (6.61):

12. We discover the mechanical stresses occurring in the insulation of the edge turns (6.62):

=0.18x108H/m2 which is entirely admissible for lavsan insulation. The calculation for the remaining versions is
obvious; therefore we shall limit ourselves only to the given example.


6.16. CALCULATION OF FLAT MULTITURN INDUCTORS

Just as for flat inductors with magnetic field concentrators, let us consider the calculations for the three previously
indicated cases (6.11).
a)Calculation for maximum speed of impact of the workpiece with the die.
The initial data remains the same as in the analogous calculation of the inductor with the magnetic field concentrator.


Calculation Procedure

1. By formula (5.29) we find the operating angular frequency.
2. Using expressions (2.16), (2.25) considering the equality (1.45) for the relative damping coefficient we determine
(6.63)
The magnitude of the insulation gap hb usually is 1.5 to 2.5Xl0-3 m.
3. We calculate
(6.64)
4. We find the expression for the gap between the workpiece and the die for which the speed of impact of the
workpiece with the latter will be maximal,
(6.65)
5. We calculate the equivalent inductance of the inductor and the workpiece (6.3).
6. We determine the number of turns of the inductor:
(6.66)
7. We obtain the energy of the inductor and the workpiece:
(6.67)
8. We establish the energy of the capacitor bank:
(6.68)
where is the coefficient taking into account the branching of the energy to the nonoperating end zone,
(6.69)
9. We determine the magnitude of the discharge current (6.6).
10. We calculate the magnitude of the amplitude of the discharge voltage (6.7).
11. We find the size of the turn in the radial direction considering the insulation:
(6.70)
The arguments for selecting the information remain the same (6.70) as for the cylindrical inductors.
12. We obtain the forces in the insulation of the turns:
(6.71)
The differences in the calculations for versions b) and c) consist only in the following: in the case b) the value of H0 is
given; in the case a) by the work deformation we determine the energy of the capacitor bank.




6.17. EXAMPLE OF CALCULATING A FLAT MULTITURN INDUCTOR FOR THE MAXIMUM SPEED OF
IMPACT OF THE WORKPIECE WITH THE DIE
The initial data for the workpieces and the parameters of the machine correspond to the example of calculation section
6.13.
Calculation Procedure

1. We find the operating frequency (5.90):

2. We calculate the volume of the relative damping coefficient (6.63):

The value of hg is assumed equal to 2xl0-3 meters. The coil material is copper, i=l.7xl0-8 ohm-meter
3. We define the intensity of the magnetic field in the working zone (6.64):

4. We calculate (6.65)

5. We establish the equivalent inductance of the inductor and the workpiece (6.3):

6. We determine the number of turns of the inductor (6.66)

We set =9 turns. The value of d from the structural arguments will be taken equal to 20x10-3 meters.
7. We calculate the energy of the inductor and the workpiece (6.67);

8. We find the energy of the storage element (.6.68):

In advance by formula (6.69) we determine

9. We calculate the magnitude of the discharge current (6.6):

10. We obtain the magnitude of the amplitude of the discharge voltage (6.7):

11. We determine the size of the turn considering the insulation (6.70):

the height of the turn aid =10x10-3m. Thus, the dimensions of the standard bus bidxaid=4.25x10-3 x10x10-3m.
12. We calculate the forces in the insulation of the turns (6.71):

The values of the mechanical voltages acting on the turn of insulation are found for the wires lying freely on the
support. In the practical cases the turn is subjected to impregnation with preliminary reinforcing by fiberglass; therefore
the mechanical stresses acting on the insulation will be weak.
6.18. RECOMMENDATIONS WITH RESPECT TO THE DESIGN OF CYLINDRICAL AND FLAT MULTITURN
INDUCTORS
The basic element of multiturn cylindrical and flat inductors is the coil made of material with high electrical
conductivity by turning or winding. In Figure 75 we have the cylindrical wound inductor for expansion. The principal
element of the inductor is the coil of the operating winding 1 made of a copper bus of rectangular cross section.
Information is applied in advance to the bus. Polyethylene terephthalate (lavsan) film 20 to 30 microns thick and
l5Xl03 meters wide is used as the insulation. The rectangular bus is insulated by the film in several passes in a one-half
overlap with tension. The film is wound on a special machine tool if it is done at the cable plant or manually using
special attachments. Two layers of cotton yarn or glass tape impregnated with organosilicon lacquer K-55 wound over
the lavsan film.
Then for three hours the insulation bus is dried in a thermostat at a temperature of 1500. The coil 1 is wound on the
insulation peg 3 executed from glass textolite, delta wood or textolite. Under the conditions of mass production of the
inductors the peg can be made by pressing, for example, from AG-4 plastic. After winding the coil on the peg when the
turns are still not tight, the space between the turns is filled with UT-32 (4-30M) sealant. Then the coil is tightened in
the axial direction -on a press using the insulation ring 4. The compression is done on the hydraulic press at a force of
(2 to 8)X104 newtons holding for 1 hour for vulcanization of the sealant. The rin4 is fixed by the pin 6 after
compression of the coil. An insulating layer 5 of glass tape impregnated with epoxy resin, plasticized with
dibutylphthalate and hardened with a 50% solution in ethyl alcohol is applied to the working part of the inductor to
protect the turn insulation from mechanical damage. The glass tape is wound in one pass with 1/2 overlap. Then the
inductor is subjected to heat treatment at 70 to 800C for 2 to 3 hours.

Figure 75

Figure 76
The advantage of the presented process for manufacturing the inductor is explained as follows.

1. The lavsan film has higher mechanical rupture strength and better adhesion to the sealant and the epoxy compounds
than polyfluoroethylene.
2. The damping layer made of U-32 sealant is vulcanized in the rubberized mass, significantly softening the impact of
the turns on each other at the time of passage of the working current through the turns.
3. The preliminary mechanical combustion of the turns of the solenoid decreases the force applied to the interturn and
main insulation.
4. The glass tape impregnated with epoxy resin operates as an insulating material and as a means of mechanical
attachment of the turn, which increases the reliability of the inductors.

For high output capacity the coil of the inductor is heated significantly; therefore in the inductor it is necessary to
provide forced cooling. One of the effective methods of making the cooled inductor is to manufacture a coil from a
hollow tube with rectangular cross section.

Figure 77
The version of the coil inductor for expansion made by turning is shown in Figure 76. A hollow housing 1 is made
from brass or from low-carbon steel, on the operating part of which spiral through grooves are made. As a result, the
coil of the operating winding 2 is formed. The edge turns of the coil are finished in flanges 3, 6. The central conductor
7 is connected to the flange 3 using a bolted joint. Instead of the bolted connection 4 the conductor can be connected to
the flange 3 by soldering or welding. The insulated coil in the compressed state is fixed by a lock washer 8 which is put
on the peg 9 made of insulating material. At the point of connecting the coil to the flanges 6, 3, the holes 5 are drilled
which are needed to decrease the mechanical stresses. The second contact 10 is welded to the flange 9.
In Fig 76 we have the section A of the coil of the inductor with the insulation applied. Just as in the preceding design,
the insulating layer 11 of polyfluoroethylene, lavsan or polyimide film is applied to the inductor coil. Then the
fiberglass 12 is applied to the working section of the inductor with simultaneous impregnation of it with epoxy resin. In
order to increase the energy characteristics of the inductors the coil of the operating winding is made bimetallic. This is
realized by the following method. A layer of copper (2 to 3)Xl0-3 meters thick is applied by spraying to the working
part of the hollow housing made of high-strength steel, and then the working part is treated by the above-described
procedure. The thickness of the copper coating must be less than l0-3 meters. All of the sharp edges on the coil must be
twisted. Otherwise during winding mechanical damage to the insulation strip is possible. In addition, the acute angles
are a source of stress concentration of the electric field, which also is undesirable.
Figure 77 shows the inductor for compressing of cylindrical workpieces. Just as in the preceding structural designs of
coil inductors, the basic element here is the coil of the operating winding 1 made from a rectangular bus, the insulation
of which is done by the previously described process. The coil of the working winding of the inductor is located inside
a steel tire 2 separated from the loaded surface of the coil by the insulating bushing 3. In order to tighten the coil in the
axial direction, the inductor is equipped with steel jaws 4 which connect the inductor to the device. The jaw pins 6
insure required pressure on the working coil. On the other hand, the tension pins are insulated from the jaw 4 by the
bushing 3. The bushing 7 insures insulation of the billets from the jaw 4 which is under a potential, and it protects the
insulation from the working winding from mechanical damage. The bushing 7 is made of polyfluoroethylene or epoxy
resin reinforced with fiberglass.

Figure 78
When assembling the inductor for compression it is necessary to give attention to the following peculiarities: after
impregnation of the winding with sealant, a peg of metal or insulation material is placed inside its inside cavity. The
diameter of the peg must be equal to the diameter of the formed workpiece plus two thicknesses of the bushing 7. Then
the coil is compressed in the axial direction by the jaws 4 and the pins 6. After hardening the sealant under the above
described conditions, the peg is removed from the working cavity, and the bushing 7 is installed inside it.
One of the widespread versions of the coil inductor for the flat stamping is shown in Figure 78. The working winding 1
of the inductor is made of an insulated bus from rectangular cross section in the form of an Archimedes coil on a small
rib.
The insulation of the rectangular bus is made by the previously described process. The working winding impregnated
with sealant is placed in the insulation housing 2 made of textolite or epoxy resin reinforced with textolite. On the
outside the housing 2 is encompassed by the metal jacket 3 which simultaneously serves to connect the outside lead of
the operating winding 4. The central lead 5 of the working winding passes through a hole in the insulation housing 2. In
order to protect the insulation of the working winding of the inductor from mechanical damage, an insulating effort 6 of
glass textolite or polyfluoroethylene (0.5 to l)xl0-3 meters thick is provided. The enumerated types of inductors can be
made by filling the insulated coil of the working winding with special high-strength compounds.

Figure 79
Broad use is made of point inductors having higher mechanical characteristics. Figure 79 shows a point inductor for
expansion, the basic element of which is the coil 1 made in the form of a halfring 2 jointed by oblique jumpers 3. The
latter are formed by milling black slits 2, 4. The flat leads of the inductor 5, 9 are welded to the edge halfrings. The
interturn insulation is provided by the inserts 11 and the chamfers 12 which insure the required strength of the
insulation along the surface. The insulation of the flat leads is provided by the insert 6.
In order to increase the mechanical strength of the inductor, the wedge 7 made of delta wood or glass textolite is driven
into the space formed by the flat leads and the inside surface of the coil. The coil of the inductor is insulated from the
workpiece by the outside bushing 8 made of polyfluoroethylene.
The reader can become familiar with other methods of manufacturing coil inductors in reference [51].


6.19. SOME FEATURES OF CALCULATING CERTAIN SPECIAL ELEMENTS OF INDUCTOR SYSTEMS
In the practice of electromagnetic metal forming, in addition to the investigated structural elements, the following
inductors are also used:
1) The universal inductor with magnetic field concentrators with replaceable inserts; 2) the multiposition inductors with
magnetic field concentrators; 3) the split inductors with magnetic field concentrators.
The universal inductor (Fig 80) is an inductor with a magnetic field concentrator 1, the operating volume of which is
made in such a way that replaceable inserts 2 can be placed in it. The outside dimensions of the inserts remain
invariant, and the sides of the operating zone is made in accordance with the required dimensions of the workpiece.

Figure 80
The inductors of the given design basically are calculated by the recommendations of section 6.5, but it is necessary to
introduce certain changes into the calculation procedure. Thus, after determining the operating frequencyep first of all
we find the outside dimensions of the insert lout, dout. For this purpose we use equations (-2.42), (2.43), (5.32). The last
expression for the given specific conditions will be converted to the following form:
(6.72)
In solving the joint equations (2.42), (2.48), (6.72), we find the outside diameter of the insert:
(6.73)
Inasmuch as the universal inductor is designed for the working of a defined class of parts which are similar with respect
to size, it is necessary first of all to select the maximum and minimum sizes of the working zone lp, d, then to determine
the mean value of Leq. The ratio dout/lout is recommended within the limits of dout/lout =(0.8 to 1.2).
The value of hI is determined by the insulation insert which must insulate the insert from the working surface and also
have sufficiently high mechanical strength to avoid damage on replacing the inserts. Considering these comments, it is
possible to recommend hI =(0.8to l.2)xl0-3 meters. Then by formula (5.39) we determine qkI.
The magnitude of the energy of the capacitor bank Wc will be found in the expression
(6.74)
that is, in (6.2) the energy losses caused by the presence of a gap between the outside surface of the insert and the
surface of the operating zone of the concentrator are also taken into account. When determining the energy of the
working zone (6.4) lw must have the maximum value. The number of turns per groove is calculated by the formula
(6.75)
When determining the reduced active resistance R3 instead of R4 found by expression (5.6), it is necessary to substitute
its value from the following formula:
(6.76)
For the rest, the calculation procedure for the universal inductor remains as before.
In mass production when the certificate output capacity of the magnetic pulse device does not provide the required
number of parts, the multiposition inductors are used with magnetic field concentrators which permit the manufacture
of 2, 3 and more parts per discharge.
Fig 81 shows a concentrator for simultaneous manufacture of four parts. The working holes are made in the central part
of the concentrator 2. They are connected to each other by radial sections 3 and the inside surface of the central hole 4.
In order to decrease the inductance, in the latter it is necessary to make the axial dimension significantly exceeding the
axial dimensions of the working holes with respect to magnitude.
A peculiarity of the multiposition inductor is the presence of several working holes connected in series; therefore the
equivalent inductance of the working zone is the sum of the equivalent inductances of the working holes. For the rest
the electrical and the structural parameters of the inductor will be determined by the procedure of section 6.5.
Reference [15] familiarizes the reader with the other types of multiposition inductors.
The split inductors are used in the case where the machined part has developed end surfaces, and the zone located
beyond the end of the part (the thrust of the aircraft, the cardan shafts, the cable tips) is subject to forming. For this
purpose the universal inductors with magnetic field concentrators can be used in which the insert is made split as is
demonstrated in Fig 82 where 1 -- the split insert, 2 - insulating inserts, 3 -- machined parts.

Fig. 81
A deficiency of the given structural element is the fact that simultaneously with the extraction of the formed part it is
necessary to extract the insert. However, the application of this structural design for unit or small series manufacture of
parts is entirely justifiable.
The calculation of the inductors with split inserts differs in no way from calculating the universal inductor with the
magnetic field concentrator. However, inasmuch as the split insert is made up of two symmetric halves, the mechanical
forces acting on each of them are transferred to the outside insulation of the insert. Accordingly, it is necessary to
estimate the magnitude of the given forces.

Fig. 82
Using Fig 83 for the amplitude of the total force applied to the inside part of the insert, we write
(6.77)
Considering the forces applied to the outside surface of the insert, we find the amplitude of the total force acting on the
outside insulation of the last insert:
(6.78)

Fig. 83
Now considering (6.78), for the time dependence of the total force applied to the insert, we have
(6.79)
Knowing F (t) for the mechanical stresses in the outer insulation, we find
(6.80)
As follows from (6.78), for the insulation is totally unloaded from mechanical forces, that is, the
equality
(6.81)
must be observed.
Thus the outside dimensions of the split insert can be determined by equation (6.73) and from equality (6.81).
However, after the calculations of d
out
by formula (6.73) it is necessary to check the magnitude of the mechanical
stresses in the insulation by equation (6.80).
Substituting d
out
, from (6.81) in (6.73), we have
(6.82)
If
(6.83)
The electrodynamic forces are applied to the slit insulation. In this case the mechanical stresses

(6.84)
Let us present another original structural design for a split inductor (Fig 84) made up of 2 plates 1 which are placed
between sections 2 of the working winding. The sections can be connected in series and in parallel. The sections of the
working winding are supported on the outside on the insulated inserts 3 which are insured by the external metal plates
4. The working split 5 is made in the central part of the plates 1 adjacent by their ends to each other. The plates are
shifted by means of a pneumatic drive, hydraulic drive and electric drive.

Fig. 84
The calculation procedure for the inductor with the magnetic field concentrator discussed in section 6.5 is suitable with
certain changes also for determining the parameters of the split inductor. A difference in the calculation is the
following. The energy in the storage element- is determined by the formula
(6.85)
where qzt is the coefficient which takes into account the branching of the current in the discharge circuit to the ends of
the working winding. The magnitude of the coefficient is calculated by expression (6.69) in which we substitute Dg,
dg instead of D, d respectively. In the preliminary calculation qt assumes a value equal to 0.8 to 0.9.
Inasmuch as the sections of the working winding are not unloaded from the effect of the axial dynamic forces, it is also
necessary to find the mechanical stresses occurring in the winding insulation which we obtain by formula (6.71). Here
the value of H0 in the equation (6.71) will be
calculated from the equality
(6.86)


6.20 EXAMPLE OF CALCULATING THE UNIVERSAL INDUCTOR WITH MAGNETIC FIELD
CONCENTRATOR
Given: the workpiece: range of variation of d=2r=(10 to 40)xl0-3 meters; lw =(10 to 40)xl0-3 meters; w=4x10-
8kg/m3; 0 =4txl0-7 henries/meter; machine--fc=45kiloHertz; C=l00xl0-6 microfarads; Lc=120xl0-9 henries;
Uc =2000Volts.
Calculation Procedure

1. We find the cyclic operating frequency (5.30):

2. We determine the equivalent inductance of the inductor:

3. For the given range of variation of lw and d we calculate the mean equivalent inductance of the working zone by the
formula (2.12). The material for the concentrator and the inserts is L62 brass;I=k=7xl0-8 ohm-meter. The operating
gap hg is assumed equal to l0-3 meters.
The minimum inductance of the operating zone is

The maximum inductance

The mean calculated inductance

4. We obtain the outside diameter of the insert (6.74):

In accordance with recommendations we set =0.8x10-3; dout/lout=1; and from Figure 16 we find uI=6.8; lout =90xl0-3
meters.
5. We obtain (5.38):

6. Being given the magnetic field intensity in the working zone (H0=l.5xl07 amps/meter) by formula (6.4), we find its
energy:

7. We determine the energy of the capacitor bank (6.74)

8. We calculate the magnitude of the amplitude of the discharge current:

9. We obtain the amplitude of the discharge voltage:

10. We calculate the turns per groove (6.75):

We set =11 turns.
11. We establish the number of grooves of the concentrator:

We set p=5.
In accordance with the recommendations, the current in the groove Iomp=25x103 amps.
12. Let us determine the value of the optimal inductance of the groove:

13. Let us calculate the depth of the groove. We select the wire with dimensions l.95X8; then

14. For the values obtained for L'2 opt' , hg from Figure 60 we find the average diameter of the concentrator:

It was found to be appreciably larger than dout; therefore from the structural expressions it is expedient to select the
mean diameter by the recommendations of section 6.9. For this purpose we construct the diagram of the concentrator in
accordance with Figure 71, from which we find

then


15. By the diagram we determine the remaining structural data of the concentrator:

The thickness of the intermediate ribs l2X10-3 meters. The edge ribs are made in accordance with the
recommendations 16Xl0-3 meters thick. Hence, the maximum size in the axial direction is 130X10-3meters.
16. We calculate (2.36)


By formula (5.32) we find

The value of L'2=350Xl0-9 henries was found by the curves in Figure 60 for

Substituting hI, l out, d out /2 instead of h g, l w we obtain (2.27);


Thus, the values of the coefficients which we were given at the beginning of the calculation will be found by the values
close to the calculated value; therefore the repeated calculations need not be performed.
17. We establish the resistance of the inductor element (5.3) to (5.5), (6.78):

18. We determine the reduced active resistance (5.11):




19. We find the damping decrement of the discharge circuit:

Thus, the true value of the intensity of the magnetic field will be 0.8. Therefore the inductor can operate for high
calculated field intensities in the working zone.
20. We find the voltage on the radial section (6.17):

Knowing Urs by the recommendations of section 6.7,we select the dimensions of the radial section.








cHAPTER 7

STANDARD STRUCTURAL ELEMENTS OF THE INDUCTOR SYSTEMS FOR ELECTROMAGNETIC
METAL FORMING

7.1. INDUCTORS WITH MAGNETIC FIELD CONCENTRATORS FOR COMPRESSION
When forming tubular workpieces and also during assembly, gauging, cutting and a number of other operations,
inductors with magnetic field concentrators are widely used.
The standard structural design of the inductor is shown in Fig 85. The basic element of the inductor is the magnetic
field concentrator 4. In the central part of the concentrator the working hole 26 is made, the surface of which is
connected by the radial slit 23 to the groove 17. For protection from closure of the slit by the surface of the workpiece
an insulating bushing 3 is inserted in the working hole. The sections 18 of the working winding are joined in parallel.
One end is clamped down by the rack 19 against the bottom of the grooves of the concentrator by the screws 20, and
the potential leads of the working winding pass through the holes of the insulating box 5 pressed against the edge ribs
of the concentrator by the screws 12; by using the screws 21 they are connected to the collecting bus 10.

Fig. 85
In turn, the collecting bus is connected to the potential lead 7 which is supported on the insulating disc 6 fastened by
the screw 8 against the flange 9. The bracket 11 is used for attaching the concentrator and performs the function of the
grounding electrode and the protective jacket of the working winding. In order to cool the workings of the concentrator
in the central ribs channels 24 are made parallel to the section which are joined by the transverse channel 27. The
technological process opening in the channel is plugged by the plug 29 with the seal 28. The cooling liquid is fed
through the connections 25. If the inductor operates with a small number of discharge-charge cycles, the concentrator
can be made without channels for the forced cooling. The cover 30 protects the outside part of the working winding
from mechanical damage. It is fastened to the bracket by screws through the insulating bushings 14. The shield inserts
1 insulated from the body of the concentrator are located in the oval openings of the ribs [2l. The inserts are fixed in the
vertical position by the insulating rack 16. Fig 85 shows the concentrator with four grooves. When necessary the given
structural design of the inductor can be executed with any number of grooves.


Fig. 86
Another version of the inductor for compression with parallel-series inclusion of the sections is shown in Fig 86. Four
grooves 1 are made in the concentrator 2. The sections 6 of the working winding joined in series through the slit in the
groove 5 [21] are laid in pairs in the grooves. One pair of leads of the sections using the wedge plot 16 are connected to
the brackets 15, and the other pair are connected through the holes of the insulating bushing 8 to the collector bus 11
which, in turn, is connected by means of the tail through the wedge clamp 10 to the conical potential lead 12 fastened
using the insulating columns 14 and screws 13 to the flange of the brackets 15. The potential lead is insulated from the
bracket by the insulating sleeve 9. Just as in the preceding structural design, the outer part of the winding is protected
from damage by the jacket 20, and the bracket 15 acts as a grounding electrode. The outside jacket is fastened to the
bracket by a bolt 3 through the insulating bushing 7 and 4. The insulating bushing 17 of the working holes serves
simultaneously as a guide for the worked part. The cover 18 fixes it in the working position. The concentrator in the
end zones is insulated from the outer jacket and from the bracket by the disc 19.


7.2. INDUCTOR WITH MAGNETIC FIELD CONCENTRATOR FOR FORMING FLAT PARTS
The standard design of the inductor with magnetic field concentrator for sheet metal forming is illustrated in Fig 87.
In the given inductor [22], the concentrator 17 is made in such a way that the operating surface is its end 6. The
sections 3 of the working winding are laid in the groove 5 which are in the outer part of the concentrator. However, the
bottom of the grooves is made with insulating inserts 5. The operating surface of the concentrator 6 is connected to the
end surface of the groove by the slit 35. In the central part of the working surface, the matching holes 33 are made. For
forced cooling of the concentrator, axial holes are made 19 which are connected to each other by the radial channels 28
and the system of segmented channels 27, 34 made, correspondingly near the working zone and on the nonoperating
end of the concentrator.
The channels 27 and 34 are covered with covers 18 and 25. The cooling system of the inductor is connected to the tap
water network using the connections 21 located on the end at the location of the radial section on the opposite side of
the working zone. The concentrator is fastened by the bolts 20 to the brackets 15 which must have a sufficiently high
strength inasmuch as quite large bending moments are applied to it during the process of working the billets. The
operating surface of the concentrator is covered by an insulated protective insert 7 which is fastened to the insulating
disc 9. A protective jacket 26 is fastened to the disc 9 by the screws 32. Between the jacket 26 and the outside surface
of the concentrator 16 an insulating insert 24 is laid. The shielded inserts 23 are fixed in the axial direction by the cover
2 using the screws 1.

Fig. 87
The connection of the potential leads of the sections of the working winding and the contact connection of the inductor
to the leads of the device are made analogously to the preceding design: the collecting bus 11, the potential lead 13
which rests on the insulation disc 12. The fastening of the insulation disc and insurance of contact at the collecting bus
with the potential lead are realized by the screws 14 and 31. The potential leads of the sections, just as in the preceding
design, are passed through the opening in the insulation box 10 fastened to the outside surface of the concentrator by
the screws 8. The covers 30 are welded to the bracket 15 to which the jacket 26 is attached by screws 29.



7.3 UNIVERSAL INDUCTORS WITH REPLACEABLE INSERT

The universal inductors are analogous with respect to the general structural composition to the structural elements
described in section 7.1, however the execution of the operating zone has a peculiarity caused by the technological
process purposes.
Usually the working zone of the universal inductor (Fig 88) is most expediently made with respect to the axial
dimension of the concentrator 4. Then the axial channels 5 which are joined by segment grooves 6 are used in the
cooling system. The latter are located in the end zone of the concentrator. The insulation of the operating zone of the
concentrator is achieved by applying sheet polyfluoroethylene (0.5 to 0.8)xl0-3 meters thick which is fastened to the
end zone of the concentrator by the insulating covers 1, 7. The cover 7 has the opening, which is somewhat smaller in
size than the diameter of the operating opening which is needed for fixing the insert in the working position.

Fig. 88
If the working zone and the axial direction is less than the outside axial dimension of the concentrator (this is caused by
the necessity for increasing the mechanical strength of the concentrator with a simultaneous increase in the number of
grooves insuring a decrease in the load on the individual sections), the structural design can be made in accordance
with Fig 89. The difference of this structural element from that depicted in Fig 74 is that in the end zone of the
concentrator conical holes are made, and the cooling of the inductor, if it is needed, is realized using the channels 9, 10
and 12 located in the thickened ribs of the concentrator. The given system is connected on the one hand by the metal
tube 6 to the channels by the union nut 7. It is connected to the tap water network using the connections 13. In the given
structural design the shielded inserts are made in the form of segments 5. The replaceable concentrator 12 is fixed in
the operating zone by conical clamping down devices 2, the pressure on which comes from the insulating disc 3 using
the screws 4.

Fig. 89
The intensity of the magnetic field required to execute the technological operation is dictated by the sizes of the
working opening of the replaceable inserts, the size of which in axial direction is always less than outside dimensions;
therefore the universal concentrator can be made of copper. The structural design of the universal inductor with flat
leads is illustrated in Figure 90.

Fig. 90
A characteristic feature of it is somewhat different execution of the conducting contact. The potential lead 1 of the
inductor is made in the form of a faceted part, one end of which serves as the collecting bus. The front part of the
potential lead is connected directly to the device. The potential lead is clamped by the screws 2 and the conical nut 3 to
the insulating plate 4. The conical nut is insulated from the grounding electrodes 16 by the insert 6. The ground lead 11
is made as one structural unit with the jacket 12. The grounding lead is connected to the housing of the concentrator 4
by the bolt 13. The insulating plate 4 is clamped to the grounding electrode 11 by the screw 7 and the conical nut 8. The
insulating insert 5 provides for insulation of the conical nut 8 from the potential lead. In order to insure sufficient
mechanical strength of the lead the nuts are tightened by the bolts 9 through the insulation box 10. The remaining
structural elements of the inductor are made analogously to the preceding structural elements.
The replaceable inserts, depending on the process operation are executed with the working zone placed in the central
zone of the concentrator (Fig 91, a). From the point of view of the electrical and mechanical characteristics, this
structural design is the most preferable. However, in some cases the other factors dictate the location of the working
zone (for example, the convenience of the pickup and installation of the part, the simplicity of automation of the
technological process); therefore, the working zone can be shifted in the axial or the radial direction. The structural
design of the insert with the working zone located in the end zone is illustrated in Fig 91, a. In the given case, in the
vicinity of the working zone the insulating tire 1 is expediently executed from the high strength insulating material
(glass epoxy compound).

Fig. 91
The split inserts are usually made in the form of two symmetric parts (Fig 91, b). The multiposition inserts (Fig 91, d)
are encountered. The working zone of the inserts here is of cylindrical shape. If the machined part has a shape differing
from a cylinder, the working surface of the insert must be made in the corresponding configuration (rectangular,
square).


7.4. COIL INDUCTORS
The base for the coil inductors is the cylindrical, flat or any other shaped coil. The standard structural design of the coil
inductor for spreading with coaxial potential lead is shown in Fig 92. Here the coil 1 is shown which is pressed into a
high strength plastic. The conducting coil is made of rectangular wire insulated in advance with film insulation. The
leads of the coil are connected by means of the wedge terminal 6 to the potential lead 5 and to the housing 3 which is
connected to the cover 4 to the grounded terminal of the device. The potential lead 5 is insulated from the housing 3 by
the insulation sleeve 7. The inductor is fixed in the housing by the cover 2.

Fig. 92 Fig. 93
Figures 93 and 94 show the structural designs of the inductors for compression and sheet metal forming respectively.
Just as in the preceding structural design, the base for the inductors is the coil pressed into plastic. The remaining
elements are universal and are used for all three types.
Fig 95 shows the structural design of the Butterworth type inductor [5] for compression cylindrical workpieces. Three
turns forming the inductor coil are in the form of massive brass plates slit in the radial direction with a central opening.
The turns are connected in series by means of copper contact washers 13 and the turns 14. The insulation inserts 1, 9
and 12 made of fiberglass are located between the ends of the surface of the turns. The turns are tightened in the axial
direction by the four pins 7 and the textolite plates 4, 5. Flat copper leads 1, 3 with an insert of 5 textolite or
polyfluoroethylene are welded to the edge turns 10, 11.

Fig. 94 Fig. 95
The circuit diagram of the turns is shown in Fig 96. The direction of the currents in the inductor coil is indicated by the
arrows.


7.5. MULTIPOSITION AND CERTAIN SPECIAL INDUCTORS
The basic part of such inductors (Fig 97) is the concentrator 5, in the annular groove of which the working lining 13 is
located. In the central part of the housing working holes 3 are made which are connected to the surface of the annular
grooves by the radial slits 18, 23 and 24. Polyfluoroethylene inserts 2 are inserted in the working holes insuring
insulation of the operating surface of the concentrator from the machined part. The insulating cover 11 together with
the operating disc 4 regulates the position of the worked zone. One end of the working winding is clamped against the
bottom of the grooves through the rack 19 by the screws 20. The potential leads of the working winding pass through
the holes of the insulation box 10 and are clamped by the screws in the collecting bus 21. The housing of the inductor is
fastened to the bracket 6 turned toward the contact disc 7. The potential lead 9 of the inductor is inserted in the hole of
the collecting bus. Its ends are clamped down by the screws 22 which insures reliable contact of it with the collecting
bus. The potential lead is based on the insulating disc 8 fastened by the bolt to the contact disc. The working lining
around the outside parameter of the housing is protected by the jacket 17. The jacket is fastened to the rack by the
insulating bushing 17.

Fig. 96
Cooling the housing of the inductor during intense operation, the radiator 1 is installed in the end zone of the housing.
The insulating rack 15 is used for fixing the shielded inserts 14.
The inductor is connected by the potential lead and the contact disc which simultaneously with this provides for
grounding of the housing. The inductor has three annular grooves. The turns of the section of the working winding
made of rectangular copper bus (1.85x8)x l0-2 meters in size insulated with lavsan tape 15xl0-3 meters wide and 20
microns thick are laid in these grooves. The tape is wound with 1/4 overlap in four layers. The outside dimension of the
concentrator is 180x10-3 meters. The diameter of the working openings is 11x10-3 meters. The housing of the inductor
is made of L62 brass.
The original design of the inductor [16 to 19] with the, matching loop is illustrated in Figure 98. Its characteristic
feature is that it is made up of two basic structural assemblies: the magnetic field concentrator 10, the grooves of which
have the working winding 6 laid in them and the cooling housing 2 with matching loop. The working hole 7 in this
structural element is most conveniently placed in the end part of the concentrator. The potential leads of the sections of
the winding are connected to the collecting bus 4 which then in the end part is connected to the jumper 3 connected by
means of the bolt connection to the central electrode 12. The alignment of the electrode in the inside cavity of the
cooling housing 2 is realized by the insulating disc 13. A matching opening is made on the side of the housing. The
cooling housing does not have a continuous slit along the generatrix of the lateral surface, which insures rigidity and
high strength of the inductor. The electrical separation of the working section and the cooling section of the inductor is
achieved by using a matching circuit, the inductance of which is appreciably greater than the inductance of the working
opening. This relation causes restriction of the magnitude of the spurious current which flows through the separating
circuit formed by the matching opening, and is achieved by selecting tie dimensions of this opening.









In the described structural design of the inductor, as a result of the ribbed surface of the cooling housing, it is sufficient
to use natural air cooling. The use also of artificial cooling is possible. It can be air and liquid cooling (passage of the
liquid between the ribs of the cooling section). The predominance of the cooling system in the described inductor is that
the working section which is in the strong pulse field zone is not mechanically weakened by the channels which usually
are located in the region of the working zone. The working section of the inductor is made of brass, the cooling section
is made of construction steel. A copper wire rectangular cross section (l.8x6.9)xl0-3 meters is used for the winding. The
wire is insulated using a lavsan strip (thickness 15xl0-6 microns, width 15xl0-3 meters). In order to decrease the force
interaction of the adjacent turns of the sections in the split region, shielded inserts are used.