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Chapter 1 Introduction

Microelectronics is the art, science and technology of designing and fabricating integrated circuits with small-dimension electronic devices. Areas of Microelectronics are: VLSI Design VLSI CAD Tools Technology & Fabrication Physics Modeling and Simulation Characterization Testing

VLSI Design is design of complex electronic system on single chip, generally involving millions of transistor. The VLSI Design Process Design Process: An iterative process which refines and translates an idea into a physical working electronic system. Very-large-scale-integration (VLSI) is defined as a technology that allows the construction and interconnection of large numbers (millions) of transistors on a single integrated circuit. Integrated circuit is a collection of one or more gates fabricated on a single silicon chip. Wafer is a thin slice of semiconductor material on which semiconductor devices are made. Also called as slice or substrate. Chip is a small piece of semiconductor material upon which miniaturized electronic circuits can be built. Die is an individual circuit or subsystem that is one of several identical chips that are produced after dicing up a wafer.

Historical Perspective Here are series of key events in the history of electronic circuit design 1947: Bell Lab invented transistor. 1949: Shockley invented BJT. 1956: First digital logic gate was developed by Harris. 1962: TTL, ECL logic families came. 1970: MOS Logics (NMOS and PMOS) started using, though MOS was invented earlier. 1972: Intel came with first Microprocessor 4004 with NMOS logic only. Later CMOS came and now all the major chips are CMOS in digital, analog and some RF applications. Other technologies like Silicon Germanium, Gallium Arsenide etc also there..Here is the example of how technology has changed

Above the first figure is the Intel first processor 4004 which was designed with some 2000 transistors in MOS 10um technology. Second one is Intel i5 core die released in 2009 in 45nm technology with 774 million transistors. **In this workshop focus is only on CMOS Moore Law: Intel co-founder Gordon said that density of transistors will increase exponentially i.e. doubles in every 18 months.

Methodologies in VLSI Design Before we start the discussion on design methodologies, lets take a look on a modern SoC (System on Chip)

As we can see this SoC consists of most of the possible classes of circuits in electronics in the same CMOS technology. CMOS currently serves circuit classes like Digital Analog

RF MEMS Mixed Signal Power Management

CMOS circuits possible in different areas of circuit performance have enabled designers to come up with integrated systems for numerous applications. Modern day IC design methodologies are broadly classified in two methodologies; they are gate array based and custom design.

A) GATE ARRAY BASED

B) CUSTOM DESIGN

Chapter 2 CMOS Technology

Process Technology A simplified cross section of a typical CMOS inverter is shown in Figure. The CMOS process requires that both n-channel (NMOS) and p-channel (PMOS) transistors be built in the same silicon material. To accommodate both types of devices, special regions called wells must be created in which the semiconductor material is opposite to the type of the channel. A PMOS transistor has to be created in either an n-type substrate or an n-well, while an NMOS device resides in either a p-type substrate or a p-well. The cross section shown in Figure 2.1 features an n-well CMOS process, where the NMOS transistors are implemented in the p-doped substrate, and the PMOS devices are located in the n-well. Modern processes are increasingly using a dual-well approach that uses n and p wells, grown on top on an epitaxial layer, as shown in Figure. The CMOS process requires a large number of steps, each of which consists of a sequence of basic operations. A number of these steps and/or operations are executed very repetitively in the course of the manufacturing process. Rather than diving directly into a description of the overall process flow, we first discuss the starting material followed by a detailed perspective on some of the most-often recurring operations.

MOS BASICS The MOSFET is a four terminal device. The voltage applied to the gate terminal determines if and how much current flows between the source and the drain ports. The body represents the fourth terminal of the transistor. Its function is secondary as it only serves to modulate the device characteristics and parameters. At the most superficial level, the transistor can be considered to be a switch. When a voltage is applied to the gate that is larger than a given value called the threshold voltage VT, a conducting channel is formed between drain and source. In the presence of a voltage difference between the latter two, current flows between them. The conductivity of the channel is modulated by the gate voltagethe larger the voltage difference between gate and source, the smaller the resistance of the conducting channel and the larger the current.When the gate voltage is lower than the threshold, no such channel exists, and the switch is considered open. Two types of MOSFET devices can be identified. The NMOS transistor consists of n+ drain and source regions, embedded in a ptype substrate. The current is carried by electrons Moving through an n-type channel between source and drain. This is in contrast with the Pn junction diode, where current is carried by both holes and electrons. MOS devices can Also be made byusing an ntype substrate and p+ drain and source regions. In such a transistor, current is carried by holes moving through a ptype channel. The device is called a p channel NMOS , or PMOS transistor. In a complementary MOS technology (CMOS), both devices are present. MOS Symbol Figure below shows the NMOS and PMOS transistor representation

Symbols with three terminals assume that body is connected to desired voltage supply ie V DD for PMOS and VSS for NMOS.

Ideal Behavior Terminal Voltages _ Mode of operation depends on Vg, Vd, Vs Vgs = Vg Vs Vgd = Vg Vd Vds = Vd Vs = Vgs - Vgd Source and drain are symmetric diffusion terminals By convention, source is terminal at lower voltage Hence Vds 0 nMOS body is grounded. First assume source is 0 too. Three regions of operation Cutoff Linear Saturation

Cut-Off: o Ids=0 o No Channel Linear o o o o Saturation o o o o Channel pinches off Ids independent of Vds We say current saturates Similar to current source Channel forms Current flows from d to s Ids increases with Vds Similar to linear resistor

nMOS I-V Summary W= Channel Width L= Channel Length Tox= thickness of oxide Vt= Threshold voltage

**All doping and voltages are inverted for pMOS I-V characterstics. Ideal I-V curve of NMOS transistor

NON- IDEAL BEHAVIOUR

Differences in Ideal Vs Non-Ideal Less ON current No square law Current increases in saturation

This behavior is because of following effects Velocity Saturation Short Channel effect Body Effect Leakage Current

CMOS Inverter Digital electronics is totally based on switch and inverter is one of the most basic ingredie nts. If input is 1 output will be 0 and vice versa. An inverter voltage transfer characteristic is shown in the figure below

CHARACTERSTICS OF INVERTER:

VIH: [Voltage Input High] The minimum positive voltage applied to the input which will be accepted by the device as a logic high. VIL: [Voltage Input Low] The maximum positive voltage applied to the input which will be accepted by the device as a logic low. VOL: [Voltage Output Low] The maximum positive voltage from an output which the Device considers will be accepted as the maximum positive low level. VOH: [Voltage Output High] The maximum positive voltage from an output which the Device considers will be accepted as the minimum positive high level. VT: [Threshold Voltage] The voltage applied to a device which is "transition-Operated", Which cause the device to switch. May also be listed as a '+' or '-' value. Noise Margin Output high = VOH - VIH Noise Margin Output low = VIL - VOL

NMOS INVERTER

When VIN changes to logic 0, transistor gets cut off .Id goes 0. Resistor voltage goes to 0. Vout pulled up to 5V.

PMOS INVERTER

When VIN changes to logic 1, transistor gets cut off .Id goes 0. Resistor voltage goes to 0. Vout pulled down to 0V.

CMOS INVERTER

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