3 Heating Load Calculation

The heat loss is divided into two groups: (i) the heat transmission losses through the confining walls, floor, ceiling, glass, or other surfaces, and (ii) the infiltration losses through cracks and openings, or heat required to warm outdoor air used for ventilation. As a basis for design, the most unfavourable but economical combination of temperature and wind speed is chosen. The wind speed has great effect on high infiltration loss and on outside surface resistance in conduction heat transfer. Normally, the heating load is estimated for winter design temperature usually occurring at night, therefore, internal heat gain is neglected except for theaters, assembly halls, industrial plant and commercial buildings. Internal heat gain is the sensible and latent heat emitted within an internal space by the occupants, lighting, electric motors, electronic equipment, etc.

3.1 Heat Transmission Loss Heat loss by conduction and convection heat transfer through any surface is given by:

(2) where Q = heat transfer through walls, roof, glass, etc. A = surface areas U = air-to-air heat transfer coefficient Ti = indoor air temperature To = outdoor air temperature Heat transfer through basement walls and floors to the ground depends on: (i) difference between room air temperature and ground temperature/outdoor air temperature,

(ii) materials of walls and floor of the basement, and (iii) conductivity of the surrounding earth. These portion of heat transmission is neglected in Hong Kong because of the fact that the weather in winter is not so severe and the values are very small in comparison with other forms of heat transmission.

3.2 Infiltration and Ventilation Loss The heat loss due to infiltration and controlled natural ventilation is divided into sensible and latent losses.

3.2.1 Sensible Heat Loss, Qsb The energy associated with having to raise the temperature of infiltrating or ventilating air up to indoor air temperature is the sensible heat loss which is estimated by:

(3) where r = air density V = volumetric air flow rate Cpa = specific heat capacity of air at constant pressure Ti = indoor air temperature To = outdoor air temperature

3.2.2 Latent Heat Loss, Qla The energy quantity associated with net loss of moisture from the space is latent heat loss which is given by:

(4) where r = air density V = volumetric air flow rate wi = humidity ratio of indoor air wo = humidity ratio of outdoor air hfg = latent heat of evaporation at indoor air temperature

2 Design Conditions
In principle, the heating and cooling loads are calculated to maintain the indoor design conditions when the outdoor weather data do not exceed the design values.

2.1 Outdoor Design Conditions It is not economical to choose either the annual maximum or annual minimum values of the outdoor weather data in determining the outdoor conditions. The outdoor design data is usually determined according to the statistical analysis of the weather data so that 1 to 5% of the total possible operating hours is equalled or exceeded the outdoor design values.

2.1.1 Summer Design Condition The recommended summer design and coincident wet bulb temperature, when chosen as being equalled to or exceeded by 2.5% of the total number of hours (i.e. 2928 hours) in June, July, August and September, are (i) 23 oC dry bulb temperature, and (ii) 28 oC wet bulb temperature

Figure 2 shows the outdoor dry bulb temperature and wet bulb temperature curves for a typically hot summer day in Hong Kong. Usually the maximum temperature of 33 oC occurs at 2 p.m. and the minimum temperature of 28 oC occurs just before sunrise. The daily range of dry bulb temperature is about 5 to 6 oC, and the daily mean dry bulb temperature is 30.5 oC.

2.1.2 Winter Design Condition The recommended winter design and coincident relative humidity, when chosen as being equalled to or exceeded by 1% or 2.5% of the total number of hours (i.e. 2160 hours) in December, January and February, are (i) 9 oC dry bulb temperature, and

(ii) 50% relative humidity Minimum temperature occurs at 6 a.m. or 7 a.m. before sunrise and the daily range is about 6 to 8 oC during very cold winter days.

2.2 Indoor Design Conditions For most of the comfort air-conditioning systems used in the commercial and public buildings, the recommended indoor temperature and relative humidity are as follows: (i) Summer: 23.5 - 25.5 oC dry bulb temperature, 40 - 60 % relative humidity (ii) Winter: 21 - 23.5 oC dry bulb temperature, 20 - 30 % relative humidity

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Temperature, Dewpoint, and Humidity Conversions

The old saying goes, "It's not the heat, it's the humidity". The way the human body reacts to warm temperatures is a function of both the actual temperature, and the moisture in the air. Low humidity lets the body cool off due to evaporation of perspiration. As the humidity rises, less perspiration evaporates, and it becomes more difficult to dissipate the heat. The heat index is an attempt to measure the apparent temperature, or the way it feels outside. It uses a formula of both actual temperature, and absolute humidity. Generally, when the heat index rises above 90 degrees, people should avoid being outside for too long, and when the heat index is 105 degrees or higher, it's becoming dangerous. Note that the heat index is calculated as an 'in the shade' temperature, so if you are in the sun, it could actually feel warmer than the heat index indicates. Another way to measure how hot it feels outside is to use the dew point temperature. The dew point temperature is an indicator of the absolute humidity if the temperature drops to the dewpoint temperature, water vapor condenses to dew. No matter what the actual outside temperature is, most people begin to feel uncomfortable when the dew point approaches 70 degrees, and dewpoints above 70 degrees are opressive. The table below shows the heat index and dew points for differing combinations of air temperature and relative humidity. To determine the heat index (and corresponding dew point), locate the column with the air temperature, and match it with the approprite row for humidity. For example, if it's 90 degrees and 55% relative humidity, the heat index is 97 degrees, and the dew point is 72 degrees. You'll likely feel uncomfortable. On the other hand, if it's 90, but the relative humidity is 30%, the heat index is only 88, and the dew point is 54. Most people wouldn't find this oppressive. Keep in mind that different people react to heat and humidity differently, and that there is a real danger when you spend too much time outside during a heat wave.
80
HI DP

82
HI DP

84
HI DP HI

86
DP HI

88
DP

10%

78

18

80

20

81

22

83

23

84

25

20% 30% 40% 45% 50% 55% 60% 65% 70% 75% 80% 85% 90% 95% 100%

79 79 80 80 81 81 82 82 83 84 84 85 86 86 87

35 46 54 57 60 62 65 67 69 71 73 75 77 78 80

80 80 81 82 83 84 84 85 86 88 89 90 91 93 95

37 48 55 59 62 64 67 69 71 73 75 77 79 80 82

84 82 84 84 85 86 88 89 90 92 94 96 98 100 103

39 49 57 60 63 66 69 71 73 75 77 79 81 82 84

83 84 87 87 88 89 91 93 95 97 100 102 105 108 112

40 51 59 62 65 68 70 73 75 77 79 81 83 84 86

85 86 89 89 91 93 95 98 100 103 106 110 113 117 121

42 53 61 64 67 70 72 75 77 79 81 83 85 86 88

90
HI DP

92
HI DP

94
HI DP HI

96
DP HI

98
DP

10% 20% 30% 40% 45% 50% 55% 60% 65%

86 86 88 93 93 95 97 100 103

26 44 54 62 66 69 72 74 77

88 88 90 94 96 99 101 105 108

28 45 56 64 68 71 74 76 79

89 90 93 97 100 103 106 110 114

29 47 58 66 69 73 75 78 80

91 93 96 101 104 108 112 116 121

31 48 60 68 71 74 77 80 82

93 95 99 105 109 113 117 123 128

32 50 61 70 73 76 79 82 84

70% 75% 80% 85% 90%

105 109 113 117 122

79 81 83 85 87

112 116 121 126 131

81 83 85 87 89

119 124 129 135

83 85 87 89

126 132

85 87

134

87

100
HI DP

102
HI DP

10% 15% 20% 25% 30% 35% 40% 45% 50% 55% 60%

95 96 97 100 102 106 109 114 118 124 129

34 44 52 58 63 68 71 75 78 81 84 86

97 98 100 103 106 110 114 119 124 130 137

35 45 53 60 65 70 73 77 80 83 85 80-90 Degrees -- Caution 91-104 Degrees -- Extreme Caution 105-125 Degrees -- Danger 125+ Degrees -- Extreme Danger

65%

136

Required amount of H2O (gram) per kg air to reach the desired relative humidity: which equals for the space mentioned above:

At an adopted weight of one cubic metre of air of kg/m3, the room to achieve the above-mentioned relative humidity.

needs to be added to the air within

Imagine: there is a building in which much moist must be added to this air?

60

% of the air is recycled and must be added.

is refreshed by outside air. How

According to this method, one can determine how much moist a moisturizer must spray. In practise, one should adopt a worst-case scenario. For example, in winter at an outside temperature of -10 C and a relative humidity of 30%, one wishes to create a satisfactory indoor climate (such as 20 C and a minimal relative humidity of 40%). There appears to be a direct relation between relative humidity and phsychological wellfare of humans. Humans feel their best at a relative humidity of 40% or above. This data is based on estimates, because relative humidity cannot be measured accurately in outside air. When it is raining, relative humidity draws near 100% and when it is a cold day, relative humidity is very low. Principally, when air is warmer, it can contain more fluids. When air is heated, but not moisturized, relative humidity will decrease, whereas the number of grams of H2O per kilogram remains the same. Another example: how much water vanishes from a smokestack which emits 80,000 Nm3/hour of water-saturized air (100% RH) that has a temperature of 75 C? (answer = 31,394 litres/hour or a reversed waterfall). Naturally, this can all be controlled by a Mollier diagram. Example: at a temperature of 20 C, the relative humidity is measured 50%. One can now appoint the density as 1,20 kg/m3 and there will be about 7,3 g of water per kg of air.

What are the correct amounts of relative humidity for a correct environment?
For a pleasant working environment, it is important to make sure relative humidity does not fall below 40%. When relative humidity is less than 40%, the risk of disease is increased. Generally, it can be stated that symptoms that are caused by dry air vary, but three main factors can be distinguished: static electricity, moisture stability and health effects.

Static electricity
Dry air can cause static electricity in an environment. Static electricity can be diminished by increasing the relative humidity of air. Machines in a machine park give off static electricity as a result of friction. When there are more machines present that are active during a longer period of time, more friction will take place and the risk of static electricity increases. This mainly occurs at dry machine elements. In computer rooms, there is also a static electricity risk. Most static electricity is caused at a relative humidity of between 30 and 35%.

Moisture stability
Moisture stability means the ability of a material or product to maintain a certain level of moisture, despite fluctuations of relative humidity in its environment. Most materials give off or take up moist. This can cause damage to a material or product. In many sectors such as vegetables, fruits, flowers and granes- this process is irreversible. When relative humidity is too high, this can also cause problems for antiques, paintings, books, papers, etc. Most damage to older products is caused by air humidity fluctuation.

Health effects
As temperatures increase, relative humidity decreases. Dry air can cause health effects, such as dry nose and throat. This causes a higher susceptivity to pathogens such as viruses. When it is cold, a higher air humidity makes people believe it is warm. This causes the heater to be on less often. It appears that the climate for bacterial growth is worst when relative humidity is between 40 and 60%. Viruses can survive least at a relative humidity of between 47 and 70%. For people, relative humidity is most pleasant between 40 and 60%. For people that suffer from allergies and astma, relative humidity must be between 45 and 55%. High relative humidity can cause constriction.

Desirable relative humidity and temperature for each activity

Below, a table is shown that outlines ideal temperatures and relative humidity for each sector in a given situation. This table is derived from JDK air-handlin

Read more: http://www.lenntech.com/calculators/humidity/relative-humidity.htm#ixzz2hGuRzagc

Effects of the heat index (shade values)[edit]

Celsius Fahrenheit Notes

2732 C

8090 F

Caution: fatigue is possible with prolonged exposure and activity. Continuing activity could result in heat cramps.

3241 C

90105 F

Extreme caution: heat cramps and heat exhaustion are possible. Continuing activity could result in heat stroke.

4154 C

105130 F

Danger: heat cramps and heat exhaustion are likely; heat stroke is probable with continued activity.

over 54 C

over 130 F Extreme danger: heat stroke is imminent.

Exposure to full sunshine can increase heat index values by up to 8 C (14 F). [7]

Formula[edit]
The formula below approximates the heat index in degrees Fahrenheit, to within 1.3 F. It is the result of a multivariate fit (temperature equal to or greater than 80F and relative humidity equal to or greater than 40%) to a model of the human body.[8][9] This equation reproduces the above NOAA National Weather Service table (except the values at 90F & 45%/70% relative humidity vary unrounded by less than -1/+1, respectively).

where = heat index (in degrees Fahrenheit) = ambient dry-bulb temperature (in degrees Fahrenheit) = relative humidity (percentage value between 0 and 100)

An alternative set of constants for this equation that is within 3 degrees of the NWS master table for all humidities from 0 to 80% and all temperatures between 70 and 115 F and all heat indexes < 150 F is

A further alternate is this:[10]

where

For example, using this last formula, with temperature 90 F (32 C) and relative humidity (RH) of 85%, the result would be: Heat index for 90 F, RH 85% =114.9.

See also

Introduction.
Relative humidity (RH) is the actual amount of water vapor in the air as a percentage of the maximum amount of water vapor which the air could hold at a given temperature. When air is warmed, its ability to hold water vapor is increased, and when cooled, it can hold less water vapor. If the amount of water vapor in the air were held constant as the temperature was increased, this would cause the relative humidity to fall, because the warm air would now be able to hold more water vapor then when it was cool. In the winter, as cold, moist outdoor air is brought indoors and heated, it becomes warm, dry air just by being heated. Air at 20oF & 70% RH, when heated to 72oF, will have a relative humidity of just 8%. Humidifiers bring the relative humidity back to the normal levels we need for comfort, safety & protection from drying.

These two glasses representing the same pound of air at different temperatures are a good visual example of relative humidity. The small glass contains 11/2 ounces of water and is 80% full. This could represent a pound of air at 30oF and 80% relative humidity. If we pour the 11/2 ounces of water from the small glass into the large glass, we now have only 15% of the glass full. This larger glass would represent our same pound of air heated to 70oF, but with the same pound of air and the same water vapor content we now have only 15% relative humidity.

11/2 Ounces of water, 11/2 Ounces of water, Glass only 15% full. Glass is 80% full.

Application.
For a humidification application we are basically interested only in how much dry air is entering the space to be humidified. If we have a room in which we wanted to maintain 70oF and 50% relative humidity, and the room was air tight with a vapor barrier, we would only have to introduce the proper amount of water into the air once. If we maintain a constant 70oF we would also maintain a constant 50% RH. This would be due to the fact that no dry air could get in to mix with our conditioned air and no moisture could get out. But, even our most modern buildings are not that tight. Outside air enters through open doors, cracks, ventilation, make-up air or exhaust systems. This leakage flow is called infiltration.

Ground Rules for Estimating.

In estimating a humidification application we must find : 1. Indoor design condition: The desired temperature and relative humidity. For example, 70oF and 50% RH. The psychrometric chart gives the amount of moisture in the air at these conditions as 55 gr/lb. 2. Outdoor design condition: The given winter temperature and relative humidity for the location. It is the temperature for which heating systems are designed. For example, it may be -10oF and 40% RH (moisture = 2gr/lb.) in the North, or 35oF and 60% RH (moisture = 17 gr/lb.) in the South. 3. Volume of outside air entering the space to be humidified.

Calculations
In a residence, outside air enters by natural infiltration, which in turn, depends on tightness of construction. Typically this varies from 1/4 to 1 air volume exchange per hour and may be more with a fireplaces or fresh air exchange devices. In a factory, warehouse or other buildings without air ducts, infiltration, exhaust fans or loading docks are the major sources of fresh air. Infiltration is difficult to calculate and is usually an engineering estimate based on a percentage of total volume. Example: A building with 100,000 cubic feet of space. There is no mechanical ventilation or make-up air system. Assume 1 air change per hour. The outdoor heating design temperature is 0oF and we require 50% RH at 70oF. The formula for H (lbs/hr) is: H = Volume X Air Changes X Grains of Moisture Required Specific Volume X 7000 Grains of Moisture Required From psychrometric chart = 56 grains of moisture per pound of air at 70oF and 50% RH, minus 9 grains of moisture per pound already in the air (56 - 9 = 47). Specific Volume From psychrometric chart = 13.5 cu. ft./lb. of air at 70oF, 50% RH and 7,000 = Number of grains per pound of water, a conversion constant.