1

BOX SHIFTING MECHANISM

By

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING DESH BHAGAT FOUNDATION GROUP OF INSTITUTION ( MOGA )

2013/2014
PROJECT REPORT ON

BOX SHIFTING MECHANISM

AKNO

LEDGEMENT

Index
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H!4-$( '.!(/ ( 3) P#.,.( 0$*-.,!/0 (3) S'-$(!*.# 0$*-.,!/0 (315) S'."!.# 0$*-.,!/0 (5) 5 51 7

3 G$.( C-.!, ;(!:$( B$.(!,4 H!/"%(y %& <$.(!,4 ( 25129) S'+( 4$.( (9113) B$:$# 4$.( (13121) 21122 H!/"%(y %& *-.!, ;(!:$( (22123) U/$ !, :$-!*#$ ( 23124) 23125 718

O'$(."!%, %& '(!,*!'#$ %& <$.(!,4 (29130) M.!,"$,.,*$ .,; #+<(!*."!%, (30133) 33 (33134)

O'$(."!%, %, #."-$ 0.*-!,$ $#;!,4 39141 T%%#/ H.*6/.2 (47148) B#.;$ (48149) A(* 2$#;!,4 '(%*$// A(* P%2$( /+''#y (41) (41143) L."-$ 0.*-!,$

T+(!,4 %'$(."!%, (33138) F.*!,4 %'$(."!%, (38139)

P(%*$// %& 2$#;!,4 (43145) 45147

4 F!,.# '(%)$*" F!#$ (30) 31

PROJECT REPORT ON BOX SHIFTING MECHANISM

FUNCATION OF BOX SHIFTING MECHANIS

The main function of box shifting mechanism is to transfer the object from one place to another with the help of mechanism or machine. this I is called box shifting mechanism or shifting mechanism.

MECHANISM

A 0$*-.,!/0 is a device designed to transform input forces and movement into a desired set of output forces and movement. echanisms generall! consist of moving

components such as gear and gears train " belt and chain drives" cam and follower mechanisms" and lin#ages as well as friction devices such as bra#es and clutches" and

, structural components such as the frame" fasteners" bearings" springs" lubricants and seals" as well as a variet! of speciali%ed machine elements such as splines" pins and #e!s. The &erman scientist 'euleaxu provides the definition (a machine is a combination of resistant bodies so arranged that b! their means the mechanical forces of nature can be compelled to do wor# accompanied b! certain determinate motion.( In this context" his use of machine is generall! interpreted to mean mechanism. The combination of force and movement defines power and a mechanism is designed to manage power in order to achieve a desired set of forces and movement. A mechanism is usuall! a piece of a larger process or mechanical s!stem )ometimes an entire machine ma! be referred to as a mechanism. *xamples are the steering s!stem a car" or the winding mechanism of a wristwatch . ultiple mechanisms are machines.

Ty'$/ %& 0$*-.,!/0 +rom the time of Archimedes through the 'enaissance" mechanisms were considered to be constructed from simple machine such as the lever " pulle! "wheel and etc. and inclined plane. It was 'euleaux who focussed on bodies" called lin#s" and the connections between these bodies called #inamatic pair" or joints. In order to use geometr! to stud! the movement a mechanism" its lin#s are modeled as rigid bodies. This means distances between points in a lin# are assumed to be unchanged as the mechanism moves" that is the lin# does not flex. Thus" the relative movement between points in two connected lin#s is considered to result from the #inematic pair that joins them.

7 -inematic pairs" or joints" are considered to provide ideal constraints between two lin#s" such as the constraint of a single point for pure rotation" or the constraint of a line for pure sliding" as well as pure rolling without slipping and point contact with slipping. A mechanism is modeled as an assembl! of rigid lin#s and #inematic pairs.

K!,$0."!* '.!(/ 'euleaux called the ideal connections between lin#s #inematic pairs. .e distinguished between higher pairs which were said to have line contact between the two lin#s and lower pairs that have area contact between the lin#s. /. 0hillips142 shows that there are man! wa!s to construct pairs that do not fit this simple classification.

L%2$( '.!( A lower pair is an ideal joint that constrains contact between a point" line or plane in the moving bod! to a corresponding point line or plane in the fixed bod!. 3e have the following cases4

A revolute pair" or hinged joint" re5uires a line in the moving bod! to remain co6 linear with a line in the fixed bod!" and a plane perpendicular to this line in the moving bod! maintain contact with a similar perpendicular plane in the fixed bod!.

8 This imposes five constraints on the relative movement of the lin#s" which therefore has one degree of freedom.

A prismatic joint" or slider" re5uires that a line in the moving bod! remain co6 linear with a line in the fixed bod!" and a plane parallel to this line in the moving bod! maintain contact with a similar parallel plan in the fixed bod!. This imposes five constraints on the relative movement of the lin#s" which therefore has one degree of freedom.

A c!lindrical joint re5uires that a line in the moving bod! remain co6linear with a line in the fixed bod!. It is a combination of a revolute joint and a sliding joint. This joint has two degrees of freedom.

A spherical joint" or ball joint" re5uires that a point in the moving bod! maintain contact with a point in the fixed bod!. This joint has three degrees of freedom.

A planar joint re5uires that a plane in the moving bod! maintain contact with a plane in fixed bod!. This joint has three degrees of freedom.

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&enerall!" a higher pair is a constraint that re5uires a curve or surface in the moving bod! to maintain contact with a curve or surface in the fixed bod!. +or example" the contact between a cam and its follower is a higher pair called a cam joint. )imilarl!" the contact between the involute curves that form the meshing teeth of two gears are cam joints.

P#.,.( 0$*-.,!/0

A '#.,.( 0$*-.,!/0 is a mechanical s!stem that is constrained so the trajectories of points in all the bodies of the s!stem lie on planes parallel to a ground plane. The rotational axes of hinged joints that connect the bodies in the s!stem are perpendicular to this ground plane. S'-$(!*.# 0$*-.,!/0

A spherical mechanism is a mechanical s!stem in which the bodies move in a wa! that the trajectories of points in the s!stem lie on concentric spheres. The rotational axes of hinged joints that connect the bodies in the s!stem pass through the center of these spheres.

S'."!.# 0$*-.,!/0

A spatial mechanism is a mechanical s!stem that has at least one bod! that moves in a wa! that its point trajectories are general space curves. The rotational axes of hinged joints that connect the bodies in the s!stem form lines in space that that do not intersect and have distinct common normals.

1; SHIFTING )hifting is that process in which object is transfer from one place to another place ita #nown as shifting.

:ombination of both is called shifting mechanism or box shifting mechanism.

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GEARS

11 gear or cogwheel is a rotating machine part having cut teeth" or cogs" which mesh with another toothed part in order to transmit tor5ue" in most cases with teeth on the one gear of identical shape" and often also with that shape <or at least width= on the other gear. Two or more gears wor#ing in tandem are called a transmission and can produce a mechanical advantage through a gear ratio and thus ma! be considered a simple machine. &eared devices can change the speed" tor5ue" and direction of a power source. The most common situation is for a gear to mesh with another gear> however" a gear can also mesh with a non6rotating toothed part" called a rac#" thereb! producingtranslation instead of rotation. The gears in a transmission are analogous to the wheels in a crossed belt pulle! s!stem. An advantage of gears is that the teeth of a gear prevent slipping. 3hen two gears of une5ual number of teeth are combined" a mechanical advantage is produced" with the rotational speeds and the tor5ues of the two gears differing in a simple inverse relationship. In transmissions which offer multiple gear ratios" such as bic!cles and cars" the term gear" as infirst gear" refers to a gear ratio rather than an actual ph!sical gear. The term is used to describe similar devices even when the gear ratio is continuous rather than discrete" or when the device does not actuall! contain an! gears" as in a continuousl! variable transmission

12 T-$($ .($ /%0$ 4$.(/ !0.4$/ ./ <$#%2

SPUR GEAR

)pur gears or straight6cut gears are the simplest t!pe of gear. The! consist of a c!linder or dis# with the teeth projecting radiall!" and although the! are not straight6sided in form <the! are usuall! of special form to achieve constant drive ratio mainl! involute=" the edge of each tooth is straight and aligned parallel to the axis of rotation. These gears can be meshed together correctl! onl! if the! are fitted to parallel shafts.

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13

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Acetal

Acetal is a plastic pol!mer that is used either in its pure state or slightl! altered state666e.g. ?erlin666for a number of spur gears. The acetal pol!mer is much stronger than common plastic" though it can be easil! molded to an! shape" including a spur gear. @nce

14 acetal has hardened in the shape of a spur gear" it is stif" strong and resistant to abrasion. The malleabilit!" strength and resilience ma#e it an ideal material for spur gears.

:ast Iron

:ast iron is" li#e acetal" an easil! molded material. It is also highl! resistant to rust. :ast iron is not pure iron" and because of this" an! given batch of cast iron will have different ingredients. These different ingredients cohere for different degrees of strength and durabilit!. :ast iron is used in machine parts because it is relativel! inexpensive" rust resistant and eas! to mold" though it ma! be either incredibl! strong or incredibl! wea#" depending upon the admixture.

)tainless )teel

)tainless steel is a metal allo! commonl! used in the casting of spur gears. A metal allo! is a metal composed of two or more distinct elements that are melted together. Ai#e cast iron" it is highl! resistant to oxidation" and li#e acetal" it is resistant to abrasions and other wea#ening blemishes. )tainless steelBs resistance to rust and scarring

1$ is due to the infusion of chromium. The strength" durabilit! and corrosion resistance ma#e stainless steel a popular material for spur gears.

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)pur gears have a wide range of applications. The! are used in4

1. 2. 3. 4. $. ,. 7. 8. 9. 1;. 11. 12.

etal cutting machines 0ower plants arine engines echanical cloc#s and watches +uel pumps 3ashing achines

&ear motors and gear pumps 'ac# and pinion mechanisms aterial handling e5uipments Automobile gear boxes )teel mills 'olling mills

1,

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)pur gears have high power transmission efficienc!.

The! are compact and eas! to install.

The! offer constant velocit! ratio.

Cnli#e belt drives" spur gear drives have no slip.

)pur gears are highl! reliable.

The! can be used to transmit large amount of power <of the order of $;";;; #3=.

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)pur gear drives are costl! when compared to belt drives.

17 The! have a limited center distance. This is because in a spur gear drive" the gears should be meshed and the! should be in direct contact with each other.

)pur gears produce a lot of noise when operating at high speeds.

The! cannot be used for long distance power transmission.

&ear teeth experience a large amount of stress.

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wo important concepts in gearing are '!"*- /+(&.*$ and '!"*- .,4#$. The pitch surface of a gear is the imaginar! toothless surface that !ou would have b! averaging out the pea#s and valle!s of the individual teeth. The pitch surface of an ordinar! gear is the shape of a c!linder. The pitch angle of a gear is the angle between the face of the pitch surface and the axis. The most familiar #inds of bevel gears have pitch angles of less than 9; degrees and therefore are cone6shaped. This t!pe of bevel gear is called $="$(,.# because the gear teeth point outward. The pitch surfaces of meshed external bevel gears are coaxial with

18 the gear shafts> the apexes of the two surfaces are at the point of intersection of the shaft axes. Devel gears that have pitch angles of greater than ninet! degrees have teeth that point inward and are called !,"$(,.# bevel gears. Devel gears that have pitch angles of exactl! 9; degrees have teeth that point outward parallel with the axis and resemble the points on a crown. ThatBs wh! this t!pe of bevel gear is called a*(%2, gear. iter gears are mating bevel gears with e5ual numbers of teeth and with axes at right angles. )#ew bevel gears are those for which the corresponding crown gear has teeth that are straight and obli5ue.

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Devel gears are classified in different t!pes according to geometr!4

S"(.!4-" <$:$# 4$.(/ have conical pitch surface and teeth are straight and tapering towards apex.

)piral bevel gears have curved teeth at an angle allowing tooth contact to be gradual and

smooth.

19

?$(%# <$:$# 4$.(/ are ver! similar to a bevel gear onl! exception is the teeth are curved4 the ends of

each tooth are coplanar with the axis" but the middle of each tooth is swept circumferentiall! around the gear. Eerol bevel gears can be thought of as spiral bevel gears <which also have curved teeth= but with a spiral angle of %ero <so the ends of the teeth align with the axis=.

Hy'%!; <$:$# 4$.(/ are similar to spiral bevel but the pitch surfaces are h!perbolic and not conical. 0inion can be offset above" or below"the gear centre" thus allowing larger pinion diameter" and longer life and smoother mesh" with additional ratios e.g." ,41" 841" 1;41. In a limiting case of ma#ing the (bevel( surface parallel with the axis of rotation" this configuration resembles a worm drive.

2;

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The various materials used for gears include a wide variet! of cast irons" non ferrous material Fnon G metallic materials the selection of the gear material depends upon4 i= T!pe of service ii= 0eripheral speed iii= ?egree of accurac! re5uired iv= ethod of

manufacture v= 'e5uired dimensions F weight of the drive vi= Allowable stress vii= )hoc# resistance viii= 3ear resistance.

21 1= :ast iron is popular due to its good wearing properties" excellent machinabilit! F ease of producing complicated shapes b! the casting method. It is suitable where large gears of complicated shapes are needed.

2= )teel is sufficientl! strong F highl! resistant to wear b! abrasion.

3= :ast steel is used where stress on gear is high F it is difficult to fabricate the gears. 4= 0lain carbon steels find application for industrial gears where high toughness combined with high strength.

$= Allo! steels are used where high tooth strength F low tooth wear are re5uired.

,= Aluminum is used where low inertia of rotating mass is desired.

7= &ears made of nonGmetallic materials give noiseless operation at high peripheral speeds.

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22 Two bevel gears in mesh is #nown as bevel gearing. In bevel gearing" the pitch cone angles of the pinion and gear are to be determined from the shaft angle" i.e." the angle between the intersecting shafts. +igure shows views of a bevel gearing

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The bevel gear has man! diverse applications such as locomotives" marine applications" automobiles" printing presses" cooling towers" power plants" steel plants" railwa! trac# inspection machines" etc.

23 +or examples" see the following articles on4

Devel gears are used in ;!&&$($,"!.# ;(!:$/" which can transmit power to two axles spinning at different speeds" such as those on a cornering automobile.

Devel gears are used as the main mechanism for a -.,; ;(!##. As the handle of the drill is turned in a vertical direction" the bevel gears change the rotation of the chuc# to a hori%ontal rotation. The bevel gears in a hand drill have the added advantage of increasing the speed of rotation of the chuc# and this ma#es it possible to drill a range of materials.

The gears in a <$:$# 4$.( '#.,$( permit minor adjustment during assembl! and allow for some displacement due to deflection under operating loads without concentrating the load on the end of the tooth.

)piral bevel gears are important components on (%"%(*(.&" drive s!stems. These components are re5uired to operate at high speeds" high loads" and for a large number of load c!cles. In this application" spiral bevel gears are used to redirect the shaft from the hori%ontal gas turbine engine to the vertical rotor.

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This gear ma#es it possible to change the operating angle.

24

?iffering of the number of teeth <effectivel! diameter= on each wheel allows mechanical advantage to be changed. D! increasing or decreasing the ratio of teeth between the drive and driven wheels one ma! change the ratio of rotations between the two" meaning that therotational drive and tor5ue of the second wheel can be changed in relation to the first" with speed increasing and tor5ue decreasing" or speed decreasing and tor5ue increasing.

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@ne wheel of such gear is designed to wor# with its complementar! wheel and no other.

ust be precisel! mounted. The shaftsB bearings must be capable of supporting significant forces.

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2$

C-.!, ;(!:$(

-.!, ;(!:$ is a wa! of transmitting mechanical power from one place to another. It is often used to conve! power to the wheels of a vehicle" particularl! bic!cles and motorc!cles. It is also used in a wide variet! of machines besides vehicles. ost often" the power is conve!ed b! a roller chain" #nown as the ;(!:$ *-.!, or "(.,/0!//!%, *-.!,"112passing over a sproc#et gear" with the teeth of the gear meshing with the holes in the lin#s of the chain. The gear is turned" and this pulls the

2, chain putting mechanical force into the s!stem. Another t!pe of drive chain is the chain" invented b! the inverted teeth. )ometimes the power is output b! simpl! rotating the chain" which can be used to lift or drag objects. In other situations" a second gear is placed and the power is recovered b! attaching shafts or hubs to this gear. Though drive chains are often simple oval loops" the! can also go around corners b! placing more than two gears along the chain> gears that do not put power into the s!stem or transmit it out are generall! #nown as idler6 wheels. D! var!ing the diameter of the input and output gears with respect to each other" the gear ratiocan be altered" so that" for example" the pedals of a bic!cle can spin all the wa! around more than once for ever! rotation of the gear that drives the wheels. orse :hain :ompan! of Ithaca" Hew Ior#" C)A. This has orse

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The oldest #nown application of a chain drive appears in the 0ol!bolos" a repeating crossbow described b! the&ree# engineer 0hilon of D!%antium <3rd centur! D:=. Two flat6lin#ed chains were connected to a windlass" which b! winding bac# and forth would automaticall! fire the machineBs arrows until its maga%ine was empt!.
132

Although the device did not transmit power continuousl! since the chains (did not

transmit power from shaft to shaft("142 the &ree# design mar#s the beginning of the histor! of the chain drive since (no earlier instance of such a cam is #nown" and none as complex

27 is #nown until the 1,th centur!. It is here that the flat6lin# chain" often attributed to Aeonardo da Jinci" actuall! made its first appearance.(132 The first continuous power6transmitting chain drive was depicted in the written horological treatise of the )ong ?!nast! <9,;G1279= :hinese engineer )u )ong <1;2;611;1 A?=" who used it to operate the armillar! sphere of his astronomical cloc# tower as well as the cloc# jac# figurines presenting the time of da! b! mechanicall! banging gongs and drums.1$2 The chain drive itself was given power via the h!draulic wor#s of )uBs water cloc# tan# and waterwheel" the latter which acted as a large gear. U/$ !, "-$ :$-!*#$/

B!*y*#$/ ain article4 Dic!cle chain :hain drive was the main feature which differentiated the safet! bic!cle introduced in 188$" with its two e5ual6si%ed wheels" from thedirect6drive penn!6farthing or (high wheeler( t!pe of bic!cle. The popularit! of the chain6driven safet! bic!cle brought about the demise of the penn!6farthing" and is still a basic feature of bic!cle design toda!.

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28 T(.,/0!""!,4 '%2$( "% "-$ 2-$$#/

C-.!, ;(!:$ was a popular power transmission s!stem from the earliest da!s of theautomobile. It gained prominence as an alternative to the )!stKme 0anhard with its rigid.otch#iss driveshaft and universal joints. A chain6drive s!stem uses one or more roller chains to transmit power from a differential to the rear axle. This s!stem allowed for a great deal of vertical axle movement <for example" over bumps=" and was simpler to design and build than a rigid driveshaft in a wor#able suspension. Also" it had less unsprung weight at the rear wheels than the .otch#iss drive" which would have had the weight of the driveshaft and differential to carr! as well. This meant that the vehicle would have a smoother ride. The lighter unsprung mass would allow the suspension to react to bumps more effectivel!.

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29

A <$.(!,4 is a machine element that constrains relative motion between moving parts to onl! the desired motion. The design of the bearing ma!" for example" provide for free linearmovement of

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the moving part or for free rotation around a fixed axis> or" it ma! prevent a motion b! controlling the vectors of normal forces that bear on the moving parts. an! bearings

also facilitate the desired motion as much as possible" such as b! minimi%ing friction. Dearings are classified broadl! according to the t!pe of operation" the motions allowed" or to the directions of the loads <forces= applied to the parts.

3; The term (bearing( is derived from the verb (to bear(>112 a bearing being a machine element that allows one part to bear <i.e." to support= another. The simplest bearings are bearing surfaces" cut or formed into a part" with var!ing degrees of control over the form" si%e"roughness and location of the surface. @ther bearings are separate devices installed into a machine or machine part. The most sophisticated bearings for the most demanding applications are ver! precise devices> their manufacture re5uires some of the highest standards of current technolog!.

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The invention of the rolling bearing" in the form of wooden rollers supporting" or bearing" an object being moved is of great anti5uit!" and ma! predate the invention of the wheel. Though it is often claimed that the *g!ptians used roller bearings in the form of tree trun#s under sleds"122 this is modern speculation.132 The! are depicted in their own drawings in the tomb of ?jehutihotep as moving massive stone bloc#s on sledges with the runners lubricated with a li5uid which would constitute a plain bearing. There are also *g!ptian drawings of bearings used withhand drills. The earliest recovered example of a rolling element bearing is a wooden ball bearingsupporting a rotating table from the remains of the 'oman Hemi ships in Aa#e Hemi" Ital!. The wrec#s were dated to 4; A?.

31 Aeonardo da Jinci incorporated drawings of ball bearings in his design for a helicopter around the !ear 1$;;. This is the first recorded use of bearings in an aerospace design. .owever" Agostino 'amelli is the first to have published s#etches of roller and thrust bearings.122 An issue with ball and roller bearings is that the balls or rollers rub against each other causing additional friction which can be prevented b! enclosing the balls or rollers in a cage. The captured" or caged" ball bearing was originall! described b! &alileo in the 17th centur!. The mounting of bearings into a set was not accomplished for man! !ears after that. The first patent for a ball race was b! 0hilip Jaughan of :armarthen in 1794. Dearings saw use for holding wheel and axles. The bearings used there were plain bearings that were used to greatl! reduce friction over that of dragging an object b! ma#ing the friction act over a shorter distance as the wheel turned. The first plain and rolling6element bearings were wood closel! followed b! bron%e. @ver their histor! bearings have been made of man! materials including ceramic" sapphire" glass" steel" bron%e" other metals and plastic <e.g." n!lon" pol!ox!meth!lene"pol!tetrafluoroeth!lene" and C. 30*= which are all used toda!. 3atch ma#ers produce (jeweled( watches using sapphire plain bearings to reduce friction thus allowing more precise time #eeping. *ven basic materials can have good durabilit!. As examples" wooden bearings can still be seen toda! in old cloc#s or in water mills where the water provides cooling and lubrication.

32 The first practical caged6roller bearing was invented in the mid6174;s b! horologist /ohn .arrison for his .3 marine time#eeper. This uses the bearing for a ver! limited oscillating motion but .arrison also used a similar bearing in a trul! rotar! application in a contemporaneous regulator cloc#.

A patent on ball bearings" reportedl! the first" was awarded to /ules )urira!" a 0arisian bic!cle mechanic" on 3 August 18,9. The bearings were then fitted to the winning bic!cle ridden b! /ames 18,9.182 In 1883" +riedrich +ischer" founder of +A&" developed an approach for milling and grinding balls of e5ual si%e and exact roundness b! means of a suitable production machine and formed the foundation for creation of an independent bearing industr!. The modern" self6aligning design of ball bearing is attributed to )ven 3ing5uist of the )-+ball6bearing manufacturer in 19;7" when he was awarded )wedish patent Ho. 2$4;, on its design. .enr! Tim#en" a 19th6centur! visionar! and innovator in carriage manufacturing" patented the tapered roller bearing in 1898. The following !ear he formed a compan! to produce his innovation. @ver a centur! the compan! grew to ma#e bearings of all t!pes" including specialt! steel and an arra! of related products and services. *rich +ran#e invented and patented the wire race bearing in 1934. .is focus was on a bearing design with a cross section as small as possible and which could be integrated into the enclosing design. After 3orld 3ar II he founded together with &erhard oore in the worldBs first bic!cle road race" 0aris6'ouen" in Hovember

33 .e!drich the compan! +ran#e F .e!drich -& <toda! +ran#e &mb.= to push the development and production of wire race bearings. 'ichard )tribec#Ls extensive research on ball bearing steels identified the metallurg! of the commonl! used 1;;:r, showing coefficient of friction as a function of pressure. ?esigned in 19,8 and later patented in 1972" Dishop63isecarverBs co6founder Dud 3isecarver created vee groove bearing guide wheels" a t!pe of linear motion bearing consisting of both an external and internal 9;6degree vee angle. In the earl! 198;s" 0acific DearingBs founder" 'obert )chroeder" invented the first bi6 material plain bearing which was si%e interchangeable with linear ball bearings. This bearing had a metal shell <aluminum" steel or stainless steel= and a la!er of Teflon6based material connected b! a thin adhesive la!er. Toda! ball and roller bearings are used in man! applications which include a rotating component. *xamples include ultra high speed bearings in dental drills" aerospace bearings in the ars 'over" gearbox and wheel bearings on automobiles" flexure bearings

in optical alignment s!stems and bic!cle wheel hubs.

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There are at least , common principles of operation4

plain bearing" also #nown b! the specific st!les4 bushing" journal bearing" sleeve bearing" rifle bearing

34

rolling6element bearing such as ball bearings and roller bearings jewel bearing" in which the load is carried b! rolling the axle slightl! off6center fluid bearing" in which the load is carried b! a gas or li5uid magnetic bearing" in which the load is carried b! a magnetic field flexure bearing" in which the motion is supported b! a load element which bends.

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an! bearings re5uire periodic maintenance to prevent premature failure" but man! others re5uire little maintenance. The latter include various #inds of fluid and magnetic bearings" as well as rolling6element bearings that are described with terms including sealed bearingand sealed for life. These contain seals to #eep the dirt out and the grease in. The! wor# successfull! in man! applications" providing maintenance6free operation. )ome applications cannot use them effectivel!. Honsealed bearings often have a grease fitting" for periodic lubrication with a grease gun" or an oil cup for periodic filling with oil. Defore the 197;s" sealed bearings were not encountered on most machiner!" and oiling and greasing were a more common activit! than the! are toda!. +or example" automotive chassis used to re5uire (lube jobs( nearl! as often as engine oil changes" but toda!Bs car chassis are mostl! sealed for life. +rom the late 17;;s through mid 19;;s" industr! relied on man! wor#ers called oilers to lubricate machiner! fre5uentl! with oil cans.

3$ +actor! machines toda! usuall! have lube s!stems" in which a central pump serves periodic charges of oil or grease from a reservoir through lube lines to the various lube points in the machineBs bearing surfaces" bearing journals" pillow bloc#s" and so on. The timing and number of such lube c!cles is controlled b! the machineBs computeri%ed control" such as 0A: or :H:" as well as b! manual override functions when occasionall! needed. This automated process is how all modern :H: machine tools and man! other modern factor! machines are lubricated. )imilar lube s!stems are also used on nonautomated machines" in which case there is a hand pumpthat a machine operator is supposed to pump once dail! <for machines in constant use= or once wee#l!. These are called one6shot s!stems from their chief selling point4 one pull on one handle to lube the whole machine" instead of a do%en pumps of an alemite gun or oil can in a do%en different positions around the machine. The oiling s!stem inside a modern automotive or truc# engine is similar in concept to the lube s!stems mentioned above" except that oil is pumped continuousl!. uch of this oil

flows through passages drilled or cast into the engine bloc# and c!linder heads" escaping through ports directl! onto bearings" and s5uirting elsewhere to provide an oil bath. The oil pump simpl! pumps constantl!" and an! excess pumped oil continuousl! escapes through a relief valve bac# into the sump. an! bearings in high6c!cle industrial operations need periodic lubrication and cleaning" and man! re5uire occasional adjustment" such as pre6load adjustment" to minimise the effects of wear. Dearing life is often much better when the bearing is #ept clean and well lubricated. .owever" man! applications ma#e good maintenance difficult. +or example" bearings in

3, the conve!or of a roc# crusher are exposed continuall! to hard abrasive particles. :leaning is of little use" because cleaning is expensive !et the bearing is contaminated again as soon as the conve!or resumes operation. Thus" a good maintenance program might lubricate the bearings fre5uentl! but not include an! disassembl! for cleaning. The fre5uent lubrication" b! its nature" provides a limited #ind of cleaning action" b! displacing older <grit6filled= oil or grease with a fresh charge" which itself collects grit before being displaced b! the next c!cle.

These are bearing images

37

(I,"$(,.# .,; $="$(,.# '.("/) O'$(."!%, %, #."-$ 0.*-!,$

L."-$ 0.*-!,$

A #."-$ is a machine tool which rotates the wor#piece on its axis to perform various operations such as cutting" sanding" #nurling" drilling" or deformation" facing" turning" with tools that are applied to the wor#piece to create an object which has s!mmetr! about anaxis of rotation.

38

Aathes are used in woodturning" metalwor#ing" metal spinning" Thermal spra!ingM parts reclamation" and glass6wor#ing. Aathes can be used to shape potter!" the best6#nown design being the potterBs wheel. ost suitabl! e5uipped metalwor#ing lathes can also be

used to produce most solids of revolution" plane surfaces and screw threads or helices. @rnamental lathes can produce three6dimensional solids of incredible complexit!. The material can be held in place b! either one or two centers" at least one of which can be moved hori%ontall! to accommodate var!ing material lengths. @ther wor#6holding methods include clamping the wor# about the axis of rotation using a chuc# or collet" or to a faceplate" using clamps or dogs.

*xamples of objects that can be produced on a lathe include candlestic# holders"gun barrels" cue stic#s" table legs" bowls" baseball bats" musical instruments <especiall! woodwind instruments=" cran#shafts" and camshafts.

39 "+(,!,4 %'$(."!%, &.*!,4 %'$(."!%,

"+(,!,4 %'$(."!%,

T+(,!,4 is a machining process in which a cutting tool" t!picall! a non6rotar! tool bit" describes a helical toolpath b! moving more or less linearl! while the wor#piece rotates. The toolBs axes of movement ma! be literall! a straight line" or the! ma! be along some set of curves or angles" but the! are essentiall! linear <in the nonmathematical sense=. Csuall! the term (turning( is reserved for the generation of external surfaces b! this cutting action" whereas this same essential cutting action when applied to internal surfaces <that is" holes" of one #ind or another= is called (boring(. Thus the phrase (turning and boring( categori%es the larger famil! of <essentiall! similar= processes. The cutting of faces on the wor#piece <that is" surfaces perpendicular to its rotating axis=" whether with a turning or boring tool" is called (facing(" and ma! be lumped into either categor! as a subset.

Turning can be done manuall!" in a traditional form of lathe" which fre5uentl! re5uires continuous supervision b! the operator" or b! using an automated lathe which does not. Toda! the most common t!pe of such automation is computer numerical control" better

4; #nown as :H:. <:H: is also commonl! used with man! other t!pes of machining besides turning.=

3hen turning" a piece of relativel! rigid material <such as wood" metal" plastic" or stone= is rotated and a cutting tool is traversed along 1" 2" or 3 axes of motion to produce precise diameters and depths. Turning can be either on the outside of the c!linder or on the inside <also #nown as boring= to produce tubular components to various geometries. Although now 5uite rare" earl! lathes could even be used to produce complex geometric figures" even theplatonic solids> although since the advent of :H: it has become unusual to use non6computeri%ed toolpath control for this purpose.

The turning processes are t!picall! carried out on a lathe" considered to be the oldest machine tools" and can be of four different t!pes such as straight turning" taper turning"profiling or external grooving. Those t!pes of turning processes can produce various shapes of materials such as straight" conical" curved" or grooved wor#piece. In general" turning uses simple single6point cutting tools. *ach group of wor#piece materials has an optimum set of tools angles which have been developed through the !ears.

The bits of waste metal from turning operations are #nown as chips . In some areas the! ma! be #nown as turnings.

41

("+(,!,4 %& (%;)

(&!,!/- "+(,!,4)

42 /% 2$ *., /.y "-." "+(,!,4 !/ That operation is one of the most basic machining processes. That is" the part is rotated while a single point cutting tool is moved parallel to the axis of rotation.112 Turning can be done on the external surface of the part as well as internall! <boring=. The starting material is generall! a wor#piece generated b! other processes such ascasting" forging" extrusion" or drawing.

F.*!,4 %'$(."!%,

n machining" &.*!,4 is the act of cutting a &.*$" which is a planar surface" onto the wor#piece. 3ithin this broadest sense there are various specific t!pes of facing" with the two most common being facing in the course of turning and boring wor# <facing planes perpendicular to the rotating axis of the wor#piece= and facing in the course of milling wor# <for example" face milling=. @ther t!pes of machining also cut faces <for example" planing" shaping" and grinding=" although the term (facing( ma! not alwa!s be emplo!ed there.

)potfacing is the facing of spots <locali%ed areas=" such as the bearing surfaces on which bolt heads or washers will sit

43

( &.*!,4 %'$(."!%, )

$#;!,4

$#;!,4 is a fabrication or sculptural process that joins materials" usuall! metals orthermoplastics" b! causing coalescence. This is often done b! melting the wor#pieces and adding a filler material to form a pool of molten material <the weld pool= that cools to become a strong joint" with pressure sometimes used in conjunction with heat" or b! itself" to produce the weld. This is in contrast with soldering and bra%ing" which involve melting a lower6melting6point material between the wor#pieces to form a bond between them" without melting the wor#pieces.

44 an! different energ! sources can be used for welding" including a gas flame" an electric arc" a laser" an electron beam" friction" and ultrasound. 3hile often an industrial process" welding ma! be performed in man! different environments" including open air" under waterand in outer space. 3elding is a potentiall! ha%ardous underta#ing and precautions are re5uired to avoid burns" electric shoc#" vision damage" inhalation of poisonous gases and fumes" and exposure to intense ultraviolet radiation.

Cntil the end of the 19th centur!" the onl! welding process was forge welding" whichblac#smiths had used for centuries to join iron and steel b! heating and hammering. Arc welding and ox!fuel welding were among the first processes to develop late in the centur!" and electric resistance welding followed soon after. 3elding technolog! advanced 5uic#l! during the earl! 2;th centur! as 3orld 3ar I and 3orld 3ar II drove the demand for reliable and inexpensive joining methods. +ollowing the wars" several modern welding techni5ues were developed" including manual methods li#e shielded metal arc welding" now one of the most popular welding methods" as well as semi6automatic and automatic processes such as gas metal arc welding" submerged arc welding" flux6cored arc weldingand electroslag welding. ?evelopments continued with the invention of laser beam welding" electron beam welding" electromagnetic pulse welding and friction stir welding in the latter half of the centur!. Toda!" the science continues to advance. 'obot welding is commonplace in industrial settings" and researchers continue to develop new welding methods and gain greater understanding of weld 5ualit!.

4$

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These processes use a welding power suppl! to create and maintain an electric arc between an electrode and the base material to melt metals at the welding point. The! can use either direct <?:= or alternating <A:= current" and consumable or non6 consumableelectrodes. The welding region is sometimes protected b! some t!pe of inert or semi6inert gas" #nown as a shielding gas" and filler material is sometimes used as well.

P%2$( /+''#!$/

To suppl! the electrical power necessar! for arc welding processes" a variet! of different power supplies can be used. The most common welding power supplies are constant current power supplies and constant voltage power supplies. In arc welding" the

4, length of the arc is directl! related to the voltage" and the amount of heat input is related to the current. :onstant current power supplies are most often used for manual welding processes such as gas tungsten arc welding and shielded metal arc welding" because the! maintain a relativel! constant current even as the voltage varies. This is important because in manual welding" it can be difficult to hold the electrode perfectl! stead!" and as a result" the arc length and thus voltage tend to fluctuate. :onstant voltage power supplies hold the voltage constant and var! the current" and as a result" are most often used for automated welding processes such as gas metal arc welding" flux cored arc welding" and submerged arc welding. In these processes" arc length is #ept constant" since an! fluctuation in the distance between the wire and the base material is 5uic#l! rectified b! a large change in current. +or example" if the wire and the base material get too close" the current will rapidl! increase" which in turn causes the heat to increase and the tip of the wire to melt" returning it to its original separation distance.112 The t!pe of current used also pla!s an important role in arc welding. :onsumable electrode processes such as shielded metal arc welding and gas metal arc welding generall! use direct current" but the electrode can be charged either positivel! or negativel!. In welding" the positivel! charged anode will have a greater heat concentration" and as a result" changing the polarit! of the electrode has an impact on weld properties. If the electrode is positivel! charged" the base metal will be hotter" increasing weld penetration and welding speed. Alternativel!" a negativel! charged electrode results in more shallow welds.122 Honconsumable electrode processes" such as gas tungsten arc welding" can use either t!pe of direct current" as well as alternating current. .owever" with direct current" because the electrode onl! creates the arc and does

47 not provide filler material" a positivel! charged electrode causes shallow welds" while a negativel! charged electrode ma#es deeper welds.132 Alternating current rapidl! moves between these two" resulting in medium6penetration welds. @ne disadvantage of A:" the fact that the arc must be re6ignited after ever! %ero crossing" has been addressed with the invention of special power units that produce a s5uare wave pattern instead of the normal sine wave" ma#ing rapid %ero crossings possible and minimi%ing the effects of the problem.

P(%*$// %& 2$#;!,4

@ne of the most common t!pes of arc welding is shielded metal arc welding <) A3=>
1$2

it is also #nown as manual metal arc welding <

A= or stic# welding. *lectric current

is used to stri#e an arc between the base material and consumable electrode rod" which is made of filler material <t!picall! steel= and is covered with a flux that protects the weld area from oxidation and contamination b! producing carbon dioxide <:@2= gas during the welding process. The electrode core itself acts as filler material" ma#ing a separate filler unnecessar!.

he process is versatile and can be performed with relativel! inexpensive e5uipment" ma#ing it well suited to shop jobs and field wor#.1$21,2 An operator can become reasonabl! proficient with a modest amount of training and can achieve master! with

48 experience. 3eld times are rather slow" since the consumable electrodes must be fre5uentl! replaced and because slag" the residue from the flux" must be chipped awa! after welding.1$2+urthermore" the process is generall! limited to welding ferrous materials" though special electrodes have made possible the welding of cast iron" nic#el" aluminum" copper" and other metals.

D!.4(.0 %& .(* .,; 2$#; .($.@ !, /-!$#;$; 0$".# .(* 2$#;!,4

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49 4A F+/!%, 3A B./$ 0$".# 5A $#; 0$".#

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&as metal arc welding <& A3=" also #nown as metal inert gas or

I& welding" is a

semi6automatic or automatic process that uses a continuous wire feed as an electrode and an inert or semi6inert gas mixture to protect the weld from contamination. )ince the electrode is continuous" welding speeds are greater for & A3 than for ) A3.172 A related process" flux6cored arc welding <+:A3=" uses similar e5uipment but uses wire consisting of a steel electrode surrounding a powder fill material. This cored wire is more expensive than the standard solid wire and can generate fumes andMor slag" but it permits even higher welding speed and greater metal penetration.182 &as tungsten arc welding <&TA3=" or tungsten inert gas <TI&= welding" is a manual welding process that uses a nonconsumable tungsten electrode" an inert or semi6inert gas mixture" and a separate filler material.192 *speciall! useful for welding thin materials" this method is characteri%ed b! a stable arc and high 5ualit! welds" but it re5uires significant operator s#ill and can onl! be accomplished at relativel! low speeds.192 &TA3 can be used on nearl! all weldable metals" though it is most often applied tostainless steel and light metals. It is often used when 5ualit! welds are extremel! important" such as in bic!cle" aircraft and naval applications.192 A related process" plasma

$; arc welding" also uses a tungsten electrode but uses plasma gas to ma#e the arc. The arc is more concentrated than the &TA3 arc" ma#ing transverse control more critical and thus generall! restricting the techni5ue to a mechani%ed process. Decause of its stable current" the method can be used on a wider range of material thic#nesses than can the &TA3 process and it is much faster. It can be applied to all of the same materials as &TA3 except magnesium" and automated welding of stainless steel is one important application of the process. A variation of the process is plasma cutting" an efficient steel cutting process.11;2 )ubmerged arc welding <)A3= is a high6productivit! welding method in which the arc is struc# beneath a covering la!er of flux. This increases arc 5ualit!" since contaminants in the atmosphere are bloc#ed b! the flux. The slag that forms on the weld generall! comes off b! itself" and combined with the use of a continuous wire feed" the weld deposition rate is high. 3or#ing conditions are much improved over other arc welding processes" since the flux hides the arc and almost no smo#e is produced. The process is commonl! used in industr!" especiall! for large products and in the manufacture of welded pressure vessels.1112 @ther arc welding processes include atomic h!drogen welding" electroslag welding" electrogas welding" and stud arc welding

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hac#saw blade file scale drill

etc.

H.*6/.2

A -.*6/.2 is a fine6tooth hand saw with a blade held under tension in a frame" used forcutting materials such as metal or plastics. .and6held hac#saws consist of a metal arch with a handle" usuall! a pistol grip" with pins for attaching a narrow disposable blade. A screw or other mechanism is used to put the thin blade under tension. The blade can be mounted with the teeth facing toward or awa! from the handle" resulting in cutting action on either the push or pull stro#e. @n the push stro#e" the arch will flex slightl!" decreasing the tension on the blade" often resulting in an increased

$2 tendenc! of the blade to buc#le and crac#. :utting on the pull stro#e increases the blade tension and will result in greater control of the cut and longer blade life

B#.;$

Dlades are available in standardi%ed lengths" usuall! 1; or 12 inches for a standard hand hac#saw. (/unior( hac#saws are half this si%e. 0owered hac#saws ma! use large blades in a range of si%es" or small machines ma! use the same hand blades. The pitch of the teeth can be an!where from fourteen to thirt!6two teeth per inch <tpi= for a hand blade" with as few as three tpi for a large power hac#saw blade. The blade chosen is based on the thic#ness of the material being cut" with a minimum of three teeth in the material. As hac#saw teeth are so small" the! are set in a (wave( set. As for other saws the! are set from side to side to provide a #erfor clearance when sawing" but the set of a hac#saw changes graduall! from tooth to tooth in a smooth curve" rather than alternate teeth set left and right. .ac#saw blades are normall! 5uite brittle" so care needs to be ta#en to prevent brittle fracture of the blade. *arl! blades were of carbon steel" now termed Blow allo!B blades" and were relativel! soft and flexible. The! avoided brea#age" but also wore out rapidl!.

$3 *xcept where cost is a particular concern" this t!pe is now obsolete. BAow allo!B blades are still the onl! t!pe available for the /unior hac#saw" which limits the usefulness of this otherwise popular saw. +or several decades now" hac#saw blades have used high speed steel for their teeth" giving greatl! improved cutting and tooth life. These blades were first available in the BAll6hardB form which cut accuratel! but were extremel! brittle. This limited their practical use to benchwor# on a wor#piece that was firml! clamped in a vice. A softer form of high speed steel blade was also available" which wore well and resisted brea#age" but was less stiff and so less accurate for precise sawing. )ince the 198;s" bi6metal blades have been used to give the advantages of both forms" without ris# of brea#age. A strip of high speed steel along the tooth edge is electron beam welded to a softer spine. As the price of these has dropped to be comparable with the older blades" their use is now almost universl

-.*6/.2 <#.;$

$4

F!#$

A &!#$ is a metalwor#ing" woodwor#ing and plastic wor#ing tool used to cut fine amounts of material from a wor#piece. It most commonl! refers to the hand tool st!le" which ta#es the form of a steel bar with a case hardened surface and a series of sharp" parallel teeth. ost files have a narrow" pointed tang at one end to which a handle can be fitted.112 A similar tool is the rasp. This is an older form" with simpler teeth. As the! have larger clearance between teeth" these are usuall! used on softer" non6metallic materials. 'elated tools have been developed with abrasive surfaces" such as diamond abrasives orsilicon carbide. Decause of their similar form and function" these have also been termed BfilesB.

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