American literature From its origins in colonial America to its present status internationally, American literature has stressed

the diversity and uniqueness of the American character and experience. The Puritans attempted to demonstrate that God had ordained their emigration and had intended that their communities stand as examples of holiness and right for the rest of the world. In evolutionary times this idea of specialness came to include unique American types, such as the !an"ee, and a #elief that the country was destined to produce a new literature. As it matured, American literature followed the ma$or movements of %estern literature in the &'th century((romanticism, realism, and naturalism. American writers, however, concentrated on the American scene and sought to affirm a distinct national identity. )*+*,IA+ +IT- AT. The colonial period extends from the /irginia and 0assachusetts settlements of the &1th century through the Great Awa"ening, a religious revival in the &123s, and its aftermath. Although dominated #y Puritan( )alvinistic doctrine, early American literature was not confined to religious su#$ects. The religious writings, as well as the more secular chronicles, are the history of exceptional individuals who rose a#ove the physically difficult and spiritually demanding environment of the ,ew %orld. These early writers set the tone and the rhetoric and foreshadowed the ma$or concerns of later American writing. The first generation of settlers wrote sermons, religious tracts, diaries, and histories of their underta"ings. The leading religious controversialists were 4ohn )*TT*,, Anne 5.T)5I,6*,, oger %I++IA06, and 4ohn %I,T5 *P. %inthrop7s 4ournal, originally printed as a 5istory of ,ew -ngland from &893 to &82', remains a ma$or historical source. It was followed #y %illiam : A;F* ;7s 5istory of Plymouth Plantation <pu#. &=>8?@ -dward 4ohnson7s 5istory of ,ew -ngland <&8>2?@ and Thomas 0* T*,7s ,ew -nglish )anaan <&891?, which stands out for its irreverence and hints of #awdiness. 5istories of the 6outh with enduring literary qualities were )apt. 4ohn 60IT57s The Generall 5istorie of /irginia <&8A2? and, much later, %illiam :! ;7s 5istory of the ;ividing +ine <composed and rewor"ed from &1A= #ut not pu#lished until &=2&?. Puritan writers stressed religious and didactic themes. The first #oo" pu#lished in America was the :ay Psalm :oo"B The %hole :oo" of Psalmes Faithfully Translated into -nglish 0etre <&823?. 0ichael %IGG+-6%* T5 continued in the Puritan vein, exhorting against sin in his popular poem, ;ay of ;oom <&88A?. 0eanwhile, poetry of genuine accomplishment and a less stern, Puritan emphasis was written #y Anne : A;6T --T in The Tenth 0use +ately 6prung .p in America <&8>3? and #y -dward TA!+* , whose poems were not discovered until &'9'. 0ore in accord with the Puritan temperament are the spiritual auto#iographies, which descri#e the Puritan experience of conversion. Thomas 6hepard7s The 6incere )onvert <&823? is one of the first@ 4onathan -dwards7s CPersonal ,arrative,C first pu#lished in &18> in the +ife of the ev. 4. -dwards #y the theologian 6amuel 5op"ins, is one of the last. The memora#le wor"s of the colonial period depicted the conditions of life in the ,ew %orld. The first and #est("nown narrative of captivity #y Indians was 0ary *%+A,;6*,7s )aptivity and estauration <&8=A?. Among diarists, 6arah Dem#le Dnight7s account of her $ourney <&132? from :oston to ,ew !or" on horse#ac" and 6amuel 6-%A++7s diaries <spanning &819 to &1A'? descri#e life in the colonies. The Puritan literary ideal is #est summed up in the gargantuan ecclesiastical history #y )otton 0ather, the 0agnalia )hristi Americana, or the -cclesiastical 5istory of ,ew -ngland from its First Planting in the ,ew !ear &8A3, unto the !ear of our +ord &8'= <&13A?. This compendium cele#rates America and its religious Puritan leaders in a rhetoric of magnificent extravagance. An equally intense piety pervades the writings of 4onathan -;%A ;6 early in the &=th century. :esides his spiritual auto#iography, -dwards is "nown for A Treatise )oncerning eligious Affections <&128? and Freedom of the %ill <&1>2?, #oth of

which try to incorporate the philosophy of 4ohn +oc"e, and for what is pro#a#ly the most famous sermon of hellfire and #rimstone ever preached, C6inners in the 5ands of an Angry GodC <&12&?. The young :en$amin F A,D+I, wrote during the same period as -dwards. Although his Poor ichard7s Almanac" <&19A? anticipated a more rational moralism, it contained much of the prover#ial wisdom that Fran"lin had learned from wor"s such as )otton 0ather7s :onifacius, or -ssays To ;o Good <&1&3?. 6imilarly, Fran"lin7s Auto#iography reflected a concern for one7s actions that was typical of the Puritan spiritual auto#iographers. -/*+.TI*,A ! +IT- AT. The American evolutionary period extends from the first agitations #y patriots in the early &183s through the adoption of the )onstitution in &1=1. The ardor and disputatiousness characteristic of the Puritans was felt early in this period in the sermons of 4onathan 0ayhew and in the political tracts of the patriots. Prominent among the so(called pamphleteers were 4ames *TI6, who wrote five controversial and often intemperate pamphlets@ 4ohn ;I)DI,6*,, the author of a series of letters widely printed in newspapers during &181 and &18= and signed CA Farmer in PennsylvaniaC@ and 4ohn A;A06, the author of A ;issertation on )anon and Feudal +aw <&18>?, the first of a long series of wor"s more properly considered philosophical literature than political pamphlets. It was, however, Thomas PAI,-7s pamphlet )ommon 6ense, advocating American independence, that had the greatest revolutionary impact in the colonies and that received the most attention a#road. The evolution itself fostered an outpouring of patriotic verse, much of it consisting of satirical attac"s on the +oyalists. The most popular of the satires was 4ohn Trum#ull7s 07Fingal, a #urlesque of Tory politics written in &11> and expanded in &1=A. Trum#ull was a leading figure among the )onnecticut %its, who wrote satires similar to his own. A common poetic su#$ect of the evolutionary period, the coming greatness of America, was expressed in the title of the Princeton college commencement poem of &11&, *n the ising Glory of America <&11A?, written #y Philip F -,-A. in colla#oration with 5ugh 5enry :rac"enridge. American literature during this period continued to #e expressed largely in histories, $ournals, personal diaries, letters, and political writing conceived in the revolutionary spirit. An exception was the accomplishment of Phillis %5-AT+-!, an African slave, who is now considered America7s first important #lac" writer. 5er derivative #ut finely wrought Poems on /arious 6u#$ects, eligious and 0oral was pu#lished in +ondon in &119. The diverse prose of the time included the 4ournal <&112? of 4ohn %**+0A,, a Eua"er@ the +etters of an American Farmer <&1=A? #y the French(#orn 4ean de ) -/-)*-. @ the Travels <&1'&? in the Floridas, Georgia, and the )arolinas of %illiam :artram@ and the evolutionary(period letters of A#igail A;A06, the wife of 4ohn Adams. Pro#a#ly the #est( remem#ered wor"s of the period are the state papers, #eginning with Thomas 4-FF- 6*,7s ;eclaration of Independence. In &1=1 and &1== Alexander 5A0I+T*,, 4ohn 4A!, and 4ames 0A;I6*, colla#orated in writing => essays defending the new )onstitution and collected as The Federalist. The first American play, %illiam Godfrey7s The Prince of Parthia <&18>?, appeared during this period despite the moral censure accorded to theater in the colonies. A heroic tragedy in #lan" verse, it was first performed in &181. It was followed #y the first stage comedy to #e produced in the .nited 6tates, oyall T!+- 7s The )ontrast <&1=1?, which introduced 4onathan, the first stage !an"ee. -A +! ,ATI*,A+ +IT- AT. The years from the adoption of the )onstitution <&1=1? to the period of 4ac"sonian nationalism <&=A=(98? mar" the emergence of a self(consciously national literature. The poet 4oel :A +*%, who was, li"e 4ohn Trum#ull, one of the )onnecticut %its, greeted the new .nited 6tates with his epic The )olum#iad <&=31?, a rewor"ing of his earlier The /ision of )olum#us <&1=1?. Philip Freneau wrote lyric poetry that

fused the native scene and native expression. *ther writers strove to develop an American literature #ut did not concentrate on strictly American su#$ects, using instead the universal themes of romance, virtue, vice, and seduction that pervaded popular novels in -ngland and on the )ontinent. %illiam 5ill :rown7s The Power of 6ympathy <&1='?, an imitation of Goethe7s 6orrows of !oung %erther, is regarded #y some as the first American novel. 6usanna owson7s sentimental and didactic tale of seduction, )harlotte Temple, pu#lished <&1'&? in +ondon as )harlotteB A Tale of Truth, was extremely popular. In contrast to the prevailing sentimental novel was 5ugh 5enry :rac"enridge7s massive 0odern )hivalry <&1'A(&=&>?, a picaresque novel with an underlying satire on #ad government. The first professional novelist was )harles :roc"den :rown, whose gothic and philosophical romances, #eginning with %ieland <&1'=?, anticipated -dgar Allan Poe. -arly in the &'th century, %ashington I /I,G gained -uropean recognition as America7s first genuine man of letters. A 5istory of ,ew !or" <&=3'? is a whimsical satire of pedantic historians and literary classics. 5is #est("nown tales, C ip /an %in"leC and CThe +egend of 6leepy 5ollow,C appeared in The 6"etch :oo" of Geoffrey )rayon, Gent, which was pu#lished serially in &=&'(A3. %illiam )ullen : !A,T emerged in the &=A3s as a poet of international stature. 5is CThanatopsisC <&=&1?, influenced #y the -nglish G A/-!A ; P*-T6, lin"ed American literature to the emerging -nglish *0A,TI)I60. 6till, despite -uropean influences, American writers attempted to create a distinctive literature during a time of rising literary nationalism. ,oah %-:6T- contri#uted An American ;ictionary of the -nglish +anguage <&=A=?, in which he insisted that the country possessed its own language. The nationalist theme was echoed #y %illiam -llery )5A,,I,G, -dward -/- -TT, and most memora#ly #y alph %aldo -0- 6*, in his Phi :eta Dappa address at 5arvard, CThe American 6cholarC <&=91?, which *liver %endell 5*+0-6 called Cour intellectual ;eclaration of Independence.C 4ames Fenimore )**P- was the first important American novelist to succeed with su#$ects and settings that are largely American. )ooper achieved international prominence with his second novel, The 6py <&=A&?, a tale of the evolution. 5is many novels #lending history and romance resulted in his #eing called Cthe American F6ir %alterG 6cott,C a title that put him in the company of one of the period7s most popular and respected authors. )ooper #ecame #est "nown for his +eatherstoc"ing Tales, five novels that run from The Pioneers <&=A9? to The ;eerslayer <&=2&?. )ooper7s settings capture the American idea of nature, and his hero, ,atty :umppo, expresses the self(reliant, pioneering spirit of America. 0uch of )ooper7s sense of America was caught #y the Fireside Poets, who cele#rated American history and a #enign American nature. 5enry %adsworth +*,GF-++*% displayed his s"ill at telling a story in verse in 5iawatha <&=>>?, The )ourtship of 0iles 6tandish <&=>=?, and -vangeline <&=21?. :ut +ongfellow and his contemporaries succeeded #est in pu#lic poetry intended for recitation. 6till powerful are +ongfellow7s The 0idnight ide of Paul evere <&=89?, 4ohn Greenleaf %5ITTI- 7s C:ar#ara FreitchieC <&=89?, and *liver %endell 5olmes7s C*ld IronsidesC <&=93?. -dgar Allan P*- stood apart from literary nationalism and represented a gloomier side of romanticism. As a reviewer, he was a harsh critic of second(rate American writing, #ut he da##led in many popular sensationalistic forms. 5is often technically complex poetry uses commonplace romantic themes #ut gives them a philosophical and mystical application. 0any of his short stories remain internationally famous, and he may #e said to have invented the detective story. In CThe Fall of the 5ouse of .sherC and CThe Tell(Tale 5eart,C Poe perfected the tale of gothic horror. A0- I)A, -,AI66A,)The American renaissance, also "nown as the American romantic movement, #egan with the maturing of American literature in the &=93s and &=23s and ended with its flowering in the &=>3s. ;uring the &=93s alph %aldo -merson esta#lished himself as the spo"esman for T A,6)-,;-,TA+I60, first set forth in his essay ,ature <&=98?. The group "nown as the T A,6)-,;-,TA+I6T6 that gathered

around him in )oncord, 0ass., included :ronson A+)*TT, 0argaret F.++- , Theodore PA D- , and %illiam -llery )hanning, who $oined with -merson in the pu#lication of ;IA+ magaHine <&=23(22?. They su#scri#ed to -merson7s faith that all people are united in their communion with the oversoul, a postreligious equivalent of God. -ach individual, -merson said, finds his or her own way to transcendence through self("nowledge, self(reliance, and the contemplation of nature. 5enry ;avid T5* -A. came closest to putting -merson7s ideas into practice. After two intermittent years at %alden Pond in )oncord, 0ass., he wrote %alden or +ife in the %oods <&=>2?. In this #oo", Thoreau o#serves nature from the viewpoint of a naturalist(philosopher reflecting on the quiet desperation of humanity and the transcendental solace of the natural world. ,o less consciously inde#ted to -merson was %A+T %5IT0A,, who dedicated the first edition of his poetry, +eaves of Grass <&=>>?, to him. %hitman cele#rated an untrammeled communion with nature with overtones of sensuality that appeared shoc"ing even though his poetry expressed sound transcendental doctrine. %hitman also too" seriously -merson7s appeal for American originality@ he devised a loose, CnaturalC form of versification that seemed unpoetic and $arring to his contemporaries. After the )ivil %ar, %hitman gained wider acceptance with his elegy on the death of +incoln, C%hen +ilacs +ast in the ;ooryard :loomed,C <&=8>?. %hitman7s prose wor"s include ;emocratic /istas <&=1&?, containing his philosophy of American democracy along with prophecies of its future greatness and the coming greatness of its literature, and 6pecimen ;ays <&==A?, an auto#iographical account of his )ivil %ar experiences as a voluntary nurse. .n"nown to the pu#lic, another American innovative poet, -mily ;I)DI,6*,, was writing in Amherst, 0ass. 5er poems, written mostly from the late &=>3s through the &=83s, were unconventional and deceptively simple lyrics concerned with death, eternity, and the inner life. Few were pu#lished in her lifetime, #ut when her poems were rediscovered in the &'A3s, ;ic"inson too" her place as a ma$or American poet. ,athaniel 5A%T5* ,- represents American romanticism with its roots firmly planted in the Puritan past. 5is stories were collected in Twice(Told Tales <&=91?, which esta#lished his importance as an American writer. 6ome were tales of the Puritans and of early American history@ others used a mixture of sym#olism and allegory that, together with certain recurrent themes, were carried over into 5awthorne7s novels. 5is masterpiece, the 6carlet +etter <&=>3?, is a sym#olic romance set in Puritan ,ew -ngland. 5awthorne had #een attracted to -merson7s thought #ut re$ected its optimism #oth here and in The :lithedale omance <&=>A?, a novel #ased on the transcendentalists7 utopian experiment, : **D FA 0. 5erman 0-+/I++- also re$ected -merson7s philosophy. 5is first novel, TypeeB A Peep at Polynesian +ife <&=28?, #ased on his own adventures after deserting his ship while on a whaling voyage, challenged the spiritual su#stance of )hristianity. 0elville continued to write of the sea and adventure, #ut now with increasing philosophical complexity and a mixture of allegory and sym#olism compara#le to 5awthorne7s. The culmination of his growth came in 0o#y ;ic" <&=>&?. This philosophical adventure satisfied the age7s aspiration for a great epic of nature and America, yet its greatness was not recogniHed at the time. )ertainly it came nowhere near the success of the great #est(seller .ncle Tom7s )a#in <&=>A? #y 5arriet :eecher 6T*%-. After the failure of 0elville7s next novel, Pierre <&=>A?, 0elville continued to write, #ut he #ecame increasingly discouraged with his ina#ility to reach an audience. At his death in &='& he was virtually un"nown. 5e left #ehind poetry on )ivil %ar themes, nota#ly :attle Pieces and Aspects of the %ar <&=88? and the short, unfinished novel :illy :udd. These and other late manuscripts, neglected for many years, were rediscovered in the &'A3s #y critics and scholars, whose reassessments esta#lished 0elville as a superior American writer. P*6T()I/I+ %A +IT- AT. -

The post()ivil %ar period is roughly the period from the rise of realism to the advent of naturalism, up to %orld %ar I. The )ivil %ar itself affected literature less than did the industrial expansion that came in its aftermath. ,evertheless, the war was the #asis for poetry #y 0elville, -merson, +owell, and %hitman, and of significant auto#iographical accounts #y Thomas %entworth 5IGGI,6*,, )harles Francis A;A06 4r., and .lysses 6. G A,T. 0ar" T%AI, led the movement away from the romanticism typical of the American renaissance to a worldly realism that dealt with actual places and situations. In his dialogue he produced equivalents of American speech never #efore attempted. Twain drew extensively from his personal experiencesB on his own travels for The Innocents A#road <&=8'? and oughing It <&=1A?, on his days as a river #oat pilot for +ife on the 0ississippi <&==9?, and on his youth for his #oyhood stories Tom 6awyer <&=18? and the Adventures of 5uc"le#erry Finn <&==2?. 5uc"le#erry Finn is considered #y many critics to #e the first modern American novel@ it is more than li"ely the #est "nown and is undou#tedly one of the great American literary achievements. The choice of the pen name 0ar" Twain #y 6amuel )lemens followed a practice common among American humorists who wrote during the &'th century. After Augustus :. +ongstreet7s Georgia 6cenes <&=9>?, 4ames ussell +owell wrote as 5osea :igelow, 4oel )handler 5A I6 as .ncle emus, ;avid oss +oc"e as Petroleum /. ,as#y, )harles Farrar :rowne as Artemas %A ;, and Finley Peter ;.,,- as 0r. ;ooley. As novelists and critics, %illiam ;ean 5*%-++6 and 5enry 4A0-6 contri#uted to the shift from romance to realism. 5owells7s The ise of 6ilas +apham <&==>? concerns an ordinary farmer who #ecomes wealthy and moves to :oston #ut whose spiritual rise comes a#out only when he loses his wealth. ;espite a prolific output, 5owells7s significance rests mostly on his literary criticism and his opposition to provincialism in American literature. 4ames departed even further from the provincial scene. 5e portrayed expatriate Americans in a -uropean setting in ;aisy 0iller <&=1'? and in his triumph of psychological realism, The Portrait of a +ady <&==&?. )onversely, 4ames presented the reactions of -uropeans to a ,ew -ngland #ac"ground in The -uropeans <&=1=?. In The :ostonians <&==8? he satiriHed ,ew -ngland reformers and philanthropists. As prolific as 5owells, 4ames was also a self(conscious critic and an advocate of realism. In his last novels, nota#ly The Golden :owl <&'32?, 4ames created a new, complex language and sym#olism for the novel that heralded the age of modernism. egionalism, the literature of particular sections of the country, flourished, however. 0any authors who used this form of realistic local color were women, among them %illa )AT5- , Date )5*PI,, 0ary -. %il"ins F --0A,, -llen G+A6G*%, 6arah *rne 4-%-TT, and -dith %5A T*,. *ther writers of the period who are thought of as regionalists are Am#rose :I- )-, 5amlin GA +A,;, and :ret 5A T-. 0uch of the literature of #lac" Americans was regional in setting, #y force of circumstance. )harles )5-6,.TT and %illiam %ells :rown were early #lac" novelists. In +yrics of +owly +ife <&='8?, the poet and novelist Paul +awrence ;.,:A used dialect and hum#le settings in a #lend of pathos and humor. 6ome of the most powerful writing #y #lac" Americans has #een auto#iographical@ in the post()ivil %ar period, wor"s depicting the experiences of #lac" Americans include The ,arrative of the +ife of Frederic" ;ouglass, an American 6lave <&=2>?, .p from 6lavery <&'3&? #y :oo"er T. %A65I,GT*,, the Auto#iography of an -x()olored 0an <&'&A? #y 4ames %eldon 4*5,6*,, and The 6ouls of :lac" Fol" <&'39? #y %. -. :. ;. :*I6. In the &='3s novels emphasiHing a harsher view of reality #egan to appear, mar"ing the #eginnings of American naturalism. 6tephen ) A,-7s 0aggie, A Girl of the 6treets <&='9? was little noticed, #ut his ed :adge of )ourage <&='>? was immediately recogniHed as a classic. Fran" ,* I6 more nearly exhi#ited the features of naturalism than did )rane, especially in 0cTeague <&=''?, The *ctopus <&'3&?, and The Pit <&'39?. ,orris7s wor"s, often concerned with the ;arwinian struggle for survival, focus upon human greed, depravity, and suffering. Theodore ; -I6- created the most stri"ing naturalistic wor"s,

#eginning with 6ister )arrie <&'33? and culminating in An American Tragedy <&'A>?. ;reiser7s wor"s reflect compassion and an understanding of human motivations. They analyHe with dramatic insight the dilemma of the individual in contemporary society. 6ocial protest and utopianism went hand in hand with naturalism. .pton 6I,)+AI exposed the deplora#le conditions in the meat industry in The 4ungle <&'38?@ 4ac" +*,;*, re$ected society in his auto#iographical novel 0artin -den <&'3'?@ and 4aco# II6 depicted the lives of poor immigrants in photographs and words in 5ow the *ther 5alf +ives <&='3?. 5enry Adams, in The -ducation of 5enry Adams <&'&=?, critically and ironically explored the quest for meaning in the face of social, historical, and economic change. American poets in the early part of the A3th century led in developing literary modernism. /achel +I,;6A! and )arl 6A,;:. G followed in the %hitman tradition of loose versification and the cele#ration of America, as, to some extent, did -dgar +ee 0A6T- 6 in his 6poon iver Anthology <&'&>?. 0ore traditional in form yet more penetrating in psychology were the wor"s of -dwin Arlington *:I,6*, and, particularly, o#ert F *6T. :y the &'93s Frost had #ecome America7s #est("nown and most #eloved native poet. Two American expatriates in +ondon, -Hra P*.,; and T. 6. -+I*T #ecame leading poets of the century. -liot7s The %aste +and <&'AA? represents the extreme of complexity and profundity in modern poetry. Two of -liot7s contemporaries, %allace 6T-/-,6 and %illiam )arlos %I++IA06, were possi#ly as influential as -liot on the rising young poets. %illiams, in particular, extended into I0AGI60 %hitman7s exploration of American themes and rhythms. P*6T(%* +; %A I +IT- AT. American literature of the &'A3s was characteriHed #y disillusionment with ideals and even with civiliHation itself. The writers of the so(called lost generation reacted with disillusionment to the war and adopted the despairing tone of The %aste +and. The young poet e e ).00I,G6 used his wartime experience as the #asis for a novel, The -normous oom <&'AA?, as did 4ohn ;*6 PA66*6 and %illiam FA.+D,- . -rnest 5-0I,G%A!, however, captured the experience of war and the sense of loss most lucidly in his first novel, The 6un Also ises <&'A8?, which pro#es the experience of a group of disillusioned expatriates in Paris, and in A Farewell to Arms <&'A'?. American writers gathered in Paris during the &'A3s, partly to escape what they regarded as the small(town morality and shallowness of American culture. Among them, F. 6cott FITIG- A+; had the greatest success in the .nited 6tates. 5is masterpiece, The Great Gats#y <&'A>?, helped create the image of the oaring Twenties, the age of the flapper, and the $aHH age. In the .nited 6tates, a group of writers chronicled their escape from small(town America and exposed its hypocrisies. 6herwood A,;- 6*, inspired the rest with %ines#urg, *hio <&'&'?, #ased on Anderson7s hometown of )lyde, *hio. 6inclair +ewis attac"ed provincialism in 0ain 6treet <&'A3? and added a word meaning Cunthin"ing conformistC to the language with :a##itt <&'AA?. 5. +. 0-,)D-, too" up the attac" on the C#oo#oisieC in his essays, as did ing +A ;,- in his sports stories and, at the end of the decade, Thomas %*+F- in the auto#iographical novel +oo" 5omeward, Angel <&'A'?. The influence of -uropean modernism reached the .nited 6tates during this period. Gertrude 6T-I,7s experiments with the sounds and speech patterns of the American language, developed earlier in Paris, influenced 5emingway and many others. 0arianne 0** - edited the ;ial magaHine and for several decades influenced American poetry with her disciplined, often unconventional verse. 5art ) A,attempted an alternative to -liot7s less vernacular modernism with his American epic, The :ridge <&'93?. %illiam Faul"ner assimilated the technique of the 6T -A0 *F )*,6)I*.6,-66 ,*/-+ from 4ames 4oyce7s .lysses and put it to use in The 6ound and the Fury <&'A'?. The doctrines of modernism were championed in little magaHines such as the )riterion, ;ial, and 5ound and 5orn. 0eanwhile, American literature #egan to #e studied critically. ;. 5. +A% -,)-7s 6tudies in )lassic American

+iterature <&'A9? was followed #y %illiam )arlos %illiams7s In the American Grain <&'A>? and /. +. PA I,GT*,7s 0ain )urrents in American Thought <&'A1(93?. ;uring this period the American drama flowered, primarily #ecause of -ugene *7,-I++7s plays. %ith such #rooding, sym#olic, and intensely psychological wor"s as The -mperor 4ones <&'A3?, 0ourning :ecomes -lectra <&'9&?, and his later, poetically auto#iographical masterpiece +ong ;ay7s 4ourney into ,ight <&'>8?, *7,eill set a new standard for American playwrights. 5e was $oined #y a host of talented dramatists, including 0axwell A,;- 6*,, Philip :A !, +illian 5-++0A,, -lmer I)-, Thornton %I+;- , and later #y -dward A+:--, Arthur 0I++- , and Tennessee %I++IA06. T5- &'93s The depression and the rise of fascism in -urope dominated American literature during the &'93s. Proletarian literature consciously aimed at stimulating protest((and, in some cases, revolution((#y the wor"ing class. 4ohn ;os Passos chronicled the age in his trilogy ..6.A. <&'93@ &'9A@ &'98?. 4ames T. FA -++ supplied naturalistic detail in 6tuds +onigan <&'9>?, as did 0eyer +-/I, in The *ld :unch <&'91?. The plays of )lifford *;-T6 and 6idney DI,G6+-! and 4ohn 6T-I,:-)D7s immensely successful The Grapes of %rath <&'9'? are #etter remem#ered today than are the more overtly political wor"s of the time. )oncurrent with socially conscious literature, a detached school of literary criticism emerged. The ,-% ) ITI)I60 was represented #y !vor %I,T- 6 and ichard P. :lac"mur and was dominated #y the 6outhern critics )leanth : **D6, 4ohn )rowe A,6*0, Allen TAT-, and o#ert Penn %A -,. elatively untouched #y the literary or political developments of the period were such innovators as 5enry 0I++- and ,athanael %-6T. From the &'93s a great many American writers have used the short story as their principal means of expression. ,ota#le exponents of this form were 4ohn *75A A and Datherine Anne P* T- , who were followed in the &'23s and 7>3s #y )arson 0)).++- 6, -udora %-+T!, and Flannery *7)*,,* . 6uch writers as ;onald :A T5-+0-, and 4ohn .P;ID- continue to devote much of their energy to short fiction, as did 4ohn )5--/- . The detective short story and novel were also perfected in the &'93s #y 4ames 0. )AI,, aymond T. )5A,;+- , and ;ashiell 5A00-TT. +IT- AT. - 6I,)- %* +; %A II 0any of the new writers of the &'23s and 7>3s were affected #y %orld %ar II #ut did not always express their concern explicitly. 4ames 4*,-6, with From 5ere to -ternity <&'>&?, and ,orman 0AI+- , with The ,a"ed and the ;ead <&'2=?, made their reputations as war novelists. The poets andall 4A -++, o#ert +*%-++, and Darl 65API * wrote of the war #ut later, li"e ;elmore 6)5%A TI and Theodore *-T5D-, turned their attention to private events. American drama #egan to flourish once again in the years after the war. Tennessee %illiams explored the themes of innocence and experience in The Glass 0enagerie <&'22? and A 6treetcar ,amed ;esire <&'21?. Arthur 0iller7s ;eath of a 6alesman <&'2'? is a classic modern tragedy. -dward Al#ee introduced the tradition of the T5-AT- *F T5- A:6. ; in The Ioo 6tory <&'>=? and %ho7s Afraid of /irginia %oolfJ <&'8A?. The appearance of 6aul :-++*%7s The /ictim <&'21? and :ernard 0A+A0.;7s The Assistant <&'>1? seem, in retrospect, the first signs of what is loosely descri#ed as a C4ewish movement.C ;uring the &'>3s and 783s many 4ewish writers emerged, including 5er#ert G*+;, Philip *T5, and 4. ;. 6A+I,G- .

The social movements of the &'83s((youth, counterculture, antiwar protest((profoundly affected literature. The /ietnam %ar gave rise to $ournalism #y 0ary 0))A T5!, 6usan 6*,TAG, and Frances FitHgerald@ the memoir ;ispatches <&'11?, #y 0ichael 5err@ and novels #y o#ert 6tone <;og 6oldiers, &'12? and Tim *7:rien <Going after )acciato, &'1=?. The protest writing of the &'83s and 713s was influenced #y earlier experiments in which fictional techniques were used for nonfiction writing. Truman )AP*T-7s In )old :lood <&'8>?, an account of a murder, and ,orman 0ailer7s Armies of the ,ight <&'8=? and The -xecutioner7s 6ong <&'=3? are examples of this mode. Tom %*+F-7s exu#erant, rhetorical prose in The Dandy(Dolored Tangerine( Fla"e 6treamline :a#y <&'8>? helped esta#lish the Cnew $ournalismC <see 4*. ,A+I60?. From the &'83s a great many American writers aligned themselves with ethnic and feminist causes. alph -++I6*,7s I,/I6I:+- 0A, <&'>A? "ept within the mainstream of literary tradition. The poet Gwendolyn : **D6 and the playwright +orraine 5A,6:- ! <A aisin in the 6un, &'>'? also wor"ed within esta#lished conventions, and 4ames :A+;%I, #egan as a writer of traditional prose. In The Fire ,ext Time <&'89?, however, :aldwin7s wor" grew increasingly committed to the #lac" protest movement of the &'83s and 713s. 5e was followed #y the angry writings of Imamu Amiri :A ADA <+e oi 4ones?, -ldridge )+-A/- , and Ishmael --;, and as #y the less strident wor" of Toni 0* I6*,, ,i""i GI*/A,,I, and Alice %A+D- . %omen writers, partly inspired #y the example of :etty F I-;A,7s The Feminine 0ystique <&'89?, also developed a distinct genre of writing that deals almost exclusively with feminine experience. 6ylvia P+AT5 assumed great importance for reasons that concerned her life as much as her poetry. Tillie *+6-, <Tell 0e a iddle, &'8&? and Grace PA+-! <The +ittle ;istur#ances of 0an, &'>'? produced humorous accounts of domestic life. The poets ;enise +-/- T*/, Adrienne I)5, and Anne 6-KT*, also too" up feminist concerns in the &'83s. 4oan ;I;I*, <Play It as It +ays, &'13? descri#ed the contemporary situation of women in novels and essays. 4oyce )arol *AT-6, writing in #oth traditional and experimental forms, was the most prolific novelist of the period, whose women writers also include -liHa#eth 4A,-%A! and Date 0I++-TT. 6tyles of contemporary American literature are as diverse as its su#$ect matter, and whereas several novelists, such as 4ohn 5A%D-6, have experimented radically with technique, others have wor"ed within traditional narrative forms to produce wor" that draws on several modes of writing. Durt /*,,-G.T has used fantasy and science fiction@ :ellow mingled philosophy with the epistolary novel in 5- I*G@ Gore /I;A+ has exploited the historical novel@ and 4ohn :A T5, 4oseph 5-++- , and Thomas P!,)5*, have written arcane, fantastic, #ut #asically traditional narratives. %right 0* I6, %al"er P- )!, and Peter TA!+* have maintained the strong tradition of American regional writing, and the novel(of(manners tradition exemplified #y -dith %harton7s wor"s is continued in those of +ouis A.)5I,)+*66. Among the most influential innovators of this period was the ussian(#orn /ladimir ,A:*D*/, who, after the pu#lication of +olita <&'>=? and Pale Fire <&'8A?, #ecame a #est(selling .. 6. novelist. The experiments of %illiam 6. :. *.G56 and %illiam GA;;I6 are cele#rated #ut less widely read. 4ohn GA ;,- , who #egan his career with am#itious attempts to create ironic, allegorical versions of myths, argued <in *n 0oral Fiction, &'1'? in favor of what he called Cmoral,C or socially responsi#le, fiction. Among poets a diversity of style and su#$ect matter prohi#its easy summary of the period. The pu#lication of o#ert +owell7s +ife 6tudies <&'>'? is often thought to have inaugurated a CconfessionalC mode in the wor" of such poets as Plath, 6exton, +evertov, and %. ;. 6,*;G A66. The wor" of )harles *+6*, and the :+A)D 0*.,TAI, 6)5**+ *F P*-T ! retained its importance to 4ohn A65:- !, o#ert :+!, 4ames 0- I++, and 4ames % IG5T. %. 6. 0- %I,, one of the most

respected poets of his time, has developed his own distinctive manner from acquaintance with the styles of %. 5. Auden, o#ert Graves, and -Hra Pound. Allen GI,6:- G, developing out of the :-AT G-,- ATI*, movement of the late &'>3s, and Gary 6,!;- emphasiHed *riental and American Indian spirituality. Two of the most nota#le poets of the &'83s and 713s, -liHa#eth :I65*P and ichard %I+:. , seemed independent of influence or fashion, and they developed distinct and personal modes of utterance. The num#er of Clittle magaHinesC and small presses increased during the &'13s and &'=3s, creating an unprecedentedly large num#er of opportunities for the pu#lication of poetry. At the opening of the &''3s, American literature stood divided among special(interest groups and opposed aesthetics, although its oldest traditions remained recogniHa#le and its ma$or practitioners continued to thin" of themselves as social critics. Peter 6haw :i#liographyB :ar#our, 4., and Euir", T., eds., %riting the American )lassics <&''3?@ :ercovitch, 6., ed., )am#ridge 5istory of American +iterature, > vols. <&''&?@ )hase, ichard, The American ,ovel and Its Tradition <&'>1?@ )onn, Peter, +iterature in AmericaB An Illustrated 5istory <&'='?@ )owley, 0alcolm, The Flower and the +eafB A )ontemporary ecord of American %riting since &'2& <&'=>?@ ;onoghue, ;enis, eading AmericaB -ssays on American +iterature <&'=1?@ -lliott, -mory, ed., )olum#ia +iterary 5istory of the .nited 6tates <&'==?@ Fiedler, +eslie, +ove and ;eath in the American ,ovel, rev. ed. <&'88?@ Gates, 5enry +ewis, 4r., ed., The 6chom#urg +i#rary of &'th()entury :lac" %omen %riters <&'==?@ Gil#ert, 6andra 0., and Gu#ar, 6usan, ,o 0an7s +andB The Place of the %oman %riter in the A3th )entury, vols. & and A <&'=1, &'==?@ 5o#son, Fred )., Tell a#out the 6outh <&'=9?@ 5offman, ;aniel, ed., 5arvard Guide to )ontemporary American %riting <&'1'?@ 5oward, ichard, Alone %ith AmericaB -ssays on the Art of Poetry in the ..6. since &'>3, rev. ed. <&'=3?@ DaHin, Alfred, *n ,ative GroundsB An Interpretation of 0odern American Prose +iterature, rev. ed. <&'1A? and A %riter7s America <&'==?@ +awrence, ;. 5., 6tudies in )lassic American +iterature <&'A=?@ 0arx, +eo, 0achine in the GardenB Technology and the Pastoral Ideal in America <&'81?@ 0atthiessen, F. *., American enaissance <&'2&@ repr. &'8=?@ Poirier, ichard, A %orld -lsewhereB The Place of 6tyle in American +iterature <&'88?. Black American literature :lac" American literature, as defined #y many contemporary literary critics, is the literature produced in the .nited 6tates <or in exile therefrom? #y #lac"s a#out #lac"s and is most often associated with wor"s having a strong didactic flavor. As such, the term would exclude such #lac" writers as the poet Phillis %5-AT+-! and the contemporary novelist Fran" !- :!. :lac" American literature can #e said to have #egun with the slave narratives and fol"tales that were transmitted orally during the period of the Cpeculiar institutionC and later dictated and written down. These narratives, chronicling the harsh treatment experienced #y enslaved #lac"s, form part of the centuries(long, worldwide tradition of oral literature and today serve as an important source for American historians. In a more sophisticated vein, the escaped slave and prominent a#olitionist Frederic" ;*.G+A66 inaugurated the tradition of #lac" auto#iographical writing with the pu#lication of his ,arrative of the +ife of Frederic" ;ouglass in &=2>. The first pu#lished wor" of #lac" American fiction was %illiam %ells :rown7s a#olitionist novel )lotel@ or, the President7s ;aughter <&=>9?. A generation later, )harles %. )5-6,.TT7s short story CThe Goophered GrapevineC <&==1? appeared in the prestigious Atlantic 0onthly. This led to the pu#lication of two volumes of short stories #y )hesnutt, The )on$ure %oman and *ther Tales and The %ife of 5is !outh, in &=''. -ven though the three novels that followed struc" themes that have persisted in #lac"

literature, )hesnutt is #est remem#ered for the artistry and insight he #rought in his short stories to the complexities of slavery. At the same time, Paul +aurence ;.,:A was experimenting with the use of #lac" fol" material in his lyric poetry. The support of white patrons of the arts, the countrywide acceptance of 4AII, the mass migration of 6outhern American, )ari##ean, and African #lac"s to 5arlem during and after %orld %ar I, and the fruitful mix of attitudes and cultures there#y produced all com#ined to #ring a#out the literary flowering "nown as the 5A +-0 -,AI66A,)- <&'A3(93?. An additional driving force was supplied #y the determination of the ,AA)P, especially under the leadership of %. -. :. ;. :*I6, himself the author of The 6ouls of :lac" Fol"s <&'39?, to improve the lot of #lac"s in America. Alain +*)D-, a 5arvard Ph.;., hodes scholar, and editor of a #oo" of essays called The ,ew ,egro <&'A>?, spo"e for this movement when he articulated the responsi#ility of the #lac" to #ecome a Ccolla#orator and participant in American civiliHation.C This in$unction was echoed in the wor"s of the outstanding enaissance writers, among whom were the 4amaican poet and novelist )laude 0)DA!@ the poet and short story writer +angston 5.G5-6@ 4ean T**0- , author of the fragile miscellany )ane <&'A9?@ and the lyric poet )ountee ).++-,. %hat these different writers shared was a felt need to trace the in$ustices perpetrated against #lac"s and the desire to give expression to the character of #lac" life as they had experienced it individually. The versatility of the 5arlem group was matched in the decade of the Great ;epression #y ichard % IG5T <&'3=(83?, whose violent, )hicago(set novel ,ative 6on <&'23? constituted a powerful and #itter indictment of the social and economic inequities that continued to dash #lac" aspirations in the period #etween the two world wars. %right7s auto#iography :lac" :oy <&'2>?, the short stories in .ncle Tom7s )hildren <&'9=?, and his &'>9 novel The *utsider cast a searching light on the racial and political conditions that led some American #lac"s, at least for a time, to em#race the )ommunist party. The archetypal novel of the early &'>3s was alph -++I6*,7s Invisi#le 0an <&'>A?, the odyssey of a 6outhern youth7s search for self and acceptance. Incorporating the fol", the classical, and the mythic, the #oo" is considered a landmar". In a more traditional mold, Gwendolyn : **D6 and +orraine 5A,6:- ! reflected the American #lac" ur#an experience in highly regarded poetry and plays. Also in the &'>3s and early &'83s, 4ames :A+;%I, #egan to pursue the themes of the son7s search for acceptance #y a father, of homosexuality, and of race relations in his novels Go Tell It on the 0ountain <&'>9?, Giovanni7s oom <&'>8?, and Another )ountry <&'8A?, as well as in plays and essays. The search, with religious overtones, is the essence of much of this author7s writing, whose &'89 nonfictional investigation into the status of ..6. #lac"s, The Fire ,ext Time, galvaniHed white America. :aldwin7s wor" served as a transition to the revolutionary sixties when #oth 0A+)*+0 K and 0artin +uther DI,G, #efore their assassinations, #rought a new dimension to speechma"ing and political writing through an electrifying #lend of moral fervor and rhetorical richness. The new #lac" nationalist awareness was reflected #y +e oi 4ones <later Imamu Amiri :A ADA?, who stressed the didactic mission of #lac" writers in his intense, frightening plays and essays. A writer of myriad talents who has employed #oth traditional and unconventional forms, 4ones moved from the status of middle(class intellectual as a 5oward .niversity undergraduate to political activism. 5is literary reputation at this time was matched only #y that of the :+A)D PA,T5- minister of information, -ldridge )+-A/- , whose auto#iographical 6oul on Ice <&'8=? and later poetry interpreted the radicaliHing prison experience of #lac"s of a different class. The growing interest in the #lac" historical experience among #oth #lac"s and whites created an enormous audience for the televised dramatiHations <&'11, &'1'? of oots, Alex 5A+-!7s fictional exploration of the generations of a #lac" family from its enslavement in Africa. The growing num#er of

plays #y #lac" writers((most nota#ly the dramas of August %I+6*,, which have all received ma$or productions((have interpreted aspects of #lac" American life for a #road audience. The imaginative use of auto#iographical material has characteriHed the wor" of novelists Toni 0* I6*,, 0aya A,G-+*., and Alice %A+D- , and the popular poet ,i""i GI*/A,,I. *ther important novelists include -rnest 4. GAI,-6, Ishmael --;, and Gloria ,aylor <The %omen of :rewster Place, &'=A?. From somewhat outside the #lac" American landscape, 4amaica Dincaid creates visions of an almost idyllic childhood in her )ari##ean #irthplace <+ucy, &''3?. 4ohn -dgar %ideman7s wor" transforms the #itter facts of #lac" ur#an ghetto life into searing fiction <as in Philadelphia Fire, &''3?. )ecelia 5odges ;rewry :i#liographyB :ar"sdale, ichard, and Dinnamon, Denneth, eds., :lac" %riters of America <&'1A?@ ;avis, ).T., :lac" is the )olor of the )osmos <&'='?@ Gates, 5enry +ewis, 4r., ed., The 6chom#urg +i#rary of &'th )entury :lac" %omen %riters <&'==? and The ,orton Anthology of Afro(American +iterature <&''3?@ 4ac"son, :., A 5istory of Afro(American +iterature, vol. & <&'=2?@ %illis, 6., 6pecifyingB :lac" %omen %riting the American -xperience <&'=1?.