Telbisz NumericalKarstModel

TELBISZ T., 2003: Numerical modelling of soil effect on doline karst evolution – in: HORVÁTH G. (edt.
): Soil effect on karst processes, Budapest, pp.107-126.
Numerical modelling of soil effect on doline karst evolution

TAMÁS TELBISZ
Eötvös University, Department of Physical Geography

1117 Budapest, Pázmány P. sétány 1/c.
telbisztom@ludens.elte.hu
Abstract: The structure of the present model is based on the widely accepted karstecological approach, in which karst
landform evolution is interpreted within the frame of the atmosphere-soil-epikarst system. The following processes are
implemented in the computer model: rainfall, evapotranspiration, infiltration into the soil, infiltration into the bedrock
(epikarst), karst corrosion, runoff, erosion and accumulation, seepage in the soil (both vertical and horizontal components),
mass movements and tectonics. Three time-scales are used during the computations: runoff (short) scale, seepage (medium)
scale and geomorphic (long) scale. Due to this model, a broad range of karst phenomena can be examined, such as the
exhumation of karst terrains, the soil effect and the morphological evolution of dolines.
The results of an example simulation are analyzed. The widening of dolines, the relationship of doline density and
doline area are discussed. A northward shifting of dolines can be observed that is the consequence of the asymmetric
denudation caused by the different aspects of doline slopes. Elongation and main axis of dolines are inherited from the
original valley-directions and are independent from aspect-asymmetry. It is presented that even in case of stable determining
conditions (precipitation, equilibrium concentration, etc.) self-organizing rhythmes (doline widening and deepening periods)
may arise during karst evolution. The solutional denudation is mainly determined by the infiltrating water, but longterm
changes in the mean equilibrium concentration of the whole area may influence the precise nature of this relationship.
Introduction
A short review of earlier attempts in theoretical and numerical modelling of karst evolution was
evaluated in TELBISZ (2001a). In the present study, a karst-geomorphological model is discussed. The
main goal of this model is to give a more sophisticated explanation for the evolution of karst landforms
via numerical simulation experiments based on karst process equations.
The structure of the model
The spatial structure of the model was designed according to the widely accepted karst-ecological
system approach, in which karst processes operate in the atmosphere - soil - epikarst system (BÁRÁNY
KEVEI I., 1993, 1995; KEVEINÉ BÁRÁNY, I. - MEZ SI, G., 1978; PFEFFER, K.-H., 1995; VERESS, M.
- PÉNTEK, K., 1990, 1995; ZÁMBÓ L., 1986).
Fig. 1: Spatial structure of the model
The model area is divided in cells along a rectangular grid (Fig. 1). Each cell has connections with
the 8 neighbouring cells. Material transport is possible towards these 8 horizontal directions or in vertical
directions within the cell (between the atmosphere and the soil, between different soil horizons and
between the soil and the epikarst).
Process equations are calculated at three different time scales. Since the driving agent of karst
denudation is the water, the main concept of the model is to simulate the effects of distinct rainfalls. The
shortest time step (∆tS, min) is determined by the runoff time scale. Seepage in the soil is 1-2 order of
magnitude slower, so a medium time step (∆tM, min) has also been introduced according to seepage
TELBISZ T., 2003: Numerical modelling of soil effect on doline karst evolution – in: HORVÁTH G. (edt.): Soil effect on karst processes, Budapest, pp.107-126.
parameters of the soil. Finally the much longer time step (∆tL, year) of measurable geomorphological
changes can be mentioned. Two limiting conditions should be taken into consideration while choosing
the correct duration of this long time step: first, too long time step may cause irreal changes in relief,
second, too short time step may extremely lengthen the time necessary for the simulation. The flow
diagram of the model is presented in Fig. 2.
Fig. 2: Flow-diagram of the model (see text for explanation)
Rainfall intensity is one of the main determining factor of the amount of water that is infiltrated
into the soil. The model input is a time series of rainfall intensity (Ri(t)) at short time step increments from
the beginning to the end of a single rainfall event. Both the amount of yearly precipitation (P, mm) and
that of a single rainfall event should be given after subtraction of the interception ratio because it is not
implemented in the model.
Potential surface evapotranspiration is considered as a stationary process both in time and
space, starting from the end of rainfall and terminated when the amount of simulated surface water
reaches zero. (Although the assumption of a constant evapotranspiration is obviously a simplification
from a physical point of view it seems to have little effect on morphology.)
The potential subsurface evapotranspiration exponentially decreases with depth (KOVÁCS, GY.,
1978). It is a general phenomenon – mainly in summer – that the whole amount of seeping water is
evapotranspirated before reaching the soil-bedrock contact (JUHÁSZ, J. 1987; KESSLER, H., 1954;
STELCZER, K., 2000). According to the field observations of ZÁMBÓ L. (1970) performed at Aggtelek
Karst area the clayey soil fill of dolines may be impermeable in case its depth surpasses a threshold value.
These facts induced the following formula which expresses the exponential decrease of seeping water
with depth:
2
(1) WR (h) = I R ·e - λ ⋅h
where
WR(h) the amount of water (mm) seeping in the soil at depth h (m) from surface;
IR the amount of water (mm) infiltrating into the soil;
λ a constant determining the rate of water decrease (1/m).
For the assessment of the constant λ the notion of the critical soil depth (HIR, m) has been used. It
means the depth where only 1% of the infiltrated water arrives. λ can be counted by the following
formula based on the previous equation:
ln 100
(2) λ=
H IR
The infiltration into the soil has an extremely important role in controlling the spatial
characteristics of karst corrosion since it regulates the spatial distribution of water that reaches the
epikarst. This regulation may operate at a different manner in case of different rainfall intensity. It is of
primary importance whether the water starts its corrosional activity in a uniform spatial distribution or it
is focussed to certain points.
During the first phase of rainfall, almost all water can infiltrate until the uppermost soil layer
becomes water-saturated (in case of forests, the fallen leaves may increase this effect). In the second
phase the soil infiltration capacity is continuosly decreasing and is stabilized at a lower level. This
phenomenon can be formulated by an exponential relationship (after HORTON, R.E., 1940, 1945):
(3) I CR (t) = k D,v + (I CR,0 − k D,v )·e -α I ⋅t
where
ICR(t) soil infiltration capacity (mm/min) at time t (min) after the start of rainfall;
kD,v (mm/min) vertical seepage coefficient;
ICR,0 soil infiltration capacity at time 0 (mm/min);
αΙ a constant determining the rate of soil infiltration capacity decrease (1/min).
The amount of water infiltrating into the soil is calculated in the 2nd step of the model as follows:
(4) IR(t)=ICR(t)·∆tS (but maximum all water that is on the surface of the given cell)
The amount of water found on the given cell is reduced by this amount. The amount of infiltrated
water is summed up at medium time increments and added as input in the 3rd step of the model.
Field observations and experiments made it evident that rock infiltration capacity can be thought
of constant at short time steps because the infiltrated water has the possibility to move downward through
the conduits widened by karstic dissolution. But in longer, geomorphological time scales, the widening of
the conduit-system and the increase of permeability should be taken into account and it has some
implications on the surface morphology as well. This idea is modeled by a slowly changing local rock
infiltration capacity (ICB(x,y)). Mathematical functions to represent the change of this rock infiltration
capacity can be suggested based on the works of VERESS M. - PÉNTEK K. (1995) and PALMER, A. N.
(1991). The later author argues that the widening of fissures are principally determined by the water
throughput discharge, and after a relatively rapid dissolution zone in the epikarst, the process slows down
and the water reaches saturation extremely slowly because of a radical change in reaction kinetics (see
later). These chemical arguments are supposed to have a critical role in conduit evolution, because it
makes possible that the joints are widened along their whole length and so the rock infiltration capacity
may follow a continous increase depending on the available water discharge, too. In the second stage of
evolution when the conduits are not filled with water, the water-bedrock contact time is diminished and
the growth rate of infiltration capacity is decreased, too. In this period, only the less frequent but large
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discharges influence their evolution. Taking into consideration the aforementioned facts, the rock
infiltration capacity change has been simulated by the following equation:
(5) ∆ICB=kI·DD·RF
where
kI a constant determining the rock infiltration capacity change (10-3/min);
DD the amount of limestone (expressed in m) that is dissolved by the infiltrating water at "greater" depth
(discussed in details at dissolution process);
RF conduit filling ratio (arányszám, 0<RF <=1), counted by the following formula:
(6) RF=IB/(ICB·∆t)
where
IB the amount of water infiltrated into the rock(mm).
∆t short or medium time step (min).
Since the epikarst zone is not constituted of isolated vertical conduits, but of a more or less joined
3D net, the change of infiltration capacity of a given cell may influence its neighbours, too:
(7) ∆ΙCB(neighbour(x,y)) = kIN · ∆ΙCB(x,y)
where
kIN is a ratio (0≤kIN ≤1), expressing the degree of connections between conduits from the viewpoint of
infiltration capacity.
The reaction velocity of limestone dissolution is determined by the saturation deficit. According
to PALMER, A. N. (1991) the main limiting factor of reaction is the dissolution at the solvent-rock
interface and not the ion transport in the water, consequently the reaction order is only poorly dependent
on flow velocity and turbulence. The function of limestone dissolution can be given by the following
kinetic differential equation:
nc
dC A' C
(8) = kc ⋅ ⋅ 1 −
dt V C eq
where
C concentration (as dissolved CaCO3, mg/l);
A' the water-bedrock contact area (m2);
V water volume (mm·m2);
mg ⋅ mm
kc reaction coefficient ( );
l ⋅ min
nc reaction order (dimensionless);
Ceq equilibrium concentration (mg/l).
Based on the above equation, the changes in the concentration of the runoff water are calculated in
the 2nd step of the model in a discretized form as follows:
nc
1 C
(9) ∆C = k c ⋅ k SR ⋅ ⋅ 1− ⋅ ∆t S
dw C eq
where
∆C the change of concentration (mg/l);
kSR ratio of the water-bedrock contact area and the cell area (A'/A);
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dw depth of water on the given cell (mm);

The solutional denudation of the surface can be counted from the amount of runoff water and its
concentration change.
∆VB ∆m B 10 −6 ⋅ Vw ⋅ ∆C 10 −6 ⋅ A ⋅ d w ⋅ ∆C 10 −6 ⋅ d w ⋅ ∆C
(10) ∆H B = = = = =
A ρ ⋅ A (1 − n) ⋅ ρ L ⋅ A (1 − n) ⋅ ρ L ⋅ A (1 − n) ⋅ ρ L
where
∆HB denudation of the surface (m);
∆VB volume of the material dissolved from the surface(m3);
A area of the cell (m2);
∆mB mass of the material dissolved from the surface (kg);
ρ rock density near the surface (kg/m3);
ρL limestone density (kg/m3);
n specific porosity of the rock;
Vw volume of the water on the given cell (mm·m2);
PLUMMER, L.N. et al (1978) pointed out, that even in case of stable outer conditions, the
parameters (kc, nc) of equation (8) change abruptly when a critical saturation ratio (SC=C/Ceq) is reached.
This change takes place at about 0.6-0.8 saturation ratio (depending on temperature and partial pressure of
CO2) and the value of n is increased from 1.5-2 characteristic at low concentrations to more than 4. It
results in a drastic slowing down of reaction (Fig. 3). This slowing down may have a significant effect in
case of infiltration because it is the kinetic explanation for the abovementioned conduit evolution theory
and in a varied form it is implemented in the model.
Fig. 3: The effect of critical saturation ratio on the solution kinetics
According to these arguments, the corrosional effect of the infiltrating water has been divided in
two. The dissolution up to the critical saturation ratio is considered to happen near the surface (in the
epikarst zone) and consequently results in the subsidence of the surface. But further dissolution is too
slow and takes place rather at greater depth, so it has no direct influence on the surface but leads to the
growth of rock infiltration capacity. This double effect of dissolution caused by the infiltrating water has
been realized by the following formulae:
5
10 −6 ⋅ I B ⋅ ( S c ⋅ Ceq − C )
if S c ⋅ Ceq − C > 0
(11) ∆H B = (1 − n) ⋅ ρ L
0 otherwise
10 −6 ⋅ I B ⋅ (Ceq − S c ⋅ Ceq )
if S c ⋅ Ceq − C > 0
(12) DD = (1 − n) ⋅ ρ L
10 −6 ⋅ I B ⋅ (Ceq − C )
otherwise
(1 − n) ⋅ ρ L
where
DD the amount of limestone (expressed in m) that is dissolved by the infiltrating water at "greater" depth;
IB the amount of water infiltrating into the rock (mm);
SC critical saturation ratio (dimensionless);
C concentration of the infiltrating water (mg/l);
Several factors controlling equilibrium concentration in an indirect way can be mentioned, such as
the soil type (ZÁMBÓ L. - TELBISZ T., 1999, 2001), the microbial effect (DARABOS, G., 1997, ZÁMBÓ
L. - TELBISZ T., 2001) or the microclimate (KEVEINÉ BÁRÁNY, I. - MEZ SI, G., 1978; KEVEINÉ
BÁRÁNY, I., 1985; BÁRÁNY KEVEI I., 1993). The first two are difficult to represent by mathematical
functions, but the later can be formulated in a simplified way. There are insolation differences according
to the aspect of doline slopes and it determines the degree of microbial activity by the resulted
temperature and moisture content differences. Although field measurements were carried out by the
above authors, their equations didn't explicitly used the equilibrium concentration concept and regression
coefficients were relatively low. Consequently in the present model a theoretical relationship is
introduced. The overall equilibrium concentration is modified according to the aspect by the following
equation (Fig. 4):
(13) C eq , A = C eq ⋅ (1 + k A ⋅ cos( Al − 180°))
where
Ceq,A equilibrium concentration modified according to the aspect (mg/l);
kA a constant determining the magnitude of aspect effect (0≤kA≤1);
Al aspect of the given cell (°), north direction=0°, clockwise.
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Fig. 4: The effect of aspect on the subsoil equilibrium concentration
Since the differences in the equilibrium concentrations are due to the microbial activity in the soil,
the aspect effect is taken into account in th 3rd step of the model when the corrosional consequences of the
water seeping through the soil are calculated. Otherwise, in case of bare limestone, this effect can't
operate.
Precipitation of the limestone is also possible in the model. As the amount of water decreases
because of the evapotranspiration, the concentration increases. Deposition occurs when the concentration
of the water surpasses the equilibrium concentration. In that case, the extra-limestone precipitates and is
added to the soil thickness.
The runoff is controlled by the relief and is directed according to the highest gradient of the 8
neighbouring cells if it is lower than the given cell (maximum downward gradient method,
O'CALLAGHAN, J.F. - MARK, D.M., 1984). Flow velocity is modeled by the following formula:
(14) v = k v ⋅ sin α
where
v flow velocity of runoff water (m/min);
kv velocity coefficient (m/min);
The sediment carrying capacity of runoff water is given by the following equation (after PROSSER, I.P.–
RUSTOMJI, P., 2000):
(15) S C = k S ⋅ d wmS ⋅ (tg α ) nS
where
SC sediment carrying capacity of runoff water (mm);
kS, mS, nS: erosional constants;
During runoff both the depth of water and the amount of sediment are determined for a given cell.
At the beginning of rainfall, the sediment is zero at each cell. If the local sediment transport capacity
exceeds the amount of sediment at a given cell, erosion occurs that is limited by regolith thickness, too. If
the opposite is true, the sediment surplus is deposited, i. e. given to the regolith. When the water flows
from one cell to another, its sediment content moves together.
7
Fig. 5: Flow diagram of seepage in the soil and the vertical discretization of the cells
The flow diagram of seepage in the soil is presented in Fig. 5. In this version of the model, the
lateral seepage of the water has been implemented, too, because field evidences have shown the
significance of lateral water transport in doline fills (ZÁMBÓ L., 1986). The amount of seeping water
between soil layers and between cells is counted by Darcy's law. This law refers to laminar flow only, but
seepage in the soil can be considered as being laminar. (This is not true for water flow in the conduit
system of the karst.) The value of the Darcian seepage coefficient may show remarkable differences
according to the direction of seepage (anisotropy). Since it has a great influence on the morphological
development, different vertical and horizontal seepage coefficients can be used in the model. In the
present version of the model, the carbonate content of the soil is not evaluated and consequently
dissolution within the soil is neglected. It is clearly a simplification since field and laboratory experiments
have shown that in many cases dissolution occurs within the soil (mainly in rendzina soils), too (ZÁMBÓ
L., 1986; ZÁMBÓ L. - TELBISZ T., 2001). Further model development should focuss on the realisation of
this phenomenon. In the present form, the soil plays a significant role in the distribution of water and in
the regulation of carbonate equilibrium concentration.
Although mass movement processes aren't explicitly members of karst processes it is obvious
that these may have a remarkable effect on the morphological development of karst landscapes. In high
mountains, deep depressions may be partly filled with physically weathered debris. In soil covered
temperate zone karst regions, various creep processes can be significant. These diffusional processes are
more or less independent from the amount of water (though their working generally requires the presence
of water). In landform evolution models, different forms of the following equation are used to simulate
the effect of mass movement processes in a generalised way (after AHNERT, F., 1976; DE BOER, D.H.,
1999, WILLGOOSE, G. et al,1991 and others):
8
dz dz
(16) = D sin tg −1
dt dx
where
dx horizontal distance between cells;
dz vertical difference between cells;
t time
D diffusion coefficient;
The evolution of dolines – an example simulation
Before the simulation run, initial conditions and parameters were set up as follows:
• Initial relief: random, wavy surface;
• 1 km x 1 km area; horizontal resolution: 20 m;
• Spatially uniform soil thickness (1 m);
• Spatially uniform initial rock infiltration capacity (0,05 mm/min);
• Soil infiltration capacity at the beginning of rainfall: 1 mm/min;
• Yearly precipitation: 1000 mm;
• Equilibrium concentration: 300±150 mg/l (subsoil); 100 mg/l (bare limestone)
• The order of magnitude of corrosional denudation is 1-2 times higher than that of mass movement and
erosional processes;
• Horizontal seepage coefficient is several times higher than vertical seepage coefficient in order to
simulate lateral flow in the soil;
• 400,000 years landform evolution.
In Fig. 6 the initial and final relief, spatial distribution of regolith thickness and rock infiltration
capacity are presented. As a result of landform development, the surface is dissected by dolines and
uvalas. The SW-NE orientation of doline chains and interdoline hills are more or less inherited from the
small elevation differences of the initial wavy relief. The minor elevation irregularities, closed
depressions of the starting surface concentrate the runoff water and so their solutional denudation
becomes higher and lead to the formation of dolines. Although initial elevation conditions determine the
formation of dolines, their location is not absolutely fixed, these may widen and shift very slowly in
space.
Fig. 6: Initial and final conditions after 400,000 years of doline landform evolution
9
It is clearly observable from Fig. 6 that the focussed infiltration in the dolines results in a similar
pattern of rock infiltration capacity: higher values are found at the bottom of dolines while lower values
are characteristic of higher peaks and interdoline ridges. The image of regolith thickness is also of that
type: at the bottom of dolines 8-9 meters thick soil occurs whereas steeper slopes and higher areas are
exhumed and bare limestone forms the surface.
Interesting results can be drawn from the change of the density (number) of closed depressions
(dolines). Two approaches have been made to count this number. The first method is easier to automatize,
it counts the number of cells, which are lower than any of their neighbours with more than an optional
minimum elevation difference. If this value is chosen to be 0, then the resulted sum gives the number of
cells, which operate functionally as closed depressions. But in many cases these closed depressions are
too small to call them dolines, so the threshold value is recommended to be 1 or 2 meters. The second,
more labour-intensive method is to create a contour map from the digital elevation model by interpolation
and doline dimensions and density can be drawn from this map. The results of the above methods are
shown in Fig. 7.
Fig 7: Density of closed depressions vs time
A striking feature in Fig. 7 is the large amplitude oscillation of doline density (doline
number/area) during the first stage of landform development mainly in case of one-cell based counting
method. This observation is due to the following fact: when the dolines widen, the bottom of dolines may
cover several cells, and is not counted by the automatized process. It is observable that the number of
functional closed depressions (theshold=0) is increased in relatively short time intervals and with small
values, only. The greater oscillations in the other curves can be explained by doline widening and
deepening periods. This explication is clearly demonstrated by denudation maps showing the denudation
rates induced from the elevation differences between the dates of extreme doline densities. In Fig. 8 it is
illustrated that in the period between 10,000 year and 25,000 year, the denudation is concentrated in the
doline centres whereas during the next period the doline slopes have higher denudation rates and doline
widening occurs. The main reason for this phenomenon is the increased regolith thickness at the bottom
of dolines, because it hinders the corrosional activity at the doline centres and more water is transported
to the neighbouring cells by lateral water flow in the soil. Meanwhile, as the doline bottom widens, the
thick soil cover is more evenly distributed and a new deepening period may start. Another interesting
observation from Fig. 8b is the effect of doline slope aspect. At the northern sides of dolines (that face to
the south) the darker patches mark the places of more intense denudation.
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Fig. 8: Denudation maps:

a, denudation rates calculated from the difference of relief at 25,000 years and 10,000 years;
b, denudation rates calculated from the difference of relief at 45,000 years and 25,000 years.
In the second long stage of landform evolution from the year 100,000, doline density is subject to
a continuous slow decrease mainly due to the coalescence of dolines. At the same time, because of their
asymmetric denudation caused by the different equilibrium concentrations according to the aspect, a
northward shifting of dolines can be observed. The signs of the above morphological processes
(coalescence, northward shifting, doline widening and deepening periods) are documented by the cross-
section and doline-contour time series, too (Fig. 9). However, a thorough review of Fig. 9b points out that
in spite of the general trends, some exceptions may also occur (i.e. the division of cells or southward
shifting).
Fig. 9: Evolution of dolines:

a, Time series of relief cross-sections (with 5000 year long time steps between adjacent lines);
b, Doline contours at 3 dates (100,000 y; 200,000 y; 300,000 y).
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The general trend of doline density decrease and mean doline area increase can be characterized
by an inverse relationship of these two quantities (Fig. 10). This relationship is of particular importance
because the arrow of time is clearly obvious from the simulation (from the second, more equilibriated
stage), and it can be compared with morphometrical analysis of real karst areas (e.g. Aggtelek Karst,
TELBISZ T., 2001b).
Fig. 10: Relationship of doline density and mean doline area based on model results and morphometrical data from Aggtelek
Karst.
The long axes directions of dolines (Fig. 11) show the SW-NE orientation of the original wavy
surface and it seems to be likely that the asymmetric denudation due to the aspect has no significant effect
on the elongation of dolines.
20
15
10
20 15 10 5 5 10 15 20
10
15
20
Fig. 11: Rose diagram of doline long axes at the end of simulation
12
a, d,
(mm/ka) (mm/a)
Infiltration into the rock

96 810
Solutional denudation
86 770
76 730
66 690
56 650
46 610
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4
(X 100000) (X 100000)
b, e,
Denudation by mass movements
(mm/ka) (m2)
25 1800
Regolith-free area
20 1500
1200
15
900
10
600
5 300
0 0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4
(X 100000) (X 100000)
c,
(mm/ka)
0.3
Erosional denudation
0.25
0.2
0.15
0.1
0.05
0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4
(X 100000)
Fig. 12: Time series of doline evolution simulation

a, solutional denudation vs time; b, denudation caused by mass movements vs time; c, erosional denudation vs time; d,
infiltration into the rock vs time; e, bare rock area vs time.
Time-series and morphometrical analysis of the doline development simulation clarify the steps of
landform evolution. Based on the above presented morphological processes and the graphs in Fig. 12 the
following chronology can be outlined with the periods of different types of denudation:
1. period (0-25,000 years): It is basically a period of doline deepening that can be divided in two phases.
The first 10,000 years is the time of the formation of dolines, while the next phase is characterized by
a further deepening but doline density increases only gently. So, as a first limiting factor, the available
space can be mentioned. During the second phase, the infiltration into the epikarst is decreased
because of the growing evapotranspiration losses due to the increased regolith thickness at the bottom
of the previously formed dolines, while the possible creation of new infiltration zones (closed
depressions) is strictly limited. The total duration of the first period can be characterized by a growing
rate of denudation caused by mass movement and erosion processes. This fact is due to the steepening
of doline slopes. Meanwhile, this fact implies the thickening of the doline fills.
2. period (25,000-45,000 years): The widening of dolines starts because of the too thick doline fills.
Doline sides become more gentle and the amount of runoff water is diminished. This results in the
decrease of denudation caused by erosion and mass movement processes. The erosion is influenced
more strongly and its curve shows a more remarkable trough. But the widening of doline bottoms
prepares the relief for a new deepening period.
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3. period (45,000-70,000 years): A renewed doline deepening period whose first sign is the increase in
the amount of infiltration into the rock. The revivification of mass movement and erosion processes
follows this sign (since 50,000 years). But this period is abruptly and more and more strongly
disturbed by the exhumation of bare limestone terrains (since 55,000 years) and the infiltration is
heavily influenced by this, so on this curve the doline deepening and widening periods are constrained
by a trendlike decrease. (Further oscillations are easier to detect on the graphs of mass movement and
erosion, though these play a subordinate role in denudation.)
4. period (70,000-90,000 years): Doline widening period.
5. period (90,000-120,000 years): Doline deepening period.
6. period (120,000-140,000 years): Doline widening period.
7. from the year 140,000: A sort of "dynamic equilibrium" is reached, but the denudation rate is lower
than in the first periods. Although further rhythms occur, their amplitudes are smaller.
Fig. 13: Relationship of solutional denudation and infiltration into the rock
Data from field experiments (TELBISZ T., 1999; YOSHIMURA, K. - INOKURA, Y., 1997) suggest
that solutional denudation is mainly controlled by the amount of water infiltrating into the rock in spite of
the fact that, in most cases, carbonate concentrations may show an inverse relationship with the amount of
water. Fig. 13 demonstrates that this statement is valuable for the simulation, too. Although the
correlation coefficient indicates a narrow relationship, the regression line is somewhat deceptive and the
reasons for the zigzaggy nature of the plot in Fig.13 should be analysed in details in connection with the
mean concentration changes.
The above field investigations took into account the seasonal and the weather-controlled carbonate
concentration changes. Unlike these research, the model uses yearly average values and as a consequence
only longterm changes in mean carbonate concentrations may explain the observed model result. First,
these concentration changes are due to the different distribution of the infiltrating water according to the
aspect and second, these are the results of the growing area of open karst surfaces. In the periods when the
ratio of water infiltrating at slopes facing to the south is higher, the mean concentration is increased (e.g.
12,000-28,000 years). When the south-facing slopes and doline bottoms are dissected, the mean
concentration decreases. In these periods, the same amount of infiltrating water results in a reduced rate
of solutional denudation (e.g. 45,000-54,500 years, 90,000-102,000 years). Since the equilibrium
concentration of the bare limestone is three times lower than that of the soil-covered karst areas, the water
infiltrating at bare rock surfaces have only a subtriple solutional effect (in the given simulation). The
growing area of the exhumed surfaces is the basic explication for the more or less continuous decline in
the mean concentration during the model run.
14
Conclusions
I. The results of the simulation experiment are in good accordance with natural landforms, so from a
morphological point of view, it is concluded that the model is suitable for the examination of karst
landform evolution and several field observations and measurements can be interpreted and demonstrated
with the help of this model.
II. Morphological conclusions:
• The lateral seepage in the doline fills contributes to the more uniform distribution of water and helps
the widening of dolines.
• Mass movement processes can play a significant role in making the doline slopes gentler and
consequently these contribute to the widening of dolines, too.
• Since the rock infiltration capacity changes influence the neighbouring cells, too, the third reason for
the widening of dolines (but seemingly less important than the first two) is the network of the
epikarstic conduit system.
• Regardless of the first stage of landform evolution, the doline density slowly but continuously
decreases that is due to the coalescence of dolines.
• The dolines slowly shift northward due to the asymmetric denudation caused by different equilibrium
concentrations according to doline slope aspect.
• The long axes directions of dolines show the orientation of the original wavy surface and it seems to
be likely that the asymmetric denudation due to the aspect has no significant effect on the elongation
of dolines.
III. Conclusions referring to the dynamics of landform development:
• One of the most striking conclusion from the model, that even in case of stable determining
conditions (precipitation, equilibrium concentration, etc.) self-organizing rhythmes (doline widening
and deepening periods) may arise during karst evolution. The self-organization is the consequence of
positive and negative feedback effects in connection with relief, soil cover and rock infiltration
capacity changes.
• Time-series analysis can reveal the complex behaviour of the karst system and the direct and indirect
changes due to the exhumation of bare rock surfaces.
• The solutional denudation is mainly determined by the infiltrating water, but longterm changes in the
mean equilibrium concentration of the whole area may influence the precise nature of this
relationship.
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16

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TELBISZ T., 2003: Numerical modelling of soil effect on doline karst evolution – in: HORVÁTH G. (edt.

): Soil effect on karst processes, Budapest, pp.107-126.

Numerical modelling of soil effect on doline karst evolution

Eötvös University, Department of Physical Geography

The structure of the model

Fig. 1: Spatial structure of the model

Fig. 2: Flow-diagram of the model (see text for explanation)

(3) I CR (t) = k D,v + (I CR,0 − k D,v )·e -α I ⋅t

(7) ∆ΙCB(neighbour(x,y)) = kIN · ∆ΙCB(x,y)

dw depth of water on the given cell (mm);

Fig. 3: The effect of critical saturation ratio on the solution kinetics

(13) C eq , A = C eq ⋅ (1 + k A ⋅ cos( Al − 180°))

Fig. 4: The effect of aspect on the subsoil equilibrium concentration

(15) S C = k S ⋅ d wmS ⋅ (tg α ) nS

The evolution of dolines – an example simulation

Fig 7: Density of closed depressions vs time

Fig. 8: Denudation maps:

Fig. 9: Evolution of dolines:

Infiltration into the rock

Fig. 12: Time series of doline evolution simulation

AHNERT, F., 1976: Brief description of a comprehensive three-dimensional process-response model of

KESSLER, H., 1954: A beszivárgási százalék és a tartósan kitermelhet vízmennyiség megállapítása

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