4.4.

1 I M P R O V E D P I E C E W I S E L I N E A R M O D E L S FOR NONLINEAR ELEMENTS * The accuracy of the results of a piecewise liner analysis depends on the accuracy of the model used. In this section, we will discuss the process of creating more precise models of nonlinear elements when increased accuracy is desired. To illustrate the process, let us use the diode as an example of a nonlinear element. Thus far, we used the simple, ideal diode model. It is obvious from the preceding example that the major effect in the model is when the voltage vD across the diode is positive, and above about 0.6 V. Substantial improvement can be made by adding a 0.6-V source in series with the ideal diode, as shown in Figure 4.33a. The corresponding i v characteristic for the improved piecewise linear model is shown in Figure 4.33b. Let us work a simple example using this piecewise linear model.

+ iD

iD

vD + 0.6 V (a)
F I G U R E 4.33 Improved piecewise linear diode models.

vD 0.6 V

(b)

iD iD Slope 1 = ----Rd

vD

+ 0.6 V Rd 0.6 V vD

(c) (d)

214c

e x a m p l e 4. 14 a n o t h e r e x a m p l e u s i n g p i e c e w i s e l i n e a r m o d e l i n g Let us rework the example containing a voltage source,

resistor, and diode in Figure 4.16 using the piecewise linear model for the diode from Figure 4.33b. The behavior of this model, comprising an ideal diode in series with a voltage source, can also be summarized in two statements:

Diode ON (vertical segment): vD = 0.6 V for iD > 0 Diode OFF (horizontal segment): iD = 0 for vD < 0.6 V (4.47)

Let us determine iD for E = 3 V and E = 5 V, given that R = 500 . According to the piecewise linear method, we will focus on one straight-line segment at a time, using linear analysis within each segment.

Vertical segment When iD and vD are in the vertical segment of their characteristic,
the circuit shown in Figure 4.34b results, and we can write iD = E 0.6 V R

(4.48)

Horizontal segment Figure 4.34c shows the corresponding circuit when the diode is operating as an open circuit. In this segment,
iD = 0. (4.49)

Combining the results Intuition tells us that the vertical segment applies when E > 0.6 V (the diode turns on) and the horizontal segment applies otherwise (diode is off). Thus, when E = 3 V, Equation 4.48 applies, and
iD = E 0.6 V R = 3 0.6 500 = 4.8 mA.

Comparing to Equation 4.40, notice that the value of iD predicted by this improved model is slightly lower than that predicted by the ideal diode model. The ideal diode model did not account for the 0.6-V drop across the diode, and so overestimated the current. Equation 4.49 applies when E = 5 V, so iD = 0.

214d

vR R

iD + vD 0.6 V -

+ E -

(a) Complete model vR + R

F I G U R E 4.34 Piecewise linear analysis in the vertical and horizontal straight-line segments using the diode model containing a voltage source.

iD + vD -

+ E -

0.6 V

(b) Vertical segment + vR R + E iD + vD (c) Horizontal segment

0.6 V

Further improvement in accuracy can be realized by adding a series resistor Rd of suitable value to the ideal diode and voltage source, as shown in Figure 4.33c. The specific choice of resistor value depends on the application; one should strive to make the characteristic match over the range of diode current expected in the specific circuit (see Figure 4.35). We will illustrate the use of this model in an example. More examples using these and other more complicated piecewise models will appear throughout the book, and specifically in Chapters 7 and 16.

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t h e d i o d e r e s i s t a n c e Choose values for Rd for the piecewise linear diode model in Figure 4.33c assuming that the resistance must provide a reasonable match for currents up to 0.4 A and 1 A. Assume VTH = 0.025 V and Is = 1012 A. e x a m p l e 4. 15
Figure 4.35 plots the v i characteristics for the diode. The figure shows that the resistance value Rd1 = 0.1 provides a good match for the diode v i characteristics up to 1 A, while the resistance value Rd2 = 0.2 provides a better match in the smaller current range from zero to 0.4 A.

iD (A)

1.0 0.9 0.8 0.7 0.6 0.5 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.1 0.0 0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0 1.1 vD (V) Slope = 5, Rd2 = 0.2
F I G U R E 4.35 Choosing a value of the resistance in the piecewise linear diode model.

Slope = 10, Rd1 = 0.1

214f

e x a m p l e 4.16 a more complicated piecewise l i n e a r m o d e l Let us further rework the previous example using the piecewise linear model for the diode from Figure 4.33c. The behavior of this model, comprising an ideal diode in series with a voltage source and a resistor, can be summarized in two statements:

Diode ON (vertical segment): vD = 0.6 V + iD Rd for iD > 0. Diode OFF (horizontal segment): iD = 0 for vD < 0.6 V. (4.50)
Again, let us determine iD for E = 3 V and E = 5 V, given that R = 500 Rd = 10 . and

Vertical segment When iD and vD are in the vertical segment of their characteristic,
the circuit shown in Figure 4.36b results, and we can write iD = E 0.6 V R + Rd . (4.51)

Horizontal segment Figure 4.24c shows the corresponding circuit when the diode is operating as an open circuit. In this segment,
iD = 0. (4.52)

Combining the results For E = 3 V, Equation 4.51 applies, and so

iD = E 0.6 V R + Rd = 3 0.6 V 500 + 10 = 4.7 mA.

Equation 4.52 applies when E = 5 V, so iD = 0.

As illustrated using the diode, increasingly better fits to an actual nonlinear device characteristic can be obtained by introducing more and more ideal elements. For example, for the diode, increasingly better fits to the actual diode characteristic can be obtained by introducing more and more ideal diodes, batteries, and resistors. But again a price is paid; increased accuracy of the model brings increased complexity. The proper compromise between simplicity and accuracy is not always obvious. Start with the simplest model, then add complexity to see if the solution changes in major ways. 214g

vR R

iD + vD 0.6 V Rd -

+ E -

(a) Complete model vR + R + E -

iD + vD Rd -

0.6 V

F I G U R E 4.36 Piecewise linear analysis in the vertical and horizontal straight-line segments using the diode model containing a voltage source and a resistor.

(b) Vertical segment + vR R + E iD + vD Rd (c) Horizontal segment

0.6 V

214h