THE FOURTH DIMENSION SIMPLY EXPLAINED

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measurements, real space, however, might conceivably be proven to be Lobachevsky's (or Riemann's); for instance, if angular measurement could be made accurate to one millionth of a second, and if a lack (or excess) of two millionths were then found in the angle sum of some interstellar triangle.

Real physical space cannot be said to be either Euclidean or non-Euclidean. Geometry therefore throws no light on the nature of real space. The study of real space is an empirical science, while geometry is a construction of pure thought, a branch of pure mathematics. Pure mathematics is a collection of hypothetical, deductive theories, each consisting of a definite system of primitive, undefined, concepts or symbols and primitive, unproved, but self-consistent assumptions (commonly called axioms) together with their logically deducible consequences following by rigidly deductive processes without appeal to intuition. Pure mathematics thus reveals itself as nothing but symbolic or formal logic. It is concerned with implications, not applications. On the other hand, natural science, which is empirical and ultimately dependent upon observation and experiment, and therefore incapable of absolute exactness, cannot become strictly mathematical. The certainty of geometry is thus merely the certainty with which conclusions follow from non-contradictory premises. As to whether these conclusions are true of the material world or not, pure mathematics is indifferent. As applied, geometry, in short, is not certain, but useful. The fact that all pure mathematics, including geometry, is rigidly deductive, is in fact nothing but formal logic, has important philosophical bearings. It definitely
Page 59 and finally refutes Kant, who based his entire philosophy on the supposed possibility of forming "synthetic judgments a priori"; that is, of obtaining absolute truth by the intuitions of pure reason quite independently of experience. For proof of his standpoint he referred to the existence of geometry. This argument was irrefutable until the discovery of non-Euclidean geometry. Another far-reaching conclusion is the following: Metaphysical axioms being mere imitations of geometrical axioms will, like the latter, have to be discarded. It seems therefore fitting to conclude with the following words of the eminent German mathematician Hilbert: "The most suggestive and notable achievement of the last century is the discovery of non-Euclidean geometry."

[1] This supplementary essay was written by the winner of the prize after the award was made. It is here published as a historical rsum of the subject. Page 60

III. FOURTH DIMENSION ABSURDITIES. 1 BY "INCREDULUS ODI" (EDWARD H. CUTLER, A.M., NEWTON, MASS.)
The fourth dimension has no real existence in the sense in which the external world that we know by
Page 61 means of our senses has real existence. It is a philosophical and metaphysical conception, whose actual existence

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