War of 1812

& Napoleonic Wars:

Organized Crime?

By William P. Litynski

War of 1812 & Napoleonic Wars:

Organized Crime? From the Grassy Knoll in London: Lone Gunman or Patsy?
The Assassination of Prime Minister of Great Britain Spencer Perceval in the House of Commons in London on Ma 11! 1812

Im just a patsy!: Spencer Perce al! Prime "inister o# Great $ritain and %hancellor o# the &'che(uer! )as assassinated *y a lone +unman in the ,ouse o# %ommons in London on "ay --! -.-/0 British "usinessman #ohn Bellin$ham %left& shoots Prime Minister Spencer Perceval in the chest 'ith a pistol inside the House of Commons in London on the evenin$ of Ma 11! 1812( #ohn Bellin$ham! 'ho spent several ears in a )ussian prison! 'as tried and convicted for murder! and Bellin$ham 'as e*ecuted " han$in$ in London on Ma 18! 1812( 1he 2ar o# -.-/! a )ar #ou+ht *et)een Great $ritain and the 3nited States o# 4merica! lasted #rom 5une -.! -.-/ to Fe*ruary -.! -.-60

Why Spencer Perceval Had to Die *y 4ndro Lin7later 8 re ie)

There is an intri$uin$ ne' theor on Britain+s onl prime ministerial assassination! 'hich too, place 2-- ears a$o toda B #ohn Barrell The Guardian! .rida 11 Ma 2-12 -/(-- 01T Hi$h on a 'all in 2estminster A""e ! in an thin$ "ut pride of place! is )ichard 2estmacott+s monument to Spencer Perceval! 'ho! 2-- ears a$o toda ! 'as shot dead in the House of Commons! the onl British prime minister so far to have died " assassination( The memorial 'as 3erected " the Prince )e$ent and parliament3! and perhaps it 'ould have "een $iven a more prominent position if the prince had not "een a late and reluctant supporter of Perceval+s ministr ( His straitlaced evan$elical premier had "een especiall unhelpful in the matter of Princess Caroline! the notorious supposed adulteress( )easona"l enou$h! Perceval re$arded her as much more sinned a$ainst than sinnin$ and! " some s,illful moral "lac,mail! had forced the prince to receive her a$ain as his 'ife( But then a$ain! had the monument "een more visi"le! its oddl am"i$uous messa$e 'ould have "een more a','ardl le$i"le( 4t consists in part of a relief depictin$ the scene a moment after the shootin$( Perceval! dead or d in$! is supported " t'o of his political allies in the campai$n for the a"olition of the slave trade( Gathered round are various other politicians! shoc,ed and sorro'ful5 "ut it is the assassin! #ohn Bellin$ham! 'ho commands our attention( Taller than ever one else! he has the "earin$ of a man conscious of havin$ performed an act of shinin$ virtue! a $ood deed in a nau$ht 'orld( He is under arrest! "ut clearl has no intention of escapin$! is 6uite 'illin$ to ta,e responsi"ilit for 'hat he has done( 4t is hard to escape the conclusion that 2estmacott! or the prince! or Perceval+s successor! Lord Liverpool! 'as su$$estin$ that "et'een the pious Perceval and his cold7"looded assassin there 'as somethin$ to "e said on "oth sides( The pu"lic 'as less fair7 minded( Britain 'as in deep recession! for 'hich Perceval 'as "lamed5 the ne's of his murder 'as $reeted 'ith 8u"ilation all over London! and soon all over Britain( Bellin$ham! for the 'ee, of life he had left! "ecame a cele"rit ! almost a hero( 4n front of the relief lies a lar$er sculpture of Perceval dead! and at his head sits the alle$orical fi$ure of Po'er! mournin$ her prot9$9! 'ho had e*ercised his office 'ith the utter sin$le7mindedness of one 'ho ,no's that there is no alternative to his policies( 3He 'as a "itter persecutor!3 remar,ed his political opponent Lord Holland! 3of such political and reli$ious principles as he! 'ithout much painful in6uir or dispassionate reflection! disapproved(3 At Perceval+s feet stand t'o more alle$orical fi$ures! 'eepin$ for his death( :ne of them is Truth! 3nuda veritas3! stripped to the 'aist to sho' that she has nothin$ to hide! "ut " a 8udicious positionin$ of her left arm mana$in$ to hide that nothin$ from us( Andro Lin,later "elieves that the full truth a"out the assassination has al'a s "een hidden! and has 'ritten this "oo, to e*plain 'h Perceval had to die( 4n the process he offers a fascinatin$ account of Perceval+s eni$maticall simple character and craft politics( Bellin$ham insisted there 'as no m ster a"out 'hat he had done! no secret accomplice! no motive other than the one he 'as onl too 'illin$ to declare! to ever one! at len$th; even on the scaffold! standin$ on the trapdoor 'ith the rope actuall round his nec,! he started e*plainin$ it to the chaplain of <e'$ate( He 'as a merchant from Liverpool 'ho had "ecome involved in the trade 'ith )ussia! and at the port of Archan$el! no' ,no'n as Ar,han$els,! had "een imprisoned for a fraud he did not commit( He lost there" a sum amountin$ to man hundreds of thousands of pounds in toda +s mone ( He had appealed for help to the British am"assador in St Peters"ur$! 'ho passed the case on to the consul! 'ho did little to help( Thus! 'hen eventuall released and "ac, in Britain! Bellin$ham re$arded the $overnment as morall "ound to indemnif him for his losses5 the future of his 'ife and children depended on the recover of the amount he had lost( It )as the ri+ht o# e ery man! $ellin+ham *elie ed! to petition parliament #or the redress o# +rie ances! *ut Perce al insisted that the +o ernment had no o*li+ation to recompense him! and re#used to recei e his petition0 :"viousl enou$h! or so it seemed to Bellin$ham! his onl remainin$ chance of a remed 'as to ,ill the prime minister( He had no personal $rud$e a$ainst Perceval5 to ,ill him 'ould "e a simple act of 8ustice5 and 'hen at his trial he e*plained the reasons for his action! he 'ould of course "e ac6uitted and indemnified( His counsel pleaded that he 'as insane! "ut Bellin$ham 'ould have none of it; in his position! an one 'ould have done 'hat he did( The la' officers! determined to han$ Bellin$ham in short order! put him on trial a 'ee, after the ,illin$( The did not 'ant to 'aste time loo,in$ for accomplices! and a$reed 'ith Bellin$ham that he 'as 6uite sane( The produced evidence to sho' ho'! 'ee,s "efore! he had "ou$ht pistols! had a secret poc,et made in his coat to conceal one of them! and had sat in the pu"lic $aller of the Commons! stud in$ Perceval so there 'ould "e no chance of ,illin$ the 'ron$ man( Surel these 'ere the actions of a sane man actin$ 'ith malice aforethou$ht= <ot so! replied Bellin$ham; he had certainl acted 'ith forethou$ht! li,e an e*ecutioner! "ut not 'ith malice( He 'as no murderer(

Lin,later does not dou"t that Bellin$ham 'as sincere in insistin$ that he had acted alone! and for the reasons he $ave( But Bellin$ham! he su$$ests! 'as also the un,no'in$ instrument of more po'erful forces! 'ith vastl more to $ain than Bellin$ham " the death of Perceval( The ar$ument that sustains this claim is in$enious and almost convincin$( Perceval 'as shot on the da the Commons 'as de"atin$ a motion " Henr Brou$ham to rescind the notorious 3orders in council3! the chief plan, in Perceval+s polic for the defeat of <apoleon( 4n 18-> <apoleon had attempted to impose the 3continental s stem3! 'hich for"ade the allies of .rance! and the nations con6uered " <apoleon! to trade 'ith Britain and 4reland( The orders in council 'ere Perceval+s retaliation; as 'ell as "annin$ trade 'ith .rance and its allies! the for"ade neutral nations to trade 'ith .rance! and $ave the British nav the pretended ri$ht to "oard all neutral ships in search of $oods destined for .rance( <apoleon responded 'ith decrees a$ainst neutral ships sailin$ to ?@ ports! and the ?S enacted an em"ar$o on trade 'ith all the "elli$erent nations( $y the end o# -.--! a deep recession and credit crunch had settled o er &urope and 9orth 4merica0 1he alue o# $ritish e'ports and imports had #allen *y :6;0 Li erpool )as especially hard<hit! #or it had lost much *y the collapse o# the sla e trade and )as no) hu+ely dependent on trade )ith the 3S! hal# o# )hich passed throu+h its port0 That trade too had no' collapsed! and 'ith it the increasin$l valua"le stream "et'een )ussia and the States! 'hich also 'ent throu$h Liverpool from Archan$el! the onl )ussian port .rance could not "loc,ade( 4n 2ashin$ton there 'ere calls for 'ar 'ith Britain! 'hich came! after Perceval+s death! in 1812( 4n Britain there 'ere demands from merchants! shippers! manufacturers and 'or,ers for the orders in council to "e rescinded( .e' dou"ted that Perceval 'ould resist! and that the orders 'ould sta in place until <apoleon 'as defeated or Perceval ceased to "e prime minister A "oth apparentl distant prospects( 2hen Brou$ham proposed his motion! Perceval sta ed a'a ! "ut 'as noisil summoned to the Commons to defend his polic ! and 'as on his 'a to the cham"er 'hen Bellin$ham shot him at point7"lan, ran$e( A month later Lord Liverpool! of all appropriate titles! "ecame prime minister! the orders in council 3evaporated3! and the econom "e$an to recover( $ellin+ham had *een in London since 5anuary! attemptin+ to present his petitions and then preparin+ the assassination0 $y the end o# that month he )as #lat *ro7e! *ut #rom Fe*ruary! his accounts su++est! he )as reasona*ly #lush0 Lin7later *elie es that he )as *ein+ #unded *y t)o men! closely associated: 1homas 2ilson! a London merchant and *an7er to the trade )ith =ussia! and &lisha Pec7! an 4merican *usinessman resident in Li erpool! men )ith #ortunes to lose i# the orders in council continued in #orce! and )ith e ery reason to )ish Perce al dead0 :ne or "oth ma have "een emplo in$ Bellin$ham! in a small 'a ! as their a$ent5 "oth 'ould pro"a"l have heard him declare that if Perceval did not ma,e him proper restitution! he 'ould ,ill the premier( Both had ever reason to fund Bellin$ham until he 'as driven to ma,e his attempt! 'ithout Bellin$ham ever understandin$ ho' the 'ere usin$ him( Lin,later+s evidence for this account is intri$uin$! thou$h here and there it has to depend on con8ectures that! in the space of a pa$e or so! are 'ished into hard facts( His case is impossi"le to prove! "ut too plausi"le and too much fun to i$nore(

#ohn Barrell+s The Spirit of Despotism: Invasions of Privacy in the 1790s is pu"lished " :?P(
Source; http;BB'''(the$uardian(comB"oo,sB2-12Bma B11B'h 7spencer7perceval7andro7lin,later7revie'

A pamphlet on the Trial of #ohn Bellin$ham

Spencer Perce al >9o em*er -! -:?/8"ay --! -.-/@ Prime Minister of the ?nited @in$dom of Great Britain %:cto"er /! 18-CAMa 11! 1812&! Chancellor of the 0*che6uer %March 2>! 18-DAMa 11! 1812&! and Attorne General for 0n$land and 2ales %18-2718->&

From China With Drugs? British, Dutch, Spanish, and American merchants arrive in Canton, China in 18 !"18 # to sell their merchandise $i.e. opium, %urniture& and 'uy Chinese tea and porcelain. $(ie) o% the Canton *actories, 18 !" # 'y William Daniel $Paintin+, -assachusetts .nstitute o% /echnolo+y&&

ritish !mpressments or Drug "rade?: British 0oyal 1avy o%%icers 'oarded American merchant vessels and 2impressed3 $coerced at +unpoint& American merchants $and dru+ dealers )ho pro%ited %rom the 2China /rade3 in Canton& into servin+ the 0oyal 1avy durin+ the 1apoleonic Wars in the early 18 s. -any Democratic"0epu'lican politicians %avored )ar )ith 4reat Britain over British impressments, British inter%erence in American commerce, and British military assistance to hostile American .ndian tri'es such as the Creek 1ation.

EThe T'elfth Con$ress convened on <ovem"er /! 1811! one month ahead of the usual time of meetin$( The voice of the people had "een heard in the sprin$ con$ressional elections a$ain clamorin$ vociferousl for Mr( #efferson+s part ( The result 'as a )epu"lican landslide( 4n the Senate 'ere 28 )epu"licans and si* lonel .ederalists in the House! 1-D )epu"licans! F> .ederalists and #ohn )andolph of )oano,e( )andolph 'as an anno in$ fello' 'ho could not "e counted on to sta re$ular( 4le had first $ained distinction in the )epu"lican councils5 "ut he did not li,e the GaHoo scandals! and li,ed even less the apparent 'illin$ness of #efferson and Madison to offer a "ri"e to the venal .rench .orei$n Minister! Talle rand! to ne$otiate the purchase of the .loridas( 0ccentric 'as the "est 'a to descri"e him( )andolph called himself a 3Tertium Iuid(3 Niles' Register 'hich printed the names of )epu"licans in italics and .ederalists in )oman letters! solved the pro"lem in$eniousl " printin$ )andolph+s half in italics and half in )oman( Sevent ne' mem"ers 'ere on the rolls of the T'elfth Con$ress and amon$ them 'ere a num"er of oun$ men 'ho 'ere impatient 'ith the 'a the elder statesmen had "een runnin$ the countr ( The old )epu"licans 'ere opposed to a lar$e standin$ arm ! a lar$e nav ! imperialistic am"itions and the lev in$ of internal ta*es! all of 'hich the re$arded as .ederalist measures( The had let Great Britain "ull and "ro'"eat them( The had ne$lected to ,eep their ears to the $round so that the had not heard the tal, a"out 3manifest destin (3 Here 'ere .lorida and Canada ripe for the pluc,in$! read to "e anne*ed at the drop of a hat( 2h ! "oasted Henr Cla ! the @entuc, militia alone could ta,e CanadaJ Get the old fo$ies 'asted time in ar$uments and did nothin$ a"out it( The oun$ men meant to chan$e all that( 1he rin+ leader )as %lay! #ormer Air+inian Bmill *oy o# the slashes!B no) a risin+ statesman o# Kentuc7y ! 'ho at the a$e of F/ had alread sat for a "rief space in the ?nited States Senate "efore "ein$ elected to the House( 1here )ere 5ohn %0 %alhoun! South %arolinian aristocrat and scholar! )ho had *een educated at Cale 5 and! from the same state! Lan$don Cheeves! 2illiam Lo'ndes and 1avid )( 2illiams( 1here )as handsome youn+ Peter $0 Porter! another Cale +raduate! nati e son o# %onnecticut and no) o# )estern 9e) Cor70 There 'ere .eli* Grund of Tennessee and )ichard M( #ohnson of @entuc, ( <ot one of them 'as over /-( The elder statesmen had dill dallied too lon$( 1he youn+er statesmen 7ne) )hat they )anted 8 empire and )ar0 5ohn =andolph! )ho had a 7nac7 #or coinin+ apt e'pressions! moc7ed the youn+ +entlemen #rom the South and 2est *y christenin+ them the 2ar ,a)7s0 )andolph! older in e*perience! mi$ht lau$h at them( Let him lau$h( The 2ar Ha',s proceeded strai$ht to the "usiness at hand( The elected Henr Cla ! Spea,er! sno'in$ under 2illiam Bi""! the representative of the Peace part ! " a vote of DK to F8( The too, command of the Committee on .orei$n Affairs! ma,in$ Peter B( Porter the chairman and $ivin$ him Calhoun for moral support( 4n the mem"ership of nine there 'as onl one .ederalist( Someho' )andolph! too! slipped in( B the evenin$ of the /th the T'elfth Con$ress had "een or$aniHed and its mem"ers 'ere read to $ive ear to 'hat the President should sa in his messa$e( The President covered considera"le $round( He recited the outra$eous dama$e inflicted " the British orders in council5 he too, a di$ at the .rench! too! for their restrictions on American trade5 he touched upon the state of the national finances5 he "emoaned the e*tent to 'hich smu$$lin$ and tradin$ under false papers had increased in defiance of the non7importation la's! and he called for an increase in the nation+s armed forces( The school"o inevita"l associates the 2ar of 1812 'ith Stanle M( Arthur+s immortal paintin$ of the proud American outh on the dec, of a merchantman 8ust as he is a"out to "e delivered up to the tender mercies of a British press $an$( 4f there is one issue the avera$e person lin,s 'ith the 2ar of 1812 it is impressment( in his messa$e to this momentous meetin$ of Con$ress! of impressment Madison said not a 'ord( 4n fact the President and a $ood part of the pu"lic had of late "een so occupied 'ith the turmoil caused " the British orders and the .rench decrees and the American nonimportation la's and the material matter of trade that the had temporaril for$otten the poor American seaman( Bet'een 18-D and 1811 impressment had "ecome a dead issue and had to have the "reath of life "lo'n into it(L A The !ar of 1"1# " .rancis .( Beirne! p( >/7>> E:"viousl ! it 'as to "e "oth a part 'ar and a sectional 'ar( 4mpressment had no' "ecome the chief issue and of the men impressed the ma8orit came from <e' 0n$land( As one commentator aptl phrased it! 3the 'ar 'as one insisted upon " the South and 2est in defense of the <orth 'hich didn+t 'ant to "e defended3 But then the 2ar of 1812 'as full of anomalies( :n #une 18! after several da s+ de"ate! the Senate passed the "ill " a vote of 1C to 1F! the division a$ain follo'in$ sectional lines( The same da President Madison si$ned it and the momentous ne's 'as announced to the nation in a proclamation composed " 2illiam Pin,ne ! late Am"assador to Great Britain! 'ho no' held the office of Attorne General( The pu"lic re8oicin$ 'as not of an impressive nature( Iuinc and the other opponents! havin$ "een refused a pu"lic de"ate! presented their side of the case in an open letter in 'hich the enlar$ed upon the unpreparedness of the countr and the foll of the action ta,en( 4n <e' 0n$land a da 'as set aside for humiliation! fastin$ and pra er! the church "ells tolled! fla$s 'ere flo'n at half mast! and 2illiam 0ller Channin$ and other distin$uished orators of the pulpit 8oined in the $eneral lamentM Perce al had *een assassinated on "ay --0 4t 'as not until #une 8 hat Lord Liverpool succeeded in formin$ a ne' ministr ( Then the action of the $overnment 'as s'ift( :n #une 1> Castlerea$h announced to Parliament that the orders had "een 'ithdra'n( Thus! t'o da s "efore President Madison issued his declaration! one of the t'o ma8or causes of the 'ar had ceased to e*ist( The do$s of 'ar! to "orro' Br ant+s poetic terminolo$ ! had "een Hunslipt(3 But the stood! as it 'ere! 'ith their tails "et'een their le$s(L A The !ar of 1"1# " .rancis .( Beirne! p( C/7CK

1he 2ar o# -.-/ *y Francis F0 $eirne

pu"lished " 0( P( 1utton N Co(! 4nc( <e' Gor,! 1C/C Chapter Seven; The 2ar Ha',s S'oop 1o'n %p( >/7D>& The T'elfth Con$ress convened on <ovem"er /! 1811! one month ahead of the usual time of meetin$( The voice of the people had "een heard in the sprin$ con$ressional elections a$ain clamorin$ vociferousl for Mr( #efferson+s part ( The result 'as a )epu"lican landslide( 4n the Senate 'ere 28 )epu"licans and si* lonel .ederalists5 in the House! 1-D )epu"licans! F> .ederalists and #ohn )andolph of )oano,e( )andolph 'as an anno in$ fello' 'ho could not "e counted on to sta re$ular( He had first $ained distinction in the )epu"lican councils5 "ut he did not li,e the GaHoo scandals! and li,ed even less the apparent 'illin$ness of #efferson and Madison to offer a "ri"e to the venal .rench .orei$n Minister Talle rand! to ne$otiate the purchase of the .loridas( 0ccentric 'as the "est 'a to descri"e him( )andolph called himself a 3Tertium Iuid(3 Niles' Register! 'hich printed the names of )epu"licans in italics and .ederalists in )oman letters! solved the pro"lem in$eniousl " printin$ )andolph+s half in italics and half in )oman( Sevent ne' mem"ers 'ere on the rolls of the T'elfth Con$ress and amon$ them 'ere a num"er of oun$ men 'ho 'ere impatient 'ith the 'a the elder statesmen had "een runnin$ the countr ( The old )epu"licans 'ere opposed to a lar$e standin$ arm ! a lar$e nav ! imperialistic am"itions and the lev in$ of internal ta*es! all of 'hich the re$arded as .ederalist measures( The had let Great Britain "ull and "ro'"eat them( The had ne$lected to ,eep their ears to the $round so that the had not heard the tal, a"out 3manifest destin (3 Here 'ere .lorida and Canada ripe for the pluc,in$! read to "e anne*ed at the drop of a hat( 2h ! "oasted Henr Cla ! the @entuc, militia alone could ta,e CanadaJ Get the old fo$ies 'asted time in ar$uments and did nothin$ a"out it( The oun$ men meant to chan$e all that( The rin$ leader 'as Cla ! former Oir$inian 3mill "o of the slashes!3 no' a risin$ statesman of @entuc, ! 'ho at the a$e of F/ had alread sat for a "rief space in the ?nited States Senate "efore "ein$ elected to the House( There 'ere #ohn C( Calhoun! South Carolinian aristocrat and scholar! 'ho had "een educated at Gale5 and! from the same state! Lan$don Cheeves! 2illiam Lo'ndes and 1avid )( 2illiams( There 'as handsome oun$ Peter B( Porter! another Gale $raduate! native son of Connecticut and no' of 'estern <e' Gor,( There 'ere .eli* Grund of Tennessee and )ichard M( #ohnson of @entuc, ( <ot one of them 'as over /-( The elder statesmen had dill dallied too lon$( The oun$er statesmen ,ne' 'hat the 'anted P empire and 'ar( #ohn )andolph! 'ho had a ,nac, for coinin$ apt e*pressions! moc,ed the oun$ $entlemen from the South and 2est " christenin$ them the 32ar Ha',s(3 )andolph! older in appearance! mi$ht lau$h at them( Let him lau$h( The 2ar Ha',s proceeded strai$ht to the "usiness at hand( The elected Henr Cla ! Spea,er! sno'in$ under 2illiam Bi""! the representative of the Peace part ! " a vote of DK to F8( The too, command of the Committee on .orei$n Affairs! ma,in$ Peter B( Porter the chairman and $ivin$ him Calhoun for moral support( 4n the mem"ership of nine men there 'as onl one .ederalist( Someho' )andolph! too! slipped in( B the evenin$ of the /th the T'elfth Con$ress had "een or$aniHed and its mem"ers 'ere read to $ive ear to 'hat the President should sa in his messa$e( The President covered considera"le $round( He recited the outra$eous dama$e inflicted " the British orders in council5 he too, a di$ at the .rench! too! for their restrictions on American trade5 he touched upon the state of the national finances5 he "emoaned the e*tent to 'hich smu$$lin$ and tradin$ under false papers had increased in defiance of the non7importation la's! and he called for an increase in the nation+s armed forces( The school"o inevita"l associates the 2ar of 1812 'ith Stanle M( Arthur+s immortal paintin$ of the proud American outh on the dec, of a merchantman 8ust as he is a"out to "e delivered up to the tender mercies of a British press $an$( 4f there is one issue the avera$e person lin,s 'ith the 2ar of 1812 it is impressment( Get! in his messa$e to this momentous meetin$ of Con$ress! of impressment Madison said not a 'ord( 4n fact the President and a $ood part of the pu"lic had of late "een so occupied 'ith the turmoil caused " the British orders and the .rench decrees and the American non7importation la's and the material matter of trade that the had temporaril for$otten the poor American seaman( Bet'een 18-D and 1811 impressment had "ecome a dead issue and had to have the "reath of life "lo'n into it( That tas, 'as performed " the Committee of .orei$n Affairs( The Committee+s report! li,e the President+s emplo in$! 'ent full into the orders in council( 4t pointed out that Great Britain had refused to 'ithdra' them5 'hile! on the other hand! <apoleon had rescinded his decrees as re$ards the ?nited States! and reminded that the ?nited States had a promise to ,eep 'ith <apoleon in the matter of resentin$ the "ehavior of Great Britain( Havin$ dealt to its satisfaction 'ith these hi$h affairs of state! the report at last $ot do'n to the "usiness of impressment(
"And while we are laying before you the just complaints of our merchants against the plunder of their ships and cargoes," said the report, "we cannot refrain from presenting to the justice and humanity of our country the unhappy case of our impressed seamen." Warming to the subject the report lamented that the "cries of their wives and children . . . have, of late, been drowned in the louder clamors at the loss of property." Then, in a sweet appeal to reason, it continued: "If it be our duty to encourage the fair and legitimate

commerce of this country by protecting the property of the merchant; then, indeed, by as much as if life and liberty are more estimable than ships and goods, so much more impressive is the duty to shield the persons of our seamen."

The 2ar Ha',s 'ere intent upon 'ar( Could this almost apolo$etic mention of impressment have "een the result of a search for a moral issue= Apparentl the Mar land Le$islature suspected it! for after the 'ar 'as ended it 'ent on record as declarin$ that impressment 'as a matter for ne$otiation and never had "een a cause of 'ar( The Committee+s report concluded! 3( ( ( 'e must tamel su"mit! or resist " those means 'hich God has placed 'ithin our reach(3 The 1eit had "een some'hat shortsi$hted in His provisions! for the Committee au$mented the divine preparations " proposin$ that; The militar esta"lishment "e filled up( An additional 1-!--- re$ulars "e raised to serve three ears( The President accept not more than K-!--- volunteers( He "e authoriHed to order out the militia( The naval vessels not no' in service "e reappointed and commissioned( The merchant vessels "e permitted to arm( The si* resolutions 'ere the e*cuse for 'hat so deli$hted statesmen and populace P a full7dress de"ate on the $eneral su"8ect of the 'ar( .irst to ta,e the floor 'as the Chairman of the .orei$n )elations Committee( Mr( Porter li,ened the countr to a oun$ man 8ust entered into life 'ho! if he su"mitted to one cool! deli"erate! intentional indi$nit ! mi$ht safel calculate upon "ein$ ,ic,ed and cuffed for the remainder of his life( Ho' 'as the 'ar to "e 'a$ed= That this countr could contend 'ith Great Britain on the sea! continued Mr( Porter! it 'as foll to pretend( But 'ithin si* months 'e could have privateers to harass her commerce and destro her fisheries( Then he pla ed the 2ar Ha',+s trump card( 2e could deprive her of CanadaJ 2h the e*ports of Iue"ec alone 'ere 'orth Q>!---!--- a ear( The seiHure of Canada 'ould ena"le us to compensate ourselves tenfold for all the spoliations committed on our commerce( Havin$ thus e*pressed himself! Porter ielded the floor to his fello' 'ar Ha',! Mr( Grund ! of Tennessee( The spea,er reminded his hearers of Britain+s violation of the freedom of the seas! the ini6uities practiced under her s stem of impressment and of the unmista,a"le evidence found at Tippecanoe of her "ase intri$ue 'ith the 4ndians( He recalled the sacred pled$e made to .rance5 and! li,e Porter! held out the pleasant prospect of the ac6uisition of Canada( As a representative of Tennessee and 'ith his e e on his constituents! 'ho 'ere onl mildl interested in Canada! he added 'hat 'as nearer to their hearts! the con6uest of the .loridas( :n 1ecem"er 1- the e*pected happened( #ohn )andolph of )oano,e entered the de"ate( )andolph 'as forever on his feet! and the man never ,ne' 'hen to sit do'n( 3Mr( )andolph spo,e for three hours(3 3Mr( )andolph spo,e a"out t'o hours and a half a$ainst the "ill and a$ainst 'ar(3 3Mr( )andolph spo,e t'o hours and a half(3 The reports of the T'elfth Con$ress are punctuated 'ith such 'ear comments( 4mpatient mem"ers fled the cham"er( The more conscientious settled "ac, in their seats to a'ait the ordeal( To the comfort of his fello' mem"ers! )andolph 'as indifferent( He 'as full a'are of the superiorit of his talents! and this occasion found him in his most "rilliant and sarcastic mood( 3The 6uestion!3 "e$an )andolph! in his shrill voice! 3is one of peace or 'ar P a 'ar not of defense! "ut of con6uest! of a$$randiHement! of am"ition(3 He loo,ed accusin$l at the oun$ mem"ers as he added! 3a 'ar forei$n to the interests of this countr ! to the interests of humanit itself(3 2ith studied malice he recalled the earlier repu$nance of the )epu"lican part to acts of a$$ression and chided them for forsa,in$ their principles( 34 ,no' not ho' $entlemen callin$ themselves )epu"licans could advocate such a 'arJ3 He paused to let the shaft sin, in( 3To 'hom 'ill ou confide the char$e of leadin$ the flo'er of our outh to the Hei$hts of A"raham= 2ill ou find him in the person of an ac6uitted felon=3 There 'as not a mem"er of the House 'ho did not ,no' that this remar, 'as aimed at Bri$adier General #ames 2il,inson! commandin$ the <e' :rleans district! 'ho had "een char$ed 'ith acceptin$ "ri"es from the Spaniards "ut 'ho! in spite of the suspicions! continued to hold hi$h position in the arm ( So the criticiHed )andolph for 'ithdra'in$ from the )epu"lican part 5 it 'as the part ! not he! 'hich had chan$ed( 3Those 'ho oppose are upheld as the advocates of 0n$land! those firm and undeviatin$ )epu"licans 'ho no' dare to clin$ to the ar, of the ConstitutionJ3 He ne*t referred to the precedin$ spea,er+s mention of Tippecanoe( 3Has Mr( Grund an proof that the massacre of the 2a"ash 'as insti$ated " the British= 4t is mere surmise and suspicion( 4t is our o'n thirst for territor that has driven these sons of nature to desperationJ3 )andolph! at an rate! refused to "e impressed " the British arms found in the 4ndian villa$e( Then! in a fli$ht of sarcasm and fanc ; 34 could not "ut smile at the li"eralit of the $entlemen in $ivin$ Canada to <e' Gor,! 'hile at the same time he 'arned her that the 'estern scale must preponderate( 4 could almost fanc 4 sa' the capital in motion to'ards the falls of the :hio5 after a short so8ourn ta,in$ fli$ht to the Mississippi! and finall ali$htin$ in 1arien(3 There 'as the su$$estion of a sneer as he continued( 3But! it seems! this is to "e a holida campai$n( There is to "e no e*pense of "lood or treasure on our part( Canada is to con6uer herself( She is to "e su"dued " the principles of fraternit ( The people of the countr are first to "e seduced from their alle$iance and converted into traitors! preparator to ma,in$ them $ood citiHens( 2e are to

succeed in the .rench mode( Ho' dreadfull it mi$ht "e retorted on the 'estern and slave7holdin$ States(3 The sneer $ave 'a to scorn as he e*claimed( 3<oJ 4f 'e must have them! let them fall " the valor of their arms(3 4t 'as no' the turn of his Southern collea$ues to receive a ver"al lashin$( 34 am not surprised at the 'ar spirit of the $entlemen from the South( B impolitic and ruinous measures the have ,noc,ed do'n the price of cotton to seven cents and to"acco to nothin$! ruinin$ the price of "lan,ets and ever other necessit F-- to /-- percent( 3But is 'ar the remed = 2ho 'ill profit= Speculators! a fe' luc, merchants! commissioners and contractors( 2ho must suffer= The peopleJ 4t is their "lood! their ta*es that must flo' to support it(3 Cold and relentless! )andolph pursued his 6uarr ( 34 am $ratified to hear ac,no'led$ment that the non7importation la' is destructive( Are ou ashamed to repeal it= The .rench 0mperor stands in the 'a (3 At this the .ederalist mem"ers pric,ed up their ears and smiled maliciousl at their )epu"lican opponents( )andolph! of course! 'as a lon$7'inded "ore! "ut he did occasionall hit the nail on the head( Too "ad he 'as so erratic( There 'as the ma,in$ of a $ood .ederalist in him( Then the tall! $aunt orator! the lar$e dar, e es accentuated " the pallor of his face! stood "efore his collea$ues and! li,e a Cassandra! 'arned them of 'hat 'as to come( 32e have so increased the trade and 'ealth of Montreal and Iue"ec that at last 'e cast a 'istful e e at Canada( GoJ March to CanadaJ Leave the "road "osom of the Chesapea,e and her hundred tri"utar rivers5 the 'hole line of seacoast! from Machias to St( Mar +s! unprotected( Gou have ta,en Iue"ec( Have ou con6uered 0n$land= 2ill ou see, for the deep foundations of her po'er in the froHen deserts of La"rador= 3:ur people 'ill not su"mit to "e ta*ed for the 'ar of con6uest and dominion( 4 am un'illin$ to em"ar, on a common cause 'ith .rance and "e dra$$ed at the 'heels of the car of some Burr or Bonaparte( Consider the defenseless state of our seaports( And 'hat of the situation of our slave7holdin$ states and the dan$er of insurrection=3 The spea,er paused to dra' "reath and mop his "ro'! then continued; 3The heart of the 0n$lish people is 'ith us( 4t is a selfish and corrupt ministr and their servile tools to 'hom 'e are not more opposed than the are( And shall )epu"licans "ecome the instrument of him 'ho has effaced the title of Attila to the Scour$e of God=3 His ar$ument 'as at an end( And no one ,ne' "etter than )andolph of )oano,e himself that he had delivered a capital speech( Get 'ith "ecomin$ modest he apolo$iHed for his 3ver desultor manner of spea,in$(3 He re$retted that his "odil indisposition P he 'as a confirmed h pochondriac P had o"li$ed him to ta,e perhaps some'hat 'ildl ! et he trusted some method mi$ht "e found in his madness( The 2ar Ha',s 'ere not lac,in$ in $ifted orators( 1ou"tless the had foreseen )andolph+s out"urst for! to $uard a$ainst an effect it mi$ht have! the had saved their champions! Calhoun and Cla for the re"uttal( Calhoun pooh7poohed the li,elihood of an insurrection of the slaves! and declined to treat the other ar$uments in detail( 3The 6uestion!3 he insisted! 3even in the opinion and admission of our opponents! is reduced to this sin$le point( 2hich shall 'e do! a"andon or defend our commercial and maritime ri$hts! and the personal li"erties of our citiHens in e*ercisin$ them= These ri$hts are essentiall attac,ed! and 'ar is the onl means of redress( ( ( ( He R)andolphS dared not den his countr +s 'ron$s! or vindicate the conduct of her enem (3 Calhoun ielded the floor to Cla ! the little fello' 'ith the "i$ mouth 'ho met elo6uence 'ith elo6uence( Cla "e$an 'ith a rhetorical 6uestion( 32hat 'ould "e $ained " 'ar= Sir! 4 as, in return 'hat 'ill ou not lose " a mon$rel state of peace 'ith Great Britain= Loo, at the treasur reports P Q>!---!--- of revenue as a$ainst Q1>!---!--- "efore the orders in council( Some people su$$est repeal of the non7importation la'( That 'ould "e an act of perfid ( Gou 'ould present the stran$e phenomenon of an import 'ithout an e*port trade( B a continuance of this peace! then! 'e should lose our commerce! our character and a nation+s "est attri"ute! our honorJ3 La in$ responsi"ilit for the orders not upon fear of .rench su"8u$ation! as the British asserted! "ut upon British fear of commercial rivalr ! he declared; 3She sic,ens at our prosperit 5 she is 8ealous of ou! she dreads our rivalship on the ocean( She sa' in our num"erless ships! 'hose sails spread on ever sea5 she perceived in our hundred and t'ent thousand $allant tars the seeds of a naval force 'hich! in thirt ears! 'ould rival her on her o'n element( She therefore commenced the odious s stem of impressment(3 After )andolph! Calhoun and Cla had "een heard! the de"ate $raduall 'asted itself a'a amon$ the remar,s of the ran, and file( 4t is dou"tful if man votes 'ere altered " the ar$uments presented on the floor( The resolution as,in$ an increase in the militar esta"lishment 'as passed " a handsome ma8orit ( The action of the House 'as amended " the Senate under the leadership of 2illiam B( Giles of Oir$inia( 0ventuall it 'as the Senate+s "ill 'hich President Madison si$ned on #anuar 11( 4t increased the re$ular arm to FK!---( Supplementar "ills appropriated Q1!---!--- for arms and ammunition! camp e6uipment and 6uartermasters+ stores! Q/--!--- for ordnance! po'der and small arms for the nav ( 0ven the acid .ederalist leader! #osiah Iuinc ! voted for the "ills! defendin$ his action on the $round that it 'ould have "een unpatriotic to oppose the administration in its efforts to provide national defense( <e*t came the 6uestion of the K-!--- volunteers 'ho must necessaril "e recruited from the or$aniHed State militia! ordinaril under orders of the $overnors( Should the President "e $ranted the ri$ht to call the or$aniHed militia into service= 4f so! to

'hat e*tent could it "e used= 2ould the President have the ri$ht to command it to operate outside the countr 5 in other 'ords! in Canada= Con$ress had discussed the con6uest of Canada as the ma8or operation of the proposed 'ar( But 'hen it came to a 6uestion of sendin$ militia there! Con$ress hemmed and ha'ed( Mem"ers 'ere not so sure as to ho' such an infrin$ement of States+ ri$hts 'ould "e received in their "aili'ic,s( The voted the President the authorit to call to arms a force of volunteers not e*ceedin$ K-!--- men! "ut on the matter of forei$n service the dod$ed! leavin$ that hi$hl important "ut delicate issue to the President+s discretion( Ootin$ to raise the re$ular arm to FK!--- men 'as one thin$! recruitin$ it 'as 6uite another( ?nder the la' ever a"le7"odied man 'as a mem"er of the State militia( Conse6uentl "efore a man could enlist in the re$ular arm he had to "e released from the militia( And ho' man ! pra ! 'ould elect to si$n up for a term of five ears as Giles+ "ill directed! 'hen the could serve their countr $allantl on a t'o months+ enlistment= At the moment onl a fe' thousand 'ere 'ith the colors( As for the use of the militar for forei$n service at the President+s discretion! that meant $oin$ over the heads of the $overnors! promised certain protests from those opposed to the 'ar and the administration and provo,ed a serious constitutional 6uestion( There 'as $rave dan$er of the 'ar "ein$ fou$ht out in the courts rather than on the "attlefields( The a"surdit of the situation 'as manifested 'hen! a fe' da s after the passa$e of the "ill! )epresentative Porter proposed the raisin$ of a provisional force of 2-!---5 for! said he! 32e have made a parade in passin$ la's to raise 2K!--- troops and K-!--- volunteers! "ut in truth and in fact 'e have not $iven him Rthe PresidentS a sin$le man(3 The raisin$ of the arm havin$ "een thus dou"tfull disposed of! the ne*t 6uestion that presented itself 'as ho' the men 'ere to "e paid! fed! e6uipped and armed( Mone o"viousl 'as needed( 06uall o"vious 'as the fact that it had to come from the people( This 'as a matter 'hich Con$ressmen 'ould have li,ed to i$nore! "ut the Secretar of the Treasur ! Al"ert Gallatin! 'as constantl remindin$ them of it( Gallatin! a "ald7headed little forei$ner 'ith an accent! a merchant 'ho could onl thin, in terms of dollars and centsJ 2hat if he had "een the onl man in the )epu"lican part a"le to meet the $ifted Hamilton in de"ate over fiscal matters= A mem"er of the upper class! he ou$ht to have "een a .ederalist( But for some stran$e reason he preferred to consider himself a li"eral( 4f he couldn+t put up 'ith the American 'a of doin$ thin$s! 'h didn+t he $o "ac, to the S'itHerland from 'hich he had come= 2hen his collea$ues had "loc,ed his aspirations to "e Secretar of State the thou$ht the 'ere done 'ith him! and here he 'as turnin$ up in the 'orst of all positions as holder of the purse strin$s! interferin$ 'ith the preparations for a 'ar " insistin$ that it 'ould cost mone J The truth of the matter 'as! accordin$ to the 'ar part ! that Gallatin didn+t 'ant 'ar an more than did the other merchants to 'hose class he "elon$ed( 2ri$ht! )epu"lican from Mar land! openl char$ed him 'ith as much( As earl as <ovem"er 22 Gallatin called attention to the condition of the Treasur ! sufferin$ from declinin$ revenue as a result of the non7importation la's( 4n the event of 'ar he su$$ested that the customs duties "e raised K- per cent( 4f this did not prove sufficient he proposed increasin$ the duties still more and restorin$ the import on salt and moderate internal ta*es to defra the cost of a loan( The loan! he thou$ht! should "e Q/-!---!--- at ei$ht per cent( A$ain in #anuar Gallatin raised the $rim specter of e*pense( This time his plan called for a loan of Q1-!---!---! the dou"lin$ of e*istin$ duties! a stamp ta*! a salt ta*! ta*es on distilled spirits! refined su$ar! licenses to retailers! on auctions and carria$es( 4nternal ta*es! the invention of the devil and the .ederalists! and no' "rou$ht for'ard " a mem"er of the )epu"lican part J A 'hole month passed "efore Con$ress could $et up its coura$e to tac,le the pro"lem( At last it authoriHed a loan of Q11!---!--- at si* per cent( 4t did not $et up its coura$e to pass the other ta* measures until after 'ar had "een declared( Iuite as difficult as raisin$ an arm 'as raisin$ mone to pa for it( Than,s to the 0m"ar$o and other restrictive trade measures! most of the specie in the countr had ta,en fli$ht from the South and 2est to the manufacturin$ centers of <e' 0n$land( 4t la in the coffers of <e' 0n$land "an,s to the credit of <e' 0n$land capitalists! .ederalists almost to a man! violentl inimical to the 'ar and the administration( And no'! " this odd turn of affairs! <e' 0n$land .ederalists 'ere invited to finance a polic that 'as not of their choosin$( <e' 0n$land editors fairl foamed at the mouth at the mere su$$estion( The Boston $a%ette! .ederalist or$an! thundered a denunciation( 3<othin$!3 e*claimed its editor! 3is no' 'antin$ to the perpetuation of the s stem of commercial restriction "ut that the .ederalists should lend $overnment the mone 'hich the are o"li$ed to 'ithdra' from commerce( Mr( Gallatin calculates that the 'ill come flutterin$ round his "oo,s li,e pid$eons round a handful of corn( The opinion entertained " the statesmen of "ac,'oods of our merchants is the same once e*pressed " the 1utch P +that the 'ould ma,e a vo a$e to h77l! if the 'ere sure of not "urnin$ their sailsJ+ Burnt the 'ill find themselves mista,en( :ur merchants constitute an honora"le! hi$h7minded! intelli$ent and independent class of citiHens( The feel the oppression! in8ur and moc,er 'ith 'hich the are treated " their $overnment( The 'ill lend them mone to retrace their steps! "ut none to persevere in their present course( Let ever hi$h'a man find his o'n pistols(3 4ne*ora"le! too! 'ere the .ederalists of <e' Gor,( There the editor of the &vening Post thus $reeted the $overnment+s appeal; 32e have onl room this evenin$ to sa that 'e trust no true friend to his countr 'ill "e found amon$ the su"scri"ers to the Gallatin loan( Some o"servations on this su"8ect 'ill "e su"mitted to the pu"lic in a da or t'o! provin$ that it is not even for the interest of monied men to su"scri"e on the terms proposed(3

The press and the "an,ers prevailed( ?p to Ma 1/! 'ithin a month of the declaration of 'ar! <e' 0n$land! the 'ealthiest section of the countr ! had su"scri"ed less than Q1!---!---5 <e' Gor, a little over Q1!---!---! Philadelphia a li,e amount5 Baltimore! 'here 0ditor <iles of The Register "eat the drums for the administration! as much as all of <e' 0n$land! and the countr as a 'hole Q>!1-2!C--! or "arel more than half the amount authoriHed( The despised forei$ner! Gallatin! had to fall "ac, upon the issuance of Treasur notes( The heroic little man 'as unruffled! as usual treatin$ his adopted fello' countr men 'ith a patience "orderin$ upon the su"lime( <e*t somethin$ had to "e done a"out the nav ! a matter particularl o"no*ious to the old7line #effersonian )epu"licans 'ho re$arded a "i$ nav as a "ad$e of imperialism( There 'as not a sin$le capital ship in the esta"lishment and! for lac, of attention! several of the fri$ates 'ere out of commission( #efferson had put his faith in $un"oats as "ein$ the onl craft that could not possi"l act offensivel ! disre$ardin$ the possi"ilit that the mi$ht prove to "e almost as useless on the defense( The South Carolinian! Lan$don Cheeves! as chairman of the <aval Affairs Committee! shoc,ed fello' )epu"licans of the House " proposin$ the la in$ do'n of 2K ships of the line and /- fri$ates at a cost of several millions of dollars( He ar$ued that! in vie' of the distance from the home "ase! Britain 'ould have to meet ever American ship 'ith three of her o'n5 one for active service! one to hold in reserve and one to pl "ac, and forth across the Atlantic 'ith supplies and men( Construct a nav of >K ships and Great Britain 'ould have to find 1CK to oppose them! a considera"le "urden considerin$ the vast e*panse of 'ater her s6uadrons had to patrol and her trou"les nearer home( To such a proposal Con$ress 'as cold( 2here 'ere the millions to "e had to pa the cost= Besides! it had "een $enerall a$reed that Canada 'as the chief o"8ective! and no nav 'as needed for that( This 'as to "e a land 'ar( The )epu"licans turned do'n Cheeves+ am"itious pro$ram! made an appropriation to recondition the ships alread in e*istence and! in a final flin$ at their old '(te noire! the <av ! cut the appropriation in half( At this point a suspicion too, form amon$ the 2ar Ha',s that the $allant little Madison 'as not displa in$ the enthusiasm for the stru$$le "ecomin$ to a commander7in7chief( The President+s first administration 'as in its last ears and part nominations 'ere imminent( 4t 'as rumored that a dele$ation of )epu"licans had ta,en it upon themselves to call upon him and arouse his militar ardor " statin$ that if 'ar 'ere not declared "efore the election he 'ould certainl "e defeated " the .ederalists5 indeed if he did not act 6uic,l ! he could not rel even upon his renomination( The incident in later ears 'as attested to " one #ames .is,! )epu"lican from Oermont! 'ho claimed to have "een a mem"er of the committee( Get another event occurred to add to the perple*ities of the administration( 2e have noted ho' the report of the House Committee on .orei$n Affairs and Henr Cla in his 'ar de"ate speech alluded to the solemn pled$e made to .rance in return for <apoleon+s 'ithdra'al of the 1ecrees of Berlin and Milan! and ho' the fulfillment of that pled$e 'as used as an ar$ument for $oin$ to 'ar( 4ma$ine! then! the pained surprise of the administration 'hen there arrived in port the American "ri$ Thames! 'hose master! Samuel Che'! "rou$ht 'ith him a heart7rendin$ tale of .rench dou"le7dealin$( 4n mid7Atlantic! reported Che'! he had come upon a .rench s6uadron 'hich had 8ust "urned t'o American ships! the )sia and the $ershorn( ?pon in6uir the .rench commodore had informed Che' that he had orders to destro all American ships $oin$ to or from enem ports( So! 'hatever <apoleon ma have promised! the decrees 'ere in actual fact still in operationJ :ther American ships returnin$ from overseas confirmed Che'+s report( Secretar of State Monroe rushed to the .rench Minister Serurier! laid the facts "efore him! reminded him ho' the ?nited States had cooperated 'ith .rance a$ainst Great Britain until the countr 'as on the ver threshold of 'ar and! in a "urst of 8ustified passion! e*claimed! 34t is at such a moment that our fri$ates come and "urn our ships! destro all our 'or,! and put the Administration in the falsest and most terri"le position in 'hich a $overnment can find itself(3 2hat 'as there for the representative of a man li,e <apoleon to do= Serurier could merel shru$ his shoulders! assume an e*pression of s mpath and report Monroe+s complaints in his dispatches to his imperial master in the Tuileries( As the ne's spread throu$h the countr ! friends of the administration cursed the perfid of <apoleon! declared that .rance and Britain 'ere tarred 'ith the same "rush( Hotheads even proposed $oin$ to 'ar a$ainst "oth! 'hile .ederalists re8oiced( Hadn+t the said all alon$ that this 'as 'hat 'ould come of havin$ traffic 'ith the Corsican "lac,$uard= The rascal 'as no' revealed in his true colors( The administration 'as convinced of onl one thin$( 4t refused to ta,e on t'o adversaries at once( .rance 'as several thousand miles out of reach! and the administration 'as no' too far committed to turn "ac,( The part nomination and the election 'ere starin$ it in the face! and this 'as no time to procrastinate( 4t stuc, to the 'ar 'ith Great Britain( Source; ?niversit of Chica$o

?(S( Con$ressman #ohn )andolphTs :pposition to the 2ar of 1812 4n the ?(S( House of )epresentatives on 1ecem"er 1-! 1811; 4n His :'n 2ords

#ohn )andolph %also ,no'n as #ohn )andolph of )oano,e& served in the ?(S( House of )epresentatives %Oir$inia! March /! 1DCC7March F! 181F5 March /! 181K7March F! 181D5 March /! 181C71ecem"er 2>! 182K5 March /! 182D7March F! 182C5 March /! 18FF7Ma 2/! 18FF %died in office&&! served as a ?(S( Senator %1ecem"er 2>! 182K7March F! 182D&! and served as ?(S( Minister to )ussia in 18F-( #ohn )andolph of )oano,e 'as a direct descendant of #ohn )olfe and Pocahontas(

E4t is a 6uestion! as it has "een presented to the House! of peace or *arMBut it is impossi"le that the discussion of a 6uestion! "road as the 'ide ocean! of our forei$n concerns! involvin$ ever consideration of interest! of ri$ht! of happiness! and of safet at home5 touchin$ in ever point all that is dear to freemen A Utheir lives! their fortunes! and their sacred honor5 can "e tied do'n " the narro' rules of technical routineMThe RCommittee of .orei$n )elationsS have felt themselves authoriHed %'hen the su"8ect 'as "efore another committee& to recommend the raisin$ of standin$ armies! 'ith a vie' %as has "een declared& of immediate 'ar A a 'ar not of defense! "ut of con6uest! of a$$randiHement! of am"ition A a 'ar! forei$n to the interests of this countr 5 to the interests of humanit itself( 4 ,no' not ho' $entlemen! callin$ themselves repu"licans! can advocate such a 'ar( 2hat 'as their doctrine in 1DC87 C! 'hen the command of the arm ! that hi$hest of all possi"le trusts in an $overnment! "e the form 'hat it ma ! 'as reposed in the "osom of the .ather of his countr J The sanctuar of a nationTs loveJ A the onl hope that never came in vain=M$ut is )ar the true remedy? 2ho )ill pro#it *y it? SpeculatorsD a #e) luc7y merchants! )ho dra) priEes in the lotteryD commissaries and contractors0 2ho must su##er *y it? 1he people0 It is their *lood! their ta'es! that must #lo) to support itM4n 'hat situation 'ould ou then place some of the "est men of the nation= Fur people )ill not su*mit to *e ta'ed #or this )ar o# con(uest and dominion0 1he +o ernment o# the 3nited States )as not calculated to )a+e o##ensi e #orei+n )arD it )as instituted #or the common de#ence and +eneral )el#areD and 'hosoever 'ill em"ar, it in a 'ar of offence! 'ill put it to a test 'hich it is " no means calculated to endure(L A ?(S( Con$ressman #ohn )andolph! in a speech he delivered inside the ?(S( House of )epresentatives on 1ecem"er 1-! 1811 %Source; The +ife of ,ohn Ran-olph of Roano.e " Hu$h A( Garland! p( 28872CF&

2That 'ar 'as inevita"le! and 'ould "e declared so soon as the nation 'as put into a posture of defence( 4t 'as also said in de"ate that one of the o"8ects! and a necessar result of the 'ar! 'ould "e the con6uest of Canada( :n the 1-th da of 1ecem"er! Mr( )andolph made one of his most po'erful and elo6uent speeches in opposition to these 'ar measures( As the speech is to "e found in most of the collections of American elo6uence that have "een pu"lished from time to time! 'e must content ourselves 'ith an e*tract here and there! "arel sufficient to e*plain in his o'n 'ords the $rounds of opposition( 3 4t is a 6uestion!3 said Mr )andolph! 3 as it has "een presented to the House! of peace or 'ar( 4n that li$ht it has "een re$arded! in no other li$ht can 4 consider it! after declarations made " mem"ers of the Committee of .orei$n )elations( 2ithout intendin$ an disrespect to the chair! 4 must "e permitted to sa ! that if the decision esterda 'as correct! + that it 'as not in order to advance an ar$uments a$ainst the resolution! dra'n from topics "efore other committees of the House!+ the 'hole de"ate7na ! the report itself on 'hich 'e are actin$7is disorderl ! since the increase of the militar force is a su"8ect at this time in a$itation " the select committee raised on that "ranch of the President+s messa$e( But it is impossi"le that the discussion of a 6uestion! "road as the 'ide ocean! of our forei$n concerns! involvin$ ever consideration of interest! of ri$ht! of happiness! and of safet at home5 touchin$ in ever point all that is dear to freemen7+ their lives! their fortunes! and their sacred honor5+ can "e tied do'n " the narro' rules of technical routine( The Committee of .orei$n )elations has indeed decided that the su"8ect of armin$ the militia %'hich 4 pressed upon them as indispensa"le to the pu"lic safet & does not come 'ithin the scope of their authorit ( :n 'hat $round! 4 have "een! and still am! una"le to see( The have felt themselves authoriHed %'hen the su"8ect 'as "efore another committee& to recommend the raisin$ of standin$ armies! 'ith a vie' %as has "een declared& of immediate 'ar7a 'ar not of defence! "ut of con6uest! of a$$randiHement! of am"ition7a 'ar forei$n to the interests of this countr ! to the interests of humanit itself( 34 ,no' not ho' $entlemen callin$ themselves repu"licans can advocate such a 'ar 2hat 'as their doctrine in 1DC87C! 'hen the command of the arm ! that hi$hest of all possi"le trusts in an $overnment! "e the form 'hat it ma ! 'as reposed in the "osom of the .ather of his countr J the sanctuar of a nation+s loveJ the onl hope that never came in vain= 2hen other 'orthies of the revolution! Hamilton! Pinc,ne ! and the oun$er 2ashin$ton! men of tried patriotism! of approved conduct and valor! of untarnished honor! held su"ordinate command under him= )epu"licans 'ere then un'illin$ to trust a standin$ arm even to his hands! 'ho had $iven proof that he 'as a"ove all human temptation( 2here no' is the revolutionar hero to 'hom ou are a"out to confide this sacred trust= To 'hom 'ill ou confide the char$e of leadin$ the flo'er of our outh to the hei$hts of A"raham= 2ill ou find him in the person of an ac6uitted felon= 2hatJ Then ou 'ere un'illin$ to vote an arm ! 'hen such men as have "een named held hi$h commandJ 2hen 2ashin$ton himself 'as at the head! did ou then sho' such reluctance! feel such scruple= And are ou no' nothin$ loth! fearless of ever conse6uence= 2ill ou sa that our provocations 'ere less then than no'! 'hen our direct commerce 'as interdicted! our am"assadors hooted 'ith derision from the .rench court! tri"ute demanded! actual 'ar 'a$ed upon ou= Those 'ho opposed the arm then 'ere indeed denounced as the partisans of .rance! as the same men77some of them at least are no' held up as the advocates of 0n$land5 those firm and undeviatin$ repu"licans! 'ho then dared! and no' dare! to clin$ to the ar, of the Constitution! to defend it even at the e*pense of their fame! rather than surrender themselves to the 'ild pro8ects of mad am"ition( There is a fatalit ! sir! attendin$ plenitude of po'er( Soon or late some mania seiHes upon its possessors! the fall from the diHH hei$ht! throu$h the $iddiness of their o'n heads( Li,e a vast estate! heaped up " the la"or and industr of one man! 'h(ch seldom survives the third $eneration( Po'er $ained " patient assiduit ! " a faithful and re$ular dischar$e of its attendant duties! soon $ets a"ove its o'n ori$in( 4nto*icated 'ith their o'n $reatness! the federal part fell( 2ill not the same causes produce the same effects no' as then= Sir! ou ma raise this arm ! ou ma "uild up this vast structure of patrona$e! this mi$ht apparatus of favoritism5 "ut! +la not the flatterin$ unction to our souls!+ ou 'ill never live to en8o the succession ou si$n our political death 'arrant( V V V EThis 'ar of con6uest! a 'ar for the ac6uisition of territor and su"8ects! is to "e a ne' commentar on the doctrine that repu"lics are destitute of am"ition! the are addicted to peace! 'edded to the happiness and safet of the $reat "od of their people( But it seems this is to "e a holida campai$n5 there is to "e no e*pense of "lood or treasure on our part! Canada is to con6uer herself! she is to "e su"dued " the principles of fraternit ( The people of that countr are first to "e seduced from their alle$iance! and converted into traitors! as preparator to the ma,in$ them $ood citiHens( Althou$h 4 must ac,no'led$e that some of our flamin$ patriots 'ere thus manufactured! 4 do not thin, the process 'ould hold $ood 'ith a 'hole communit ( 4t is a dan$erous e*periment( 2e are to succeed in the .rench mode A " the s stem of fraterniHation( All is .renchJ But ho' dreadfull it mi$ht "e retorted on the southern and 'estern slaveholdin$ States( 4 detest this su"ornation of treason( <o! if 'e must have them! let them fall " the valor of our arms5 " fair! le$itimate con6uest5 not "ecome the victims of treacherous seduction(3 4 am not surprised at the 'ar7 spirit 'hich is manifestin$ itself in $entlemen from the South( 4n the ear 18-K7>! in a stru$$le for the carr in$ trade of "elli$erent colonial produce! this countr 'as most un'isel "rou$ht into collision 'ith the $reat po'ers of 0urope( B a series of most impolitic and ruinous measures! utterl incomprehensi"le to ever rational! so"er7minded man! the Southern planters! " their o'n votes! succeeded in ,noc,in$ do'n the price of cotton to seven cents! and of to"acco %a fe' choice( crops e*cepted& to nothin$! and in raisin$ the price of "lan,ets %of 'hich a fe' 'ould not "e amiss in a Canadian campai$n&! coarse 'oollens! and ever article of first necessit ! three or four hundred per cent( And no' that " our o'n acts 'e have "rou$ht ourselves into this unprecedented condition! 'e must $et out of it in an 'a "ut " an ac,no'led$ment of our o'n 'ant of 'isdom and forecast( But is 'ar the true remed = 2ho 'ill profit " it= Speculators! a fe' luc, merchants! 'ho dra' priHes in the lotter 5 commissaries and contractors( 2ho must suffer " it= The people( 4t is their "lood! their ta*es! that must flo' to support it( 3 3But $entlemen avo'ed that the 'ould not $o to 'ar for the carr in$ trade! that is! for an other "ut the direct e*port and import trade7that 'hich carries our native products a"road! and "rin$s "ac, the return car$o! and et the stic,le for our

commercial ri$hts! and 'ill $o to 'ar for themJ 4 'ish to ,no'! in point of principle! 'hat difference $entlemen can point out "et'een the a"andonment of this or of that maritime ri$ht= 1o $entlemen assume the loft port and tone of chivalrous redressers of maritime 'ron$s! and declare their readiness to surrender ever other maritime ri$ht! provided the ma remain unmolested in the e*ercise of the hum"le privile$e of carr in$ their o'n produce a"road! and "rin$in$ "ac, a return car$o= 1o ou ma,e this declaration to the enem at the outset= 1o ou state the minimum 'ith 'hich ou 'ill "e contented! and put it in her po'er to close 'ith our proposals at her option= $ive her the "asis of a treat ruinous and dis$raceful "e ond e*ample and e*pression= and this too after havin$ turned up our noses in disdain at the treaties of Mr( #a and Mr( Monroe= 2ill ou sa to 0n$land! /&n- the *ar *hen yo0 please1 give 0s the -irect tra-e in o0r o*n pro-0ce *e are content23 But 'hat 'ill the merchants of Salem! and Boston! and <e' Gor,! and Philadelphia! and Baltimore7the men of Mar"lehead and Cape Cod! sa to this= 2ill the 8oin in a 'ar professin$ to have for its o"8ect 'hat the 'ould consider! and 8ustl too( as the sacrifice of their maritime ri$hts! et affectin$ to "e a 'ar for the protection of commerce= E4 am $ratified to find $entlemen ac,no'led$in$ the demoraliHin$ and destructive conse6uences of the non7importation la'5 confessin$ the truth of all that its opponents foretold 'hen enacted5 and 'ill ou plun$e ourselves in 'ar! "ecause ou have passed a foolish and ruinous la'! and are ashamed to repeal it= +But our $ood friend! the .rench 0mperor! stands in the 'a of its repeal!+ and! as 'e cannot $o too far in ma,in$ sacrifices to him! 'ho has $iven such demonstration of his love for the Americans! 'e must! in point of fact! "ecome parties to this 'ar( +2ho can "e so cruel as to refuse him this favor=+ M ima$ination shrin,s from the miseries of such connection( 4 call upon the House to reflect 'hether the are not a"out to a"andon all reclamation for the unparalleled outra$es! + insults and in8uries+ of the .rench Government! to $ive up our claim for plundered millions! and as, 'hat reparation or atonement 'e can e*pect to o"tain in hours of future dalliance! after 'e shall have made a tender of our persons to this $reat deflo'erer of the vir$init of repu"lics( 2e have! " our o'n 'ise %4 'ill not sa *ise4acre& measures! so increased the trade of Montreal and Iue"ec! that at last 'e "e$in to cast a 'istful e e at Canada( Havin$ done so much to'ards its improvement! " the e*ercise of our +restrictive ener$ies!+ 'e "e$in to thin, the la"orer is 'orth of his hire! and to put in claim for our portion( Suppose it ours! are 'e an nearer our point= As his minister said to the @in$ of 0pirus! + Ma 'e not as 'ell ta,e our "ottle of 'ine "efore as after this e*ploit=+ GoJ March to CanadaJ Leave the "road "osom of the Chesapea,e! and her hundred tri"utar rivers! the 'hole line of sea7coast! from Machias to St( Mar +s! unprotected ou have ta,en Iue"ec7have ou con6uered 0n$land= 2ill ou see, for the deep foundations of her po'er in the froHen deserts of La"rador= +Her march is on the mountain 'ave! Her home is on the deepJ+ 2ill ou call upon her to leave our ports and har"ors untouched! onl 8ust till ou can return from Canada to defend them= The coast is to "e left defenceless! 'hilst men of the interior are revellin$ in con6uest and spoil( But $rant for a moment! for mere ar$ument+s sa,e! that in Canada ou touched the sine's of her stren$th! instead of removin$ a clo$ upon her resources7an incum"rance! "ut one! 'hich! from a spirit of honor! she 'ill vi$orousl defend( 4n 'hat situation 'ould ou then place some of the "est men of the nation= As Chatham and Bur,e! and the 'hole "and of her patriots pra ed for her defeat in 1DD>( so must some of the truest friends of the countr deprecate the success of our arms a$ainst the onl po'er that holds in chec, the arch enem of man,ind( BFur people )ill not su*mit to *e ta'ed #or this )ar o# con(uest and dominion0 1he +o ernment o# the 3nited States )as not calculated to )a+e o##ensi e #orei+n )arD it )as instituted #or the common de#ence and +eneral )el#areD and )hosoe er )ill em*ar7 it in a )ar o# o##ence! )ill put it to a test )hich it is *y no means calculated to endure0 Ma,e it out that Great Britain did insti$ate the 4ndians on a late occasion! and 4 am read for "attle! "ut not for dominion( 4 am un'illin$! ho'ever! under present circumstances! to ta,e Canada at the ris, of the Constitution5 to em"ar, in a common cause 'ith .rance! and "e dra$$ed at the 'heels of the car of some Burr or Bonaparte( .or a $entleman from Tennessee! or Genesee! or la,e Champlain! there ma "e some prospect of advanta$e( Their hemp 'ould "ear a $reat price " the e*clusion of forei$n suppl 4n that! too! the $reat importers 'ere deepl interested( The upper countr on the Hudson and the la,es! 'ould "e enriched " the supplies for the troops( 'hich the alone could furnish( The 'ould have the e*clusive mar,et5 to sa nothin$ of the increased preponderance from the ac6uisition of Canada! and that section of the ?nion! 'hich the southern and 'estern States had alread felt so severel in the apportionment "ill(3 Mr )andolph d'elt on the dan$er arisin$ from the "lac, population( He said he 'ould touch this su"8ect as tenderl as possi"le5 it 'as 'ith reluctance; that he touched it at all! "ut in cases of $reat emer$enc the state ph sician must not "e deterred " a sic,l ! h sterical humanit ! from pro"in$ the 'ound of his patient! he must not "e 'ithheld " a fastidious and mista,en humanit from representin$ his true situation to his friends! or even to the sic, man himself! 'here the occasion called for it( 32hat! sir is the situation of the slaveholdin$ States= 1urin$ the 'ar of the )evolution! so fi*ed 'ere their ha"its of su"ordination! that 'hile the 'hole countr 'as overrun " the enem ! 'ho invited them to desert! no fear 'as ever entertained of an insurrection of the slaves(LL A The +ife of ,ohn Ran-olph of Roano.e " Hu$h A( Garland! p( 28872CF

5A-6S -AD.S71 War -essa+e to Con+ress 5une 1, 1818 /o the Senate and 9ouse o% 0epresentatives o% the :nited States, . communicate to Con+ress certain documents, 'ein+ a continuation o% those hereto%ore laid 'e%ore them on the su';ect o% our a%%airs )ith 4reat Britain. Without +oin+ 'ack 'eyond the rene)al in 18 < o% the )ar in )hich 4reat Britain is en+a+ed, and omittin+ unrepaired )ron+s o% in%erior ma+nitude, the conduct o% her 4overnment presents a series o% acts hostile to the :nited States as an independent and neutral nation. British cruisers have 'een in the continued practice o% violatin+ the American %la+ on the +reat hi+h)ay o% nations, and o% sei=in+ and carryin+ o%% persons sailin+ under it, not in the e>ercise o% a 'elli+erent ri+ht %ounded on the la) o% nations a+ainst an enemy, 'ut o% a municipal prero+ative over British su';ects. British ;urisdiction is thus e>tended to neutral vessels in a situation )here no la)s can operate 'ut the la) o% nations and the la)s o% the country to )hich the vessels 'elon+, and a sel%"redress is assumed )hich, i% British su';ects )ere )ron+%ully detained and alone concerned, is that su'stitution o% %orce %or a resort to the responsi'le soverei+n )hich %alls )ithin the de%inition o% )ar. Could the sei=ure o% British su';ects in such cases 'e re+arded as )ithin the e>ercise o% a 'elli+erent ri+ht, the ackno)led+ed la)s o% )ar, )hich %or'id an article o% captured property to 'e ad;ud+ed )ithout a re+ular investi+ation 'e%ore a competent tri'unal, )ould imperiously demand the %airest trial )here the sacred ri+hts o% persons )ere at issue. .n place o% such a trial these ri+hts are su';ected to the )ill o% every petty commander. /he practice, hence, is so %ar %rom a%%ectin+ British su';ects alone that, under the prete>t o% searchin+ %or these, thousands o% American citi=ens, under the sa%e+uard o% pu'lic la) and o% their national %la+, have 'een torn %rom their country and %rom everythin+ dear to them? have 'een dra++ed on 'oard ships o% )ar o% a %orei+n nation and e>posed, under the severities o% their discipline, to 'e e>iled to the most distant and deadly climes, to risk their lives in the 'attles o% their oppressors, and to 'e the melancholy instruments o% takin+ a)ay those o% their o)n 'rethren. A+ainst this cryin+ enormity, )hich 4reat Britain )ould 'e so prompt to aven+e i% committed a+ainst hersel%, the :nited States have in vain e>hausted remonstrances and e>postulations, and that no proo% mi+ht 'e )antin+ o% their conciliatory dispositions, and no prete>t le%t %or a continuance o% the practice, the British 4overnment )as %ormally assured o% the readiness o% the :nited States to enter into arran+ements such as could not 'e re;ected i% the recovery o% British su';ects )ere the real and the sole o';ect. /he communication passed )ithout e%%ect. British cruisers have 'een in the practice also o% violatin+ the ri+hts and the peace o% our coasts. /hey hover over and harass our enterin+ and departin+ commerce. /o the most insultin+ pretensions they have added the most la)less proceedin+s in our very har'ors, and have )antonly spilt American 'lood )ithin the sanctuary o% our territorial ;urisdiction. /he principles and rules en%orced 'y that nation, )hen a neutral nation, a+ainst armed vessels o% 'elli+erents hoverin+ near her coasts and distur'in+ her commerce are )ell kno)n. When called on, nevertheless, 'y the :nited States to punish the +reater o%%enses committed 'y her o)n vessels, her 4overnment has 'esto)ed on their commanders additional marks o% honor and con%idence. :nder pretended 'lockades, )ithout the presence o% an ade@uate %orce and sometimes )ithout the practica'ility o% applyin+ one, our commerce has 'een plundered in every sea, the +reat staples o% our country have 'een cut o%% %rom their le+itimate markets, and a destructive 'lo) aimed at our a+ricultural and maritime interests. .n a++ravation o% these predatory measures they have 'een considered as in %orce %rom the dates o% their noti%ication, a retrospective e%%ect 'ein+ thus added, as has 'een done in other important cases, to the unla)%ulness o% the course pursued. And to render the outra+e the more si+nal these mock 'lockades have 'een reiterated and en%orced in the %ace o% o%%icial communications %rom the British 4overnment declarin+ as the true de%inition o% a le+al 'lockade Athat particular ports must 'e actually invested and previous )arnin+ +iven to vessels 'ound to them not to enter.A 1ot content )ith these occasional e>pedients %or layin+ )aste our neutral trade, the ca'inet o% Britain resorted at len+th to the s)eepin+ system o% 'lockades, under the name o% orders in council, )hich has 'een molded and mana+ed as mi+ht 'est suit its political vie)s, its commercial ;ealousies, or the avidity o% British cruisers. /o our remonstrances a+ainst the complicated and transcendent in;ustice o% this innovation the %irst reply )as that the orders )ere reluctantly adopted 'y 4reat Britain as a necessary retaliation on decrees o% her enemy proclaimin+ a +eneral 'lockade o% the British .sles at a time )hen the naval %orce o% that enemy dared not issue %rom his o)n ports. She )as reminded )ithout e%%ect that her o)n prior 'lockades, unsupported 'y an ade@uate naval %orce actually applied and continued, )ere a 'ar to this plea? that e>ecuted edicts a+ainst millions o% our property could not 'e retaliation on edicts con%essedly impossi'le to 'e e>ecuted? that retaliation, to 'e ;ust, should %all on the party settin+ the +uilty e>ample, not on an innocent party )hich )as not even char+ea'le )ith an ac@uiescence in it.

When deprived o% this %limsy veil %or a prohi'ition o% our trade )ith her enemy 'y the repeal o% his prohi'ition o% our trade )ith 4reat Britain, her ca'inet, instead o% a correspondin+ repeal or a practical discontinuance o% its orders, %ormally avo)ed a determination to persist in them a+ainst the :nited States until the markets o% her enemy should 'e laid open to British products, thus assertin+ an o'li+ation on a neutral po)er to re@uire one 'elli+erent to encoura+e 'y its internal re+ulations the trade o% another 'elli+erent, contradictin+ her o)n practice to)ard all nations, in peace as )ell as in )ar, and 'etrayin+ the insincerity o% those pro%essions )hich inculcated a 'elie% that, havin+ resorted to her orders )ith re+ret, she )as an>ious to %ind an occasion %or puttin+ an end to them. A'andonin+ still more all respect %or the neutral ri+hts o% the :nited States and %or its o)n consistency, the British 4overnment no) demands as prere@uisites to a repeal o% its orders as they relate to the :nited States that a %ormality should 'e o'served in the repeal o% the *rench decrees no)ise necessary to their termination nor e>empli%ied 'y British usa+e, and that the *rench repeal, 'esides includin+ that portion o% the decrees )hich operates )ithin a territorial ;urisdiction, as )ell as that )hich operates on the hi+h seas, a+ainst the commerce o% the :nited States should not 'e a sin+le and special repeal in relation to the :nited States, 'ut should 'e e>tended to )hatever other neutral nations unconnected )ith them may 'e a%%ected 'y those decrees. And as an additional insult, they are called on %or a %ormal disavo)al o% conditions and pretensions advanced 'y the *rench 4overnment %or )hich the :nited States are so %ar %rom havin+ made themselves responsi'le that, in o%%icial e>planations )hich have 'een pu'lished to the )orld, and in a correspondence o% the American minister at London )ith the British minister %or %orei+n a%%airs such a responsi'ility )as e>plicitly and emphatically disclaimed. .t has 'ecome, indeed, su%%iciently certain that the commerce o% the :nited States is to 'e sacri%iced, not as inter%erin+ )ith the 'elli+erent ri+hts o% 4reat Britain? not as supplyin+ the )ants o% her enemies, )hich she hersel% supplies? 'ut as inter%erin+ )ith the monopoly )hich she covets %or her o)n commerce and navi+ation. She carries on a )ar a+ainst the la)%ul commerce o% a %riend that she may the 'etter carry on a commerce )ith an enemy B a commerce polluted 'y the %or+eries and per;uries )hich are %or the most part the only passports 'y )hich it can succeed. An>ious to make every e>periment short o% the last resort o% in;ured nations, the :nited States have )ithheld %rom 4reat Britain, under successive modi%ications, the 'ene%its o% a %ree intercourse )ith their market, the loss o% )hich could not 'ut out)ei+h the pro%its accruin+ %rom her restrictions o% our commerce )ith other nations. And to entitle these e>periments to the more %avora'le consideration they )ere so %ramed as to ena'le her to place her adversary under the e>clusive operation o% them. /o these appeals her 4overnment has 'een e@ually in%le>i'le, as i% )illin+ to make sacri%ices o% every sort rather than yield to the claims o% ;ustice or renounce the errors o% a %alse pride. 1ay, so %ar )ere the attempts carried to overcome the attachment o% the British ca'inet to its un;ust edicts that it received every encoura+ement )ithin the competency o% the e>ecutive 'ranch o% our 4overnment to e>pect that a repeal o% them )ould 'e %ollo)ed 'y a )ar 'et)een the :nited States and *rance, unless the *rench edicts should also 'e repealed. 6ven this communication, althou+h silencin+ %orever the plea o% a disposition in the :nited States to ac@uiesce in those edicts ori+inally the sole plea %or them, received no attention. .% no other proo% e>isted o% a predetermination o% the British 4overnment a+ainst a repeal o% its orders, it mi+ht 'e %ound in the correspondence o% the minister plenipotentiary o% the :nited States at London and the British secretary %or %orei+n a%%airs in 181 , on the @uestion )hether the 'lockade o% -ay, 18 #, )as considered as in %orce or as not in %orce. .t had 'een ascertained that the *rench 4overnment, )hich ur+ed this 'lockade as the +round o% its Berlin decree, )as )illin+ in the event o% its removal, to repeal that decree, )hich, 'ein+ %ollo)ed 'y alternate repeals o% the other o%%ensive edicts, mi+ht a'olish the )hole system on 'oth sides. /his invitin+ opportunity %or accomplishin+ an o';ect so important to the :nited States, and pro%essed so o%ten to 'e the desire o% 'oth the 'elli+erents, )as made kno)n to the British 4overnment. As that 4overnment admits that an actual application o% an ade@uate %orce is necessary to the e>istence o% a le+al 'lockade, and it )as notorious that i% such a %orce had ever 'een applied its lon+ discontinuance had annulled the 'lockade in @uestion, there could 'e no su%%icient o';ection on the part o% 4reat Britain to a %ormal revocation o% it, and no ima+ina'le o';ection to a declaration o% the %act that the 'lockade did not e>ist. /he declaration )ould have 'een consistent )ith her avo)ed principles o% 'lockade, and )ould have ena'led the :nited States to demand %rom *rance the pled+ed repeal o% her decrees, either )ith success, in )hich case the )ay )ould have 'een opened %or a +eneral repeal o% the 'elli+erent edicts, or )ithout success, in )hich case the :nited States )ould have 'een ;usti%ied in turnin+ their measures e>clusively a+ainst *rance. /he British 4overnment )ould, ho)ever, neither rescind the 'lockade nor declare its none>istence, nor permit its non"e>istence to 'e in%erred and a%%irmed 'y the American plenipotentiary. 7n the contrary, 'y representin+ the 'lockade to 'e comprehended in the orders in council, the :nited States )ere compelled so to re+ard it in their su'se@uent proceedin+s. /here )as a period )hen a %avora'le chan+e in the policy o% the British ca'inet )as ;ustly considered as esta'lished. /he minister plenipotentiary o% 9is Britannic -a;esty here proposed an ad;ustment o% the di%%erences more immediately endan+erin+ the harmony o% the t)o countries. /he proposition )as accepted )ith the promptitude and cordiality correspondin+ )ith the invaria'le pro%essions o% this 4overnment. A %oundation appeared to 'e laid %or a sincere and lastin+ reconciliation. /he prospect, ho)ever, @uickly vanished. /he )hole proceedin+ )as disavo)ed 'y the British 4overnment )ithout any e>planations )hich could at that time repress the 'elie% that the disavo)al proceeded %rom a spirit o% hostility to the commercial ri+hts and prosperity o% the :nited States? and it has since come into proo% that at the very moment )hen the pu'lic minister )as holdin+ the lan+ua+e o% %riendship and inspirin+ con%idence in the sincerity o% the ne+otiation )ith )hich he )as char+ed a secret a+ent o% his 4overnment )as employed in intri+ues havin+ %or their o';ect a su'version o% our 4overnment and a dismem'erment o% our happy union.

.n revie)in+ the conduct o% 4reat Britain to)ard the :nited States our attention is necessarily dra)n to the )ar%are ;ust rene)ed 'y the sava+es on one o% our e>tensive %rontiers B a )ar%are )hich is kno)n to spare neither a+e nor se> and to 'e distin+uished 'y %eatures peculiarly shockin+ to humanity. .t is di%%icult to account %or the activity and com'inations )hich have %or some time 'een developin+ themselves amon+ tri'es in constant intercourse )ith British traders and +arrisons )ithout connectin+ their hostility )ith that in%luence and )ithout recollectin+ the authenticated e>amples o% such interpositions hereto%ore %urnished 'y the o%%icers and a+ents o% that 4overnment. Such is the spectacle o% in;uries and indi+nities )hich have 'een heaped on our country, and such the crisis )hich its une>ampled %or'earance and conciliatory e%%orts have not 'een a'le to avert. .t mi+ht at least have 'een e>pected that an enli+htened nation, i% less ur+ed 'y moral o'li+ations or invited 'y %riendly dispositions on the part o% the :nited States, )ould have %ound its true interest alone a su%%icient motive to respect their ri+hts and their tran@uillity on the hi+h seas? that an enlar+ed policy )ould have %avored that %ree and +eneral circulation o% commerce in )hich the British nation is at all times interested, and )hich in times o% )ar is the 'est alleviation o% its calamities to hersel% as )ell as to other 'elli+erents? and more especially that the British ca'inet )ould not, %or the sake o% a precarious and surreptitious intercourse )ith hostile markets, have persevered in a course o% measures )hich necessarily put at ha=ard the invalua'le market o% a +reat and +ro)in+ country, disposed to cultivate the mutual advanta+es o% an active commerce. 7ther counsels have prevailed. 7ur moderation and conciliation have had no other e%%ect than to encoura+e perseverance and to enlar+e pretensions. We 'ehold our sea%arin+ citi=ens still the daily victims o% la)less violence, committed on the +reat common and hi+h)ay o% nations, even )ithin si+ht o% the country )hich o)es them protection. We 'ehold our vessels, %rei+hted )ith the products o% our soil and industry, or returnin+ )ith the honest proceeds o% them, )rested %rom their la)%ul destinations, con%iscated 'y pri=e courts no lon+er the or+ans o% pu'lic la) 'ut the instruments o% ar'itrary edicts, and their un%ortunate cre)s dispersed and lost, or %orced or invei+led in British ports into British %leets, )hilst ar+uments are employed in support o% these a++ressions )hich have no %oundation 'ut in a principle e@ually supportin+ a claim to re+ulate our e>ternal commerce in all cases )hatsoever. We 'ehold, in %ine, on the side o% 4reat Britain, a state o% )ar a+ainst the :nited States, and on the side o% the :nited States a state o% peace to)ard 4reat Britain. Whether the :nited States shall continue passive under these pro+ressive usurpations and these accumulatin+ )ron+s, or, opposin+ %orce to %orce in de%ense o% their national ri+hts, shall commit a ;ust cause into the hands o% the Almi+hty Disposer o% 6vents, avoidin+ all connections )hich mi+ht entan+le it in the contest or vie)s o% other po)ers, and preservin+ a constant readiness to concur in an honora'le re"esta'lishment o% peace and %riendship, is a solemn @uestion )hich the Constitution )isely con%ides to the le+islative department o% the 4overnment. .n recommendin+ it to their early deli'erations . am happy in the assurance that the decision )ill 'e )orthy the enli+htened and patriotic councils o% a virtuous, a %ree, and a po)er%ul nation. 9avin+ presented this vie) o% the relations o% the :nited States )ith 4reat Britain and o% the solemn alternative +ro) m+ out o% them, . proceed to remark that the communications last made to Con+ress on the su';ect o% our relations )ith *rance )ill have she)n that since the revocation o% her decrees, as they violated the neutral ri+hts o% the :nited States, her 4overnment has authori=ed ille+al captures 'y its privateers and pu'lic ships, and that other outra+es have 'een practised on our vessels and our citi=ens .t )ill have 'een seen also that no indemnity had 'een provided or satis%actorily pled+ed %or the e>tensive spoliations committed under the violent and retrospective orders o% the *rench 4overnment a+ainst the property o% our citi=ens sei=ed )ithin the ;urisdiction o% *rance . a'stain at this time %rom recommendin+ to the consideration o% Con+ress de%initive measures )ith respect to that nation, in the e>pectation that the result o% un closed discussions 'et)een our minister plenipotentiary at Paris and the *rench 4overnment )ill speedily ena'le Con+ress to decide )ith +reater advanta+e on the course due to the ri+hts, the interests, and the honor o% our country. Source, http,CC))).presidentialrhetoric.comChistoricspeechesCmadisonC)armessa+e.html

Source, http,CCmemory.loc.+ovCc+i"'inCampa+eDcoll.dEllacF%ile1ameE 8<Cllac 8<.d'Frec1umE1G#

$Source, Li'rary o% Con+ressCCon+ressional 0ecords&

War o% 1818 Declaration o% War 0oll Call

Federalist and #epu$lican %oliticians &ho 'oted against the War of 1812 ()Na*+,: :.S. Senators, 5ames A. Bayard Sr. $A.B. Princeton 1H8G& I :.S. Senator $*ederalist"Dela)are, 18 G"181<& Samuel W. Dana $B.A. Jale 1HH!& I :.S. Senator $*ederalist"Connecticut, 181 "1881& Chauncey 4oodrich $B.A. Jale 1HH#& I :.S. Senator $*ederalist"Connecticut, 18 H"181<& William 9unter $A.B. Bro)n 1HK1& I :.S. Senator $*ederalist"0hode .sland, 1811"1881&? /rustee o% Bro)n :niversity $18 5ames Lloyd $B.A. 9arvard 1H8H& I :.S. Senator $*ederalist"-assachusetts, 18 8"181<, 1888"188#& 7uter'rid+e 9orsey I :.S. Senator $*ederalist"Dela)are, 181 "1881& 5eremiah Bro)n 9o)ell $A.B. Bro)n 1H8K& I :.S. Senator $Democratic 0epu'lican"0hode .sland, 1811"181H& 7'adiah 4erman I :.S. Senator $Democratic 0epu'lican"1e) Jork, 18 K"181!& 1icholas 4ilman I :.S. Senator $Democratic 0epu'lican"1e) 9ampshire, 18 !"181G& 5ohn Lam'ert I :.S. Senator $Democratic 0epu'lican"1e) 5ersey, 18 K"181!& Philip 0eed I :.S. Senator $Democratic 0epu'lican"-aryland, 18 #"181<& /homas Worthin+ton I :.S. Senator $Democratic 0epu'lican"7hio, 18 <"18 H? 181 "181G& -em'ers o% the :.S. 9ouse o% 0epresentatives, 6li;ah Bri+ham $A.B. Dartmouth 1HH8& I :.S. Con+ressman $*ederalist"-assachusetts 1811"181#& -artin Chittenden $A.B. Dartmouth 1H8K& I :.S. Con+ressman $*ederalist"(ermont, 18 <"181<& 5ohn Davenport $B.A. Jale 1HH & I :.S. Con+ressman $*ederalist"Connecticut, 1HKK"181H& William 6ly $B.A. Jale 1H8H& I :.S. Con+ressman $*ederalist"-assachusetts, 18 !"181!& /homas 0. 4old $B.A. Jale 1H8#& I :.S. Con+ressman $*ederalist"1e) Jork, 18 K"181<, 181!"181H& Lyman La) $B.A. Jale 1HK1& I :.S. Con+ressman $*ederalist"Connecticut, 1811"181H& 5onathan 7+den -oseley $B.A. Jale 1H8 & I :.S. Con+ressman $*ederalist"Connecticut, 18 !"1881& /imothy Pitkin $B.A. Jale 1H8!& I :.S. Con+ressman $*ederalist"Connecticut, 18 !"181K& 5osiah Luincy $B.A. 9arvard 1HK & I :.S. Con+ressman $*ederalist"-assachusetts, 18 !"181<& Le)is Burr Stur+es $B.A. Jale 1H88& I :.S. Con+ressman $*ederalist"Connecticut, 18 !"181H& 4eor+e Sullivan $B.A. 9arvard 1HK & I :.S. Con+ressman $*ederalist"1e) 9ampshire, 1811"181<& Samuel /a++art $A.B. Dartmouth 1HHG& I :.S. Con+ressman $*ederalist"-assachusetts, 18 <"181H& Ben;amin /allmad+e $B.A. Jale 1HH<& I :.S. Con+ressman $*ederalist"Connecticut, 18 1"181H& La'an Wheaton $B.A. 9arvard 1HHG& I :.S. Con+ressman $*ederalist"-assachusetts, 18 K"181H& Leonard White $B.A. 9arvard 1H8H& I :.S. Con+ressman $*ederalist"-assachusetts, 1811"181<& 5ohn Baker I :.S. Con+ressman $*ederalist"(ir+inia, 1811"181<& 9armanus Bleecker I :.S. Con+ressman $*ederalist"1e) Jork, 1811"181<&? Char+M dNA%%aires to the 1etherlands $18<H"18G8& 5ames Breckenrid+e $A.B. William and -ary 1H8!& I :.S. Con+ressman $*ederalist"(ir+inia, 18 K"181H& 6paphroditus Champion I :.S. Con+ressman $*ederalist"Connecticut, 18 H"181H& 5ames 6mott I :.S. Con+ressman $*ederalist"1e) Jork, 18 K"181<& Asa *itch I :.S. Con+ressman $*ederalist"1e) Jork, 1811"181<& Charles 4olds'orou+h I :.S. Con+ressman $*ederalist"-aryland, 18 !"181H&? 4overnor o% -aryland $181K& 0ichard 5ackson 5r. I :.S. Con+ressman $*ederalist"0hode .sland, 18 8"181!&? /rustee o% Bro)n :niversity $18 K"18<8& Philip B. Oey I :.S. Con+ressman $*ederalist"-aryland, 18 H"181<&? national anthem )riter *rancis Scott OeyNs uncle 5oseph Le)is 5r. I :.S. Con+ressman $*ederalist"(ir+inia, 18 <"181H& Archi'ald -cBryde I :.S. Con+ressman $*ederalist"1orth Carolina, 18 K"181<& 5ames -ilnor I :.S. Con+ressman $*ederalist"Pennsylvania, 1811"181<& 5oseph Pearson I :.S. Con+ressman $*ederalist"1orth Carolina, 18 K"181!& 6lisha 0. Potter I :.S. Con+ressman $*ederalist"0hode .sland, 1HK#"1HKH, 18 K"181!& William 0eed I :.S. Con+ressman $*ederalist"-assachusetts, 1811"181!& 9enry -. 0id+ely I :.S. Con+ressman $*ederalist"Dela)are, 1811"181!& Philip Stuart I :.S. Con+ressman $*ederalist"-aryland, 1811"181K& /homas Wilson I :.S. Con+ressman $*ederalist"(ir+inia, 1811"181<& 4eor+e Cli%%ord -a>)ell $A.B. Princeton 1HK8& I :.S. Con+ressman $0epu'lican"1e) 5ersey, 1811"181<& :ri /racy $B.A. Jale 1H8K& I :.S. Con+ressman $0epu'lican"1e) Jork, 18 !"18 H, 18 K"181<& 5osiah Bartlett 5r. I :.S. Con+ressman $0epu'lican"1e) 9ampshire, 1811"181<& Adam Boyd I :.S. Con+ressman $0epu'lican"1e) 5ersey, 18 <"18 !, 18 8"181<& /homas B. Cooke I :.S. Con+ressman $0epu'lican"1e) Jork, 1811"181<& 5aco' 9u%ty I :.S. Con+ressman $0epu'lican"1e) 5ersey, 18 K"181<, *ederalist"1e) 5ersey, 181<"181G& Arunah -etcal% I :.S. Con+ressman $0epu'lican"1e) Jork, 1811"181<& Samuel L. -itchill I :.S. Con+ressman $Democratic 0epu'lican"1e) Jork, 18 1"18 G, 181 "181<& /homas 1e)'old I :.S. Con+ressman $0epu'lican"1e) 5ersey, 18 H"181<& 5ohn 0andolph I :.S. Con+ressman $0epu'lican"(ir+inia, 1HKK"181<, 181!"181H, 181K"188!, 188H"188K, 18<<& William 0odman I :.S. Con+ressman $0epu'lican"Pennsylvania, 1811"181<& /homas Sammons I :.S. Con+ressman $0epu'lican"1e) Jork, 18 <"18 H, 18 K"181<& 0ichard Stan%ord I :.S. Con+ressman $0epu'lican"1orth Carolina, 1HKH"181#& Silas Sto) I :.S. Con+ressman $0epu'lican"1e) Jork, 1811"181<& Pele+ /allman I :.S. Con+ressman $0epu'lican"-assachusetts, 1811"181<&? 7verseer o% Bo)doin Colle+e $18 8"18G & Pierre (an Cortlandt 5r. I :.S. Con+ressman $0epu'lican"1e) Jork, 1811"181<&

"18<8&

#epu$lican %oliticians Who -oted for the War of 1812 ().ea+,: :.S. Senators, 4eor+e -. Bi'' $A.B. Princeton 1HK8& I :.S. Senator $Democratic 0epu'lican"Oentucky, 1811"181G, 188K"18<!& 4eor+e W. Camp'ell $A.B. Princeton 1HKG& I :.S. Senator $D0"/enn., 1811"181G, 181!"1818&? Sec. o% the /reasury $*e'. 181G"7ct. 181G& Charles Cutts $B.A. 9arvard 1H8K& I :.S. Senator $Democratic 0epu'lican"1e) 9ampshire, 181 "181<& William Branch 4iles $A.B. Princeton 1H81& I :.S. Senator $Democratic 0epu'lican"(ir+inia, 18 G"181!& 5ohn /aylor $A.B. Princeton 1HK & I :.S. Senator $Democratic 0epu'lican"South Carolina, 181 "181#& 5oseph .nslee Anderson I :.S. Senator $Democratic 0epu'lican"/ennessee, 1HKH"181!& 0ichard Brent I :.S. Senator $Democratic 0epu'lican"(ir+inia, 18 K"181G& 5ohn Condit I :.S. Senator $Democratic 0epu'lican"1e) 5ersey, 18 <"18 K, 18 K"181H& William 9arris Cra)%ord I :.S. Senator $Democratic 0epu'lican"4eor+ia, 18 H"181<& 5esse *ranklin I :.S. Senator $Democratic 0epu'lican"1orth Carolina, 1HKK"18 !, 18 H"181<& 5ohn 4aillard I :.S. Senator $Democratic 0epu'lican"South Carolina, 18 G"188#& Andre) 4re++ I :.S. Senator $Democratic 0epu'lican"Pennsylvania, 18 H"181<& -ichael Lei' I :.S. Senator $Democratic 0epu'lican"Pennsylvania, 18 K"181G& 5onathan 0o'inson I :.S. Senator $Democratic 0epu'lican"(ermont, 18 H"181!& 5ohn Smith I :.S. Senator $Democratic 0epu'lican"1e) Jork, 18 G"181<& Samuel Smith I :.S. Senator $Democratic 0epu'lican"-aryland, 18 <"181!, 1888"18<<& Charles /ait I :.S. Senator $Democratic 0epu'lican"4eor+ia, 18 K"181K& 5ames /urner I :.S. Senator $Democratic 0epu'lican"1orth Carolina, 18 !"181#& 5oseph Bradley (arnum I :.S. Senator $Democratic 0epu'lican"-assachusetts, 1811"181H& -em'ers o% the :.S. 9ouse o% 0epresentatives, 5ohn C. Calhoun $B.A. Jale 18 G& I :.S. Con+ressman $Democratic 0epu'lican"South Carolina, 1811"181H& William Butler I :.S. Con+ressman $0epu'lican"South Carolina, -arch G, 18 1"-arch <, 181<& Lan+don Cheves I :.S. Con+ressman $0epu'lican"South Carolina, Decem'er <1, 181 "-arch <, 181!& 6lias 6arle I :.S. Con+ressman $0epu'lican"South Carolina, 18 !"18 H, 1811"181!, 181H"1881& William Lo)ndes I :.S. Con+ressman $0epu'lican"South Carolina, -arch G, 1811"-ay 8, 1888& /homas -oore I :.S. Con+ressman $0epu'lican"South Carolina, 18 1"181<, 181!"181H& David 0. Williams I :.S. Con+ressman $0epu'lican"South Carolina, 18 !"18 K, 1811"181<&? 4overnor o% South Carolina $181G"181#& 0ichard Winn I :.S. Con+ressman $0epu'lican"South Carolina, 1HK<"1HKH, 18 <"181<& Willis Alston 5r. I :.S. Con+ressman $0epu'lican"1orth Carolina, 1HKK"181!, 188!"18<1& William Blackled+e I :.S. Con+ressman $0epu'lican"1orth Carolina, 18 <"18 K, 1811"181<& 5ames Cochran I :.S. Con+ressman $0epu'lican"1orth Carolina, 18 K"181<& William 0u%us de (ane Oin+ I :.S. Con+ressman $D0"1orth Carolina, 1811"181#&? :.S. Senator $Ala'ama, 181K"18GG? 18G8"18!8& 1athaniel -acon I :.S. Con+ressman $0epu'lican"1orth Carolina, 1HK1"181!&? :.S. Senator $1orth Carolina, 181!"1888& .srael Pickens I :.S. Con+ressman $0epu'lican"1orth Carolina, 1811"181H&? 4overnor o% Ala'ama $1881"188!& Bur)ell Bassett I :.S. Con+ressman $0epu'lican"(ir+inia, 18 !"181<, 181!"181K, 1881"188K& William A. Bur)ell $A.B. William and -ary& I :.S. Con+ressman $0epu'lican"(ir+inia, 18 #"1881& 5ohn Clopton $A.B. :niversity o% Pennsylvania 1HH#& I :.S. Con+ressman $0epu'lican"(ir+inia, 1HK!"1HKK, -arch G, 18 1"Sept. 11, 181#& 5ohn Da)son $B.A. 9arvard 1H88& I :.S. Con+ressman $0epu'lican"(ir+inia, 1HKH"181G& /homas 4holson 5r. I :.S. Con+ressman $0epu'lican"(ir+inia, 1ovem'er H, 18 8"5uly G, 181#& Peterson 4ood)yn I :.S. Con+ressman $0epu'lican"(ir+inia, 18 <"1818& Aylett 9a)es I :.S. Con+ressman $0epu'lican"(ir+inia, 1811"181H& William -cCoy I :.S. Con+ressman $0epu'lican"(ir+inia, 1811"18<<& 9u+h 1elson $A.B. William and -ary 1H8 & I :.S. Con+ressman $0epu'lican"(ir+inia, 1811"188<&? :.S. -inister to Spain $188<"188G& /homas 1e)ton 5r. I :.S. Con+ressman $0epu'lican"(ir+inia, 18 1"188K, 188K"18< , 18<1"18<<& 5ames Pleasants 5r. $A.B. William and -ary& I :.S. Con+ressman $0epu'lican"(ir+inia, 1811"181K&? 4overnor o% (ir+inia $1888"188!& 5ohn 0oane I :.S. Con+ressman $0epu'lican"(ir+inia, 18 K"181!, 188H"18<1, 18<!"18<H& 5ohn Smith I :.S. Con+ressman $0epu'lican"(ir+inia, 18 1"181!& 5ohn /alia%erro I :.S. Con+ressman $0epu'lican"(ir+inia, 18 1"18 <, 1811"181<, 188G"18<1, 18<!"18G<& Stevenson Archer $A.B. Princeton 18 !& I :.S. Con+ressman $0epu'lican"-aryland, 1811"181H, 181K"1881& 5oseph Oent I :.S. Con+ressman $0epu'lican"-aryland, 1811"181!, 181K"188#& Peter Little I :.S. Con+ressman $0epu'lican"-aryland, 1811"181<, Septem'er 8, 181#"-arch <, 188K& Ale>ander -cOim I :.S. Con+ressman $0epu'lican"-aryland, 18 K"181!& Samuel 0in++old I :.S. Con+ressman $0epu'lican"-aryland, 181 "181!, 181H"1881& 0o'ert Wri+ht I :.S. Con+ressman $Democratic 0epu'lican"-aryland, 181 "181H, 1881"188<&? 4overnor o% -aryland $18 #"18 K& 4eor+e -. /roup $A.B. Princeton 1HKH& I :.S. Con+ressman $Democratic 0epu'lican"4eor+ia, 18 H"181!& William W. Bi'' I :.S. Con+ressman $Democratic 0epu'lican"4eor+ia, 18 H"181<&? :.S. Senator $4eor+ia, 181<"181#& Bollin+ 9all I :.S. Con+ressman $0epu'lican"4eor+ia, 1811"181H& 5ohn 0hea $A.B. Princeton 1H8 & I :.S. Con+ressman $0epu'lican"/ennessee, 18 <"181!, 181H"188<& *eli> 4rundy I :.S. Con+ressman $0epu'lican"/ennessee, 1811"181G& 5ohn Sevier I :.S. Con+ressman $0epu'lican"/ennessee, 1HK "1HK1, 1811"181!&? 4overnor o% /ennessee $1HK#"18 1, 18 <"18 K& 5oseph Desha I :.S. Con+ressman $0epu'lican"Oentucky, 18 H"181K&? 4overnor o% Oentucky $188G"1888& 0ichard -. 5ohnson I :.S. Con+ressman $Democratic 0epu'lican"Oentucky, 18 H"181K, 188K"18<H&? (ice President o% the :.S. $18<H"18G1& Samuel -cOee I :.S. Con+ressman $0epu'lican"Oentucky, 18 K"181H& Anthony 1e) I :.S. Con+ressman $0epu'lican"(ir+inia, 1HK<"18 !? 0epu'lican"Oentucky, 1811"181<, 181H"181K, 1881"188<& Stephen 7rms'y I :.S. Con+ressman $0epu'lican"Oy., 1811"181<, 181<"181H&? President o% Louisville, Oy. 'ranch o% Bank o% the :.S. $181H&

David Bard $A.B. Princeton 1HH<& I :.S. Con+ressman $0epu'lican"Pennsylvania, 1HK!"1HKK, 18 <"181!& William Cra)%ord $A.B. Princeton 1H81D& I :.S. Con+ressman $0epu'lican"Pennsylvania, 18 K"181H& William Anderson I :.S. Con+ressman $0epu'lican"Pennsylvania, 18 K"181!, 181H"181K& 0o'ert Bro)n I :.S. Con+ressman $0epu'lican"Pennsylvania, 1HK8"181!& 0o+er Davis I :.S. Con+ressman $0epu'lican"Pennsylvania, -arch G, 1811"-arch <, 181!& William *indley I :.S. Con+ressman $0epu'lican"Pennsylvania, 1HK1"1HKK, 18 <"181H& 5ohn -. 9yneman I :.S. Con+ressman $0epu'lican"Pennsylvania, -arch G, 1811"Au+ust 8, 181<& A'ner Lacock I :.S. Con+ressman $Democratic 0epu'lican"Pennsylvania, 1811"181<&? :.S. Senator $Pennsylvania, 181<"181K& 5oseph Le%ever I :.S. Con+ressman $0epu'lican"Pennsylvania, 1811"181<& Aaron Lyle I :.S. Con+ressman $0epu'lican"Pennsylvania, 18 K"181H& William Piper I :.S. Con+ressman $0epu'lican"Pennsylvania, 1811"181H& 5onathan 0o'erts I :.S. Con+ressman $Dem. 0epu'lican"Penn., -arch G, 1811"*e'. 8G, 181G&? :.S. Senator $Pennsylvania, 181G"1881& Adam Sey'ert I :.S. Con+ressman $0epu'lican"Pennsylvania, 18 K"181!, 181H"181K& 5ohn Smilie I :.S. Con+ressman $0epu'lican"Pennsylvania, 1HK<"1HK!, -arch G, 1HKK"Decem'er < , 1818& 4eor+e Smith I :.S. Con+ressman $0epu'lican"Pennsylvania, 18 K"181<& 0o'ert Whitehill I :.S. Con+ressman $0epu'lican"Pennsylvania, 18 !"181<& .saiah Le)is 4reen $B.A. 9arvard 1H81& I :.S. Con+ressman $0epu'lican"-assachusetts, 18 !"18 K, 1811"181<& William -erchant 0ichardson $B.A. 9arvard 1HKH& I :.S. Con+ressman $0epu'lican"-assachusetts, 1811"181G& 6'ene=er Seaver $B.A. 9arvard 1H8G& I :.S. Con+ressman $0epu'lican"-assachusetts, 18 <"181<& *rancis Carr I :.S. Con+ressman $0epu'lican"-assachusetts, April #, 1818"-arch <, 181<& Charles /urner 5r. I :.S. Con+ressman $0epu'lican"-assachusetts, 18 K"181<& William Wid+ery I :.S. Con+ressman $0epu'lican"-assachusetts, 1811"181<& Samuel Dinsmoor $A.B. Dartmouth 1H8K& I :.S. Con+ressman $0epu'lican"1e) 9ampshire, 1811"181<& 7'ed 9all I :.S. Con+ressman $0epu'lican"1e) 9ampshire, 1811"181<& 5ohn A. 9arper I :.S. Con+ressman $0epu'lican"1e) 9ampshire, 1811"181<& 5ames *isk I :.S. Con+ressman $Democratic 0epu'lican"(ermont, 18 !"18 K, 1811"181!& Samuel Sha) I :.S. Con+ressman $0epu'lican"(ermont, 18 8"181<& William Stron+ I :.S. Con+ressman $0epu'lican"(ermont, 1811"181!, 181K"1881& 6'ene=er Sa+e $B.A. Jale 1HH8& I :.S. Con+ressman $0epu'lican"1e) Jork, 18 K"181!& Daniel Avery I :.S. Con+ressman $0epu'lican"1e) Jork, 1811"181!, Septem'er < , 181#"-arch <, 181H& Ben;amin Pond I :.S. Con+ressman $0epu'lican"1e) Jork, 1811"181<& Le)is Condict $:niversity o% Pennsylvania 1HKG& I :.S. Con+ressman $0epu'lican"1e) 5ersey, 1811"181H, 1881"18<<& 5ames -or+an I :.S. Con+ressman $0epu'lican"1e) 5ersey, 1811"181<& 5eremiah -orro) I :.S. Con+ressman $Democratic 0epu'lican"7hio, 18 <"181<, 18G "18G<&? :.S. Senator $7hio, 181<"181K&

/$sent (Did Not -ote,: Stephen 0. Bradley $B.A. Jale 1HH!& I :.S. Senator $Democratic 0epu'lican"(ermont, 1HK1"1HK!? 18 1"181<& Ale>ander Camp'ell I :.S. Senator $Democratic 0epu'lican"7hio, 18 K"181<& 5ohn Pope I :.S. Senator $Democratic 0epu'lican"Oentucky, 18 H"181<& 6=ekiel Bacon $B.A. Jale 1HKG& I :.S. Con+ressman $0epu'lican"-assachusetts, 18 H"181<& A'i;ah Bi+elo) $A.B. Dartmouth 1HK!& I :.S. Con+ressman $*ederalist"-assachusetts, 181 "181!& -atthe) Clay I :.S. Con+ressman $0epu'lican"(ir+inia, 1HKH"181<, -arch G, 181!"-ay 8H, 181!& 0ichard Cutts $B.A. 9arvard 1HK & I :.S. Con+ressman $0epu'lican"-assachusetts, 18 1"181<& -eshack *ranklin I :.S. Con+ressman $0epu'lican"1orth Carolina, 18 H"181!& 6d)in 4ray I :.S. Con+ressman $0epu'lican"(ir+inia, 1HKK"181<& Peter B. Porter $B.A. Jale 1HK1& I :.S. Con+ressman $0epu'lican"1e) Jork, 18 K"181<, 181!"181#& /homas Bollin+ 0o'ertson I :.S. Con+ressman $0epu'lican"Louisiana, April < , 1818"April 8 , 1818&? 4overnor o% Louisiana $188 "1888& Lemuel Sa)yer $B.A. :niv. o% 1orth Carolina 1HKK& I :.S. Con+ressman $0epu'lican"1orth Carolina, 18 H"181<, 181H"188<, 188!"188K& Daniel She%%ey I :.S. Con+ressman $*ederalist"(ir+inia, 18 K"181H& 9enry Clay I :.S. Con+ressman $Democratic 0epu'lican"Oentucky, -arch G, 1811"5anuary 1K, 181G, 7cto'er < , 181!"-arch <, 1881, -arch <, 188<"-arch #, 188!&? Speaker o% the 9ouse $1811"181G, 181!"188 , 188<"188!& War of 1812 Declaration of War -ote Count (0une 1812,: :.S. 9ouse o% 0epresentatives, HK *or, GK A+ainst, 11 A'sent :.S. Senate, 1K *or, 18 A+ainst, < A'sent *ederalist, *or, <K A+ainst $Both houses& PA+ainst, << in 9ouse, # in SenateQ 0epu'lican, K8 *or, 88 A+ainst $Both houses& PA+ainst, 1# in 9ouse, # in SenateQ P*or, HK in 9ouse, 1K in SenateQ

7liver 9a=ard PerryRs messa+e to William 9enry 9arrison a%ter the Battle o% Lake 6rie on Septem'er 1 , 181< 'e+an )ith )hat )ould 'ecome one o% the most %amous sentences in American military history, AWe have met the enemy and they are ours.A /his 18#! paintin+ 'y William 9. Po)ell sho)s Perry trans%errin+ to a di%%erent ship durin+ the 'attle.

British soldiers 'urn various 'uildin+s, includin+ the White 9ouse, in Washin+ton, D.C. on /ugust 212 1811 durin+ War o% 1818. Congress declared &ar on the ritish 3mpire on 0une 182 18124 Dis+runtled American political po)er'rokers met privately at 9art%ord, Connecticut in Decem'er 181G to discuss secession and armistice. /he meetin+ )as later kno)n as the 9art%ord Convention.

7ri+inal caption, 2A (.6W o% the B7-BA0D-61/ o% *ort -c9enry, near Baltimore, 'y the British %leet taken %rom the 7'servatory under the Command o% Admirals Cochrane F Cock'urn on the mornin+ o% the 1<th o% Sept 181G )hich lasted 8G hours F thro)n %rom 1! to 18 shells in the 1i+ht attempted to land 'y %orcin+ a passa+e up the %erry 'ranch 'ut )ere repulsed )ith +reat loss.3

#e'ish "an,er Ma er Amschel )othschild! the $odfather of the )othschild "an,in$ d nast ! died in .ran,furt7am7Main %German & on Septem*er -G! -.-/( Ma er Amschel )othschild 'as "orn in .ran,furt7am7Main on .e"ruar 2F! 1D//( Ma er Amschel )othschildTs son <athan Me er )othschild esta"lished <(M( )othschild N Sons "an,in$ firm in London( 2as the assassination o# Prime "inister o# Great $ritain Spencer Perce al a co ert operation sponsored *y the =othschilds?

American diplomats! led " #ohn Iuinc Adams! and British diplomats si$n the Treat of Ghent in Ghent! Bel$ium %formerl <etherlands& on 1ecem"er 2/! 181/! endin$ the 2ar of 1812(

5adison /dministration Officials during the War of 1812

5ames -onroe :.S. Secretary o% State $April #, 1811"-arch <, 181H&? Secretary o% War $Sept. 8H, 181G" -arch 8, 181!&

Al'ert 4allatin Secretary o% the /reasury $-ay 1G, 18 1"*e'ruary 8, 181G&? Si+ner o% the /reaty o% 4hent

5ames -adison A.B. Princeton 1HH1 President o% the :nited States $18 K"181H&

William Pinkney :.S. Attorney 4eneral $Dec. 11, 1811" *e'. K, 181G&? :.S. -inister to 4reat Britain $18 H"1811&

0ichard 0ush A.B. Princeton 1HKH :.S. Attorney 4eneral $*e'ruary 1 , 181G" 1ovem'er 18, 181H&

William 6ustis B.A. 9arvard 1HH8 :.S. Secretary o% War $-arch H, 18 K" 5anuary 1<, 181<&

5ohn Armstron+ 5r. :.S. Secretary o% War $5anuary 1<, 181<" Septem'er 8H, 181G&

Paul 9amilton :.S. Sec. o% the 1avy $-ay 1!, 18 K" 5anuary 1, 181<&? 4overnor o% South Carolina $18 G"18 #&

William 5ones :.S. Sec. o% the 1avy $5anuary 1K, 181<" Decem'er 1, 181G&

4ideon 4ran+er B.A. Jale 1H8H Postmaster"4eneral o% the :nited States $18 1"181G&

The Battle of <e' :rleans occurred in #anuar 181K durin$ the conclusion of the 2ar of 1812( ?(S( Arm General Andre' #ac,son 'as the commander of the American militar in <e' :rleans( The cit of <e' :rleans 'as under martial la' for appro*imatel a month 'hen the British arm threatened to invade <e' :rleans in 1ecem"er 181/ and #anuar 181K( %Paintin$ " #ean7H acinthe Laclotte& http;BB'''(nautical7art(infoBBattle7of7<e'7:rleans(html

British Ca"inet Mem"ers durin$ the 2ar of 1812

=o*ert $an7s 5en7inson! /nd &arl o# Li erpool Prime Minister of the ?nited @in$dom %#une 8! 1812AApril C! 182D&5 Leader of the House of Lords %18-F718->! 18-D7182D&

9icholas Aansittart! -st $aron $e'ley Chancellor of the 0*che6uer %Ma 12! 1812A#anuar F1! 182F&

=o*ert Ste)art! /nd "ar(uess o# Londonderry >Lord %astlerea+h@ .orei$n Secretar RSecretar of State for .orei$n AffairsS %181271822&5 Leader of the House of Commons %181271822&

2illiam "annin+ >-:?H<-.H6@! Governor of the Ban, of 0n$land %18127181/&! 1eput Governor of the Ban, of 0n$land %181-71812&! 1irector of the Ban, of 0n$land %1DC27181-! 181/718F1&5 President of London Life Assurance %181D&5 Mem"er of Parliament %1DC/7182-! 1821718F-& %Paintin$; BBC& %Source; http;BB'''(histor ofparliamentonline(or$BvolumeB1DC-7182-Bmem"erBmannin$7'illiam71D>F718FK&

Treaty of Ghent (1814)

1reaty o# Peace and 4mity *et)een ,is $ritannic "ajesty and the 3nited States o# 4merica0
His Britannic Ma8est and the ?nited States of America desirous of terminatin$ the 'ar 'hich has unhappil su"sisted "et'een the t'o Countries! and of restorin$ upon principles of perfect reciprocit ! Peace! .riendship! and $ood ?nderstandin$ "et'een them! have for that purpose appointed their respective Plenipotentiaries! that is to sa ! His Britannic Ma8est on His part has appointed the )i$ht Honoura"le #ames Lord Gam"ier! late Admiral of the 2hite no' Admiral of the )ed S6uadron of His Ma8est +s .leet5 Henr Goul"urn 0s6uire! a Mem"er of the 4mperial Parliament and ?nder Secretar of State5 and 2illiam Adams 0s6uire! 1octor of Civil La's; And the President of the ?nited States! " and 'ith the advice and consent of the Senate thereof! has appointed #ohn Iuinc Adams! #ames A( Ba ard! Henr Cla ! #onathan )ussell! and Al"ert Gallatin! CitiHens of the ?nited States5 'ho! after a reciprocal communication of their respective .ull Po'ers! have a$reed upon the follo'in$ Articles( A)T4CL0 TH0 .4)ST( There shall "e a firm and universal Peace "et'een His Britannic Ma8est and the ?nited States! and "et'een their respective Countries! Territories! Cities! To'ns! and People of ever de$ree 'ithout e*ception of places or persons( All hostilities "oth " sea and land shall cease as soon as this Treat shall have "een ratified " "oth parties as hereinafter mentioned( All territor ! places! and possessions 'hatsoever ta,en " either part from the other durin$ the 'ar! or 'hich ma "e ta,en after the si$nin$ of this Treat ! e*ceptin$ onl the 4slands hereinafter mentioned! shall "e restored 'ithout dela and 'ithout causin$ an destruction or carr in$ a'a an of the Artiller or other pu"lic propert ori$inall captured in the said forts or places! and 'hich shall remain therein upon the 0*chan$e of the )atifications of this Treat ! or an Slaves or other private propert 5 And all Archives! )ecords! 1eeds! and Papers! either of a pu"lic nature or "elon$in$ to private persons! 'hich in the course of the 'ar ma have fallen into the hands of the :fficers of either part ! shall "e! as far as ma "e practica"le! forth'ith restored and delivered to the proper authorities and persons to 'hom the respectivel "elon$( Such of the 4slands in the Ba of Passama6uodd as are claimed " "oth parties shall remain in the possession of the part in 'hose occupation the ma "e at the time of the 0*chan$e of the )atifications of this Treat until the decision respectin$ the title to the said 4slands shall have "een made in conformit 'ith the fourth Article of this Treat ( <o disposition made " this Treat as to such possession of the 4slands and territories claimed " "oth parties shall in an manner 'hatever "e construed to affect the ri$ht of either( A)T4CL0 TH0 S0C:<1( 4mmediatel after the ratifications of this Treat " "oth parties as hereinafter mentioned! orders shall "e sent to the Armies! S6uadrons! :fficers! Su"8ects! and CitiHens of the t'o Po'ers to cease from all hostilities; and to prevent all causes of complaint 'hich mi$ht arise on account of the priHes 'hich ma "e ta,en at sea after the said )atifications of this Treat ! it is reciprocall a$reed that all vessels and effects 'hich ma "e ta,en after the space of t'elve da s from the said )atifications upon all parts of the Coast of <orth America from the Latitude of t'ent three de$rees <orth to the Latitude of fift de$rees <orth! and as far 0ast'ard in the Atlantic :cean as the thirt si*th de$ree of 2est Lon$itude from the Meridian of Green'ich! shall "e restored on each side;7that the time shall "e thirt da s in all other parts of the Atlantic :cean <orth of the 06uinoctial Line or 06uator;7and the same time for the British and 4rish Channels! for the Gulf of Me*ico! and all parts of the 2est 4ndies;7fort da s for the <orth Seas for the Baltic! and for all parts of the Mediterranean7si*t da s for the Atlantic :cean South of the 06uator as far as the Latitude of the Cape of Good Hope(7 ninet da s for ever other part of the 'orld South of the 06uator! and one hundred and t'ent da s for all other parts of the 'orld 'ithout e*ception( A)T4CL0 TH0 TH4)1( All Prisoners of 'ar ta,en on either side as 'ell " land as " sea shall "e restored as soon as practica"le after the )atifications of this Treat as hereinafter mentioned on their pa in$ the de"ts 'hich the ma have contracted durin$ their captivit ( The t'o Contractin$ Parties respectivel en$a$e to dischar$e in specie the advances 'hich ma have "een made " the other for the sustenance and maintenance of such prisoners( A)T4CL0 TH0 .:?)TH( 2hereas it 'as stipulated " the second Article in the Treat of Peace of one thousand seven hundred and ei$ht three "et'een His Britannic Ma8est and the ?nited States of America that the "oundar of the ?nited States should comprehend 3all 4slands 'ithin t'ent lea$ues of an part of the shores of the ?nited States and l in$ "et'een lines to "e dra'n due 0ast from the points 'here the aforesaid "oundaries "et'een <ova Scotia on the one part and 0ast .lorida on the other shall respectivel touch the Ba of .und and the Atlantic :cean! e*ceptin$ such 4slands as no' are or heretofore have "een 'ithin the limits of <ova Scotia! and 'hereas the several 4slands in the Ba of Passama6uodd ! 'hich is part of the Ba of .und ! and the 4sland of Grand Menan in the said Ba of .und ! are claimed " the ?nited States as "ein$ comprehended 'ithin their aforesaid "oundaries! 'hich said 4slands are claimed as "elon$in$ to His Britannic Ma8est as havin$ "een at the time of and previous to the aforesaid Treat of one thousand seven hundred

and ei$ht three 'ithin the limits of the Province of <ova Scotia; 4n order therefore finall to decide upon these claims it is a$reed that the shall "e referred to t'o Commissioners to "e appointed in the follo'in$ manner; viH; :ne Commissioner shall "e appointed " His Britannic Ma8est and one " the President of the ?nited States! " and 'ith the advice and consent of the Senate thereof! and the said t'o Commissioners so appointed shall "e s'orn impartiall to e*amine and decide upon the said claims accordin$ to such evidence as shall "e laid "efore them on the part of His Britannic Ma8est and of the ?nited States respectivel ( The said Commissioners shall meet at St Andre's in the Province of <e' Bruns'ic,! and shall have po'er to ad8ourn to such other place or places as the shall thin, fit( The said Commissioners shall " a declaration or report under their hands and seals decide to 'hich of the t'o Contractin$ parties the several 4slands aforesaid do respectel "elon$ in conformit 'ith the true intent of the said Treat of Peace of one thousand seven hundred and ei$ht three( And if the said Commissioners shall a$ree in their decision "oth parties shall consider such decision as final and conclusive( 4t is further a$reed that in the event of the t'o Commissioners differin$ upon all or an of the matters so referred to them! or in the event of "oth or either of the said Commissioners refusin$ or declinin$ or 'ilfull omittin$ to act as such! the shall ma,e 8ointl or separatel a report or reports as 'ell to the Government of His Britannic Ma8est as to that of the ?nited States! statin$ in detail the points on 'hich the differ! and the $rounds upon 'hich their respective opinions have "een formed! or the $rounds upon 'hich the or either of them have so refused declined or omitted to act( And His Britannic Ma8est and the Government of the ?nited States here" a$ree to refer the report or reports of the said Commissioners to some friendl Soverei$n or State to "e then named for that purpose! and 'ho shall "e re6uested to decide on the differences 'hich ma "e stated in the said report or reports! or upon the report of one Commissioner to$ether 'ith the $rounds upon 'hich the other Commissioner shall have refused! declined or omitted to act as the case ma "e( And if the Commissioner so refusin$! declinin$! or omittin$ to act! shall also 'ilfull omit to state the $rounds upon 'hich he has so done in such manner that the said statement ma "e referred to such friendl Soverei$n or State to$ether 'ith the report of such other Commissioner! then such Soverei$n or State shall decide e* parse upon the said report alone( And His Britannic Ma8est and the Government of the ?nited States en$a$e to consider the decision of such friendl Soverei$n or State to "e final and conclusive on all the matters so referred( A)T4CL0 TH0 .4.TH( 2hereas neither that point of the Hi$hlands l in$ due <orth from the source of the )iver St Croi*! and desi$nated in the former Treat of Peace "et'een the t'o Po'ers as the <orth 2est An$le of <ova Scotia! nor the <orth 2esternmost head of Connecticut )iver has et "een ascertained5 and 'hereas that part of the "oundar line "et'een the 1ominions of the t'o Po'ers 'hich e*tends from the source of the )iver st Croi* directl <orth to the a"ove mentioned <orth 2est An$le of <ova Scotia! thence alon$ the said Hi$hlands 'hich divide those )ivers that empt themselves into the )iver St La'rence from those 'hich fall into the Atlantic :cean to the <orth 2esternmost head of Connecticut )iver! thence do'n alon$ the middle of that )iver to the fort fifth de$ree of <orth Latitude! thence " a line due 2est on said latitude until it stri,es the )iver 4ro6uois or Catara6u ! has not et "een surve ed; it is a$reed that for these several purposes t'o Commissioners shall "e appointed! s'orn! and authoriHed to act e*actl in the manner directed 'ith respect to those mentioned in the ne*t precedin$ Article unless other'ise specified in the present Article( The said Commissioners shall meet at se Andre's in the Province of <e' Bruns'ic,! and shall have po'er to ad8ourn to such other place or places as the shall thin, fit( The said Commissioners shall have po'er to ascertain and determine the points a"ove mentioned in conformit 'ith the provisions of the said Treat of Peace of one thousand seven hundred and ei$ht three! and shall cause the "oundar aforesaid from the source of the )iver St Croi* to the )iver 4ro6uois or Catara6u to "e surve ed and mar,ed accordin$ to the said provisions( The said Commissioners shall ma,e a map of the said "oundar ! and anne* to it a declaration under their hands and seals certif in$ it to "e the true Map of the said "oundar ! and particulariHin$ the latitude and lon$itude of the <orth 2est An$le of <ova Scotia! of the <orth 2esternmost head of Connecticut )iver! and of such other points of the said "oundar as the ma deem proper( And "oth parties a$ree to consider such map and declaration as finall and conclusivel fi*in$ the said "oundar ( And in the event of the said t'o Commissioners differin$! or "oth! or either of them refusin$! declinin$! or 'ilfull omittin$ to act! such reports! declarations! or statements shall "e made " them or either of them! and such reference to a friendl Soverei$n or State shall "e made in all respects as in the latter part of the fourth Article is contained! and in as full a manner as if the same 'as herein repeated( A)T4CL0 TH0 S4WTH( 2hereas " the former Treat of Peace that portion of the "oundar of the ?nited States from the point 'here the fort fifth de$ree of <orth Latitude stri,es the )iver 4ro6uois or Catara6u to the La,e Superior 'as declared to "e 3alon$ the middle of said )iver into La,e :ntario! throu$h the middle of said La,e until it stri,es the communication " 'ater "et'een that La,e and La,e 0rie! thence alon$ the middle of said communication into La,e 0rie! throu$h the middle of said La,e until it arrives at the 'ater communication into the La,e Huron5 thence throu$h the middle of said La,e to the 'ater communication "et'een that La,e and La,e Superior;3 and 'hereas dou"ts have arisen 'hat 'as the middle of the said )iver! La,es! and 'ater communications! and 'hether certain 4slands l in$ in the same 'ere 'ithin the 1ominions of His Britannic Ma8est or of the ?nited States; 4n order therefore finall to decide these dou"ts! the shall "e referred to t'o Commissioners to "e appointed! s'orn! and authoriHed to act e*actl in the manner directed 'ith respect to those mentioned in the ne*t precedin$ Article unless other'ise specified in this present Article( The said Commissioners shall meet in the first instance at Al"an in the State of <e' Gor,! and shall have po'er to ad8ourn to such other place or places as the shall thin, fit( The said Commissioners shall " a )eport or 1eclaration under their hands and seals! desi$nate the "oundar throu$h the said )iver! La,es! and 'ater communications! and decide to 'hich of the t'o Contractin$ parties the several 4slands l in$ 'ithin the said )ivers! La,es! and 'ater communications! do respectivel "elon$ in conformit 'ith the true intent of the said Treat

of one thousand seven hundred and ei$ht three( And "oth parties a$ree to consider such desi$nation and decision as final and conclusive( And in the event of the said t'o Commissioners differin$ or "oth or either of them refusin$! declinin$! or 'ilfull omittin$ to act! such reports! declarations! or statements shall "e made " them or either of them! and such reference to a friendl Soverei$n or State shall "e made in all respects as in the latter part of the fourth Article is contained! and in as full a manner as if the same 'as herein repeated( A)T4CL0 TH0 S0O0<TH( 4t is further a$reed that the said t'o last mentioned Commissioners after the shall have e*ecuted the duties assi$ned to them in the precedin$ Article! shall "e! and the are here" ! authoriHed upon their oaths impartiall to fi* and determine accordin$ to the true intent of the said Treat of Peace of one thousand seven hundred and ei$ht three! that part of the "oundar "et'een the dominions of the t'o Po'ers! 'hich e*tends from the 'ater communication "et'een La,e Huron and La,e Superior to the most <orth 2estern point of the La,e of the 2oods57to decide to 'hich of the t'o Parties the several 4slands l in$ in the La,es! 'ater communications! and )ivers formin$ the said "oundar do respectivel "elon$ in conformit 'ith the true intent of the said Treat of Peace of one thousand seven hundred and ei$ht three! and to cause such parts of the said "oundar as re6uire it to "e surve ed and mar,ed( The said Commissioners shall " a )eport or declaration under their hands and seals! desi$nate the "oundar aforesaid! state their decision on the points thus referred to them! and particulariHe the Latitude and Lon$itude of the most <orth 2estern point of the La,e of the 2oods! and of such other parts of the said "oundar as the ma deem proper( And "oth parties a$ree to consider such desi$nation and decision as final and conclusive( And in the event of the said t'o Commissioners differin$! or "oth or either of them refusin$! declinin$! or 'ilfull omittin$ to act! such reports! declarations or statements shall "e made " them or either of them! and such reference to a friendl Soverei$n or State shall "e made in all respects as in the latter part of the fourth Article is contained! and in as full a manner as if the same 'as herein revealed( A)T4CL0 TH0 04GHTH( The several Boards of t'o Commissioners mentioned in the four precedin$ Articles shall respectivel have po'er to appoint a Secretar ! and to emplo such Surve ors or other persons as the shall 8ud$e necessar ( 1uplicates of all their respective reports! declarations! statements! and decisions! and of their accounts! and of the #ournal of their proceedin$s shall "e delivered " them to the A$ents of His Britannic Ma8est and to the A$ents of the ?nited States! 'ho ma "e respectivel appointed and authoriHed to mana$e the "usiness on "ehalf of their respective Governments( The said Commissioners shall "e respectivel paid in such manner as shall "e a$reed "et'een the t'o contractin$ parties! such a$reement "ein$ to "e settled at the time of the 0*chan$e of the )atifications of this Treat ( And all other e*penses attendin$ the said Commissions shall "e defra ed e6uall " the t'o parties( And in the case of death! sic,ness! resi$nation! or necessar a"sence! the place of ever such Commissioner respectivel shall "e supplied in the same manner as such Commissioner 'as first appointed5 and the ne' Commissioner shall ta,e the same oath or affirmation and do the same duties( 4t is further a$reed "et'een the t'o contractin$ parties that in case an of the 4slands mentioned in an of the precedin$ Articles! 'hich 'ere in the possession of one of the parties prior to the commencement of the present 'ar "et'een the t'o Countries! should " the decision of an of the Boards of Commissioners aforesaid! or of the Soverei$n or State so referred to! as in the four ne*t precedin$ Articles contained! fall 'ithin the dominions of the other part ! all $rants of land made previous to the commencement of the 'ar " the part havin$ had such possession! shall "e as valid as if such 4sland or 4slands had " such decision or decisions "een ad8ud$ed to "e 'ithin the dominions of the part havin$ had such possession( A)T4CL0 TH0 <4<TH( The ?nited States of America en$a$e to put an end immediatel after the )atification of the present Treat to hostilities 'ith all the Tri"es or <ations of 4ndians 'ith 'hom the ma "e at 'ar at the time of such )atification! and forth'ith to restore to such Tri"es or <ations respectivel all the possessions! ri$hts! and privile$es 'hich the ma have en8o ed or "een entitled to in one thousand ei$ht hundred and eleven previous to such hostilities( Provided al'a s that such Tri"es or <ations shall a$ree to desist from all hostilities a$ainst the ?nited States of America! their CitiHens! and Su"8ects upon the )atification of the present Treat "ein$ notified to such Tri"es or <ations! and shall so desist accordin$l ( And His Britannic Ma8est en$a$es on his part to put an end immediatel after the )atification of the present Treat to hostilities 'ith all the Tri"es or <ations of 4ndians 'ith 'hom He ma "e at 'ar at the time of such )atification! and forth'ith to restore to such Tri"es or <ations respectivel all the possessions! ri$hts! and privile$es! 'hich the ma have en8o ed or "een entitled to in one thousand ei$ht hundred and eleven previous to such hostilities( Provided al'a s that such Tri"es or <ations shall a$ree to desist from all hostilities a$ainst His Britannic Ma8est and His Su"8ects upon the )atification of the present Treat "ein$ notified to such Tri"es or <ations! and shall so desist accordin$l ( A)T4CL0 TH0 T0<TH( 2hereas the Traffic in Slaves is irreconcila"le 'ith the principles of humanit and #ustice! and 'hereas "oth His Ma8est and the ?nited States are desirous of continuin$ their efforts to promote its entire a"olition! it is here" a$reed that "oth the contractin$ parties shall use their "est endeavours to accomplish so desira"le an o"8ect(

A)T4CL0 TH0 0L0O0<TH( This Treat 'hen the same shall have "een ratified on "oth sides 'ithout alteration " either of the contractin$ parties! and the )atifications mutuall e*chan$ed! shall "e "indin$ on "oth parties! and the )atifications shall "e e*chan$ed at 2ashin$ton in the space of four months from this da or sooner if practica"le( 4n faith 'hereof! 2e the respective Plenipotentiaries have si$ned this Treat ! and have hereunto affi*ed our Seals( 1one in triplicate at Ghent the t'ent fourth da of 1ecem"er one thousand ei$ht hundred and fourteen(

4A-B.60. PSealQ 9610J 47:LB:01 PSealQ W.LL.A- ADA-S PSealQ 5791 L:.1CJ ADA-S PSealQ 5. A. BAJA0D PSealQ 9. CLAJ. PSealQ 571. 0:SS6LL PSealQ ALB60/ 4ALLA/.1 PSealQ
Source, /reaties and 7ther .nternational Acts o% the :nited States o% America. 6dited 'y 9unter -iller (olume 8 Documents 1"G , 1HH#"1818 Washin+ton , 4overnment Printin+ 7%%ice, 1K<1.

6igners of the "reat* of 7hent (left to right,: 5ohn Luincy Adams, 5ames A. Bayard Sr., 9enry Clay, and Al'ert 4allatin

8artford Con'ention: Organized Crime?

/he 7ld State 9ouse in 9art%ord, Connecticut )as completed in 1HK#. /he 9art%ord Convention )as held at /he 7ld State 9ouse in 9art%ord, Connecticut in Decem'er 181G.

Prominent Participants at the 9art%ord Convention

Le%t to ri+ht, 5ohn /read)ell, 1athan Dane, 9arrison 4ray 7tis, 4eor+e Ca'ot, Chauncey 4oodrich, 5ames 9illhouse Prominent Participants at the 9art%ord Convention Chauncey 4oodrich $B.A. Jale 1HH#& I :.S. Senator $*"Connecticut, 18 H"181<&? -ayor o% 9art%ord, Connecticut $1818"181!& 5ames 9illhouse $B.A. Jale 1HH<& I :.S. Senator $*"Connecticut, 1HK#"181 &? /reasurer o% Jale :niversity $1H88"18<8& Daniel Lyman $B.A. Jale 1HH#& I 5ustice o% the 0hode .sland Supreme Court $18 8"181#& 0o+er -inott Sherman $B.A. Jale 1HK8& I 5ud+e o% the Supreme Court o% Connecticut $18<K"18G8& Sephaniah S)i%t $B.A. Jale 1HH8& I Chie% 5ustice o% the Supreme Court o% Connecticut $181!"181K&? :.S. Con+ressman $1HK<"1HKH& 5ohn /read)ell $B.A. Jale 1H#H& I 4overnor o% Connecticut $18 K"1811&? Lieutenant 4overnor o% Connecticut $1HK8"18 K& 9odi;ah Baylies $B.A. 9arvard 1HHH& 4eor+e Ca'ot $9arvard 1HHK, honorary& I :.S. Senator $*"-assachusetts? 1HK1"1HK#&? presidin+ o%%icer o% the 9art%ord Convention Stephen Lon+%ello) $B.A. 9arvard 1HK8& I :.S. Con+ressman $*"-aine, 188<"188!& 1athan Dane $B.A. 9arvard 1HH8& I -em'er o% the Continental Con+ress $1H8!"1H88& 9arrison 4ray 7tis $B.A. 9arvard 1H8<& I :.S. Senator $*"-assachusetts, 181H"1888&? :.S. Con+ressman $*"-assachusetts, 1HKH"18 1& Calvin 4oddard $A.B. Dartmouth 1H8#& I :.S. Con+ressman $*"Connecticut, 18 1"18 !&? -ayor o% 1or)ich, Connecticut $181G"18<G& Samuel S. Wilde $A.B. Dartmouth 1H8K& I5ustice o% the Supreme Court o% -assachusetts $181!"18! & Samuel Ward 5r. $A.B. Bro)n 1HH1& Ben;amin 9a=ard $A.B. Bro)n 1HK8& I -em'er o% the 0hode .sland 9ouse o% 0epresentatives $18 K"18G &

1athaniel Smith I :.S. Con+ressman $*"Connecticut, 1HK!"1HKK&? 5ud+e o% the Supreme Court o% Connecticut $18 #"181K& /heodore D)i+ht I Secretary o% the 9art%ord Convention? :.S. Con+ressman $*"Connecticut, 18 #"18 H&

The War of 1812 *y Francis F0 $eirne

pu"lished " 0( P( 1utton N Co(! 4nc( <e' Gor,! 1C/C
%hapter 1)enty<Fi e: 1he Iie<hards Play 1heir ,and >p0 H//<HHJ@ 3nconstitutional and treasona*le000)holly a*normal and )ic7ed0 Such )as 5ohn Kuincy 4damsL declared opinion o# the ,art#ord %on ention0 But then #ohn Iuinc Adams 'as a rene$ade from the .ederalist Part and could not escape the suspicion of spea,in$ 'ith stron$ political "ias( The Hartford Convention 'as the ver natural outcome of the in8uries! "oth real and ima$inar ! that <e' 0n$land .ederalists had suffered at the hands of the )epu"lican ma8orit ( More than a decade had passed since the .ederalists en8o ed the spoils of a national election5 and as ne' states in the South and 2est! stron$l )epu"lican! 'ere added to the ?nion! the hope of a .ederalist revival $re' dimmer and dimmer( Am"itious men li,e Iuinc and Pic,erin$ sat in the halls of Con$ress and sa' their opinions i$nored 'hile national policies 'ere dictated " the homespun statesmen from the South and 2est led " the Oir$inia d nast ( The <e' 0n$land .ederalists opposed the 'ar 'ith all their mi$ht! "ut 'ar 'as declared( The refused to ta,e an active part in it! declined to lend mone to support it! turned their faces a$ainst applaudin$ its fe' heroes5 "ut still the 'ar 'ent on( The last stra' 'as Madison+s em"ar$o of 1ecem"er! 181F( Thou$h #efferson+s had done more $ood to <e' 0n$land than to an other part of the countr ! the ver name em"ar$o 'as hated in that 6uarter( And no' the poor! hard7pressed little President "rou$ht the s,eleton out a$ain and rattled it in a desperate effort to put a stop to <e' 0n$land+s tradin$ 'ith the enem ( The em"ar$o 'as a ne' challen$e to "attle! as thou$h one 'ere needed( The <e' 0n$land .ederalists promptl accepted it( .rom /- to'n meetin$s in Massachusetts 'ent out memorials "reathin$ hatred of the administration and a determination to su"mit no lon$er to oppression! pra in$ the General Court to ta,e action( Conspicuous amon$ the protests 'as a circular letter sent out " a $roup of .ederalists in the to'nship of <orthampton as,in$ for 3some amendments to the Constitution! 'hich shall secure to the <orthern States their due 'ei$ht and influence in our national councils(3 0ven more inflammator 'as a memorial from <e'"ur ! in 0sse* count ! Timoth Pic,erin$+s stron$hold! 'hich declared outri$ht; 32e call our State Le$islature to protect us in the en8o ment of those privile$es to assert 'hich our fathers died! and to defend 'hich 'e profess ourselves read to resist unto "lood(3 <orthampton and ten other to'n meetin$s proposed a convention of the <e' 0n$land States to initiate the reform( 2hen the General Court met in #anuar repercussions 'ere immediatel heard( Senator Bla,e! of 2orcester! risin$ from his seat! declared fran,l that if the Constitution permitted em"ar$oes! then he personall preferred the British constitution! 3monarch and all(3 2ith fire in his e e Samuel .essenden "oldl proclaimed that 3it is time to ta,e our ri$hts into our o'n hands(3 These threats a$ainst the national $overnment " the e*tremists alarmed such moderate .ederalists as Harrison Gra :tis! Iuinc and #ames Llo d( The 'ere not prepared to 8oin forces in open re"ellion( The set to 'or, 'ith a 'ill to silence the more violent mem"ers and ,eep the sessions under control and met 'ith such success that incendiar resolutions 'ere defeated and the proposed northern convention 'as postponed until the people could vote on the proposal( So unpopular 'as the em"ar$o that even the )epu"lican candidate for $overnor! Samuel 1e*ter! did not dare defend it in the sprin$ election( But his silence 'as not sufficient to remove the taint that <e' 0n$land attached to all )epu"licans and the .ederalist Cale" Stron$ 'as s'ept into office " a pluralit of over 1-!---( The .ederalist victor in the General Court 'as e6uall convincin$5 F>- mem"ers 'ere elected as a$ainst onl 1K> )epu"licans and all the .ederalists 'ere instructed for the convention of the <orthern States( At last! realiHin$ the futilit of the em"ar$o! "ut too late to influence the election! Madison "rou$ht a"out its repeal5 and 'ith this $rievance out of the 'a and the pressure reduced! the idea of a convention 'as temporaril put aside( The summer! ho'ever! "rou$ht 'ith it ne' alarms( The "attles of Chippa'a! Lund +s Lane and .ort 0rie 'ere indecisive! the invasion of Canada 'as definitel halted5 and! on the other hand! the British 'ere divertin$ the 'ar 'ith a 'ill to American soil( 4ndeed! the "attle of Bladens"ur$! the raid on 2ashin$ton and the fli$ht of the $overnment $ave ever indication that the ?nion 'as on the point of disruption( :n the "order Sir Geor$e Prevost 'ith his arm of British veterans 'as a"out to launch an attac, " 'a of Champlain and the coast of Maine 'as alread occupied " the enem (

Boston itself 'as threatened 'ith invasion and little or no preparation 'as made for its defense( The .ederalist leaders of the cit rather 'elcomed the arrival of the British! 'hom the had favored throu$hout the 'ar( Some of them asserted openl that Boston ou$ht to capitulate and that the British could "e counted upon to respect private propert ( The fate of Ale*andria! Oir$inia! ho'ever! revealed that the British 'ere not as particular a"out private propert as the Boston .ederalists ima$ined( The flour! to"acco and other $oods "elon$in$ to individuals had "een seiHed( 2hen the Bostonians heard of that the instinct of o'nership triumphed over the instinct of part politics( At last even the most violent of the .ederalists for$ot their pre8udices! too, off their coats and set to 'or, on the cit +s fortifications( Proud and hau$ht mem"ers of the Suffol, Bar and students from Harvard ru""ed shoulders 'ith the masses as the earth'or,s 'ent up( But the threat did not materialiHe( The British fleet left Boston in peace and! as the fear of invasion receded! Boston+s sense of $rievance rose( 1he chie# *one o# contention )as the state militia0 3pon the threat o# in asion Go ernor Stron+ called upon the 9ational Go ernment #or #unds to support the troops0 1he Secretary o# 2ar replied that the support )ould *e #orthcomin+ i# the "assachusetts militia )ere placed under the command o# re+ular o##icers0 1his Go ernor Stron+ re#used to do! #earin+ that once under Federal control the militia )ould *e marched out o# the state and into %anada0 The Secretar of 2ar made the same offer to the Governors of Connecticut! )hode 4sland and Oermont5 "ut! li,e Governor Stron$! all of them refused( Such "ein$ the case the Secretar of 2ar declined to provide the funds( 4n the e es of the Secretar of 2ar his decision 'as lo$ical enou$h! "ut not to the <e' 0n$land States 'ho sa' their revenues turned over to the <ational Government for the maintenance of the troops from other states 'hile! in addition! the 'ere called upon to support their o'n( To ma,e matters 'orse even the Boston "an,ers! 'hen approached! refused to advance the necessar funds( To meet the emer$enc Governor Stron$ summoned the General Court to a special session 'hich convened on :cto"er K( The proposal for a convention 'as revived and a resolution passed callin$ for the appointment of 12 dele$ates from Massachusetts 3to meet and confer 'ith 1ele$ates from the other States of <e' 0n$land! or an of them! upon the su"8ects of their pu"lic $rievances and concerns! and upon the "est means of preservin$ our resources and the defense a$ainst the enem ! and to devise and su$$est for adoption " those respective states! such measures as the ma deem e*pedient5 and also to ta,e measures! if the shall thin, proper! for procurin$ a convention of 1ele$ates from all the ?nited States! in order to revise the Constitution thereof! and more effectuall to secure the support and attachment of all the people! " placin$ all upon a "asis of fair representation(3 To the other <e' 0n$land States 'ent the invitation of Massachusetts( Connecticut and )hode 4sland promptl accepted it and chose their dele$ates( The had 8ust "een aroused " t'o more irritatin$ proposals of the <ational Con$ress5 one callin$ for conscription to fill the mea$er ran,s of the re$ular arm ! the other permittin$ ouths of 18 to volunteer 'ithout the consent of their parents( #ust another 'ic,ed scheme on the part of the Southerners and the 2esterners to dra$ the <e' 0n$landers into the 'ar and! 'orse than that! to destro the ver foundation of the American home " encoura$in$ "o s to def the authorit of their parents( But the enthusiasm for a convention halted a"ruptl ( The <e' Hampshire Le$islature 'as not in session and the $overnor 6uestioned his authorit to send dele$ates( Governor Chittenden of Oermont 'as a lo al .ederalist! "ut his spirit had "een chastened " the narro' escape at Platts"ur$( He had come to the conclusion that! 'ith the British 'ithin a fe' hours+ march of his state! this 'as no time to satisf part $rud$es or to en$a$e in domestic s6ua""les( He declined the invitation for Oermont( But t'o to'nships in <e' Hampshire and one in Oermont too, it upon themselves to send dele$ates( Thus! at the ver outset! the Hartford Convention 'as handicapped( :nl three out of the five <e' 0n$land States 'ere full represented! and in the three states that 'ere represented sentiment in favor of the convention 'as far from "ein$ unanimous( Fn Iecem*er -6 the /? dele+ates assem*led in the old State ,ouse in ,art#ord! elected Geor+e %a*ot president and 1heodore I)i+ht secretaryD and #or three )ee7s the eyes o# the country )ere on the %onnecticut capital0 The convention en8o ed all the pu"licit the press could $ive it( The Boston Sentinel sounded the .ederalist ,e note 'hen it presented an address to the dele$ates in 'hich it declared; 3At our hands! therefore! 'e demand deliverance( <e' 0n$land is unanimous( And 'e announce our irrevoca"le decree that the t rannical oppression of those 'ho at present usurp the po'er of the Constitution is "e ond endurance( And 'e 'ill resist(3 :ther .ederalist ne'spapers displa ed an e6uall chauvinistic spirit( Some of them 'arned the President to $et himself a s'ifter horse than he used at Bladens"ur$ if he intended to "end the <e' 0n$land States to his 'ill( The )epu"lican Press 'as 6uite as nois in e*a$$eratin$ the treasona"le aspect of the assem"l ( 4ts editors asserted that the true o"8ect of the convention 'as to set up a <e' 0n$land confederac ( Some of them pu"lished addresses "e$$in$ it not to start a civil 'ar( The National Intelligencer! or$an of the administration! recalled that the people! not the states! adopted the Constitution and possessed the soverei$n po'er( The )ichmond! Oir$inia! In50irer! 'armin$ to the su"8ect! e*pressed its unreserved opinion that 3nullification or secession 'as treason and that the respecta"le $entlemen assem"led at Hartford! if the

attempted either course! should "e treated as traitors( Ho' em"arrassin$ to "oth 'ere these declarations of ri$hts to appear some /K ears laterJ Stimulated " the press pu"lic e*citement rose to fever pitch( The 'ar 'as almost for$otten in the interest over 'hat 'as ta,in$ place at Hartford( 0*treme .ederalists! 'hose nec,s 'ere not at sta,e! ur$ed the dele$ates to $o the limit( Pic,erin$+s idea 'as to ,ic, the 2est out of the ?nion and return to a union of the thirteen ori$inal states 'ith <e' 0n$land a$ain holdin$ the "alance of po'er( Gouverneur Morris! in Philadelphia! 'as enthusiastic over 'hat the convention 'ould achieve( To Pic,erin$! sittin$ in the Senate in 2ashin$ton! he 'rote! 34 care nothin$ a"out our actin$s and doin$s( Gour decree of conscription and our lev of contri"utions are ali,e indifferent to one 'hose e es are fi*ed on a Star in the 0ast! 'hich he "elieves to "e the da sprin$ of freedom and $lor ( The traitors and madmen assem"led at Hartford 'ill! 4 "elieve! if not too tame and timid! "e hailed hereafter as the patriots and sa$es of their da and $eneration( Ma the "lessin$ of God "e upon them! to inspire their counsels and prosper their resolutionsJ3 #ohn )andolph of )oano,e 'as so concerned over the imminent prospect of civil 'ar that he addressed an open letter to #ames Llo d! a moderate .ederalist! "e$$in$ him to intercede "efore it 'as too late( Llo d 'as 6uite as alarmed as )andolph( He advised that the Oir$inians persuade Madison to a"dicate and place )ufus @in$ in the Presidenc as the "est means of savin$ the ?nion( The administration itself feared the 'orst( There 'ere not K-- .ederal troops in the 'hole of <e' 0n$land to suppress a re"ellion( The Secretar of 2ar! Mr( Monroe! sent orders to Colonel Thomas S( #esup! commander of the militar district of Connecticut! to ,eep a sharp loo,out on the doin$s of the convention and to ma,e reports directl to him( 2hen #ohn Adams! then in his 81st ear! heard of Ca"ot+s election! the old fello' e*claimed! EThan, God! than, GodJ Geor$e Ca"ot+s close7"uttoned am"ition has "ro,e out at last( He 'ants to "e President of <e' 0n$land! SirJL But there #ohn Adams 'as 'ron$( Ca"ot+s close7"uttoned am"ition had not 3"ro,e out(3 4t 'as as close7"uttoned as ever( 4t 'as as close7"uttoned as 'hen! a ear "efore! he had retorted to the indefati$a"le Pic,erin$! 32h can+t ou and 4 let the 'orld ruin itself in its o'n 'a =3 Ca"ot! most un'illin$l ! had allo'ed himself to "e drafted for a 8o" 'hich had little appeal( His attitude 'as made apparent in his repl to a oun$ friend 'ho as,ed him 'hat he hoped to accomplish at Hartford! 32e are $oin$ to ,eep ou oun$ hot7heads from $ettin$ into mischief(3 Si*t 7t'o ears of a$e and inclined to accept philosophicall the trials and tri"ulations of life! Ca"ot 'as hardl the man to lead a successful re"ellion( As for the rest of the dele$ates! to a man the 'ere t pical of the rulin$ aristocrac of <e' 0n$land( Harrison Gra :tis! 'ho too, a leadin$ part in the discussions! 'as a polished $entleman of /C and $enerall acclaimed as the handsomest man of his da ( 2itt and eas of manner he moved amon$ the dele$ates li,e a $racious host( There 'ere <athan 1ane! a prominent citiHen of Beverl 5 #ud$e #oseph L man of <orthampton! ,indl ! di$nified! reli$ious5 Timoth Bi$elo'! a leader of the Suffol, Bar! 'ho had "een si* times spea,er of the Massachusetts House( T'o dele$ates 'ere to "e more distin$uished in histor as sires than for their part in the Hartford proceedin$s( The 'ere Stephen Lon$fello'! father of the poet! and 2illiam Prescott! father of the historian( :thers of the Massachusetts dele$ation 'ere Geor$e Bliss! a prominent la' er5 #oshua Thomas and Hodi$ah Ba lies! 8ud$es of pro"ate5 1aniel 2aldo! a 'ealth merchant! and Samuel Sumner 2ild! a la' er and politician( 06uall distin$uished 'ere the dele$ates from Connecticut and )hode 4sland( Amon$ the former 'ere 'hite7haired Chaunc Goodrich! veteran le$islator and lieutenant $overnor5 #ames Hillhouse! a $iant in stature and 'ith the loo,s and 'al, of an 4ndian! 'ho had fou$ht in the )evolution5 Xephamiah S'ift! Chief #ustice! Governor #ohn Tread'ell! #ud$es <athaniel Smith and Calvin Goddard! and )o$er Minott Sherman! a la' er and scholar( .rom )hode 4sland came Colonel Samuel 2ard! "lue7 "looded son of the founder of Bro'n ?niversit and himself a 'ealth merchant5 1aniel L man! Chief #ustice and the President of the Societ of the Cincinnati5 Ben8amin HaHard! L man+s son7in7la'! and 0d'ard Manton! a merchant and state senator! 'ho shran, into insi$nificance in such "rilliant compan ( Ben8amin 2est and Mills :lcott! <e' Hampshire la' ers! and 2illiam Hall! a prominent merchant of Oermont! completed the $roup( :f them all! Bi$elo'! a mem"er of the &sse6 #unto and a disciple of Pic,erin$! and Bliss 'ere the onl t'o 'ho could "e classified as e*tremists( :f the 2> dele$ates! 22 'ere colle$e $raduates and nine 'ere 8urists( Their avera$e a$e 'as K2( These 'ere men of maturit and responsi"ilit ! capa"le no dou"t of solemn deli"eration and protest5 "ut not the sort to erect "arricades! def authorit and ris, their propert and their nec,s in an a"ortive revolt( :"servers closest to the scene 6uic,l reco$niHed the convention for 'hat it 'as( Colonel #esup lost no time in assurin$ Secretar Monroe that the people of Connecticut 'ere not prepared for re"ellion and that the actions of the convention 'ere no cause for pu"lic alarm( #ohn Lo'ell! a pamphleteer and fire"rand! 'ho acted as a mouthpiece for Pic,erin$ and 'ho 'as doin$ his "est to e$$ on the dele$ates to e*treme measures! soon reported in dis$ust to his master! 3The are not calculated for "old measures(3 :f :tis in particular! 'ho 'as loo,ed upon as the leader and archconspirator! he 'rote! 3Mr( :tis is naturall timid! and fre6uentl 'averin$ P toda "old! tomorro' li,e a hare trem"lin$ at ever "reeHe(3 4n short! Lo'ell declared! he did not ,no' 3a sin$le "old and ardent man3 amon$ the Massachusetts and Connecticut dele$ations(

The Hartford Convention mi$ht have ceased then and there to "e ne's! and dou"tless 'ould 6uic,l have "een for$otten! had it not! almost " accident! hit upon the one possi"le means of redeemin$ itself( The rulin$ aristocrac of <e' 0n$land 'as not accustomed to ta,in$ the pu"lic into its confidence( 4t deemed it sufficient to apprise the people of its decisions after its deli"erations had "een completed( And so! rather as a matter of course! on the afternoon of its first session it adopted a rule to the effect that 3The most inviola"le secrec shall "e o"served " each mem"er of this convention! includin$ the Secretar (3 The effect of the resolution 'as over'helmin$( 4f inviola"le secrec 'as to "e o"served! then it 'as as plain as a pi,estaff that there must "e $oin$s on that could not "ear the li$ht of da ( The most vivid ima$inations 'ere no' free to con8ure up and enlar$e upon 'hat 'as ta,in$ place "ehind those closed doors( 9ulli#ication! secession! conspiracy! treason and re*ellion! insidious plottin+! ne#arious schemes M any and all o# them )ere no) considered not only possi*le! *ut pro*a*le0 ,onest men )al7ed in the li+ht o# day! conspirators sou+ht the shado)s0 2hat $ood did it do for the dele$ates later to protest that in the discussions and decisions there 'as nothin$ said or done that could not "ear the fullest scrutin = 2hat if :tis declared upon his 'ord of honor that the convention 'as desi$ned solel to soothe the popular e*citement! provide for defense a$ainst the British and save the ?nion= 4f that 'as true! then 'h the secrec = 2hat if the mem"ers! feelin$ themselves un8ustl accused! " common consent allo'ed the 8ournal of the convention to "e pu"lished! in the hope of silencin$ the scandal and the rumors= Ah! "ut there ma have "een thin$s "oth said and done that 'ere too incriminatin$ to "e set do'n in "lac, and 'hite( Than,s to the secrec resolution! the convention 'as either hi$h7minded and constructive as :tis claimed! or it 'as 3hideous and 'ic,ed3 as #ohn Iuinc Adams char$ed( A choice could "e made accordin$ to a man+s political pre8udices( The mature 8ud$ment of historians! far removed from the e*citement and turmoil of the times! is that in spite of the m ster 'ith 'hich its actions 'ere surrounded the Hartford Convention had nothin$ to conceal( 4t sat from 1ecem"er 1/! 181/! to #anuar K! 181K! and on the da after ad8ournment its report 'as pu"lished in a special edition of the Hartford 7o0rant! and soon 'as in circulation throu$hout the countr ( This report consisted of some 2F closel t ped pa$es and its authorship 'as attri"uted to :tis( 4t "e$an 'ith a summar of the ini6uities of the administrations of #efferson and Madison and of <e' 0n$land+s $rievances( 4t declared that there prevailed to no inconsidera"le e*tent a sentiment 3that the time for a chan$e Rof $overnmentS is at hand!3 that the evils 'ere due to intrinsic and incura"le defects in the Constitution! and offered to present some $eneral considerations in the hope of reconcilin$ all to a course of moderation and firmness( As to a dissolution of the ?nion! if that 'ere destined then it should 3if possi"le "e the 'or, of peacea"le times and deli"erate consent(3 Havin$ mentioned possi"le dissolution to please e*tremists of the Pic,erin$ t pe! the report then endeavored to reassure the moderates " statin$ that 3the severance of the ?nion " one or more States! a$ainst the 'ill of the rest! and especiall in time of 'ar! can "e 8ustified onl " a"solute necessit (3 ?nder the headin$ of 31an$ers and Grievances3 the report ne*t dealt 'ith the matter of the proposed conscription "ill and the enlistment of minors 'ithout the consent of their parents( And here it reached its most e*treme position! for it advised the states! assumin$ the passa$e of the "ills! to devise such measures as 'ould effectuall protect their citiHens from the operation of the la's( That 'as pure and unadulterated encoura$ement to nullification( .or the solution of the militia pro"lem the report su$$ested that the states "e permitted " Con$ress to assume their o'n defense! 'ithholdin$ from the national ta*es such portion as mi$ht "e needed for that purpose( 1he report #inally proposed se en amendments to the %onstitution0 1hese )ere >-@ that sla e representation *e a*olished! >/@ that a ne) State could *e admitted to the 3nion only *y a concurrence o# t)o<thirds o# the mem*ers o# *oth houses o# %on+ress! >H@ that em*ar+oes *e limited to si'ty days! >J@ that non<intercourse acts should re(uire a t)o<thirds ote! >6@ that no naturaliEed citiEen *e eli+i*le to an electi e or appointi e o##ice under the national +o ernment! >?@ that a declaration o# )ar should re(uire a t)o<thirds ote o# *oth houses o# %on+ress! and >:@ that no president should ser e more than one term! and that the same State should not pro ide a President t)ice in succession0 4n other 'ords! the Constitution 'as to "e amended to suit the specific needs of <e' 0n$land 'ith little consideration for the rest of the countr ( 4t 'as an ultimatum to 'hich the rest of the states 'ere hardl li,el to consent unless the 'ere in a desperate institution( But the situation 'as desperate( The 'ar 'as still in pro$ress and a British arm 'as ,noc,in$ at the $ates of <e' :rleans 'ith ever prospect of $ettin$ in( .or the satisfaction of these e*trava$ant demands ever thin$ depended upon an American defeat in the South and a continuation of the 'ar( Get even these proposals 'ere not sufficientl drastic to satisf the stal'arts of the 0sse* #unto! the shoc, troops of the e*treme .ederalists( Lo'ell 'as disappointed "ecause the convention had not declared for <e' 0n$land+s neutralit for the rest of the 'ar( .ederalist editors complained "ecause it had not assumed that the ?nion 'as alread dissolved! and that the amendments had "een 3re6uested(3 4n the opinion of the editors the should have "een demanded( :thers noted the omission of a call for a

constitutional convention( Gouverneur Morris! 'ho had called the dele$ates the 32ise Men of the 0ast!3 no' retracted his 'ords! and ridiculed their deli"erations in an open letter( The )epu"licans! on the other hand! 'ere relieved that the report 'as no 'orse( 3Certain it is! that the proceedin$s are tempered 'ith more moderation than 'as to have "een e*pected!3 admitted the National Intelligencer( 4f! said the editor! the convention 'as called to effect separation from the ?nion! at least the dele$ates appeared to "e $oin$ a"out it in a peacea"le 'a ( Get in spite of all that had happened in <e' 0n$land! President Madison 'as still 'illin$ to tr appeasement( 4n fact his situation 'as then so precarious that there 'ere no means of usin$ force( The militia 6uestion 'as the immediate "one of contention( Madison 'ould see 'hat he could do 'ith that( So! on #anuar 2D! the President si$ned an act of Con$ress that authoriHed him to accept into the .ederal service and pa 3an corps of troops! 'hich ma have "een! or ma "e raised! or$aniHed and officered under the authorit of an of the States(3 These troops! thou$h in the .ederal service! 'ere to "e emplo ed onl in the states in 'hich the 'ere raised or in ad8oinin$ states and not else'here e*cept 'ith the consent of the e*ecutive of the state raisin$ them( The act 'as no less than a flat surrender " the administration to the Hartford Convention on the most vital $rievance of the moment( 2ell mi$ht :tis e*claim that 3the e$$ that 'as laid in the dar,ness of the Hartford Convention 'as hatched " da li$ht under the 'in$ and incu"ation of the <ational 0a$le(3 But these <e' 0n$land .ederalists 'ere meticulous( 2hile the act a$reed that the ?nited States Government 'ould foot the "ill it did not a$ree that the states could deduct the e*penses from the .ederal revenues( The ?nited States Treasur 'as ,no'n to "e on the ver$e of "an,ruptc ( 2hat $uarantee! then! 'as there that the "ill 'ould eventuall "e met= <one( The <e' 0n$landers 'ere not satisfied 'ith that( The surrender must "e complete( :n #anuar F1 Governor Stron$ appointed three commissioners P :tis! Thomas H( Per,ins and 2illiam Sullivan P to $o to 2ashin$ton! "eard the President in his den and ma,e the 3re6uest3 for this concession( The $entlemen immediatel 'ere du""ed 3the three Am"assadors(3 A fe' da s later the am"assadors set out on their lon$ 8ourne to the national capital( :tis seems to have had some mis$ivin$s a"out his mission for! in a letter to his 'ife! he remar,ed that "et'een <e' Gor, and Philadelphia the part 'as follo'ed " a floc, of cro's and that! 'henever the cro's came to $round! three of them stood apart from the rest( 3These are ill omen+d "irds!3 he 'rote! 3and in da s 'hen au$ur 'as in fashion 'ould have "een considered as sad precursors of the three am"assadors( 2hat the Blac,"irds at 2ashin$ton 'ill sa or do 'ith us remains to "e seen(3 And evil omens the three "lac, cro's proved to "e5 for! on .e"ruar 12! soon after the travelers had passed throu$h Philadelphia! the received ne's of the American victor at <e' :rleans( This 'as $ood fortune that 'as li,el to stiffen the 2ashin$ton "lac,"irds( <evertheless the am"assadors continued on their 'a and arrived in Geor$eto'n! 'hich "oasted a considera"l more $enteel atmosphere than that of 2ashin$ton 'ith its official ra""le( Geor$eto'n 'as far more con$enial to the delicate sensi"ilities of the .ederalist $entlemen( And there President Madison! em"oldened " the victor in <e' :rleans! allo'ed them to cool their heels "efore receivin$ them( Mr( Monroe! the Secretar of State! the had to confess! treated them 'ith courtes and civilit ( But the 'orst 'as et to come( .or! on .e"ruar 1/! 2ashin$ton received ne's of the treat si$ned at Ghent( At last the 'ar 'as at an endJ And 'ith the end of the 'ar came an a"rupt end to the mission of the three am"assadors( Pa ment of militia in the national service ceased to "e an issue( So it came a"out that the three hau$ht am"assadors 'ho had $one to deliver terms of surrender to the President of the ?nited States 'ere left dan$lin$ in air and loo,in$ e*ceedin$l foolish( So! too! did the rest of the .ederalists 'ho had ta,en part in the Hartford Convention( The )epu"lican press and )epu"lican 'its did little to relieve their adversaries of their em"arrassment( The 8o,e 'as much too $ood for the countr to miss( 4n cartoons! verse and editorials the .ederalists came in for lampoonin$ and satire that set the nation lau$hin$( The "est epitaph of the Hartford Convention appeared in Henr 2heaton+s <e' Gor, National )-vocate;
89issing: 8Three *ell loo.ing responsi'le men *ho appeare- to 'e travelling to*ar-s !ashington -isappeare- s0--enly from $a-s'y's ;otel in <altimore on 9on-ay evening last an- have not since 'een hear- of: They *ere o'serve- to 'e very melancholy on hearing the ne*s of peace an- one of them *as hear- to say *ith a great sigh 'Poor 7ale' Strong:' They too. *ith them their sa--le4'ags so that no apprehension is entertaine- of their having an intention to ma.e a*ay *ith themselves: !hoever *ill give any information to the ;artfor- 7onvention of the fate of these 0nfort0nate an- tristf0l gentlemen 'y letter =post pai-> *ill confer a favor 0pon h0manity: 8The ne*spapers partic0larly the ?e-eral ne*spapers are re50este- to p0'lish this a-vertisement in a conspic0o0s place an- sen- their 'ills to the ;artfor- 7onvention:

8P:S: @ne of the gentlemen *as calle- Tit0s @ates or some s0ch name:8

Source; ?niversit of Chica$o

Prominent Jale 4raduates F /heir 7ccupation durin+ the War o% 1818

5oel Barlo) B.A. Jale 1HH8 :.S. -inister to *rance $1ovem'er 1H, 1811" Decem'er 8#, 1818&

7liver Wolcott 5r. B.A. Jale 1HH8 President o% Bank o% America $1818"181G&

5ohn C. Calhoun B.A. Jale 18 G :.S. Con+ressman $D0"South Carolina, 1811"181H&

Stephen 6lliott B.A. Jale 1HK1 President o% the Bank o% the State o% South Carolina $1818"18< &

4ideon 4ran+er B.A. Jale 1H8H Postmaster"4eneral o% the :nited States $18 1"181G&

Stephen -. -itchell B.A. Jale 1H#< Chie% 5ustice o% the Supreme Court o% Connecticut $18 H"181G&

5ohn Cotton Smith B.A. Jale 1H8< 4overnor o% Connecticut $1818"181H&

5ohn /read)ell B.A. Jale 1H#H 4overnor o% Connecticut $18 K"1811&? attended 9art%ord Convention in 181G

Chauncey 4oodrich B.A. Jale 1HH# -ayor o% 9art%ord, Connecticut $1818"181!&? attended 9art%ord Convention in 181G

5ames 9illhouse B.A. Jale 1HH< /reasurer o% Jale :niversity $1H88"18<8&? attended 9art%ord Convention in 181G

Stephen 0. Bradley B.A. Jale 1HH! :.S. Senator $D0"(ermont, 1HK1"1HK!? 18 1"181<&

Samuel W. Dana B.A. Jale 1HH! :.S. Senator $*"Conn., 181 "1881&

Ben;amin /allmad+e B.A. Jale 1HH< :.S. Con+ressman $*"Conn., 18 1"181H&

0eturn 5. -ei+s, 5r. B.A. Jale 1H8! 4overnor o% 7hio $181 "181G&

William 9ull B.A. Jale 1HH8 4overnor o% -ichi+an /erritory $18 !"181<&

A'raham 5arvis B.A. Jale 1H#1 Protestant 6piscopal Bishop %or the 6piscopal Diocese o% Connecticut $1HKH"181<&

A'iel 9olmes B.A. Jale 1H8< -inister, *irst PCon+re+.Q Church in Cam'rid+e, -ass. $1HK8"188K&

9orace 9olley B.A. Jale 18 < Pastor o% South 6nd Church in Boston $18 K"1818&

0ev. /imothy D)i+ht B.A. Jale 1H#K President o% Jale :niversity $1HK!"181H&

5eremiah At)ater B.A. Jale 1HK< President o% Dickinson Colle+e PPennsylvaniaQ $18 K"181!&

Jale :niversity 4raduates and War o% 1818 $1818"181!& and Second Bar'ary War $181!& 4overnment 7%%icials %rom Connecticut, Samuel W. Dana $B.A. 1HH!& I :.S. Senator $*"Connecticut, 181 "1881& Chauncey 4oodrich $B.A. 1HH#& I :.S. Senator $*"Connecticut, 18 H"181<&? -ayor o% 9art%ord, Connecticut $5une 8, 1818"Sept. K, 181!& David Da++ett $B.A. 1H8<& I :.S. Senator $*"Connecticut, 181<"181K&? StateNs Attorney %or 1e) 9aven County, Connecticut $1811"181<& 5ohn Davenport $B.A. 1HH & I -em'er o% the :.S. 9ouse o% 0epresentatives $*"Connecticut, 1HKK"181H& Ben;amin /allmad+e $B.A. 1HH<& I -em'er o% the :.S. 9ouse o% 0epresentatives $*"Connecticut, 18 1"181H& 5onathan 7+den -oseley $B.A. 1H8 & I -em'er o% the :.S. 9ouse o% 0epresentatives $*"Connecticut, 18 !"1881& Le)is Burr Stur+es $B.A. 1H88& I -em'er o% the :.S. 9ouse o% 0epresentatives $*"Connecticut, 18 !"181H& /imothy Pitkin $B.A. 1H8!& I -em'er o% the :.S. 9ouse o% 0epresentatives $*"Connecticut, 18 !"181K& Lyman La) $B.A. 1HK1& I -em'er o% the :.S. 9ouse o% 0epresentatives $*"Connecticut, 1811"181H& 5ohn Cotton Smith $B.A. 1H8<& I 4overnor o% Connecticut $7cto'er 8!, 1818"-ay 8, 181H&? Lieutenant 4overnor o% Connecticut $1811"1818& /homas Day $B.A. 1HKH& I Secretary o% the State o% Connecticut $181 "18<!& Stephen -. -itchell $B.A. 1H#<& I Chie% 5ustice o% the Supreme Court o% Connecticut $18 H"181G& Sephaniah S)i%t $B.A. 1HH8& I 5ud+e o% the Supreme Court o% Connecticut $18 1"181G& 5ohn /rum'ull $B.A. 1H#H& I 5ud+e o% the Supreme Court o% Connecticut $18 1"181K& William 6dmond $B.A. 1HH8& I 5ud+e o% the Supreme Court o% Connecticut $18 !"181K& 5eremiah 4ates Brainard $B.A. 1HHK& I 5ud+e o% the Supreme Court o% Connecticut $18 #"188K&? -ayor o% 1e) London, Conn. $18 #"1888& 6li=ur 4oodrich $B.A. 1HHK& I -ayor o% 1e) 9aven, Connecticut $18 <"1888& Asher -iller $B.A. 1HH8& I -ayor o% -iddleto)n, Connecticut $1HK1"1881&? Presidin+ 5ud+e o% -iddlese> County Court, Conn. $18 H"1881& Samuel Burr Sher)ood $B.A. 1H8#& I -em'er o% the Connecticut State 9ouse o% 0epresentatives $18 K"181!& 1athaniel /erry $B.A. 1H8#& I -em'er o% the Connecticut State 9ouse o% 0epresentatives $18 G"181!&? President o% 9art%ord *ire .nsurance Company $181 "18<!& 5onathan La) $B.A. 18 <& I Postmaster o% 9art%ord, Connecticut $18 K"188K& William 9enry 5ones $B.A. 1HK#& I Postmaster o% 1e) 9aven, Connecticut $-ay <, 181G" 5anuary 18, 18G8& 6lias Perkins $B.A. 1H8#& I Chie% 5ustice o% the 1e) London County Court PConnecticutQ $18 H"188!& 5onathan Brace $B.A. 1HHK& I 5ud+e o% 9art%ord PConnecticutQ City Court $1HKH"1HK8, 18 "181!& 0o'ert *airchild $B.A. 1HK<& I :.S. -arshal %or the District o% Connecticut $18 K"1881& 5ohn /hompson Peters $B.A. 1H8K& I Collector o% :nited States 0evenue %or the *irst District o% Connecticut P9art%ordQ $181<& A'raham Bishop $B.A. 1HH8& I Collector o% the Port o% 1e) 9aven, Connecticut $18 <"188K& Ale>ander Wolcott $B.A. 1HH8& I Collector o% the Port o% -iddleto)n, Connecticut $18 1"1888& *ederal and State 4overnment 7%%icials, Stephen 0. Bradley $B.A. 1HH!& I :.S. Senator $D0"(ermont, 1HK1"1HK!? 18 1"181<& 5eremiah -ason $B.A. 1H88& I :.S. Senator $*"1e) 9ampshire, 181<"181H& :ri /racy $B.A. 1H8K& I -em'er o% the :.S. 9ouse o% 0epresentatives $0"1e) Jork, 18 !"18 H, 18 K"181<& 6'ene=er Sa+e $B.A. 1HH8& I -em'er o% the :.S. 9ouse o% 0epresentatives $0"1e) Jork, 18 K"181!& Peter B. Porter $B.A. 1HK1& I -em'er o% the :.S. 9ouse o% 0epresentatives $0"1e) Jork, 18 K"181<, 181!"181#& /homas 0. 4old $B.A. 1H8#& I -em'er o% the :.S. 9ouse o% 0epresentatives $*"1e) Jork, 18 K"181<, 181!"181H& 5ohn Lovett $B.A. 1H88& I -em'er o% the :.S. 9ouse o% 0epresentatives $*"1e) Jork, 181<"181H& Samuel -. 9opkins $B.A. 1HK1& I -em'er o% the :.S. 9ouse o% 0epresentatives $*"1e) Jork, 181<"181!& /homas 5ackson 7akley $B.A. 18 1& I -em'er o% the :.S. 9ouse o% 0epresentatives $*"1e) Jork, 181<"181!, 188H"1888& /homas P. 4rosvenor $B.A. 18 & I -em'er o% the :.S. 9ouse o% 0epresentatives $*"1e) Jork, 181<"181H& William 6ly $B.A. 1H8H& I -em'er o% the :.S. 9ouse o% 0epresentatives $*"-assachusetts, 18 !"181!& 6=ekiel Bacon $B.A. 1HKG& I -em'er o% the :.S. 9ouse o% 0epresentatives $0"-assachusetts, 18 H"181<&? *irst Comptroller o% the :nited States /reasury $*e'ruary 11, 181G"*e'ruary 88, 181!& 5ohn C. Calhoun $B.A. 18 G& I -em'er o% the :.S. 9ouse o% 0epresentatives $D0"South Carolina, 1811"181H& 4ideon 4ran+er $B.A. 1H8H& I Postmaster"4eneral o% the :nited States $18 1"181G& 5oel Barlo) $B.A. 1HH8& I :.S. -inister to *rance $1ovem'er 1H, 1811"Decem'er 8#, 1818& Asher 0o''ins $B.A. 1H88& I :.S. Attorney %or the District o% 0hode .sland $1818& William Bristol $B.A. 1HK8& I :.S. Attorney %or the District o% Connecticut $1818& -atthias Burnett /allmad+e $B.A. 1HK!& I 5ud+e o% the :.S. District Court %or the District o% 1e) Jork $18 #"181G& Stanley 4ris)old $B.A. 1H8#& I :nited States 5ud+e %or .llinois /erritory $181 "181!& William 9ull $B.A. 1HH8& I 4overnor o% -ichi+an /erritory $-arch 88, 18 !"7cto'er 8K, 181<& 0eturn 5. -ei+s, 5r. $B.A. 1H8!& I 4overnor o% 7hio $Decem'er 8, 181 " -arch 8G, 181G& 5ared .n+ersoll $B.A. 1H##& I Attorney 4eneral o% Pennsylvania $1HK "1HKK, 1811"181H& 5ames Oent $B.A. 1H81& I Chie% 5ustice o% the Supreme Court o% 1e) Jork $18 G"181G&? Chancellor o% 1e) Jork $181G"188<& 1athaniel Chipman $B.A. 1HHH& I Chie% 5ustice o% the Supreme Court o% (ermont $1H8K"1HK1, 1HK#"1HKH, 181<"181!& Daniel *arrand $B.A. 1H81& " 5ud+e o% the Supreme Court o% (ermont $181<"181G& /heodore Sed+)ick $B.A. 1H#!& I 5ud+e o% the Supreme Court o% -assachusetts $18 8"181<& Daniel Lyman $B.A. 1HH#& I Chie% 5ustice o% the Supreme Court o% 0hode .sland $1818"181#& A'raham 1ott $B.A. 1H8H& I 5ud+e o% South Carolina Circuit Court $181 "188G& 5oel Adams $B.A. 18 H& I -em'er o% South Carolina State 9ouse o% 0epresentatives $1818"181<, 18<8& 5ohn -yers *elder $B.A. 18 G& I -em'er o% South Carolina State 9ouse o% 0epresentatives $1818"181#, 1888"188G& 5oseph Barker $B.A. 1HH1& I -em'er o% -assachusetts State 9ouse o% 0epresentatives $1818"181<& Chauncey Lan+don $B.A. 1H8H& I -em'er o% (ermont State 9ouse o% 0epresentatives $181<"181G, 181H, 181K"188 , 1888&? /rustee o% -iddle'ury Colle+e P(ermontQ $1811"18< & 4eor+e /od $B.A. 1HK!& I 7hio State Senator $181 "181G&

Samuel 5ones 5r. $B.A. 1HK & I -em'er o% 1e) Jork State Assem'ly Prepresentin+ 1e) Jork CityQ $1818"181G& Peter William 0adcli%% $B.A. 1HK<& I 1e) Jork State Senator $1818"181#&? -em'er o% 1e) Jork State Assem'ly $5anuary 1818"5une 1818& 5osiah -asters $B.A. 1H8<& I 5ud+e o% the Court o% Common Pleas o% 0ensselaer County, 1e) Jork $18 8"1888& 6dmund La) $B.A. 18 #& I -em'er o% the Common Council o% Washin+ton, D.C. $1818"181G, 1888& Colle+e Presidents and /rustees, 6'ene=er *itch $B.A. 1HHH, valedictorian& I inau+ural President o% Williams Colle+e P-assachusettsQ $1HK<"181!& A=el Backus $B.A. 1H8H& I inau+ural President o% 9amilton Colle+e P1e) JorkQ $1818"181#& 5eremiah At)ater $B.A. 1HK<& I President o% Dickinson Colle+e PPennsylvaniaQ $18 K"181!& 9enry Davis $B.A. 1HK#& I President o% -iddle'ury Colle+e P(ermontQ $18 K"181H& Stephen 5aco' $B.A. 1HH8& I /rustee o% Dartmouth Colle+e $18 8"181H& /imothy -ather Cooley $B.A. 1HK8& I /rustee o% Williams Colle+e $1818"18!K& Samuel Shepard $B.A. 1HK<& I /rustee o% Williams Colle+e $18 8"18G#& 0ev. /imothy D)i+ht $elder& $B.A. 1H#K& I President o% Jale :niversity $1HK!"181H&? Pro%essor o% Divinity at Jale :niversity $1HK!"181H& 5ames 9illhouse $B.A. 1HH<& I /reasurer o% Jale :niversity $1H88"18<8& 0ev. 5eremiah Day $B A. 1HK!& I Pro%essor o% -athematics and 1atural Philosophy at Jale :niversity $18 1"188 & Ben;amin Silliman $B.A. 1HK#& I Pro%essor o% Chemistry, -ineralo+y, and 4eolo+y at Jale :niversity $18 8"18#G& 5ames Luce Oin+sley $B.A. 1HKK& I Pro%essor o% 6cclesiastical 9istory and Lan+ua+es P9e're), 4reek and LatinQ at Jale :niv. $18 !"181H& Church Leaders, A'raham 5arvis $B.A. 1H#1& I Protestant 6piscopal Bishop %or the 6piscopal Diocese o% Connecticut $1HKH"181<& 0ev. Ben;amin /rum'ull $B.A. 1H!K& I Pastor o% the Con+re+ational Church in 1orth 9aven, Connecticut $1H# "188 & 5ehu Clark $B.A. 1HKG& I Pastor o% the Con+re+ational Church in 1e)to)n, Connecticut $1HKK"181#& Dan 9untin+ton $B.A. 1HKG& I Pastor o% the *irst Con+re+ational Church in -iddleto)n, Connecticut $181 "181#& Andre) Jates $B.A. 1HKG& I Pastor o% the Con+re+ational Church in 6ast 9art%ord, Connecticut $18 1"181G& Lyman Beecher $B.A. 1HKH& I Pastor o% *irst Con+re+ational Church in Litch%ield, Connecticut $181 "188#& David Dudley *ield $B.A. 18 8& I Pastor o% the Con+re+ational Church in 9addam, Connecticut $18 G"1818, 18<H"18GG& -ark -ead $B.A. 18 8& I Pastor o% the Con+re+ational Church in -iddle'ury, Connecticut $18 K"18< & Samuel -er)in $B.A. 18 8& I Pastor o% the 1orth Church in 1e) 9aven, Connecticut $18 !"18<1& William Li+ht'ourn Stron+ $B.A. 18 8& I Pastor o% the Con+re+ational Church in Somers, Connecticut $18 !"188K& 0os)ell 0andall S)an $B.A. 18 8& I Pastor o% the Con+re+ational Church in 1or)alk, Connecticut $18 H"181K& A'el -c6)en $B.A. 18 G& I Pastor o% the *irst Con+re+ational Church in 1e) London, Connecticut $18 #"18!G& /homas Punderson $B.A. 18 G& I Pastor o% the Con+re+ational Church in 9untin+ton, Connecticut $1818"18GG& 9orace 9olley $B.A. 18 <& I -inister o% 9ollis Street PSouth 6ndQ Church in Boston $18 K"1818& 5oshua 9untin+ton $B.A. 18 G& I Pastor o% 7ld South Church in Boston $18 8"181K& 0ev. 1athanel 6mmons $B.A. 1H#H& I Pastor o% the Con+re+ational Church in *ranklin, -assachusetts $1HH<"188H&? li%elon+ *ederalist Samuel Austin $B.A. 1H8<& I Pastor o% *irst Con+re+ational Church in Worcester, -assachusetts $1HK "181!& A'iel 9olmes $B.A. 1H8<& I -inister o% *irst PCon+re+ationalQ Church in Cam'rid+e, -ass. $1HK8"188K&? %ather o% 7liver Wendell 9olmes Sr. 6=ra Witter $B.A. 1HK<& I Pastor o% the Con+re+ational Church in Wil'raham, -assachusetts $1HKH"181G& 4ardiner Sprin+ $B.A. 18 !& I Pastor o% Brick Pres'yterian Church in 1e) Jork City $181 "18H<& Selah Stron+ Woodhull $B.A. 18 8& I Pastor o% the *irst 0e%ormed Dutch Church in Brooklyn, 1e) Jork $18 #"188!& 5ohn Chester $B.A. 18 G& I Pastor o% the Pres'yterian Church in 9udson, 1e) Jork $181 "181!& -oses 4illett $B.A. 18 G& I Pastor o% the *irst Con+re+ational $later Pres'yterian& Church o% 0ome, 1e) Jork $18 H"18<H& 5onathan 9unttin+ $B.A. 18 G& I Pastor o% the Pres'yterian Church in Southold, Lon+ .sland, 1e) Jork $18 H"1888& Christopher 6d)ards 4adsden $B.A. 18 G& I 0ector o% St. PhilipRs Church in Charleston, South Carolina $181G"18G & Bankers, 7liver Wolcott 5r. $B.A. 1HH8& I President o% Bank o% America $1818"181G&? director o% the *irst Bank o% the :nited States $181 "1811& Stephen 6lliott $B.A. 1HK1& I inau+ural President o% Bank o% the State o% South Carolina $1818"18< &? South Carolina State Senator $18 8"18& Aeneas -unson $B.A. 1H8 & I President o% the 1e) 9aven Bank in 1e) 9aven, Connecticut $1818"18<1& Participants at the 9art%ord Convention $Decem'er 181G&, Chauncey 4oodrich $B.A. 1HH#& I :.S. Senator $*"Connecticut, 18 H"181<&? -ayor o% 9art%ord, Connecticut $1818"181!& 5ames 9illhouse $B.A. 1HH<& I :.S. Senator $*"Connecticut, 1HK#"181 &? /reasurer o% Jale :niversity $1H88"18<8& Daniel Lyman $B.A. 1HH#& I Chie% 5ustice o% the Supreme Court o% 0hode .sland $1818"181#& 0o+er -inott Sherman $B.A. 1HK8& I 5ud+e o% the Supreme Court o% Connecticut $18<K"18G8& Sephaniah S)i%t $B.A. 1HH8& I 5ud+e o% the Supreme Court o% Connecticut $18 1"181G&? :.S. Con+ressman $1HK<"1HKH& 5ohn /read)ell $B.A. 1H#H& I 4overnor o% Connecticut $18 K"1811&? Lieutenant 4overnor o% Connecticut $1HK8"18 K& 1ote, < :.S. Senators and 1< Con+ressmen at the 'e+innin+ o% the War o% 1818 )ere Jale +raduates. 1ote, # o% H Con+ressmen representin+ Connecticut at the 'e+innin+ o% the War o% 1818 )ere Jale +raduates. 1ote, :.S. Con+ress declared )ar on the British 6mpire on 5une 18, 1818? *E*ederalist Party? D0EDemocratic 0epu'lican? 0E0epu'lican

Prominent 9arvard 4raduates F War o% 1818

6l'rid+e /. 4erry B.A. 9arvard 1H#8 (ice President o% the :.S. $-arch G, 181<"1ovem'er 8<, 181G&

William 6ustis B.A. 9arvard 1HH8 :.S. Secretary o% War $-arch H, 18 K"5anuary 1<, 181<&

5ohn Luincy Adams B.A. 9arvard 1H8H :.S. -inister to 0ussia $18 K"181G&

5ames Lloyd B.A. 9arvard 1H8H :.S. Senator $*ederalist"-ass., 18 8" 181<, 1888"188#&

Christopher 4ore B.A. 9arvard 1HH# :.S. Senator $*"-ass., 181<"181#&

William 9arris B.A. 9arvard 1H8# President o% Colum'ia :niversity $1811"188K&

5ohn /hornton Oirkland B.A. 9arvard 1H8K President o% 9arvard :niversity $181 "1888&

5oseph Story B.A. 9arvard 1HK8 5ustice o% :.S. Supreme Court $1811"18G!&

5osiah Luincy B.A. 9arvard 1HK :.S. Con+ressman $*"-ass., 18 !"181<&

La'an Wheaton B.A. 9arvard 1HHG :.S. Con+ressman $*"-ass., 18 K"181H&

/homas W. /hompson B.A. 9arvard 1H8# Speaker o% 1e) 9ampshire State 9ouse o% 0ep. $181<"181G&

/imothy Pickerin+ B.A. 9arvard 1H#< :.S. Con+ressman $*"-ass., 181<"181H&

0u%us Oin+ B.A. 9arvard 1HHH :.S. Senator $*ederalist"1e) Jork, 1H8K"1HK#? 181<"188!&

Pere= -orton B.A. 9arvard 1HH1 Attorney 4eneral o% -assachusetts $181 "18<8&

9arrison 4ray 7tis B.A. 9arvard 1H8< -em'er, -assachusetts State Senate $18 !"181<, 181G"181H&? -em'er o% 9art%ord Convention $181G&

Other !'* 9eague 7raduates & War of 1812

Daniel D. /ompkins B.A. Colum'ia 1HK! 4overnor o% 1e) Jork $18 H"181H&

DeWitt Clinton B.A. Colum'ia 1H8# -ayor o% 1e) Jork City $18 <"18 H, 18 8"181 , 1811"181!&

5ames -adison A.B. Princeton 1HH1 President o% the :nited States $18 K"181H&

5eremiah Bro)n 9o)ell A.B. Bro)n 1H8K :.S. Senator $Democratic 0epu'lican"0hode .sland, 1811"181H&

William 9unter A.B. Bro)n 1HK1 :.S. Senator $*ederalist" 0hode .sland, 1811"1881&

9arvard :niversity 4raduates and the War o% 1818 $1818"181!& and Second Bar'ary War $181!& 4overnment 7%%icials, 6l'rid+e /. 4erry $B.A. 1H#8& I (ice President o% the :nited States $-arch G, 181<"1ovem'er 8<, 181G& William 6ustis $B.A. 1HH8& I :.S. Secretary o% War $18 K"181<& 5ohn Luincy Adams $B.A. 1H8H& I :.S. -inister to 0ussia $18 K"181G& /o'ias Lear $B.A. 1H8<& I Accountant o% the War Department $1811"181#& 4eor+e Blake $B.A. 1H8K& I :.S. Attorney %or the District o% -assachusetts $18 1"188K& Samuel Allyne 7tis $B.A. 1H!K& I Secretary o% the :nited States Senate $April 8, 1H8K"April 88, 181G& William 6llery $B.A. 1HGH& I Collector o% Customs o% the Port o% 1e)port, 0hode .sland $1HK "188 & 5ohn Lo)ell $B.A. 1H# & I 1aval 7%%icer o% the Port o% Boston $Au+ust <, 1H8K"5uly 1G, 181G& Samuel 7s+ood $B.A. 1HH & I 1aval 7%%icer at the Port o% 1e) Jork $-ay 1 , 18 <"Au+ust 18, 181<& 5ames Lloyd $B.A. 1H8H& I :.S. Senator $*ederalist"-assachusetts, 18 8"181<, 1888"188#& Christopher 4ore $B.A. 1HH#& I :.S. Senator $*ederalist"-assachusetts, 181<"181#& 0u%us Oin+ $B.A. 1HHH& I :.S. Senator $*ederalist"1e) Jork, 1H8K"1HK#? 181<"188!& Charles Cutts $B.A. 1H8K& I :.S. Senator $0epu'lican"1e) 9ampshire, 181 "181<& /homas W. /hompson $B.A. 1H8#& I :.S. Senator $*"1e) 9ampshire, 181G"181H&? Speaker o% 1e) 9amp. State 9ouse o% 0ep. $181<"181G& 5ohn Da)son $B.A. 1H88& I :.S. Con+ressman $0epu'lican"(ir+inia, 1HKH"181G& 0ichard Cutts $B.A. 1HK & I :.S. Con+ressman $0epu'lican"-assachusetts, 18 1"181<& 6'ene=er Seaver $B.A. 1H8G& I :.S. Con+ressman $0epu'lican"-assachusetts, 18 <"181<& .saiah Le)is 4reen $B.A. 1H81& I :.S. Con+ressman $0epu'lican"-assachusetts, 18 !"18 K, 1811"181<& 5osiah Luincy $B.A. 1HK & I :.S. Con+ressman $*ederalist"-assachusetts, 18 !"181<& La'an Wheaton $B.A. 1HHG& I :.S. Con+ressman $*ederalist"-assachusetts, 18 K"181H& Leonard White $B.A. 1H8H& I :.S. Con+ressman $*ederalist"-assachusetts, 1811"181<& William -erchant 0ichardson $B.A. 1HKH& I :.S. Con+ressman $0epu'lican"-assachusetts, 1811"181G& 4eor+e Sullivan $B.A. 1HK & I :.S. Con+ressman $*ederalist"1e) 9ampshire, 1811"181<& 5ohn Wilson $B.A. 1HKK& I :.S. Con+ressman $*ederalist"-assachusetts, 181<"181!, 181H"181K& /imothy Pickerin+ $B.A. 1H#<& I :.S. Con+ressman $*ederalist"-assachusetts, 181<"181H& 4eor+e Brad'ury $B.A. 1H8K& I:.S. Con+ressman $*ederalist"-assachusetts, 181<"181H& Artemas Ward 5r. $B.A. 1H8<& I :.S. Con+ressman $*ederalist"-assachusetts, 181<"181H&? 7verseer o% 9arvard :niversity $181 "18GG& 1athaniel 0u++les $B.A. 1H81& I :.S. Con+ressman $*ederalist"-assachusetts, 181<"181K& 5ohn White%ield 9ul'ert $B.A. 1HK!& I :.S. Con+ressman $*ederalist"-assachusetts, Septem'er 8#, 181G"-arch <, 181H& 0o+er (ose $B.A. 1HK & I :.S. Con+ressman $*ederalist"1e) 9ampshire, 181<"181H& 5oseph Story $B.A. 1HK8& I 5ustice o% the :.S. Supreme Court $1811"18G!& David Se)all $B.A. 1H!!& I 5ud+e o% the :.S. District Court %or -aine $1H8K"1818& 5ohn Davis $B.A. 1H81& I 5ud+e o% the :.S. District Court %or -assachusetts $18 1"18G1& 6li;ah Paine $B.A. 1H81& I 5ud+e o% the :.S. District Court %or (ermont $18 1"18G8& David L. Barnes $B.A. 1H8 & I 5ud+e o% the :.S. District Court %or 0hode .sland $5anuary 8#, 18 8"1ovem'er <, 1818& Cale' Stron+ $B.A. 1H#G& I 4overnor o% -assachusetts $18 "18 H, 1818"181#& Pere= -orton $B.A. 1HH1& I Attorney 4eneral o% -assachusetts $181 "18<8& /heophilus Parsons $B.A. 1H#K& I Chie% 5ustice o% the Supreme Court o% -assachusetts $18 #"181<& Samuel Se)all $B.A. 1HH#& I Chie% 5ustice $181<"181G& and 5ustice $18 1"181<& o% the Supreme Court o% -assachusetts 4eor+e /hatcher $B.A. 1HH#& I 5ustice o% the Supreme Court o% -assachusetts $18 "188 & .saac Parker $B.A. 1H8#& I 5ustice o% the Supreme Court o% -assachusetts $18 #"181G& Am'rose Spencer $B.A. 1H8<& I 5ustice o% the Supreme Court o% 1e) Jork $18 G"181K& 0oyall /yler $B.A. 1HH#& I Chie% 5ustice o% the Supreme Court o% (ermont $18 H"181<& Willard 9all $B.A. 1HKK& I Secretary o% State o% Dela)are $1811"181G& Cale' 6llis $B.A. 1HK<& I 5ud+e o% the Superior Court o% 1e) 9ampshire $181<"181#& 4eor+e Ba>ter :pham $B.A. 1H8K& I -em'er o% the 1e) 9ampshire State 9ouse o% 0epresentatives $18 G"181<, 181!& 5ames Wilson $B.A. 1H8K& I -em'er o% the 1e) 9ampshire State 9ouse o% 0epresentatives $18 <"18 8, 1818"181G& William Cra%ts $B.A. 18 !& I -em'er o% South Carolina State 9ouse o% 0epresentatives $181 , 1818"181<& Colle+e Administrators and Pro%essors, 5ohn /hornton Oirkland $B.A. 1H8K& I President o% 9arvard :niversity $181 "1888& William 9arris $B.A. 1H8#& I President o% Colum'ia :niversity $1811"188K& Daniel Clarke Sanders $B.A. 1H88& I President o% :niversity o% (ermont $18 "181G& Samuel Deane $B.A. 1H# & I (ice President and /rustee o% Bo)doin Colle+e $1HKG"181<& Ben;amin A''ot $B.A. 1H88& I Principal o% Phillips 6>eter Academy P-assachusettsQ $1H88"18<8& William Dandrid+e Peck $B.A. 1H88& I Pro%essor o% 1atural 9istory at 9arvard :niversity $18 !"1888& 9enry Ware $B.A. 1H8!& I 9ollis Pro%essor o% Divinity at 9arvard :niversity $18 !"18G & Sidney Willard $B.A. 1HK8& I 9ancock Pro%essor o% 9e're) at 9arvard :niversity $18 H"18<1& Levi *ris'ie $B.A. 18 8& I Pro%essor o% Latin at 9arvard :niversity $1811"181H& Ashur Ware $B.A. 18 G& I Pro%essor o% 4reek at 9arvard :niversity $1811"181!& Levi 9ed+e $B.A. 1HK8& I Pro%essor o% Lo+ic and -etaphysics at 9arvard :niversity $181 "188H&? Al%ord Pro%essor o% 1atural 0eli+ion, -oral Philosophy and Civil Polity at 9arvard :niversity $188H"18<8& Ben;amin Pickman I 7verseer o% 9arvard :niversity $181 "1818&

/homas Da)es I 7verseer o% 9arvard :niversity $181 "188<& William Spooner I 7verseer o% 9arvard :niversity $181 "18<G& Samuel De>ter I 7verseer o% 9arvard :niversity $181 "181!& 5ohn Welles I 7verseer o% 9arvard :niversity $181 "18GG& 9arrison 4ray 7tis $B.A. 1H8<& I 7verseer o% 9arvard :niversity $181 "188!&? :.S. Senator $*"-assachusetts, 181H"1888&? -em'er o% -assachusetts State Senate $18 !"181<, 181G"181H&? -em'er o% the 9art%ord Convention $181G& William Prescott I 7verseer o% 9arvard :niversity $181 "1881& .saac Parker $B.A. 1H8#& I 7verseer o% 9arvard :niversity $181 "18< & 5ohn Phillips I 7verseer o% 9arvard :niversity $181 "188<& 1athaniel Bo)ditch I 7verseer o% 9arvard :niversity $181 "188H& 5osiah Luincy $B.A. 1HK & I 7verseer o% 9arvard :niversity $181 "188K& Church Leaders, Charles Lo)ell $B.A. 18 & I Pastor o% West PCon+re+ationalQ Church in Boston $18 #"18#1& Asa 6aton $B.A. 18 <& I 0ector o% 7ld 1orth Church in Boston $18 !"188K& 5ohn 6liot $B.A. 1HH8& I Pastor o% 1e) 1orth Church in Boston $1HHK"181<&? *ello) o% 9arvard :niversity $18 G"181<& *rancis Parkman $B.A. 18 H& I Pastor o% 1e) 1orth Church in Boston $181<"18GK& William 6llery Channin+ $B.A. 1HK8& I Pastor o% *ederal Street Church in Boston $18 <"18G8& 5ames *reeman $B.A. 1HHH& I -inister o% Oin+Ns Chapel in Boston $1H8H"18<!& Samuel Cooper /hacher $B.A. 18 G& I Pastor o% 1e) South Church in Boston $1811"181!& 5oseph 6merson $B.A. 1HK8& I Pastor o% the Con+re+ational Church in Beverly, -assachusetts $18 <"181#& 7thers, 4eor+e Ca'ot $9arvard 1HHK, honorary& I Presidin+ o%%icer o% the 9art%ord Convention $181G&? :.S. Senator $*"-assachusetts? 1HK1"1HK#&? 9odi;ah Baylies $B.A. 1HHH& I -em'er o% the 9art%ord Convention $181G& Stephen Lon+%ello) $B.A. 1HK8& I -em'er o% the 9art%ord Convention $181G&? :.S. Con+ressman $*"-aine, 188<"188!& 1athan Dane $B.A. 1HH8& I -em'er o% the 9art%ord Convention $181G&? -em'er o% the Continental Con+ress $1H8!"1H88& Stephen (an 0ensselaer ... $B.A. 1H88& Ima;or +eneral o% the (olunteers in the War o% 1818 *rancis Ca'ot Lo)ell $B.A. 1HK<& I %ounder o% Boston -anu%acturin+ Co. Pte>tile millsQ $181<"181H&? Lo)ell, -assachusetts named a%ter him Colum'ia :niversity 4raduates F War o% 1818 $1818"181!& and Second Bar'ary War $181!& Daniel D. /ompkins $B.A. 1HK!& I 4overnor o% 1e) Jork $18 H"181H& DeWitt Clinton $B.A. 1H8#& I -ayor o% 1e) Jork City $18 <"18 H, 18 8"181 , 1811"181!& 6+'ert Benson $B.A. 1H#!& I :.S. Con+ressman $*ederalist"1e) Jork, 1H8K"1HK<, 181<& 5otham Post 5r. $B.A. 1HK8& I :.S. Con+ressman $*ederalist"1e) Jork, 181<"181!& Cyrus Oin+ $B.A. 1HKG& I :.S. Con+ressman $*ederalist"-assachusetts, 181<"181H& William Peter (an 1ess $B.A. 1HKH& I 5ud+e o% the :.S. District Court %or the Southern District o% 1e) Jork $1818"188#& Samuel Provoost $B.A. 1H!8& I Protestant 6piscopal Bishop o% 1e) Jork $1H8H"181!& 4ouverneur -orris $B.A. 1H#8& I Chairman o% the 6rie Canal Commission $181 "181<& 5ohn -itchell -ason $B.A. 1H8K& I /rustee o% Colum'ia :niversity $1HK!"1811&? Provost o% Colum'ia :niversity $1811"181#& Dartmouth Colle+e 4raduates and War o% 1818 $1818"181!& and Second Bar'ary War $181!& Dudley Chase $A.B. 1HK1& I :.S. Senator $Anti"5acksonian"(ermont, 181<"181H, 188!"18<1& Samuel /a++art $A.B. 1HHG& I :.S. Con+ressman $*ederalist"-assachusetts, 18 <"181H& 6li;ah Bri+ham $A.B. 1HH8& I :.S. Con+ressman $*ederalist"-assachusetts 1811"181#& -artin Chittenden $A.B. 1H8K& I :.S. Con+ressman $*ederalist"(ermont, 18 <"181<&? 4overnor o% (ermont $181<"181!& Samuel Dinsmoor $A.B. 1H8K& I :.S. Con+ressman $0epu'lican"1e) 9ampshire, 1811"181<& A'i;ah Bi+elo) $A.B. 1HK!& I :.S. Con+ressman $*ederalist"-assachusetts, 181 "181!& 5ohn Samuel Sher'urne $A.B. 1HH#& I 5ud+e o% the :.S. District Court %or 1e) 9ampshire $18 G"18< & -oses Paul Payson $A.B. 1HK<& I President o% the 1e) 9ampshire State Senate $18 K, 181<"181!&? /rustee, Dartmouth Colle+e $181H"1888& Daniel Chipman $A.B. 1H88& I Speaker o% the (ermont State 9ouse o% 0epresentatives $181<"181G& Asa Lyon $A.B. 1HK & I -em'er o% the (ermont State 9ouse o% 0epresentatives P%rom 4rand .sleQ $181 "181G& 9eman Allen $A.B. 1HK!& I -em'er o% the (ermont State 9ouse o% 0epresentatives $1818"181H& 9enry 9u''ard $A.B. 18 <& I -em'er o% 1e) 9ampshire State 9ouse o% 0epresentatives $1818"181!, 181K"188 , 188<"188H& 6rastus 0oot $A.B. 1HK<& I -em'er o% 1e) Jork State Senate $1818"181!, 18G "18GG& Samuel C. Allen $A.B. 1HKG& I -em'er o% the -assachusetts State Senate $1818"181!& Al'ion O. Parris $A.B. 18 #& I -em'er o% -assachusetts State 9ouse o% 0ep. $181<"181G&? -assachusetts State Senator $181G"181!& Daniel Chipman $A.B. 1H88& I -em'er o% (ermont State 9ouse o% 0epresentatives $1HK8"18 8, 1818"181G, 1818, 1881&? Speaker o% (ermont State 9ouse o% 0epresentatives $181<"181G& Calvin 4oddard $A.B. 1H8#& I -em'er o% the 9art%ord Convention $181G&? -ayor o% 1or)ich, Connecticut $181G"18<G& Samuel Sumner Wilde $A.B. 1H8K& I -em'er o% the 9art%ord Convention $181G& 5ohn Wheelock $A.B. 1HH1& I President o% Dartmouth Colle+e $1HHK"181!& 5esse Appleton $A.B. 1HK8& I President o% Bo)doin Colle+e $18 H"181K& William 9. Wood)ard $A.B. 1HK8& I /reasurer o% Dartmouth Colle+e $18 !"181#& Alvan 9yde $A.B. 1H88& I (ice President o% Williams Colle+e $1818"18<<& Charles -arsh $A.B. 1H8#& I /rustee o% Dartmouth Colle+e $18 K"18GK&

Princeton :niversity 4raduates and the War o% 1818 $1818"181!& and Second Bar'ary War $181!& 5ames -adison $A.B. 1HH1& I President o% the :nited States $18 K"181H& William Branch 4iles $A.B. 1H81& I :.S. Senator $Democratic 0epu'lican"(ir+inia, 18 G"181!& 5ames A. Bayard Sr. $A.B. 1H8G& I :.S. Senator $*ederalist"Dela)are, 18 G"181<& David Stone $A.B. 1H88& I :.S. Senator $Democratic 0epu'lican"1orth Carolina, 18 1"18 H, 181<"181G& 5ohn /aylor $A.B. 1HK & I :.S. Senator $Democratic 0epu'lican"South Carolina, 181 "181#& 4eor+e -. Bi'' $A.B. 1HK8& I :.S. Senator $5acksonian"Oentucky, 1811"181G, 188K"18<!& 4eor+e W. Camp'ell $A.B. 1HKG& I :.S. Senator $Democratic 0epu'lican"/ennessee, 1811"181G, 181!"1818& David Bard $A.B. 1HH<& I :.S. Con+ressman $0epu'lican"Pennsylvania, 1HK!"1HKK, 18 <"181!& William Stephens Smith $A.B. 1HHG& I :.S. Con+ressman $*ederalist"1e) Jork, 181<"181!, 181!"181#& 0ichard Stockton $A.B. 1HHK& I :.S. Con+ressman $*ederalist"1e) 5ersey, 181<"181!& William Cra)%ord $A.B. 1H81D& I :.S. Con+ressman $0epu'lican"Pennsylvania, 18 K"181H& 5ohn 0hea $A.B. 1H8 & I :.S. Con+ressman $0epu'lican"/ennessee, 18 <"181!, 181H"188<& 1athaniel W. 9o)ell $A.B. 1H88& I :.S. Con+ressman $*ederalist"1e) Jork, 181<"181!& 4eor+e Cli%%ord -a>)ell $A.B. 1HK8& I :.S. Con+ressman $0epu'lican"1e) 5ersey, 1811"181<& /homas -. Bayly $A.B. 1HKG& I :.S. Con+ressman $*ederalist"(ir+inia, 181<"181!& William 4aston $A.B. 1HK#& I :.S. Con+ressman $*ederalist"1orth Carolina, 181<"181H& 4eor+e -. /roup $A.B. 1HKH& I :.S. Con+ressman $Democratic 0epu'lican"4eor+ia, 18 H"181!& 5ohn *orsyth $A.B. 1HKK& I :.S. Con+ressman $Democratic 0epu'lican"4eor+ia, 181<"1818, 188<"188H& Al%red Cuth'ert $A.B. 18 <& I :.S. Con+ressman $0epu'lican"4eor+ia, 181<"181#, 1881"188H& /homas Ward $A.B. 18 <D& I :.S. Con+ressman $0epu'lican"1e) 5ersey, 181<"181H& Stevenson Archer $A.B. 18 !& I :.S. Con+ressman $0epu'lican"-aryland, 1811"181H, 181K"1881& /homas /el%air $A.B. 18 !& I :.S. Con+ressman $0epu'lican"4eor+ia, 181<"181H& William 5ohnson 5r. $A.B. 1HK & I 5ustice o% the :.S. Supreme Court $18 G"18<G& 9enry Brockholst Livin+ston $A.B. 1HHG& I 5ustice o% the :.S. Supreme Court $18 #"188<& Pierpont 6d)ards $A.B. 1H#8& I 5ud+e o% the :.S. District Court o% Connecticut $18 #"188#& 4unnin+ Bed%ord 5r. $A.B. 1HH1& I 5ud+e o% the :.S. District Court o% Dela)are $1H8K"1818& David 9o)ell $A.B. 1H##& I 5ud+e o% the :.S. District Court %or 0hode .sland $1818"188G& Smith /hompson $A.B. 1H88& I 5ud+e o% the Supreme Court o% 1e) Jork $18 1"181G& Peter 6arly $A.B. 1HK8& I 5ud+e o% the Supreme Court o% 4eor+ia $18 H"181<& Aaron 7+den $A.B. 1HH<& I 4overnor o% 1e) 5ersey $1818"181<& Aaron Dickinson Woodru%% $A.B. 1HHK& I Attorney 4eneral o% 1e) 5ersey $1HK8"181H& 5ames Linn $A.B. 1H#K& I Secretary o% State o% 1e) 5ersey $18 K"1881& Andre) Oirkpatrick $A.B. 1HH!& I Chie% 5ustice o% the Supreme Court o% 1e) 5ersey $18 G"188G& Lucas Conrad 6lmendor% $A.B. 1H88& I 1e) Jork State Senator $181G"181H& /homas 5ohn Cla++et $A.B. 1H#G& I Protestant 6piscopal Bishop o% -aryland $1HK8"181#& 5ohn 9enry 9o'art $A.B. 1HK<& I Assistant Protestant 6piscopal Bishop o% the Diocese o% 1e) Jork $1811"181#& Ash'el 4reen $A.B. 1H8<, valedictorian& I President o% Princeton :niversity $1818"1888& Samuel Bayard $A.B. 1H8G& I /reasurer o% Princeton :niversity $181 "1888& 5aco' Lindley $A.B. 18 & I inau+ural President o% 7hio :niversity $18 K"1888& Ben;amin 0ush $A.B. 1H# & I /reasurer o% the :nited States -int at Philadelphia $1HKK"181<& Charles 6)in+ $A.B. 1HK8& I 0ecorder o% the City o% /renton, 1e) 5ersey $1818"181!& 5aco' 0adcli%% $A.B. 1H8<& I -ayor o% 1e) Jork City $181 "1811, 181!"1818&? /rustee o% Colum'ia :niversity $18 !"181H& 5ohn 0ead $A.B. 1H8H& I -em'er o% the Philadelphia City Council $18 K"181!&? -em'er o% Pennsylvania State Senate $181H"1818& 1athaniel 1iles $A.B. 1H##& I -em'er o% (ermont State 9ouse o% 0epresentatives $1H8G, 18 "18 <, 1818"181!&? /rustee o% Dartmouth Colle+e $1HK<"188 & Bro)n :niversity 4raduates and War o% 1818 $1818"181!& and Second Bar'ary War $181!& 5onathan 0ussell $A.B. 1HK1& I American Commissioner involved in ne+otiatin+ the treaty o% peace )ith 4reat Britain at 4hent in 181G Samuel Ward 5r. $A.B. 1HH1& I -em'er o% the 9art%ord Convention $181G&? President o% 1e) Jork -arine .nsurance Company $18 #"18 8& Ben;amin 9a=ard $A.B. 1HK8& I -em'er o% the 9art%ord Convention $181G&? -em'er o% 0hode .sland 9ouse o% 0epresentatives $18 K"18G & 5eremiah Bro)n 9o)ell $A.B. 1H8K& I :.S. Senator $Democratic 0epu'lican"0hode .sland, 1811"181H& William 9unter $A.B. 1HK1& I :.S. Senator $*ederalist"0hode .sland, 1811"1881&? /rustee o% Bro)n :niversity $18 "18<8& William Baylies $A.B. 1HK!& I :.S. Con+ressman $*ederalistCAnti"5acksonian"-assachusetts, 181<"181H, 18<<"18<!& 5ohn 0eed $A.B. 18 <& I :.S. Con+ressman $*ederalistCWhi+"-assachusetts, 181<"181H, 1881"18G1& 5ames Burrill 5r. $A.B. 1H88& I Attorney 4eneral o% 0hode .sland $1HKH"181G& Samuel 6ddy $A.B. 1H8H& I Secretary o% State o% 0hode .sland $1HKH"181K& 5onathan -a>cy $A.B. 1H8H& I President o% :niversity o% South Carolina $18 G"188 & Asa -esser $A.B. 1HK & I President o% Bro)n :niversity $18 8"188#& 1icholas Bro)n $A.B. 1H8#& I /reasurer o% Bro)n :niversity $1HK#"188!& 5ohn Simmons $A.B. 1HKH& I /reasurer o% -iddle'ury Colle+e $181 "188K& 5ames 6rvin $A.B. 1HKH& I /rustee o% :niversity o% South Carolina $18 K"181H& Ben;amin Adams $A.B. 1H88& I -em'er o% the -assachusetts State 9ouse o% 0epresentatives $18 K"181G& 1athan *. Di>on Sr. $A.B. 1HKK& I -em'er o% 0hode .sland State 9ouse o% 0epresentatives $181<"18< & /heodore *oster $A.B. 1HH & I -em'er o% 0hode .sland State 9ouse o% 0ep. $1HH#"88, 1818"181#&? /rustee o% Bro)n :niversity $1HKG"1888& 5ames Bro)n -ason $A.B. 1HK1& I -em'er o% 0hode .sland State 9ouse o% 0epresentatives $18 G"181G&? Speaker o% 0hode .sland State 9ouse o% 0epresentatives $*e'ruary 1818"-ay 181G&? /rustee o% Bro)n :niversity $18 G"181K&

1812 Presidential 0lection %<ovem"er K! 1812&

Democratic:#epu$lican %art* Federalist %art*

5ames -adison A.B. Princeton 1HH1 Presidential Candidate? President o% the :.S. 128 3lectoral -otes

6l'rid+e /. 4erry B.A. 9arvard 1H#8 (ice Presidential Candidate

DeWitt Clinton B.A. Colum'ia 1H8# Presidential Candidate? -ayor o% 1e) Jork City 8; 3lectoral -otes

5ared .n+ersoll B.A. Jale 1H## (ice Presidential Candidate

"homas 0efferson<s Criticism of !nternational an=ers during the War of 18122 !n 8is O&n Words

E0ver thin$ predicted " the enemies of "an,s! in the "e$innin$! is no' comin$ to pass( 2e are to *e ruined no) *y the delu+e o# *an7 paper! as )e )ere #ormerly *y the old %ontinental paper0 It is cruel that such re olutions in pri ate #ortunes should *e at the mercy o# a aricious ad enturers! )ho! instead o# employin+ their capital! i# any they ha e! in manu#actures! commerce! and other use#ul pursuits! ma7e it an instrument to *urden all the interchan+es o# property )ith their s)indlin+ pro#its! pro#its )hich are the price o# no use#ul industry o# theirs0 Prudent men must "e on their $uard in this $ame of )o"inTs alives! and ta,e care that the spar, does not e*tin$uish in their hands( I am an enemy to all *an7s discountin+ *ills or notes #or anythin+ *ut coin0 But our 'hole countr is so fascinated " this #ac,7lantern 'ealth! that the 'ill not stop short of its total and fatal e*plosion(L A Thomas #efferson! in a letter to 1r( Thomas Cooper on #anuar 1>! 181/ E4 do not remem"er the conversation "et'een us 'hich ou mention in ours of <ovem"er 1Kth! on our proposition to vest in Con$ress the e*clusive po'er of esta"lishin$ "an,s( "y opposition to it must ha e *een +rounded! not on ta7in+ the po)er #rom the States! *ut on lea in+ any esti+e o# it in e'istence! e en in the hands o# %on+ressD *ecause it )ould only ha e *een a chan+e o# the or+an o# a*use0 I ha e e er *een the enemy o# *an7s! not o# those discountin+ #or cash! *ut o# those #oistin+ their o)n paper into circulation! and thus *anishin+ our cash0 "y Eeal a+ainst those institutions )as so )arm and open at the esta*lishment o# the $an7 o# the 3nited States! that I )as derided as a maniac *y the tri*e o# *an7< mon+ers! )ho )ere see7in+ to #ilch #rom the pu*lic their s)indlin+ and *arren +ains0 $ut the errors o# that day cannot *e recalled0 1he e ils they ha e en+endered are no) upon us! and the (uestion is ho) )e are to +et out o# them? Shall 'e "uild an altar to the old paper mone of the )evolution! 'hich ruined individuals "ut saved the repu"lic! and "urn on that all the "an, charters! present and future! and their notes 'ith them= .or these are to ruin "oth repu"lic and individuals( This cannot "e done( The mania is too stron$( 4t has seiHed! " its delusions and corruptions! all the mem"ers of our $overnments! $eneral! special and individual( :ur circulatin$ paper of the last ear 'as estimated at t'o hundred millions of dollars( The ne' "an,s no' petitioned for! to the several le$islatures! are for a"out si*t millions additional capital! and of course one hundred and ei$ht millions of additional circulation! nearl dou"lin$ that of the last ear! and raisin$ the 'hole mass to near four hundred millions! or fort for one! of the 'holesome amount of circulation for a population of ei$ht millions circumstanced as 'e are! and ou remem"er ho' rapidl our mone 'ent do'n after our fort for one esta"lishment in the )evolution( 4 dou"t if the present trash can hold as lon$( 4 thin, the three hundred and ei$ht millions must "lo' all up in the course of the present ear! or certainl it 'ill "e consummated " the re7duplication to ta,e place of course at the le$islative meetin$s of the ne*t 'inter( Should not prudent men 'ho possess stoc, in an mone ed institution! either dra' and hoard the cash no' 'hile the can! or e*chan$e it for canal stoc,! or such other as "ein$ "ottomed on immova"le propert ! 'ill remain unhurt " the crush= 4 have "een endeavorin$ to persuade a friend in our le$islature to tr and save this State from the $eneral ruin " timel interference( 4 propose to him! .irst! to prohi"it instantl ! all forei$n paper( Secondl ! to $ive our "an,s si* months to call in all their five7 dollar "ills %the lo'est 'e allo'&5 another si* months to call in their ten7dollar notes! and si* months more to call in all "elo' fift dollars( This 'ould produce so $radual a diminution of medium! as not to shoc, contracts alread made77'ould leave finall ! "ills of such siHe as 'ould "e called for onl in transactions "et'een merchant and merchant! and ensure a metallic circulation for those of the mass of citiHens( But it 'ill not "e done( Gou mi$ht as 'ell! 'ith the sailors! 'histle to the 'ind! as su$$est precautions a$ainst havin$ too much mone ( 2e must "end then "efore the $ale! and tr to hold fast ourselves " some plan, of the 'rec,( God send us all a safe deliverance! and to ourself ever other species and de$ree of happiness(L A Thomas #efferson! in a letter to #ohn Adams! 'ritten at Monticello %Oir$inia& on #anuar 2/! 181/

2ar o# -.-/: Fr+aniEed %rime?

EF# all the enemies to pu*lic li*erty )ar is! perhaps! the most to *e dreaded! *ecause it comprises and de elops the +erm o# e ery other0 2ar is the parent o# armiesD #rom these proceed de*ts and ta'es5 and armies! and de"ts! and ta*es are the ,no'n instruments for "rin$in$ the man under the domination of the fe'( 4n 'ar! too! the discretionar po'er of the 0*ecutive is e*tended5 its influence in dealin$ out offices! honors! and emoluments is multiplied5 and all the means of seducin$ the minds! are added to those of su"duin$ the force! of the people( The same mali$nant aspect in repu"licanism ma "e traced in the ine6ualit of fortunes! and the opportunities of fraud! $ro'in$ out of a state of 'ar! and in the de$enerac of manners and of morals en$endered " "oth( 9o nation could preser e its #reedom in the midst o# continual )ar#are0 L A ?(S( Con$ressman #ames Madison! from Political @'servations! April 2-! 1DCK EBut the safet of the people of America a$ainst dan$ers from foreign force depends not onl on their for"earin$ to $ive A0st causes of 'ar to other nations! "ut also on their placin$ and continuin$ themselves in such a situation as not to invite hostilit or insult5 for it need not "e o"served that there are preten-e- as 'ell as 8ust causes of 'ar( 4t is too true! ho'ever dis$raceful it ma "e to human nature! that nations in $eneral 'ill ma,e 'ar 'henever the have a prospect of $ettin$ an thin$ " it5 na ! a"solute monarchs 'ill often ma,e 'ar 'hen their nations are to $et nothin$ " it! "ut for the purposes and o"8ects merel personal! such as thirst for militar $lor ! reven$e for personal affronts! am"ition! or private compacts to a$$randiHe or support their particular families or partisans( These and a variet of other motives! 'hich affect onl the mind of the soverei$n! often lead him to en$a$e in 'ars not sanctified " 8ustice or the voice and interests of his people(L A #ohn #a ! ?e-eralist <o( / E2A) is a rac,et( 4t al'a s has "een( 4t is possi"l the oldest! easil the most profita"le! surel the most vicious( 4t is the onl one international in scope( 4t is the onl one in 'hich the profits are rec,oned in dollars and the losses in lives( A rac,et is "est descri"ed! 4 "elieve! as somethin$ that is not 'hat it seems to the ma8orit of the people( :nl a small EinsideL $roup ,no's 'hat it is a"out( 4t is conducted for the "enefit of the ver fe'! at the e*pense of the ver man ( :ut of 'ar a fe' people ma,e hu$e fortunes(L A Smedle 1( Butler! )etired Ma8or General of the ?(S( Marine Corps! !ar is a Rac.et

#ames Madison

#ohn #a

Gen( Smedle 1( Butler E2h ! of course the people donTt 'ant 'ar( 2h 'ould some poor slo" on a farm 'ant to ris, his life in a 'ar 'hen the "est that he can $et out of it is to come "ac, to his farm in one piece= <aturall ! the common people donTt 'ant 'ar5 neither in )ussia nor in 0n$land! nor in America! nor for that matter in German ( That is understood( But! after all! it is the leaders of the countr 'ho determine the polic and it is al'a s a simple matter to dra$ the people alon$ 'hether it+s a democrac ! a fascist dictatorship! a parliament! or a communist dictatorship( M"ut voice or no voice! the people can al'a s "e "rou$ht to the "iddin$ of the leaders( That is eas ( All ou have to do is tell them the are "ein$ attac,ed! and denounce the pacifists for lac, of patriotism and e*posin$ the countr to dan$er( 4t 'or,s the same 'a in an countr (L A Hermann Goerin$! in a conversation 'ith ?(S( Arm Captain Gustave Gil"ert in a prison cell durin$ the <urem"er$ trials! on April 18! 1C/>( from <urem"er$ 1iar ! " Gustave M( Gil"ert E2ar is at "est "ar"arismM 4 am tired and sic, of 'ar( 4ts $lor is all moonshine( 4t is onl those 'ho have neither fired a shot! nor heard the shrie,s and $roans of the 'ounded 'ho cr aloud for "lood! more ven$eance! more desolation( 2ar is hell(L A ?(S( Arm Gen( 2illiam Tecumseh Sherman! Commandin$ General of the ?nited States Arm %18>C7188F&! in an address to the Michi$an Militar Academ on #une 1C! 18DC

Hermann Goerin$

Gen( 2illiam Sherman

Prelude to the <apoleonic 2ars N 2ar of 1812

British -ercantilism, *rench and .ndian War, F American 0evolution

/he Bank o% 6n+land, o%%icially kno)n as 2/he 4overnor and Company o% the Bank o% 6n+land3, )as esta'lished in 1#KG )hen mem'ers o% the 6n+lish Parliament passed the /onna+e Act o% 1#KG. /he :nited Oin+dom o% 4reat Britain, also kno)n as the union o% 6n+land and Scotland, )as esta'lished 'y an act o% Parliament in London on -ay 1, 1H H. $Jale :niversity )as %ounded in 1H 1, 9arvard :niversity )as %ounded in 1#G , and Princeton :niversity )as %ounded in 1HGH.& $Paintin+, A (ie) o% the 7ld Bank o% 6n+land, London, c.18 'y /homas 9osmer ShepherdCBank o% 6n+land -useum& $Source, http,CC))).''c.co.ukCartsCyourpaintin+sCpaintin+sCa"vie)"o%"the"old"'ank"o%"en+land"london"c"18 "! 8HK&

French and !ndian War: Organized Crime 6ponsored $* the an= of 3ngland?: /he British Army %i+hts a+ainst the *rench merchants and their 1ative American $.ndian& allies durin+ the *rench and .ndian War $1H!G"1H#<&. /he British 6mpire $led 'y British 6ast .ndia Company& ac@uired *rench territory east o% the -ississippi 0iver, includin+ Lue'ec. /he British 6ast .ndia Company, )ith the assistance o% Oin+ 4eor+e ... o% 4reat Britain, attempted to consolidate its control over the colonies a%ter 1H#<.

4merican =e olution: Family Feud or Fr+aniEed %rime?

3Patric, Henr Before the Oir$inia House of Bur$esses3! a paintin$ of Patric, Henr +s 34f this "e treason! ma,e the most of itJ3 speech a$ainst the Stamp Act of 1D>K( %Paintin$ " Peter .( )othermel&

Ben8amin .ran,lin flies a ,ite durin$ a li$htnin$ storm in an attempt to discover electricit durin$ one of his famous scientific discoveries( The "o on the left is Ben8amin .ran,linTs ille$itimate son 2illiam .ran,lin( Ben8amin .ran,linTs relationship 'ith his ille$itimate son 2illiam .ran,lin soured durin$ the American )evolution5 Ben8amin .ran,lin supported American independence and 'as a dedicated Patriot 'hile 2illiam .ran,lin! a lon$time Colonial Governor of <e' #erse ! remained a British Lo alist(

2illiam .ran,lin! the )o al Governor of <e' #erse ! 'as arrested " American soldiers durin$ the )evolutionar 2ar( 2illiam .ran,lin %1DF-7181/&! the ille$itimate son of Ben8amin .ran,lin! 'as the )o al Governor of <e' #erse from 1D>F until 1DD>(

Great Britain; Parliament A The Currenc Act5 April 1C! 1D>/

2H0)0AS $reat 6uantities of paper "ills of credit have "een created and issued in his Ma8est +s colonies or plantations in America! " virtue of acts! orders! resolutions! or votes of assem"l ! ma,in$ and declarin$ such "ills of credit to "e le$al tender in pa ment of mone ; and 'hereas such "ills of credit have $reatl depreciated in their value! " means 'hereof de"ts have "een dischar$ed 'ith a much less value than 'as contracted for! to the $reat discoura$ement and pre8udice of the trade and commerce of his Ma8est +s su"8ects! " occasionin$ confusion in dealin$s! and lessenin$ credit in the said colonies or plantations; for remed 'hereof! ma it please our most e*cellent Ma8est ! that it ma "e enacted5 and "e it enacted " the @in$+s most e*cellent ma8est ! " and 'ith the advice and consent of the lords spiritual and temporal! and commons! in this present parliament assem"led! and " the authorit of the same! That from and after the first da of Septem"er! one thousand seven hundred and si*t four! no act! order! resolution! or vote of assem"l ! in an of his Ma8est +s colonies or plantations in America! shall "e made! for creatin$ or issuin$ an paper "ills! or "ills of credit of an ,ind or denomination 'hatsoever! declarin$ such paper "ills! or "ills of credit! to "e le$al tender in pa ment of an "ar$ains! contracts! de"ts! dues! or demands 'hatsoever5 and ever clause or provision 'hich shall hereafter "e inserted in an act! order! resolution! or vote of assem"l ! contrar to this act! shall "e null and void( 44( And 'hereas the $reat 6uantities of paper "ills! or "ills of credit! 'hich are no' actuall in circulation and currenc in several colonies or plantations in America! emitted in pursuance of acts of assem"l declarin$ such "ills a le$al tender! ma,e it hi$hl e*pedient that the conditions and terms! upon 'hich such "ills have "een emitted! should not "e varied or prolon$ed! so as to continue the le$al tender thereof "e ond the terms respectivel fi*ed " such acts for callin$ in and dischar$in$ such "ills5 "e it therefore enacted " the authorit aforesaid! That ever act! order! resolution! or vote of assem"l ! in an of the said colonies or plantations! 'hich shall "e made to prolon$ the le$al tender of an paper "ills! or "ills of credit! 'hich are no' su"sistin$ and current in an of the said colonies or plantations in America! "e ond the times fi*ed for the callin$ in! sin,in$! and dischar$in$ of such paper "ills! or "ills of credit! shall "e null and void( 444( And "e it further enacted " the authorit aforesaid! That if an $overnor or commander in chief for the time "ein$! in all or an of the said colonies or plantations! shall! from and after the said first da of Septem"er! one thousand seven hundred and si*t four! $ive his assent to an act or order of assem"l contrar to the true intent and meanin$ of this act! ever such $overnor or commander in chief shall! for ever such offence! forfeit and pa the sum of one thousand pounds! and shall "e immediatel dismissed from his $overnment! and for ever after rendered incapa"le of an pu"lic office or place of trust( 4O( Provided al'a s! That nothin$ in this act shall e*tend to alter or repeal an act passed in the t'ent fourth ear of the rei$n of his late ma8est @in$ Geor$e the Second! intituled! An act to re$ulate and restrain paper "ills of credit in his Ma8est +s colonies or plantations of )hode 4sland and Providence plantations! Connecticut! the Massachuset+s Ba ! and <e' Hampshire! in America! and to prevent the same "ein$ le$al tenders in pa ments of mone ( O( Provided also! That nothin$ herein contained shall e*tend! or "e construed to e*tend! to ma,e an of the "ills no' su"sistin$ in an of the said colonies a le$al tender(

Source, 4reat Britain /he statutes at lar+e ... P%rom 188! to 18#HQ 'y Dan'y Pickerin+ Cam'rid+e, Printed 'y Benthem, %or C. Bathhurst ? London, 1H#8"18#K

Source; http;BBavalon(la'( ale(eduB18thYcentur Bcurenc YactY1D>/(asp

)esidents of Massachusetts read the Stamp Act in @in$ Street in Boston in 1D>K( 4n the "ac,$round is the State House( %Paintin$; http;BB'''($uten"er$(or$BfilesBFCF1>BFCF1>7hBFCF1>7h(htm&

British /roops land at Boston 9ar'or in 1H#8, %ive years a%ter the conclusion o% the *rench and .ndian War. $colored reproduction o% 1H#8 en+ravin+ 'y Paul 0evere&

Le%t, American colonists in Boston tarred and %eathered British ta> collectors durin+ the 1H# s and early 1HH s. 0i+ht, /he British Parliament, on 'ehal% o% the Bank o% 6n+land and the British 6ast .ndia Company, passed /he Stamp Act o% 1H#! $also kno)n as Duties in American Colonies Act o% 1H#!&, /o)nshend Acts o% 1H#H, and the /ea Act o% 1HH< in an attempt to %orce the colonists to pay their %air share o% de't that )as accumulated durin+ the *rench and .ndian War.

EBut in the s stem of la's 'hich has "een esta"lished for the mana$ement of our American and 2est 4ndian colonies! the interest of the home consumer has "een sacrificed to that of the producer 'ith a more e*trava$ant profusion than in all our other commercial re$ulations( A $reat empire has "een esta"lished for the sole purpose of raisin$ up a nation of customers 'ho should "e o"li$ed to "u from the shops of our different producers all the $oods 'ith 'hich these could suppl them( .or the sa,e of that little enhancement of price 'hich this monopol mi$ht afford our producers! the home consumers have "een "urdened 'ith the 'hole e*pense of maintainin$ and defendin$ that empire( .or this purpose! and for this purpose onl ! in the t'o last 'ars! more than t'o hundred millions have "een spent! and a ne' de"t of more than a hundred and sevent millions has "een contracted over and a"ove all that had "een e*pended for the same purpose in former 'ars( 1he interest o# this de*t alone is not only +reater than the )hole e'traordinary pro#it )hich it e er could *e pretended )as made *y the monopoly o# the colony trade! *ut than the )hole alue o# that trade! or than the )hole alue o# the +oods )hich at an a era+e ha e *een annually e'ported to the colonies0 It cannot *e ery di##icult to determine )ho ha e *een the contri ers o# this )hole mercantile systemD not the consumers! )e may *elie e! )hose interest has *een entirely ne+lectedD *ut the producers! )hose interest has *een so care#ully attended toD and amon+ this latter class our merchants and manu#acturers ha e *een *y #ar the principal architects0 4n the mercantile re$ulations! 'hich have "een ta,en notice of in this chapter! the interest of our manufacturers has "een most peculiarl attended to5 and the interest! not so much of the consumers! as that of some other sets of producers! has "een sacrificed to it(L A !ealth of Nations " Adam Smith! Boo, /! Chapter 8

/he Boston -assacre on -arch !, 1HH . British soldiers murdered American colonists on 'ehal% o% the British 6ast .ndia Company, the Bank o% 6n+land, and the 9ouse o% 9anover.

/he Boston /ea Party )as held in Boston on Decem'er 1#, 1HH<. /he British Parliament imposed ta>es on tea and other merchandises to pay %or e>penses related to the *rench and .ndian War and to su'sidi=e the British 6ast .ndia Company, a corporation approved 'y the 9ouse o% 9anover, a royal %amily %rom 9anover, 4ermany, to esta'lish tradin+ posts $colonies& in .ndia, A%rica, and 1orth America. 24uest )orkers3 $colonists& in Boston re'elled a+ainst the de't collectors $'ankers and usurers& as )ell as ta> collectors as a result o% the esta'lishment o% the Bank o% 6n+land money as the o%%icial currency in the colonies and the economic recession and endless de't that resulted %rom the ne) currency. Colonists )ere %orced to 'orro) money at a hi+h rate o% interest in order to sustain their 'usinesses and their %amilies.

The Midni$ht )ide of Paul )evere near Boston on April 18! 1DDK

The British )ed Arm %)edcoats& terroriHes American %0n$lish& colonists durin$ the Battle of Le*in$ton near Boston on April 1C! 1DDK( %<e' Gor, Pu"lic Li"rar &

The British )ed Arm %)edcoats& marches in Concord! Massachusetts Ba near Boston on April 1C! 1DDK( %<e' Gor, Pu"lic Li"rar &

Thomas #efferson! Ben8amin .ran,lin! )o$er Sherman! and other American citiHens %formerl British colonists& si$n the 1eclaration of 4ndependence in Philadelphia! Penns lvania on #ul /! 1DD>(

Mem"ers of the Sons of Li"ert pull do'n the statue of @in$ Geor$e 444 of Great Britain at Bo'lin$ Green in Lo'er Manhattan in <e' Gor, Cit on #ul C! 1DD>! after the 1eclaration of 4ndependence 'as read " General Geor$e 2ashin$ton to citiHens and his troops in <e' Gor, Cit (

$ritish =o**er $arons durin+ the =e olutionary 2ar

Kin+ Geor+e III o# the 3nited Kin+dom o# Great $ritain %)ei$n! :cto"er 2K! 1D>-A #anuar 2C! 182-&

Frederic7 9orth! /nd &arl o# Guil#ord >Lord 9orth@ Prime Minister of Great Britain %#an( 28! 1DD-A March 22! 1D82&5 Chancellor of the 0*che6uer %Sept(11! 1D>DA March 2D! 1D82&5 Chancellor of the ?niversit of :*ford %1DD271DC2&

&d)ard 1hurlo) Attorne General for 0n$land and 2ales %1DD171DD8&5 Lord Chancellor of Great Britain %1DD871D8F! 1D8F71DC2&

4le'ander 2edder*urn! -st &arl o# =osslyn Attorne General for 0n$land and 2ales %1DD871D8-&5 Solicitor General for 0n$land and 2ales %1DD171DD8&

Go ernors o# the $an7 o# &n+land: Samuel Beachcroft! Governor of the Ban, of 0n$land %1DDK71DDD& Peter Gaussen! Governor of the Ban, of 0n$land %1DDD71DDC& 1aniel Booth! Governor of the Ban, of 0n$land %1DDC71D81& 2illiam 0'er! %1D8171D8F& ,er "ajestys 4ttorney General #or &n+land and 2ales: 0d'ard Thurlo' %2> #anuar 1DD1 A 11 #une 1DD8&5 Lord Chancellor of Great Britain %1DD871D8F! 1D8F71DC2& Ale*ander 2edder"urn %11 #une 1DD8 A 21 #ul 1D8-&5 Solicitor General for 0n$land and 2ales %1DD171DD8& #ames 2allace %21 #ul 1D8- A 18 April 1D82& Llo d @en on %18 April 1D82 A 2 Ma 1D8F&

<athan Me er )othschild! a prominent British #e'ish "an,er durin$ the <apoleonic 2ars! 'as the son of )othschild "an,in$ patriarch Me er Amschel )othschild( <(M( )othschildTs father earned a hu$e fortune durin$ the )evolutionar 2ar(

General Geor$e 2ashin$ton and the Continental Arm cross the 1ela'are )iver on 1ecem"er 2K! 1DD>( Althou$h Americans %formerl British colonists& 'on the )evolutionar 2ar militaril ! Americans 'ere o"li$ated " the Treat of Paris %si$ned in Paris in 1D8F& to pa their de"t %QDK million " 1DC1& to British "an,ers and creditors(

American Arm General Geor$e 2ashin$ton and his soldiers endure the harsh 'inter at Oalle .or$e! Penns lvania! an area located 18 miles north'est of Philadelphia! durin$ the 'inter of 1DDD71DD8( An estimated 2!--- soldiers died from hun$er! disease! and e*posure at Oalle .or$e( Prussian arm officer and drillmaster Baron .riedrich von Steu"en arrived at Oalle .or$e and 'as assi$ned to trainin$ the soldiers and instillin$ discipline amon$ the remnants of the Continental Arm (

This paintin$ depicts the forces of British Ma8or General Charles Corn'allis! 1st Mar6uess Corn'allis %1DF8718-K& %'ho 'as not himself present at the surrender&! surrenderin$ to .rench and American forces after the Sie$e of Gor,to'n %Septem"er 28! 1D817 :cto"er 1C! 1D81& durin$ the American )evolutionar 2ar on :cto"er 1C! 1D81( The ?nited States $overnment commissioned Trum"ull to paint patriotic paintin$s! includin$ this piece! for them in 181D! pa in$ for the piece in 182-(

ETo this estimate of our a"ilities! let me add a 'ord as to the application of them! if! 'hen cleared of the present contest! and of the de"ts 'ith 'hich that 'ill char$e us! 'e come to measure force hereafter 'ith an 0uropean po'er( Such events are devoutl to "e deprecated( Goun$ as 'e are! and 'ith such a countr "efore us to fill 'ith people and 'ith happiness! 'e should point in that direction the 'hole $enerative force of nature! 'astin$ none of it in efforts of mutual destruction( It should *e our endea our to culti ate the peace and #riendship o# e ery nation! even of that 'hich has in8ured us most! 'hen 'e shall have carried our point a$ainst her( :ur interest 'ill "e to thro' open the doors of commerce! and to ,noc, off all its shac,les! $ivin$ perfect freedom to all persons for the vent of 'hatever the ma chuse to "rin$ into our ports! and as,in$ the same in theirs( 9e er )as so much #alse arithmetic employed on any su*ject! as that )hich has *een employed to persuade nations that it is their interest to +o to )ar0 2ere the money )hich it has cost to +ain! at the close o# a lon+ )ar! a little to)n! or a little territory! the ri+ht to cut )ood here! or to catch #ish there! e'pended in impro in+ )hat they already possess! in ma7in+ roads! openin+ ri ers! *uildin+ ports! impro in+ the arts! and #indin+ employment #or their idle poor! it )ould render them much stron+er! much )ealthier and happier0 1his I hope )ill *e our )isdom0 L A Thomas #efferson! Notes on the State of Birginia! Iuer 22 %EPu"lic revenue and e*pencesL& %'ritten in 1D8171D82&

?nited 0mpire Lo alists %British colonists in the Thirteen Colonies 'ho remained lo al to the British 0mpire! informall ,no'n as ELo alistsL& arrive in <e' Bruns'ic,! Canada from <e' Gor, Cit in circa 1D8F( .ollo'in$ the end of the )evolutionar 2ar and the si$nin$ of the Treat of Paris in 1D8F! Lo alist soldiers and civilians 'ere evacuated from <e' Gor, Cit and resettled in other colonies of the British 0mpire! primaril in Canada( An estimated /F!--- Lo alists emi$rated to Canada after the )evolutionar 2ar(

%rominent .ale >ni'ersit* 7raduates & #e'olutionar* War (1??@:1?81,

William Livin+ston B.A. Jale 1HG1 4overnor o% 1e) 5ersey $1HH#"1HK &

Philip Livin+ston B.A. Jale 1H<H -em'er o% 1e) Jork State Assem'ly $1HH#&? 1e) Jork State Senator $1HHH&

Lyman 9all B.A. Jale 1HGH 4overnor o% 4eor+ia $1H8<"1H8G&

7liver Wolcott B.A. Jale 1HGH Lieutenant 4overnor o% Connecticut $1H8#"1HK#&? 4overnor o% Connecticut $1HK#"1HKH&

Le)is -orris B.A. Jale 1HG# 1e) Jork State Senator $1HHH"1H81, 1H8G"1H88&

6=ra LN9ommedieu B.A. Jale 1H!G -em'er o% Continental Con+ress $1e) Jork, 1HHK"1H8<, 1H88&

0ev. 1aphtali Da++ett B.A. Jale 1HG8 President o% Jale :niversity $1H##"1HH8&

0ev. 6=ra Stiles B.A. Jale 1HG# President o% Jale :niversity $1HH8"1HK!&

0ev. 6lea=ar Wheelock B.A. Jale 1H<< inau+ural President o% Dartmouth Colle+e $1H#K"1HHK&

0ev. Samuel 9opkins B.A. Jale 1HG1 -inister o% the *irst Con+re+ationalist Church in 1e)port, 0hode .sland $1HH "18 <&

William Samuel 5ohnson B.A. Jale 1HGG President o% Colum'ia :niversity $1H8H"18 &

A'raham Bald)in B.A. Jale 1HH8 inau+ural President o% :niversity o% 4eor+ia $1H8#"18 &

5ohn S. 9o'art B.A. Jale 1H!H 5ustice o% the Supreme Court o% the State o% 1e) Jork $1HHH"1HK8&

5ared .n+ersoll B.A. Jale 1H## -em'er o% the Continental Con+ress $Pennsylvania, 1H8 &

1athan 9ale B.A. Jale 1HH< Continental Army spy? e>ecuted 'y the British Army in 1e) Jork City on Sunday, Septem'er 88, 1HH#

%rominent 8ar'ard >ni'ersit* 7raduates & #e'olutionar* War (1??@:1?81,

5ohn Adams B.A. 9arvard 1H!! -em'er o% the Continental Con+ress $-ass., 1HHG"1HHH&

Samuel Adams B.A. 9arvard 1HG -em'er o% the Continental Con+ress $-ass., 1HHG"1H81&

5ohn 9ancock B.A. 9arvard 1H!G 4overnor o% -assachusetts $1H8 "1H8!, 1H8H"1HK<&

0o'ert /reat Paine B.A. 9arvard 1HGK Attorney 4eneral o% -assachusetts $1HHH"1HK &

5onathan /rum'ull Sr. B.A. 9arvard 1H8H 4overnor o% Connecticut $1HH#"1H8G&

William Williams B.A. 9arvard 1H!1 -em'er o% the Continental Con+ress $Connecticut, 1HH#"1HHH&

*rancis Dana B.A. 9arvard 1H#8 -em'er o% the Continental Con+ress $-assachusetts, 1HHH" 1HH8, 1H8G&

6l'rid+e /. 4erry B.A. 9arvard 1H#8 -em'er o% the Continental Con+ress $-assachusetts, 1HH#" 1H8 , 1H8<"1H8!&

William 6llery B.A. 9arvard 1HGH -em'er o% Continental Con+ress $0hode .sland, 1HH#"1H8!&

William Cushin+ B.A. 9arvard 1H!1 Chie% 5ustice o% Supreme Court o% -assachusetts $1HHH"1H8K&

%rominent College of Ne& 0erse* A%rincetonB 7raduates & #e'olutionar* War (1??@:1?81,

9enry 2Li+ht 9orse 9arry3 Lee A.B. Princeton 1HH< -em'er o% the Continental Con+ress $1H8#"1H88&? 4overnor o% (ir+inia $1HK1"1HKG&

5ames -annin+ A.B. Princeton 1H#8 inau+ural President o% Bro)n :niversity $1H#!"1HK1&

5ames -adison A.B. Princeton 1HH1 -em'er o% the Continental Con+ress $1H8 "1H8<, 1H8H"1H88&? Dele+ate to the Constitutional Convention

William Paterson A.B. Princeton 1H#< Si+ner o% the Constitution? 5ustice o% the :.S. Supreme Court $1HK<"18 #&

7liver 6lls)orth A.B. Princeton 1H## -em'er o% the Continental Con+ress $1HH8"1H8<&? Dele+ate to the Constitutional Convention in 1H8H

0ev. 5ohn 6)in+ A.B. Princeton 1H!G Provost o% :niversity o% Pennsylvania $1HHK"18 8&? Pro%essor o% 1atural Philosophy at :niv. o% Pennsylvania $1H#8"1HH8&

5ohn Blair Smith A.B. Princeton 1HH< President o% 9ampden" Sydney Colle+e $1HHK"1H8K&

Samuel Stanhope Smith A.B. Princeton 1H#K President o% Princeton :niversity $1HK!"1818&? inau+ural President o% 9ampden"Sydney Colle+e $1HH!"1HHK&

0ichard Stockton A.B. Princeton 1HG8 -em'er o% the Continental Con+ress $1HH#&? Si+ner o% the Declaration o% .ndependence

Ben;amin 0ush A.B. Princeton 1H# -em'er o% the Continental Con+ress $1HH#"1HHH&? Si+ner o% the Declaration o% .ndependence

Jale :niversity 4raduates and /heir 7ccupation durin+ the 0evolutionary War $1HH!"1H81& 0ev. 1aphtali Da++ett $B.A. 1HG8& I President o% Jale :niversity $1H##"1HH8& 0ev. 6=ra Stiles $B.A. 1HG#& I President o% Jale :niversity $1HH8"1HK!& 0ev. 6lea=ar Wheelock $B.A. 1H<<& I inau+ural President o% Dartmouth Colle+e $1H#K"1HHK& 5ohn /rum'ull $B.A. 1H#H& I /reasurer o% Jale :niversity $1HH#"1H88& 6lihu Spencer $B.A. 1HG#& I /rustee o% Princeton :niversity $1H!8"1H8G& 0ev. Samuel 9opkins $B.A. 1HG1& I -inister o% the *irst Con+re+ationalist Church in 1e)port, 0hode .sland $1HH "18 <& 0ev. 6li=ur 4oodrich $B.A. 1H!8& I Pastor o% the Con+re+ational Church in Durham, Connecticut $1H!#"1HKH&? Secretary o% Jale :niversity $1HHH"1H88&? %ather o% %ormer :.S. Senator Chauncey 4oodrich 0ev. Ben;amin /rum'ull $B.A. 1H!K& I Pastor o% the Con+re+ational Church in 1orth 9aven, Connecticut $1H# "188 & 0ev. 1athanel 6mmons $B.A. 1H#H& I Pastor o% the Con+re+ational Church in *ranklin, -assachusetts $1HH<"188H&? li%elon+ *ederalist 5eremiah Leamin+ $B.A. 1HG!& I -inister o% /rinity Church in 1e)port, 0hode .sland $1HG8"1H!8&? -inister o% St. PaulNs Church in 1or)alk, Connecticut $1H!8"1HHH& 1athan 9ale $B.A. 1HH<& I Continental Army spy? e>ecuted 'y the British Army in 1e) Jork City on Sunday, Septem'er 88, 1HH# William Livin+ston $B.A. 1HG1& I 4overnor o% 1e) 5ersey $1HH#"1HK & 1athan Bro)nson $B.A. 1H#1& I 4overnor o% 4eor+ia $1H81"1H88& Darius Sessions $B.A. 1H<H& I Deputy 4overnor o% 0hode .sland $1H#K"1HH!& 5a'e= Bo)en 5r. $B.A. 1H!H& I Deputy 4overnor o% 0hode .sland $1HH8"1H8 , 1H81"1H8#&? -em'er o% 0hode .sland 4eneral Assem'ly $1HHH& 5ohn -orin Scott $B.A. 1HG#& I Secretary o% State o% 1e) Jork $1HH8"1H8G&? -em'er o% 1e) Jork State Senate $1HHH"1H88& 4eor+e Wyllys $B.A. 1H8K& I Secretary o% the Colony o% Connecticut $1H<G"1HK#&? /o)n Clerk o% 9art%ord, Connecticut $1H<8"1HK#& /homas Seymour $B.A. 1H!!& I -ayor o% 9art%ord, Connecticut $5une 18, 1HHG"-ay 88, 1818& 0ichard La) $B.A. 1H!1& I Chie% 5ud+e o% 1e) London County Court, Connecticut $1HH<"1H8G& 5ohn S. 9o'art $B.A. 1H!H& I 5ustice o% the Supreme Court o% the State o% 1e) Jork $1HHH"1HK8& /itus 9osmer $B.A. 1H!H& I -em'er $1HH<"1HH8& and Speaker $1HH#, 1HH8& o% Connecticut State 9ouse o% 0epresentatives? -em'er o% Connecticut State Senate $1HH8"1H8 &? 5ud+e o% the :nited States -aritime Court o% Appeals $1H8 & Ben;amin 9untin+ton $B.A.1H#1& I -em'er $1HH1"1H8 & and Speaker $1HH8"1HHK& o% Connecticut State 9ouse o% 0epresentatives Andre) Adams $B.A. 1H# & I -em'er $1HH#"1H81& and Speaker $1HHK"1H8 & o% Connecticut State 9ouse o% 0epresentatives 5oseph Platt Cooke $B.A. 1H! & I -em'er o% Connecticut State 9ouse o% 0epresentatives $1HH#, 1HH8, 1H8 "1H88, 1H8G& Amasa Learned $B.A. 1HH8& I -em'er o% Connecticut State 9ouse o% 0epresentatives $1HHK, 1H8!"1HK1& Le)is -orris $B.A. 1HG#& I 1e) Jork State Senator $1HHH"1H81, 1H8G"1H88& Philip Livin+ston $B.A. 1H<H& I -em'er o% 1e) Jork State Assem'ly $1HH#&? 1e) Jork State Senator $1HHH& 6=ra LN9ommedieu $B.A. 1H!G& I -em'er o% 1e) Jork State Assem'ly $1HHH"1H8<& Si+ners o% the Declaration o% .ndependence $1HH#&, Philip Livin+ston $B.A. 1H<H& I -em'er o% 1e) Jork State Assem'ly $1HH#&? 1e) Jork State Senator $1HHH& Le)is -orris $B.A. 1HG#& I 1e) Jork State Senator $1HHH"1H81, 1H8G"1H88& Lyman 9all $B.A. 1HGH& I 4overnor o% 4eor+ia $1H8<"1H8G& 7liver Wolcott $B.A. 1HGH& I Lieutenant 4overnor o% Connecticut $1H8#"1HK#&? 4overnor o% Connecticut $1HK#"1HKH& Si+ners o% the :.S. Constitution $1H8H& William Livin+ston $B.A. 1HG1& I 4overnor o% 1e) 5ersey $1HH#"1HK & William Samuel 5ohnson $B.A. 1HGG& I President o% Colum'ia :niversity $1H8H"18 A'raham Bald)in $B.A. 1HH8& I President o% :niversity o% 4eor+ia $1H8#"18 &

&

-em'ers o% the Continental Con+ress $1HHG"1H8H&, William Livin+ston $B.A. 1HG1& I -em'er o% the Continental Con+ress $1e) 5ersey, 5uly 8<, 1HHG"5une 88, 1HH#&? Dele+ate to the *ederal Constitutional Convention in Philadelphia in 1H8H? Si+ner o% the Constitution Silas Deane $B.A. 1H!8& I -em'er o% the Continental Con+ress $Connecticut, 1HHG"1HH#&? ne+otiated and si+ned the treaty 'et)een *rance and the :nited States in Paris on *e'ruary #, 1HH8 6liphalet Dyer $B.A. 1HG & I -em'er o% the Continental Con+ress $Connecticut, 1HHG"1HHK, 1H88"1H8<& Le)is -orris $B.A. 1HG#& I -em'er o% the Continental Con+ress $1e) Jork, 1HH!"1HHH&? Si+ner o% the Declaration o% .ndependence Philip Livin+ston $B.A. 1H<H& I -em'er o% the Continental Con+ress $1e) Jork, 1HH!"1HH8&? Si+ner o% the Declaration o% .ndependence Lyman 9all $B.A. 1HGH& I -em'er o% the Continental Con+ress $4eor+ia, 1HH!"1HHH&? Si+ner o% the Declaration o% .ndependence 7liver Wolcott $B.A. 1HGH& I -em'er o% the Continental Con+ress $Connecticut, 1HH#"1HH8, 1H8 "1H8<&? Si+ner o% the Declaration o% .ndependence 1athan Bro)nson $B.A. 1H#1& I -em'er o% the Continental Con+ress $4eor+ia, 1HHH& 0ichard La) $B.A. 1H!1& I -em'er o% the Continental Con+ress $Connecticut, 1HHH, 1H81"1H88& /itus 9osmer $B.A. 1H!H& I -em'er o% the Continental Con+ress $Connecticut, 1HH8& Andre) Adams $B.A. 1H# & I -em'er o% the Continental Con+ress $Connecticut, 1HH8&? Si+ner o% the Articles o% Con%ederation in 1HH8 6=ra LN9ommedieu $B.A. 1H!G& I -em'er o% the Continental Con+ress $1e) Jork, 1HHK"1H8<, 1H88& 5ared .n+ersoll $B.A. 1H##& I -em'er o% the Continental Con+ress $Pennsylvania, 1H8 &? -em'er o% the :nited States Constitutional Convention $1H8H& 5ohn -orin Scott $B.A. 1HG#& I -em'er o% the Continental Con+ress $1e) Jork, 1H8 "1H88& Ben;amin 9untin+ton $B.A. 1H#1& I -em'er o% the Continental Con+ress $Connecticut, 1H8 , 1H88, 1H8<, 1H88& 5ames Wads)orth $B.A. 1HG8& I -em'er o% the Continental Con+ress $Connecticut, 1H8G& 5oseph Platt Cooke $B.A. 1H! & I -em'er o% the Continental Con+ress $Connecticut, 1H8G"1H8!, 1H8H"1H88& Stephen -i> -itchell $B.A. 1H#<& I -em'er o% the Continental Con+ress $Connecticut, 1H8!"1H88& A'raham Bald)in $B.A. 1HH8& I -em'er o% the Continental Con+ress $4eor+ia, 1H8!, 1H8H, 1H88&? -em'er o% the :nited States Constitutional Convention $1H8H&

9arvard :niversity 4raduates and /heir 7ccupation durin+ the 0evolutionary War $1HH!"1H81& 4overnment 7%%icials, /homas 9utchinson $B.A. 1H8H& I 0oyal 4overnor o% the Province o% -assachusetts Bay $1H#K"1HHG&? a /ory durin+ the 0evolutionary War Andre) 7liver $B.A. 1H8G& I Lieutenant 4overnor o% the Province o% -assachusetts Bay $1HH1"1HHG& /homas 7liver $B.A. 1H!<& I Lieutenant 4overnor o% the Province o% -assachusetts Bay $Au+ust 8, 1HHGI-arch 1H, 1HH#& 5ohn Went)orth $B.A. 1H!!& I 4overnor o% the Colony o% 1e) 9ampshire $1H#H"1HH!&? Lieutenant 4overnor o% the Province o% 1ova Scotia 5ohn 9ancock $B.A. 1H!G& I 4overnor o% -assachusetts $1H8 "1H8!, 1H8H"1HK<& 5onathan /rum'ull Sr. $B.A. 1H8H& I 4overnor o% Connecticut $1HH#"1H8G& /homas Cushin+ $B.A. 1HGG& I Lieutenant 4overnor o% -assachusetts $1H8 "1H88& 0o'ert /reat Paine $B.A. 1HGK& I Attorney 4eneral o% -assachusetts $1HHH"1HK & 5ohn Adams $B.A. 1H!!& I Chie% 5ustice o% the Supreme Court o% -assachusetts $1HH!"1HH#& William Cushin+ $B.A. 1H!1& I Chie% 5ustice o% the Supreme Court o% -assachusetts $1HHH"1H8K& -eshech Weare $B.A. 1H<!& I Chie% 5ustice o% the Supreme Court o% 1e) 9ampshire $1HH#"1H88& 5onathan Belcher $B.A. 1H88& I Chie% 5ustice o% the Supreme Court o% the Province o% 1ova Scotia $1H!G"1HH#& David Se)all $B.A. 1H!!& I 5ustice o% the Superior Court o% -assachusetts $1HHH"1H8K& .ncrease Sumner $B.A. 1H#H& I -em'er o% -assachusetts State Senate $1H8 "1H88& Cale' Stron+ $B.A. 1H#G& I -em'er o% -assachusetts State 9ouse o% 0ep. $1HH#"1HH8&? -em'er o% -assachusetts State Senate $1H8 "1H88& 5ames Warren $B.A. 1HG!& I Sheri%% o% Plymouth County, -assachusetts $1H!H"1HH!&? Paymaster 4eneral o% the Continental Army $1HH#&? -em'er o% -assachusetts 9ouse o% 0epresentatives $1H##"1HH8, 1H8 , 1H8H& *rancis Dana $B.A. 1H#8& I :.S. -inister to 0ussia $1H8 "1H8<& Church Leaders, Charles Chauncy $B.A. 1H81& I Pastor o% *irst Con+re+ational Church in Boston $1H8H"1H8H& -ather Byles Sr. $B.A. 1H8!& I -inister o% 9ollis Street PCon+re+ationalQ Church in Boston $1H<8"1HH#&? a /ory durin+ the 0evolutionary War Samuel Cooper $B.A. 1HG<& I Pastor o% Brattle S@uare Church in Boston $1HGH"1H8<& -ather Byles 5r. $B.A. 1H!1& I 0ector o% 7ld 1orth Church in Boston $1H#8"1HH!& Simeon 9o)ard $B.A. 1H!8& I Pastor o% West PCon+re+ationalQ Church in Boston $1H#H"18 G& 5ohn 6liot $B.A. 1HH8& I Pastor o% 1e) 1orth Church in Boston $1HHK"181<& 5ohn Clarke $B.A. 1HHG& I Pastor o% *irst Con+re+ational Church in Boston $1HH8"1HK8& Peter /hacher $B.A. 1H#K& I Pastor o% Con+re+ational Church in -alden, -assachusetts $1HH "1H8G&? Chaplain o% -assachusetts 4eneral Court $1HH#"18 8& Colle+e 6ducators, Samuel Locke $A.B. 1H!!& I President o% 9arvard :niversity $1HH "1HH<& Samuel Lan+don $A.B. 1HG & I President o% 9arvard :niversity $1HHG"1H8 & 5oseph Willard $A.B. 1H#!& I President o% 9arvard :niversity $1H81"18 G& 6d)ard Wi++les)orth $B.A. 1HGK& I 9ollis Pro%essor o% Divinity at 9arvard :niversity $1H#!"1HK1& Stephen Se)all $B.A. 1H#1& I 9ancock Pro%essor o% 9e're) at 9arvard :niversity $1H#G"1H8!& 5ohn Lovell $B.A. 1H88& I Principal o% Boston Latin School $1H<G"1HH!&? British Loyalist )ho %led Boston in 1HH# 6liphalet Pearson $B.A. 1HH<& I Principal o% Phillips Academy Pprivate preparatory school in Andover, -assachusettsQ $1HH8"1H8#& 5ohn Phillips $B.A. 1H<!& I %ounder o% Phillips 6>eter Academy Pprivate preparatory school in 6>eter, 1e) 9ampshireQ in 1H81? trustee o% Dartmouth Colle+e $1HH<"1HK<& 7thers, 5oseph /rum'ull $B.A. 1H!#& I Commissary"4eneral o% the Continental Army $1HH!"1HHH&? Colonel in the Continental Army 5edediah 9untin+ton $B.A. 1H#<& I Bri+adier 4eneral o% the Continental Army? Collector o% Customs at Port o% 1e) London, Conn. $1H8K& 5oseph Warren $B.A. 1H!K& I -em'er o% the Committee o% Sa%ety? killed in action at the Battle o% Bunker 9ill on 5une 1H, 1HH! 1athaniel /racy $B.A. 1H#K& I -assachusetts shipo)ner? involved in capturin+ 18 British vessels and ammunition and supplies 'ound %or the British Army durin+ the American 0evolution $1HH!"1H8<&? contri'uted lar+e amount o% money and supply to the Continental Con+ress durin+ the American 0evolution? Deputy to -assachusetts 4eneral Court $1H81"1H88& -em'ers o% the Continental Con+ress, 5ohn 9ancock $B.A. 1H!G& I -em'er o% the Continental Con+ress $-assachusetts, 1HH!"1HH8&? President o% the Continental Con+ress $-ay 8G, 1HH!"7cto'er 1HHH& Samuel Adams $B.A. 1HG & I -em'er o% the Continental Con+ress $-assachusetts, 1HHG"1H81& 0o'ert /reat Paine $B.A. 1HGK& I -em'er o% the Continental Con+ress $-assachusetts, 1HHG"1HH#& /homas Cushin+ $B.A. 1HGG& I -em'er o% the Continental Con+ress $-assachusetts, 1HHG"1HH#& 5ohn Adams $B.A. 1H!!& I -em'er o% the Continental Con+ress $-assachusetts, 1HHG"1HHH& William 9ooper $B.A. 1H# & I -em'er o% the Continental Con+ress $1orth Carolina, 1HHG"1HHH& William Williams $B.A. 1H!1& I -em'er o% the Continental Con+ress $Connecticut, 1HH#"1HHH& 6l'rid+e 4erry $B.A. 1H#8& I -em'er o% the Continental Con+ress $-assachusetts, 1HH#"1H8 , 1H8<"1H8!& William 6llery $B.A. 1HGH& I -em'er o% the Continental Con+ress $0hode .sland, 1HH#"1H8!& *rancis Dana $B.A. 1H#8& I -em'er o% the Continental Con+ress $-assachusetts, 1HHH"1HH8, 1H8G& 5ames Lovell $B.A. 1H!#& I -em'er o% the Continental Con+ress $-assachusetts, 1HHH"1H88& 5ohn Went)orth 5r. $B.A. 1H#8& I -em'er o% the Continental Con+ress $1e) 9ampshire, 1HH8& 4eor+e Partrid+e $B.A. 1H#8& I -em'er o% the Continental Con+ress $-assachusetts, 1HHK"1H8!& Artemas Ward $B.A. 1HG8& I -em'er o% the Continental Con+ress $-assachusetts, 1H8 "1H81& Samuel 7s+ood $B.A. 1HH & I -em'er o% the Continental Con+ress $-assachusetts, 1H81"1H8G& 5onathan 5ackson $B.A. 1H#1& I -em'er o% the Continental Con+ress $-assachusetts, 1H88& 5ohn Lo)ell $B.A. 1H# & I -em'er o% the Continental Con+ress $-assachusetts, 1H88& A'iel *oster $B.A. 1H!#& I -em'er o% the Continental Con+ress $1e) 9ampshire, 1H8<"1H8!&

0u%us Oin+ $B.A. 1HHH& I -em'er o% the Continental Con+ress $-assachusetts, 1H8G"1H8H& 1athan Dane $B.A. 1HH8& I -em'er o% the Continental Con+ress $-assachusetts, 1H8!"1H88& Samuel Allyne 7tis $B.A. 1H!K& I -em'er o% the Continental Con+ress $-assachusetts, 1H8H"1H88& 4eor+e /hatcher $B.A. 1HH#& I -em'er o% the Continental Con+ress $-assachusetts, 1H8H"1H88& Paine Win+ate $B.A. 1H!K& I -em'er o% the Continental Con+ress $1e) 9ampshire, 1H88& 5ohn Da)son $B.A. 1H88& I -em'er o% the Continental Con+ress $(ir+inia, 1H88& Si+ners o% the Declaration o% .ndependence $5uly G, 1HH#&, Samuel Adams $B.A. 1HG & William 6llery $B.A. 1HGH& 0o'ert /reat Paine $B.A. 1HGK& William Williams $B.A. 1H!1& 5ohn 9ancock $B.A. 1H!G& 5ohn Adams $B.A. 1H!!& William 9ooper $B.A. 1H# & 6l'rid+e 4erry $B.A. 1H#8& Si+ners o% the Articles o% Con%ederation $5uly K, 1HH8&, *rancis Dana $B.A. 1H#8&? 5ohn Went)orth 5r. $B.A. 1H#8& Si+ners o% the Constitution $Septem'er 1H, 1H8H&, 0u%us Oin+ $B.A. 1HHH& Dele+ates to the Constitutional Convention in 1H8H, *rancis Dana $B.A. 1H#8&? 6l'rid+e 4erry $B.A. 1H#8& 5ohn Pickerin+ $B.A. 1H#1&? Ben;amin West $B.A. 1H#8&

9arvard :niversity 4raduates and /heir 7ccupation durin+ the *rench and .ndian War $1H!G"1H#<& 4overnment 7%%icials, Bennin+ Went)orth $B.A. 1H1!& I 0oyal 4overnor o% the Colony o% 1e) 9ampshire $1HG1"1H##& 5onathan Belcher $B.A. 1#KK& I 4overnor o% the Province o% 1e) 5ersey $1HGH"1H!H& Spencer Phips $B.A. 1H <& I Lieutenant 4overnor o% the Province o% -assachusetts Bay $1H<8"1H!H&? Actin+ 4overnor o% the Province o% -assachusetts Bay $1HGK"1H!<, Septem'er 8!, 1H!#"April G, 1H!H&? died in o%%ice 5eremiah 4ridley $B.A. 1H8!& I Attorney 4eneral o% the Province o% -assachusetts Bay $1H!H"1H#H&? 4rand -aster *reemason %or all o% 1orth America $1HGK"1H#H& /homas 9utchinson $B.A. 1H8H& I -em'er o% -assachusetts 4overnorNs Council $1HGK"1H##&? Chie% 5ustice o% the -assachusetts Superior Court o% 5udicature PSupreme CourtQ $1H#1"1H#K&? -em'er $1H<H"1H<8, 1HG "1HGK& and Speaker $1HG#"1HG8& o% -assachusetts 9ouse o% 0epresentatives? Lieutenant 4overnor o% the Province o% -assachusetts Bay $1H!8"1HH1& Peter 7liver $B.A. 1H< & I 5ustice $1H!#"1HH8& and Chie% 5ustice $1HH8"1HH!& o% the Supreme Court o% -assachusetts Bay 5onathan Belcher $B.A. 1H88& I Chie% 5ustice o% the Supreme Court o% the Province o% 1ova Scotia $1H!G"1HH#& 5ames Warren $B.A. 1HG!& I Sheri%% o% Plymouth County, -assachusetts Bay $1H!H"1HH!& Andre) 7liver $B.A. 1H8G& I Secretary o% the Province o% -assachusetts Bay $1H!#"1HH1&? 'rother o% Peter 7liver $B.A. 1H< & Andre) 7liver $B.A. 1HGK& I 5ud+e o% the .n%erior Court o% Common Pleas %or 6sse> County P-assachusettsQ $1H#1"1HH!&? -em'er o% -assachusetts 4eneral Court %rom Salem $1H#8"1H#H& .srael Williams $B.A. 1H8H& I 5ud+e o% the 9ampshire County Court o% Common Pleas P-assachusettsQ $1H!8"1HHG&? -em'er o% -assachusetts 4overnorNs Council $1H#1"1H#H&? a /ory durin+ the 0evolutionary War 6li;ah Williams $B.A. 1H<8& I 5ud+e o% the 9ampshire County Court o% Common Pleas P-assachusettsQ $1H#1"1H#<& Pastors and -inisters o% Boston, 0ev. /imothy Cutler $B.A. 1H 1& I 0ector o% 7ld 1orth Church PChrist ChurchQ in Boston $1H8<"1H#!& 5oseph Se)all $B.A. 1H H& I Pastor o% 7ld South Church in Boston $1H1<"1H#K& /homas *o>cro%t $B.A. 1H1G& I Pastor o% *irst Con+re+ational Church in Boston $1H1H"1H#K& Samuel Checkley $B.A. 1H1!& I Pastor o% 1e) South Church in Boston $1H1K"1H#K& Charles Chauncy $B.A. 1H81& I Pastor o% *irst Con+re+ational Church in Boston $1H8H"1H8H& -ather Byles Sr. $B.A. 1H8!& I -inister o% 9ollis Street PCon+re+ationalQ Church in Boston $1H<8"1HH#& Samuel Cooper $B.A. 1HG<& I Pastor o% Brattle S@uare Church in Boston $1HGH"1H8<& 5onathan -ayhe) $B.A. 1HGH& I Pastor o% West PCon+re+ationalQ Church in Boston $1HGH"1H##& 7thers, 6d)ard 9olyoke $B.A. 1H !& I President o% 9arvard :niversity $1H<H"1H#K& 0ev. /homas Clap $B.A. 1H88& I President P0ectorQ o% Jale :niversity $1HG "1H##& 6d)ard Wi++les)orth $B.A. 1H1 & I 9ollis Pro%essor o% Divinity at 9arvard :niversity $1H81"1H#!& 5ohn Lovell $B.A. 1H88& I Principal o% Boston Latin School $1H<G"1HH!&? British Loyalist )ho %led Boston in 1HH# Samuel Lan+don $B.A. 1HG & I Pastor o% 1orth Church in Portsmouth, 1e) 9ampshire $1HGH"1HHG&

Princeton :niversity 4raduates and /heir 7ccupation durin+ the 0evolutionary War $1HH!"1H81& 4overnment 7%%icials, Ale>ander -artin $A.B. 1H!#& I 4overnor o% 1orth Carolina $1H81"1H8!, 1H8K"1HK8& 5oseph 0eed $A.B. 1H!H& I Attorney 4eneral o% Pennsylvania $1HH8"1H8 & William Brad%ord 5r. $A.B. 1HH8& I Attorney 4eneral o% Pennsylvania $1H8 "1HK1& Wai+htstill Avery $A.B. 1H##& I Attorney 4eneral o% 1orth Carolina $1HHH"1H81& Luther -artin $A.B. 1H##& I Attorney 4eneral o% -aryland $1HH8"18 !, 1818"1888& Samuel Livermore $A.B. 1H!8& I Attorney 4eneral o% 1e) 9ampshire $1HH#"1H8 & 1athaniel 1iles $A.B. 1H##& I-em'er o% Connecticut State Le+islature $1HHK"1H81&? 5ud+e o% the (ermont Supreme Court $1H8G"1H88& David 0amsay $A.B. 1H#!& I -em'er o% the South Carolina State Le+islature $1HH#"1H8 , 1H81"1H88, 1H8G"1HK &? President o% the South Carolina State Senate $1HK1"1HKH& Colle+e Presidents and Church 7%%icials, 5ohn 6)in+ $A.B. 1H!G& I Provost o% the :niversity o% Pennsylvania $1HHK"18 8& 5ames -annin+ $A.B. 1H#8& I inau+ural President o% Bro)n :niversity P0hode .slandQ $1H#!"1HK1& Samuel Stanhope Smith $A.B. 1H#K, salutatorian& I inau+ural President P0ectorQ o% 9ampden"Sydney Colle+e P(ir+iniaQ $1HH!"1HHK& 5ohn Blair Smith $A.B. 1HH<, valedictorian& I President o% 9ampden"Sydney Colle+e $1HHK"1H8K& .saac Skillman $A.B. 1H##& I Pastor o% Second Baptist Church o% Boston $1HH<"1H8H& 1athaniel Whitaker $A.B. 1H!8& I -inister o% the /hird Church in Salem, -assachusetts $1H#K"1H8G& Samuel Sprin+ $A.B. 1HH1& I Pastor o% 1orth Con+re+ational Church in 1e)'uryport, -assachusetts $1HHH"181K& -em'ers o% the Continental Con+ress, 0ichard Stockton $A.B. 1HG8& I -em'er o% the Continental Con+ress $1HH#&? Si+ner o% the Declaration o% .ndependence Ben;amin 0ush $A.B. 1H# & I -em'er o% the Continental Con+ress $1HH#"1HHH&? Si+ner o% the Declaration o% .ndependence? /reasurer o% the :nited States -int at Philadelphia $1HKK"181<& 5onathan Dickinson Ser+eant $A.B. 1H#8& I -em'er o% the Continental Con+ress $*e'ruary 1G, 1HH#"5une 88, 1HH#, 1ovem'er < , 1HH#" Septem'er #, 1HHH& 5onathan Bayard Smith $A.B. 1H# & I -em'er o% the Continental Con+ress $1HHH"1HH8& 5oseph 0eed $A.B. 1H!H& I -em'er o% the Continental Con+ress $1HH8& 1athaniel Scudder $A.B. 1H!1& I -em'er o% the Continental Con+ress $1HH8"1HHK& 5esse 0oot $A.B. 1H!#& I -em'er o% the Continental Con+ress $1HH8"1H88& 0ichard 9utson $A.B. 1H#!& I -em'er o% the Continental Con+ress $1HH8"1HHK&? Si+ner o% the Articles o% Con%ederation? Lieutenant 4overnor o% South Carolina $1H88"1H8<& 7liver 6lls)orth $A.B. 1H##& I -em'er o% the Continental Con+ress $1HH8"1H8<&? Dele+ate to the Constitutional Convention in 1H8H 5ohn 9enry $A.B. 1H#K& I -em'er o% the Continental Con+ress $1HH8"1H8 , 1H8!"1H8#& *rederick *relin+huysen $A.B. 1HH & I -em'er o% the Continental Con+ress $1HHK& William Churchill 9ouston $A.B. 1H#8& I -em'er o% the Continental Con+ress $1HHK"1H81, 1H8G"1H8!&? Dele+ate to the Constitutional Convention in Philadelphia in 1H8H William Burnet $A.B. 1HGK& I -em'er o% the Continental Con+ress $Decem'er 11, 1H8 "April 1, 1H81&? sur+eon +eneral o% the eastern district o% the :nited States $1HH#"1H8<& 5oseph -ont+omery $A.B. 1H!!& I -em'er o% the Continental Con+ress $1H8 "1H88& Samuel Livermore $A.B. 1H!8& I -em'er o% the Continental Con+ress $1H8 "1H88, 1H8!"1H8#& 5ames -adison 5r. $A.B. 1HH1& I -em'er o% the Continental Con+ress $1H8 "1H8<, 1H8H"1H88&? Dele+ate to the Constitutional Convention David 0amsay $A.B. 1H#!& I -em'er o% the Continental Con+ress $1H88"1H8<, 1H8!"1H8#& David 9o)ell $A.B. 1HH#& I -em'er o% the Continental Con+ress $1H88"1H8!& 5ohn Beatty $A.B. 1H#K& I -em'er o% the Continental Con+ress $1H8G"1H8!& 5ames -annin+ $A.B. 1H#8& I -em'er o% the Continental Con+ress $1H8#&? President o% Bro)n :niversity $1H#!"1HK1& 9enry 2Li+ht 9orse 9arry3 Lee $A.B. 1HH<& I -em'er o% the Continental Con+ress $1H8#"1H88& 1athaniel 0amsey $A.B. 1H#H& I -em'er o% the Continental Con+ress $1H8#"1H8H&? :nited States -arshal %or -aryland $1HK "1HK8& 5ames 0andolph 0eid $A.B.& I -em'er o% the Continental Con+ress $1H8H"1H88& Pierpont 6d)ards $A.B. 1H#8& I -em'er o% the Continental Con+ress $1H88& William Paterson $A.B. 1H#<& I Dele+ate to the Constitutional Convention in 1H8H? Si+ner o% the Constitution 5onathan Dayton $A.B. 1HH#& I Dele+ate to the Constitutional Convention in 1H8H? Si+ner o% the Constitution? Dele+ate to the Continental Con+ress $1H8H"1H88&

/he Bank o% 1e) Jork )as esta'lished in 1e) Jork City on 5une K, 1H8G. Ale>ander 9amilton, )ho served as the %irst Secretary o% the /reasury under President 4eor+e Washin+ton, served as a director o% the Bank o% 1e) Jork %rom 1H8G to 1H88. /he Bank o% 1e) Jork mer+ed )ith -ellon *inancial Corporation on 5uly 8, 8 H.

Presidents of the Ban, of <e' Gor, <ame; 0lected; Ale*ander Mc1ou$al #une C! 1D8/ #eremiah 2ads'orth Ma C! 1D8K 4saac )oosevelt Ma 8! 1D8>! Gulian Oerplanc, Ma 11! 1DC1 <icholas Gouverneur 1ecem"er D! 1DCC Herman Le )o #ul 2C! 18-2 Matthe' Clar,son Ma 8! 18-/ Charles 2il,es Ma 12! 182K Cornelius He er <ovem"er 1K! 18F2 #ohn :othout #anuar 1-! 18/F Anthon P( Halse .e"ruar 2! 18K8 Charles P( Leverich Ma 1/! 18>F Charles M( .r #anuar 18! 18D>

Term of :ffice 0nded; )esi$ned Ma C! 1D8K( )esi$ned Ma 8! 1D8>( )esi$ned Ma 2! 1DC1( 1ied <ov( 2-! 1DCC( 1ied #ul 1/! 18-2( )esi$ned Ma 8! 18-/( )esi$ned April 1F! 182K( )esi$ned :ct( F-! 18F2( 1ied #anuar K! 18/F( 1ied #anuar 2C! 18K8( )esi$ned Ma 11! 18>F( 1ied #anuar 1-! 18D>(

)Cuasi War+ &

ar$ar* Wars: Organized Crime?

:.S. 1avy Lieutenant Stephen Decatur 5r. 'ecomes the %irst American military hero since the 0evolutionary War )hen he leads a %orce o% :.S. -arines in the capture o% /ripoli $present"day capital city o% Li'ya& and the destruction o% a portion o% the /ripolitan %leet in Au+ust 18 G durin+ the *irst Bar'ary War $18 1"18 !&. /his action is memoriali=ed in the -arine Corps 9ymn, DFrom the 8alls of 5ontezuma2 "o the shores of "ripoli4< /he Bar'ary pirates attempted to e>tort money %rom American merchants in the -editerranean Sea.

%rominent .ale >ni'ersit* 7raduates & "he First ar$ar* War (18E1:18E@,

Samuel W. Dana B.A. Jale 1HH! :.S. Con+ressman $*"Conn., 1HKH"181 &

Ben;amin /allmad+e B.A. Jale 1HH< :.S. Con+ressman $*"Conn., 18 1"181H&

4ideon 4ran+er B.A. Jale 1H8H Postmaster"4eneral o% the :.S. $18 1"181G&

Stephen 0. Bradley B.A. Jale 1HH! :.S. Senator $D0"(ermont, 1HK1"1HK!? 18 1"181<&

5ames 9illhouse B.A. Jale 1HH< :.S. Senator $*"Conn., 1HK#"181 &

A'raham 5arvis B.A. Jale 1H#1 Protestant 6piscopal Bishop %or the 6piscopal Diocese o% Connecticut $1HKH"181<&

0ev. /imothy D)i+ht B.A. Jale 1H#K President o% Jale :niversity $1HK!"181H&

5ohn Cotton Smith B.A. Jale 1H8< :.S. Con+ressman $*"Conn., 18 "18 #&

Christopher 6llery B.A. Jale 1H8H :.S. Senator $D0"0hode .sland, 18 1"18 !&

A'raham Bald)in B.A. Jale 1HH8 :.S. Senator $D0"4eor+ia, 1HKK"18 H&

Jale :niversity 4raduates and *irst Bar'ary War $18 1"18 !& 4overnment 7%%icials, 4ideon 4ran+er $B.A. 1H8H& I Postmaster"4eneral o% the :nited States $18 1"181G& 0ichard La) $B.A. 1H!1& I 5ud+e o% the :.S. District Court %or the District o% Connecticut $1H8K"18 #& 5ohn S. 9o'art $B.A. 1H!H& I 5ud+e o% the :.S. District Court %or the District o% 1e) Jork $1HK8"18 !& :riah /racy $B.A. 1HH8& I :.S. Senator $*ederalist"Connecticut, 1HK#"18 H& 5ames 9illhouse $B.A. 1HH<& I :.S. Senator $*ederalist"Connecticut, 1HK#"181 & Stephen 0. Bradley $B.A. 1HH!& I :.S. Senator $Democratic 0epu'lican"(ermont, 1HK1"1HK!? 18 1"181<& 1athaniel Chipman $B.A. 1HHH& I :.S. Senator $*ederalist"(ermont, 1HKH"18 <& .srael Smith $B.A. 1H81& I :.S. Senator $0epu'lican"(ermont, 18 <"18 H&? :.S. Con+ressman $0epu'lican"(ermont, 1HK1"1HKH, 18 1"18 <& Simeon 7lcott $B.A. 1H#1& I :.S. Senator $*ederalist"1e) 9ampshire, 18 1"18 !& Christopher 6llery $B.A. 1H8H& I :.S. Senator $Democratic 0epu'lican"0hode .sland, 18 1"18 !& A'raham Bald)in $B.A. 1HH8& I :.S. Senator $Democratic 0epu'lican"4eor+ia, 1HKK"18 H& 0o+er 4ris)old $B.A. 1H8 & I :.S. Con+ressman $*ederalist"Connecticut, 1HK!"18 !& Samuel W. Dana $B.A. 1HH!& I :.S. Con+ressman $*ederalist"Connecticut, 1HKH"181 & 5ohn Davenport $B.A. 1HH & I :.S. Con+ressman $*ederalist"Connecticut, 1HKK"181H& 5ohn Cotton Smith $B.A. 1H8<& I :.S. Con+ressman $*ederalist"Connecticut, 18 "18 #& Ben;amin /allmad+e $B.A. 1HH<& I :.S. Con+ressman $*ederalist"Connecticut, 18 1"181H& 6lias Perkins $B.A. 1H8#& I :.S. Con+ressman $*ederalist"Connecticut, 18 1"18 <& Simeon Bald)in $B.A. 1H81& I :.S. Con+ressman $*ederalist"Connecticut, 18 <"18 !& 5ohn Paterson $B.A. 1H#8& I :.S. Con+ressman $0epu'lican"1e) Jork, 18 <"18 !& 4aylord 4ris)old $B.A. 1H8H& I :.S. Con+ressman $*ederalist"1e) Jork, 18 <"18 !& 9enry Walter Livin+ston $B.A. 1H8#& I :.S. Con+ressman $*ederalist"1e) Jork, 18 <"18 H& -anasseh Cutler $B.A. 1H#!& I :.S. Con+ressman $*ederalist"-assachusetts, 18 1"18 !& 5ohn /read)ell $B.A. 1H#H& I Lieutenant 4overnor o% Connecticut $1HKH"18 K& /homas Seymour $B.A. 1H!!& I -ayor o% 9art%ord, Connecticut $5une 18, 1HHG"-ay 88, 1818& 6li=ur 4oodrich $B.A. 1HHK& I -ayor o% 1e) 9aven, Connecticut $18 <"1888&? -em'er o% Connecticut State 9ouse o% 0ep. $1HK!"18 8& 0ichard La) $B.A. 1H!1& I -ayor o% 1e) London, Connecticut $1H8G"18 #& Asher -iller $B.A. 1HH8& I -ayor o% -iddleto)n, Connecticut $1HK1"1881& 5onathan Stur+es $B.A. 1H!K& I 5ud+e o% the Supreme Court o% Connecticut $1HK<"18 !& Stephen -. -itchell $B.A. 1H#<& I 5ud+e o% the Supreme Court o% Connecticut $1HK!"18 H& Sephaniah S)i%t $B.A. 1HH8& I 5ud+e o% the Supreme Court o% Connecticut $18 1"181G& 5ohn /rum'ull $B.A. 1H#H& I 5ud+e o% the Supreme Court o% Connecticut $18 1"181K& 5onathan 7+den -oseley $B.A. 1H8 & I StateNs Attorney o% -iddlese> County, Connecticut $18 1"18 !& Le)is Burr Stur+es $B.A. 1H88& I -em'er o% the Connecticut State 9ouse o% 0epresentatives $1HKG"18 <& /imothy Pitkin $B.A. 1H8!& I -em'er o% the Connecticut State 9ouse o% 0epresentatives $1HK , 1HK8, 1HKG"18 !, 181K"18< &? Speaker o% the Connecticut State 9ouse o% 0epresentatives $18 <"18 !& Ale>ander Wolcott $B.A. 1HH8& I Collector o% the Port o% -iddleto)n, Connecticut $18 1"1888& Paul -um%ord $B.A. 1H!G& I Lieutenant 4overnor o% 0hode .sland $18 <"18 !& 5eremiah -ason $B.A. 1H88& I Attorney 4eneral o% 1e) 9ampshire $18 8"18 !& 0eturn 5. -ei+s, 5r. $B.A. 1H8!& I Chie% 5ud+e o% the 7hio Supreme Court $18 <"18 G& Samuel 9untin+ton $B.A. 1H8!& I 5ud+e o% the 7hio Supreme Court $18 <"18 8& Stephen 5aco' $B.A. 1HH8& I 5ud+e o% the Supreme Court o% (ermont $18 1"18 <& Simeon Stron+ $B.A. 1H!#& I 5ud+e o% the Supreme Court o% -assachusetts $18 1"18 !& /heodore Sed+)ick $B.A. 1H#!& I 5ud+e o% the Supreme Court o% -assachusetts $18 8"181<& Daniel Lyman $B.A. 1HH#& I 5ustice o% the 0hode .sland Supreme Court $18 8"181#& 5ames Oent $B.A. 1H81& I 5ustice o% the Supreme Court o% 1e) Jork $1HK8"18 G& 6=ra LN9ommedieu $B.A. 1H!G& I -em'er o% 1e) Jork State Senate $1H8G"1HK8, 1HKG"18 K&? 0e+ent o% the :niversity o% the State o% 1e) Jork $1H8H"1811& Colle+e Presidents and Church Leaders, 0ev. /imothy D)i+ht $elder& $B.A. 1H#K& I President o% Jale :niversity $1HK!"181H& 6'ene=er *itch $B.A. 1HHH, valedictorian& I inau+ural President o% Williams Colle+e P-assachusettsQ $1HK<"181!& 5eremiah At)ater $B.A. 1HK<& I inau+ural President o% -iddle'ury Colle+e P(ermontQ $18 "18 K& 5osiah -ei+s $B.A. 1HH8& I President o% :niversity o% 4eor+ia $18 1"181 & A'raham 5arvis $B.A. 1H#1& I Protestant 6piscopal Bishop %or the 6piscopal Diocese o% Connecticut $1HKH"181<& Samuel 9opkins $B.A. 1HG1& I -inister o% the *irst Con+re+ationalist Church in 1e)port, 0hode .sland $1HH "18 <& Samuel Austin $B.A. 1H8<& I Pastor o% the *irst Con+re+ational Church in Worcester, -assachusetts $1HK "181!& A'iel 9olmes $B.A. 1H8<& I -inister o% *irst PCon+re+ationalQ Church in Cam'rid+e, -ass. $1HK8"188K&? %ather o% 7liver Wendell 9olmes Sr. 0ev. 1athanel 6mmons $B.A. 1H#H& I Pastor o% the Con+re+ational Church in *ranklin, -assachusetts $1HH<"188H& 0ev. Ben;amin /rum'ull $B.A. 1H!K& I Pastor o% the Con+re+ational Church in 1orth 9aven, Connecticut $1H# "188 & 7thers, 7liver Wolcott 5r. $B.A. 1HH8& I partner o% 7liver Wolcott F Company in 1e) Jork City Pinvolved in the China tradeQ $18 <"18 !&? 5ud+e o% the :. S. Circuit Court %or the Second Circuit P1e) Jork CityQ $*e'ruary 8 , 18 1"5uly 1, 18 8& 6li Whitney $B.A. 1HK8& I inventor o% the cotton +in 1ote, H :.S. Senators and 8 Con+ressmen at the 'e+innin+ o% the *irst Bar'ary War )ere Jale +raduates. 1ote, # o% H Con+ressmen representin+ Connecticut at the 'e+innin+ o% the *irst Bar'ary War in 18 1 )ere Jale +raduates.

%rominent 8ar'ard >ni'ersit* 7raduates & "he First ar$ar* War (18E1:18E@,

5ohn Luincy Adams B.A. 9arvard 1H8H :.S. Senator $*"-ass., 18 <"18 8&

/imothy Pickerin+ B.A. 9arvard 1H#< :.S. Senator $*"-ass., 18 <"1811&

Levi Lincoln Sr. B.A. 9arvard 1HH8 :.S. Attorney 4eneral $18 1"18 !&

0u%us Oin+ B.A. 9arvard 1HHH :.S. -inister to 4reat Britain $1HK#"18 <, 188!" 188#&

William Cushin+ B.A. 9arvard 1H!1 5ustice o% the :.S. Supreme Court $1HK "181 &

Cale' Stron+ B.A. 9arvard 1H#G 4overnor o% -assachusetts $18 " 18 H, 1818"181#&

*rancis Dana B.A. 9arvard 1H#8 Chie% 5ustice o% the Supreme Court o% -assachusetts $1HK1"18 #&

0o'ert /reat Paine B.A. 9arvard 1HGK 5ustice o% the Supreme Court o% -assachusetts $1HK "18 G&

5onathan /rum'ull 5r. B.A. 9arvard 1H!K 4overnor o% Connecticut $1HKH"18 K&

William 6ustis B.A. 9arvard 1HH8 :.S. Con+ressman $0ep."-assachusetts, 18 1"18 !, 188 "188<&

%rominent College of Ne& 0erse* A%rincetonB 7raduates & "he First ar$ar* War (18E1:18E@,

William Paterson A.B. Princeton 1H#< 5ustice o% the :.S. Supreme Court $1HK<"18 #&

5ames -adison A.B. Princeton 1HH1 :.S. Secretary o% State $18 1"18 K&

Aaron Burr 5r. A.B. Princeton 1HH8 (ice President o% the :nited States $18 1"18 !&

0o'ert Smith A.B. Princeton 1H81 Secretary o% the 1avy $18 1"18 K&

5onathan Dayton A.B. Princeton 1HH# :.S. Senator $*ederalist" 1e) 5ersey, 1HKK"18 !&

6d)ard Livin+ston A.B. Princeton 1H81 -ayor o% 1e) Jork City $18 1"18 <&

0ev. 5ohn 6)in+ A.B. Princeton 1H!G Provost o% :niversity o% Pennsylvania $1HHK"18 8&

Samuel Stanhope Smith A.B. Princeton 1H#K President o% Princeton :niversity $1HK!"1818&

5ames A. Bayard Sr. A.B. Princeton 1H8G :.S. Senator $*ederalist" Dela)are, 18 G"181<&? :.S. Con+ressman $*ederalist"Dela)are, 1HKH"18 <&

.saac /ichenor A.B. Princeton 1HH! 4overnor o% (ermont $1HKH"18 K&

-ap o% the :nited States o% America 'e%ore the ac@uisition o% Louisiana. /he %ederal +overnment +overned the )estern territories ceded 'y the States.

/he third si+nin+ o% the Louisiana /reaty takes place in 1e) 7rleans in 18 <. America ac@uired Louisiana, includin+ the strate+ic port city o% 1e) 7rleans, %rom *rance in 18 <. $Paintin+, Architect o% the CapitolChttp,CC))).aoc.+ovCccCartCco>TcorrC)Te>pClouisiana.c%m&

9apoleonic 2ars N $alance o# Po)er >-.OH<-.-6@

The .rench Arm under the command of <apoleon Bonaparte cele"rates in Berlin ne*t to the Branden"ur$ Gate on :cto"er 2D! 18->5 the .rench Arm defeated the Prussian arm at #ena on :cto"er 1/! 18->( The @in$dom of Prussia lost half of its territor in a treat the follo'in$ ear and 'as o"li$ated to 8oin a militar alliance 'ith .rance durin$ the <apoleonic 2ars( The @in$dom of Prussia "ecame a re$ional superpo'er follo'in$ the <apoleonic 2ars and implemented political reforms such as compulsor education(

Left; Geor$ 2ilhelm .riedrich He$el %Au$ust 2D! 1DD-7<ovem"er 1/! 18F1&! German professor of philosoph at ?niversit of Berlin )i$ht; General Carl Philipp Gottfried von Clause'itH %1D8-718F1&! Prussian arm officer and militar strate$ist

2ar is nothin+ *ut a duel on an e'tensi e scaleP2ar there#ore is an act o# iolence to compel our opponent to #ul#ill our )ill0 A General Carl von Clause'itH! @n !ar! Boo, 1! Chapter 1! Para$raph 2

/he Battle o% /ra%al+ar, a naval 'attle that occurred on 7cto'er 81, 18 !, )as a sea 'attle %ou+ht 'et)een the British 0oyal 1avy and the com'ined %leets o% the *rench 1avy and Spanish 1avy, durin+ the 1apoleonic Wars $18 <I181!&. /he British 0oyal 1avy under the leadership o% Admiral Lord 9oratio 1elson, )ho )as mortally )ounded in com'at at the Battle o% /ra%al+ar, de%eated the *rench and Spanish navies and maintained dominance o% the hi+h seas.

/he Battle o% Austerlit= $also kno)n as the Battle o% the /hree 6mperors&, a military 'attle that occurred on Decem'er 8, 18 !, )as a 'attle 'et)een 1apoleonNs *rench army and the 0ussian and Austrian armies under the command o% C=ar Ale>ander . o% 0ussia. 1apoleon and his *rench army de%eated the 0ussian and Austrian armies? the Battle o% Austerlit= resulted in the dissolution o% the 9oly 0oman 6mpire.

"ap o# the ,oly =oman &mpire in -:.G( The Hol )oman 0mpire e*isted from C>2 to Au$ust >! 18->! 'hen Hol )oman 0mperor .rancis 44 %0mperor .rancis 4 of Austria& a"dicated his throne follo'in$ his defeat to <apoleon and the .rench arm in 18->(

.la$ of the Hol )oman 0mpire

<apoleon Bonaparte $reets CHar Ale*ander of )ussia in a pavilion set up on a raft in the middle of the <eman )iver in Tilsit! Prussia %present7da Sovets,! @alinin$rad! )ussia near Lithuania& on #une 2K! 18-D( The Treaties of Tilsit 'as a peace treat si$ned " .rance and )ussia on #ul D! 18-D( .rance and @in$dom of Prussia si$ned the Treaties of Tilsit on #ul C! 18-D(

*rench .nvasion o% 0ussia $1818&

<apoleon Bonaparte and his Grand Armee cross the <eman in #une 1812 durin$ the "e$innin$ of the .rench 4nvasion of )ussia(

<apoleon Bonaparte visits Tilsit! Prussia durin$ the <apoleonic 2ars(

1apoleon Bonaparte and his *rench army appear in -osco), 0ussia in Septem'er 1818 durin+ the *rench .nvasion o% 0ussia. /he city o% -osco) )as set on %ire a%ter the 0ussian C=ar and his army a'andoned the city. "he French !n'asion of #ussia (%atriotic War of 1812, lasted from 0une 212 1812 until Decem$er 112 18124

/he 0ussian army and its allies, includin+ the Prussian army and Austrian army, enter Paris, *rance in -arch 181G. 1apoleon a'dicated as 6mperor o% *rance on April #, 181G, e%%ectively endin+ the 1apoleonic Wars and esta'lishin+ a 2ne) )orld order3 in continental 6urope. "he War of the 6iFth Coalition lasted from 1812 until 18114

<apoleon Bonaparte "ades fare'ell to the 4mperial Guard in the Cheval7Blanc %2hite Horse& court ard of the Palace of .ontaine"leau! located outside of Paris! on April 2-! 181/( <apoleon Bonaparte lived in e*ile on the island of 0l"a from April 181/ until his escape from 0l"a " ship on .e"ruar 2>! 181K(

1apoleon Bonaparte escapes %rom 6l'a 'y ship on *e'ruary 8#, 181!.

/he Battle o% Waterloo, %ou+ht on 5une 18, 181! near Waterloo, Bel+ium, ended 1apoleonNs rule in *rance and created a 2'alance o% po)er3 that involved 4reat Britain, *rance, Prussian 6mpire, and Austrian 6mpire. /he Spanish 6mpire 'e+an to decline a%ter the 1apoleonic Wars. "he War of the 6e'enth Coalition (NapoleonGs 8undred Da*s, lasted from 5arch 2E2 181@ until 0ul* 82 181@4

Le%t paintin+, Olemens Wen=el von -etternich $-ay 1!, 1HH<"5une 11, 18!K& )as *orei+n -inister o% the Austrian 6mpire %rom 18 K until 18G8 and an Austrian diplomat )ho )as involved in creatin+ the 2'alance o% po)er3 in 6urope at the Con+ress o% (ienna in 181G and 181! %ollo)in+ the conclusion o% the 1apoleonic Wars and the de%eat o% 1apoleon Bonaparte. 0i+ht picture, /he 0othschild Brothers, sons o% -ayer Amschel 0othschild, Amschel -ayer 0othschild $*rank%urt, 1HH<"18!!&, Salomon -ayer 0othschild $(ienna, 1HHG"18!!&, 1athan -ayer 0othschild $London, 1HHH"18<#&, Oarl -ayer 0othschild $1aples, 1H88"18!!&, and 5ames -ayer 0othschild $Paris, 1HK8"18#8&. /he 0othschild Brothers maintained an 'ankin+ %irm in ma;or 6uropean cities I London, Paris, *rank%urt, (ienna, and 1aples. /he 0othschilds )ere $and are& the reno)ned 5e)ish 'ankers o% 6urope.

*ield -arshal Arthur Wellesley, 1st Duke o% Wellin+ton $1H#K"18!8&, also kno)n as 2/he Duke o% Wellin+ton3, %ou+ht a+ainst 1apoleon at the Battle o% Waterloo in 181! and served as Prime -inister o% 4reat Britain $1888"18< , 18<G&.

The Con$ress of Oienna in 181/7181K! convened follo'in$ the end of the <apoleonic 2ars! meet to create a E"alance of po'erL in the continental 0urope( %Photo; http;BB$ermanhistor docs($hi7dc(or$Bsu"Yima$e(cfm=ima$eYidZ2KK&

Map of 0urope in 181K