1

The Chittagong University Journal of Social Sciences

Vol. XX, No. X (p. 1-20)
April 2008

Improving Coastal Resource Management

for Socio-economic Development of Rural
Communities in Cox’s Bazar:
A Participatory Appraisal

M. Shahadat Hossain1 and M. Shamsuddoha2

1
Institute of Marine Sciences and Fisheries, 2 Department of Marketing
University of Chittagong, Chittagong-4331, Bangladesh.

Tel. 88-031-710347 (Off), 88-031-752486 (Res), Mobile: 88-01711-720950

Fax: 88-031-713109, Email: hossainms@yahoo.com

ABSTRACT
Coastal ecosystems are complex, sensitive and subject to influences of
nature as well as human interference. The Cox’s Bazar coastal zone of
Bangladesh has had great importance since long for the abund ance of its
natural resources. However, in terms of recent development efforts, the
coastal zone has been neglected. It is essential to diagnose the coastal
issues and appraise the needs of the coastal communities through the
bottom- up approach for more rigorous research and facilitate the
formulation of the sustainable management plan. The use of space-borne
remote sensing for land use applications has widely demonstrated as an
important tool, particularly for land cover identification. Satellite image of
Landsat TM, covering the Cox’s Bazar coast were processed to extract
information about the coastal natural resources. The integrated use of
remote sensing and GIS technology does not only improve the quality of
geographic information but also enables information previously
unavailable to be economically produced. Participatory Rural Appraisal
 2

(PRA) was conducted to focus local community opinion to analyze their

situation as well as to assess the coastal natural resources, land use
patterns, problems, and potentials. Proper resource utilization and
integration among stakeholder’s activities can increase environment-
friendly production efficiency, which have a positive role in successful
poverty alleviation program and socio -economic development of coastal
rural communities.

Keywords: Coastal natural resources, bottom- up approaches, rapid rural

appraisal, socio-economic development.

1. INTRODUCTION
The increasing population in the world is often associated with the
movement of people to coastal zones, where the natural resources are of
great importance for them. As a result, these natural resources are under
increasing pressure from over-exploitation, resulting in unsustainable
development of coastal areas. Depletion of natural resources results in
losses of income for coastal communities that are dependent both directly
and indirectly on fisheries and coastal habitats (Sudara, 1999). In the
coastal zone of Bangladesh some informal forms of coastal area
management practices exist at local levels. However, external forces
together with changes in social values, conspicuous consumption,
loopholes in regulations, insufficient knowledge and information, and
inadequate law enforcement are major threats to such local management
practices.

Decision- makers need information that is relevant, timely, accurate, and

usable (Chambers, 1980). The Earth Summit in Rio in June 1992 was very
noticeably oriented towards empowerment through participation and
emphasis shifted significantly from the traditional top-down perspective
on policy implementation, to one of bottom- up people- led development. It
was recognized that sustainable development would require training and
education at all levels of society, where indigenous people and their
communities have a vital role in environmental management and
development because of their knowledge and traditional practices (Younis,
1997). Knowledge of water, soil, seasons, shrimp farming, salt production,
 3

domestic animals, agricultural practices, diet, cooking practices and child

care of the local people is often rich. But techniques for eliciting, learning
and using such knowledge are still quite primitive.

In the Cox’s Bazar coast most of the residents are involved in agriculture,
fishing, salt production and shrimp farming, while some are in coastal
tourism and trading. However, the government has not prepared a formal
coastal resource management plan based on participation of the local
communities. A participatory approach to coastal resource planning can
consider the long-term interests of the host community, on whom most of
the activities depend. This approach is based on the assumption that
coastal management programs will be more successful if local people are
involved in planning and implementing coastal policies and programs.
Involvement of local peoples in the management practice would give them
a sense of awareness of the resources and ensure their continued
livelihood and economic well being. In this way, coastal zone
management links ecology with economics, sociology and politics,
promoting policies and practices which discourage further degradation,
establish priorities, provide incentives for improvement and provide
sufficient resources for local people so that they manage themselves
willingly.

Warren (2001) measured participatio n at several stakeholder levels such as

primary stakeholders, including community and societal actors in projects
and programs; secondary stakeholders, including local governance
institutions and "interface" institutions such as technical services, NGOs,
private sector organizations, and, sometimes, the project itself; and tertiary
stakeholders, including national- level development agencies, national
NGOs, policy makers and international support agencies. In this study, we
look at all three but focus our analysis mainly on primary stakeholders,
specifically the local community.

2. METHODS
Participatory appraisal evolved a series of qualitative multidisciplinary
approaches to learning about local- level conditions and local peoples’
perspectives. Many examples have been recorded of successful
 4

community participation in achieving good results in managing coastal

resources in different countries (Fezzardi, 2001). Participatory Rural
Appraisal technique was used applying observation and community level
group meeting with 15 different stakeholder groups to gather primary
information, following Pido (1995), Pido et al. (1996) and Townsley
(1996). Prior to this research, letters were sent to the administrator of
Cox’s Bazar District and relevant organizations to inform them about the
proposed research. Before meeting, request letters to the leader of the
particular stakeholder groups were sent to give the research team the
opportunity to explain the objectives of the research to the community.
Observation was conducted through transects across the area defined by
using maps and satellite images (Landsat TM). Camera was used as an
important research tool for direct observation because photographs can be
used to document conditions before an intervention. The transects was
carried out in as wide a range of environments as possible to observe land
use patterns, resource conditions, problems and potential, and interviewed
people. Other specific PRA tools such as problem tree and seasonal
calendar were used in the present study. To produce useable outputs,
observations were recorded as drawings and notes. Stakeholder analysis
was conducted to select appropriate groups for collecting required
information and reveal the relationship between their activities. A
checklist of topics was used to aid the memory.

An important way of learning about local conditions and resources is to

ask local communities what they know (Pelto & Pelto, 1978). In the Cox’s
Bazar coast, individual knowledge varied greatly where the willingness
and verbal capabilities of the people differed in expressing information.
Direct observation prevents rapid appraisal from being misled by myth
(Chambers, 1980) and it often provides more valid and less costly
information than other research methods (KKU, 1987).
 5

3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

3.1. Coastal natural resources
The Cox’s Bazar coast was found rich in both renewable and non-
renewable natural resources. The main economically important coastal
natural resources including land, mangrove forest, rivers, hills, islands,
cliffs and sandy beach were identified and marked on the satellite image
(Figure 1). Villagers who cannot read were generally keen to look at the
satellite image and by interviewing useful information was collected.
91050?N 92000?N 92010?N
Chittagong

N
Kutubdia
Island
Chittagong
Hill Tracts
21045?E

Matamuhuri River

Moheshkhali
Island

Mangroves
Bay of
Bengal Baghkhali River
Moheshkhali Cox’s Bazar
21030?E

Channel
Sandy beach
Cliffs

Figure 1. Satellite image (Landsat TM) showing the geographical

location and coastal resources of Cox’s Bazar.
 6

The coastal flood plains are the most important resources that support
multi-purpose use of coastal land for crop production, livestock rearing,
salt production, shrimp/fish farming, tourism activities, infrastructure
development, fishing crafts and gear manufacturing, and harbour
activities. The fluvial and tidal geomorphological features of the Cox’s
Bazar coast have been created by the continuous deposition of weathered
materials from the nearby lands, towering cliffs and hills, which are
ultimately carried by the Matamuhuri river, the Bagkhali river and
numerous small tributaries and canals. This factor helps in the formation
of a newly accreted coastal landscape, which gives an opportunity for
multiple utilization, particularly mangrove afforestation.

During the monsoon season (April to September) fresh water is abundant,

whereas during the winter water becomes a scarce resources. Due to
reduced river flows in winter, the surface water systems suffer from saline
water intrusion, making the resource unsuitable for agricultural and
domestic uses. A number of factors have contributed to salinization of
land and water in the coastal zone of Bangladesh (Figure 2). The ground
water aquifers in the coastal area are under growing stress of salinization
resulting from over-exploitation. Sea level rise and low river flows would
substantially contribute to that stress. Winter agriculture in the coastal
areas is dependent on ground water. Rural water supply almost entirely
depends on fresh water source. With the spread of shrimp culture and sa lt
production activities, a large part of the land in the area is kept submerged
under tidal water for a greater part of the year. Rice and grass that grew in
the fields, formerly used for forage of cattle and buffalo heads are
submerged under tidal water as such made unavailable to them.

3.2. Occupation
The major activities of the people are shrimp farming, agriculture, fishing,
salt production, either as daily labour and owners of such production
facilities. One person may be engaged in two or more different
occupations i.e., one family may have shrimp ponds, salt beds and
agricultural land. Some of the occupations are seasonal, so a person can
take up different activities depending on the seasons. Among the business
 7

people, most are engaged in hotels and restaurants, selling of handicrafts

and gift items for tourists, supplying of fish, shrimp and salt.

Loss of
biodiversity
Threat to livelihood
generation
Local extinction of

EFFECTS
species
Decrease of
community income
Hamper species
adaptation
Low yield of Reduction of
agriculture crops livestock/poultry Change land/water
use pattern

Aggravation of
Reduced fertility of land upstream land

Increased Salinization PROBLEM

Intrusion of Natural Upstream Sea level

saline water disaster Embankment rise
CAUSES

Unplanned Sea salt Cyclone/ Draught Control River Global

horizontal production Tidal water course warming
expansion of
coastal shrimp surge flow change
farming

Conversion of Stocking Depression Rivers Emission of

? Agricultural high salinity in the Bay become green house
land water for dry gases
? Mangrove longer
forest period
Reduced
freshwater flow

Figure 2. Problem tree analysis for increasing salinization in the

coastal environment
 8

Pomeroy (1995) has proposed community-based resource management as

a way to involve resource users and to utilize indigenous institutional
arrangements and knowledge in resource management. This can lead to a
form of co-management, a sharing of responsibility and authority in
various degrees for resource management between the government and the
local resource users/community (Figure 3).

Government-based
Management

Community-based
Government Management Community self-
centralized governance and
management self-management

Informing
Consultation
Cooperation
Communication
Information Exchange
Advisory
Joint Action
Partnership
Community Control
Inter-area coordination

Figure 3. A hierarchy of co- management arrangements (modified from

Pomeroy, 1995).

Some couples were requested to participate in a time allocation study.

They were asked to identify their activities over 24 hours. This
information gave an idea how they spend their time and see if they would
still have time for additional livelihood activities. The daily activities of
men involve intensive labour for income generation for the family, while
the women’s activities are family oriented (Figure 4). Most of the men
work in agricultural land, salt beds and shrimp farms and they are also
engaged in woodcutting, husbandry of cattle and trading in the local
market. During the fishing period (September to March) fishermen stay 3-
7 days on the sea depending on the availability of the catch. Some of them
 9

12
Cooking,
Bathing,
Housework, Johore
Housework,
Homestead gardening, prayer Swing cloths
Fire wood collection, Lunch,
Chicken-duck rearing, Making net, basket,
Rest
Family take care hat, etc.
Chicken-duck rear
Morning cleaning, Asar prayer
06 Breakfast making
Evening cleaning
18
Fazar prayer Magrib prayer

Housework,
cooking, dinner,
Esha prayer
Sleeping

WOME
24
12
Bathing,
Johore
Field works, fishing, prayer, Field works,
agriculture, wood Lunch Woodcutting,
cutting, shrimp farming, Daily labor,
salt production, cattle Agriculture,
care, daily labor Fishing,

Asar prayer
06 Breakfast Trading in local 18
market
Fazar prayer Magrib prayer
Dinner,
Esha prayer

Sleeping

MEN
24
Figure 4. Daily activity charts of men and women in Cox’s Bazar coast.
are engaged in making fishing crafts and gears. Women in coastal
communities do not participate directly in income generating activities.
 10

They generally look after their families. The daily chore of childcare,
collecting water, fuel, cooking, chicken and duck rearing, homestead
gardening, sewing cloths, making handicrafts and occasional enterprise to
add to the family income is a heavy burden. All this work goes
unrecognized and unpaid for. In the Cox’s Bazar coast most of the
respondents were Muslims and they offer prayers five times a day. These
prayers are offered at around dawn (Fazar), at noon (Johore), mid
afternoon (Asar), after sunset (Magrib) and evening (Esha). Wild shrimp
fry collection, which was major income generating activity, has been
reduced greatly due to the recent development of hatchery industries in the
Cox’s Bazar coast. As a result very few men and children were found
collecting wild shrimp fry from the rivers, canals, creeks and coastal
waters. However they still have spare time for other livelihood activities.

3.3. Seasonal calendar

Seasonal calendar is helpful for documenting regular cyclical periods (i.e.,
seasonal) and significant events that occur during a year and influence the
life of the community (IIRR, 1998). It provides a general picture of
important environmental and socio-economic periods throughout the year.
The primary stakeholders such as shrimp farmers, salt producers,
fishermen and tour operators were asked questions regarding rainy and dry
season’s duration, environmental condition and their activities. Respective
government offices at Cox’s Bazar such as the District Administration,
District Fishery office, Coastal Afforestation Division, Bangladesh Small
and Cottage Industries Corporation (BSCIC), National Tourism
Organization were visited and their personnel interviewed to know about
the environmental condition, people’s behaviour, their activities,
relationships, social situation and economic condition. The
members/leaders of different associations such as the hatchery owners
association, salt mill owners association, frozen food exporters
association, and fish and shrimp traders association were met to collect the
same information. Group meetings had several advantages, including
access to a large body of knowledge and mutual checking. There was
found a self-correcting mechanism within the group because if one person
put across an over- favourable picture of his/her own or group’s behaviour,
a peer would give a more realistic observation. In cross checking with
 11

other groups a high degree of uniformity was found. The information was
assimilated, synthesized and triangulated and then a seasonal calendar of
livelihood activities in the coastal community was formulated (Figure 5).

Activity Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
Shrimp
farming
Salt
production
Mangrove
afforestation
Coastal
tourism
Handicrafts
Fishing
Agriculture
Rainfall
Cyclonic
storm
Income

Figure 5. Seasona l calendar showing different coastal activities in the

Cox’s Bazar coast.

The seasons are distinct in the Cox’s Bazar coast, the rainy season starts
from April or May and ends in September or October, while the dry
season starts from November and ends in April. The historical record
indicates that cyclonic storm occurs during pre-monsoon and post-
monsoon periods (Hossain, 2001a). High rainfall and strong winds limit
the fishing and tourism activities and completely stop salt production. The
rainy season is favourable for shrimp farming and mangrove afforestation
as well as agriculture (transplanted Amon rice). But heavy raining and
cyclonic storms may wash out all sorts of coastal properties.
 12

Village

Channel/Sea Dike River Salt bed

Salt bed Shrimp/Fish
Shrimp pond Temporary Shrimp pond
Canal
home

Land Channel Dike Shrimp Salt River Human Shrimp Canal Shrimp Salt Human
use
Resour- Fish, Grass Shrimp, sea - Fish, - Shrimp, Fish, Shrimp, cat - Tree,
ces shrimp, tree bass, mullet shrimp, sea bass, shrimp fish, prawn livestock
oyster, oyster, mullet
green green
mussel mussel
Liveli- Fishing, Pond Salt Fishing, Pond Water Pond Salt Gardening,
hood shrimp fry preparation, collection shrimp fry prepara- supply preparation, colle poultry,
harvesting tion, harvesting ction agricul-ture
harvesting
Water Mangrove Mangrove Water Overexplo Mangrove Water Mangrove Man Lack of
Problem pollution, destruction, destruction pollution, itation of destruction pollu - destruction grove drinking
siltation, lack of reduce natural tion des- water,
decling technology fishery resources truc- electricity,
fishery production tion transporta-
production tion,
education,
toilet
Opport - Fishing Shelter Employment Fishing, Employ- Employ- Construc-
unities water ment ment tion of
supply house,
water tank

Figure 6. Transect analysis showing present land use pattern of the Cox’s Bazar coast.
 13

Transect analysis clearly focused the existing land use pattern, particularly
of the Chakaria area. The transect assisted in concentrating discussions on
specific zones and the activities carried out there and identified some key
problems (Figure 6). Among the advantages of transect is the simple
portrayal of the resources present and the associated economic, social and
environmental issues in spatial terms (Pido et al., 1996).

3.4. Socio -economic condition

Field visits and group interviews provided some ideas about the socio-
economic condition of the local people. Most had been living there for
generations. The typical average household size consists of 7 to 8
members in the Cox’s Bazar coast, and the households usually composed
of husband, wife, children, brothers, sisters and parents. The area is
densely populated with 687 people per square kilometer as per 1998
estimations (BBS, 2000). More than 90% people are Muslim; very few are
Hindus while Rakhayns are dominant among the tribal groups. Increased
population is one of the main factors that here caused natural resources
depletion i.e., mangrove destruction, over exploitation of fisheries
resources, etc.

The local people depend largely on the coastal natural resources for living,
which has led to destruction of the coastal natural resources to meet their
demands. About 55% people of the study area are illiterate, which is also
related to natural resource destruction (Hossain, 2001b). Education creates
awareness among the people about the important iss ues of the society i.e.,
population pressure, overexploitation of natural resources, degradation of
the natural environment, carrying capacity of the environment, etc.
Education initiatives should include children education and mass media
campaign for public education to raise awareness about coastal
ecosystems and their services, and also develop curriculum on
community-based coastal resource management and technical training
program for community members to become trainers.

The present study revealed that 20 to 25 years ago local people of

Chakaria depended upon mangrove forest. Many household necessities,
such as firewood, housing materials, boat making materials, herbal plants
 14

for traditional medicines, honey, and other minor products were provided
by the Chakaria Sunderban mangrove forest. The area was a very good
habitat for different types of birds, mammals, reptiles, amphibians, etc.
People use to catch fishes and shrimps from the water bodies inside the
mangrove forest (Hossain et al., 2001). Deforestation of Chakaria
Sunderban has affected socio-economic life of more than 90% of the local
communities of Chakaria region.

The villagers have been using mud stoves for cooking food. Traditionally
they collected some fuel wood from the forest, nearby hills and along
roadsides. But now above 90% buy fuel wood from the market. Presently
fuel wood price ranges from Tk. 200-250 per 100 Kg, compared to Tk. 25-
50 about 20-25 years ago. The price increases has badly affected the social
life of the local communities.

Some villagers have lost their agricultural land due to shrimp farm
establishment, which also has significant impact on the socio-economic
condition. About 50% of the local people have changed their previous
occupation in search to increase income. Shrimp farming is the main cause
of changing occupation. Other reasons are directly related to deforestation.
Fishermen have lost their fishing grounds and have been forced to seek
some other occupation to earn a living. A similar story can be related to
woodcutters. Farmers are facing lot of troubles in maintaining their cattle
and buffaloes.

3.5. Stakeholders
Stakeholders are important because they can support and sustain a
particular resource. They could be potential partners or threats in
managing and developing coastal resources. The stakeholder analysis
generates insights into the characteristics of coastal resource user groups
and their relationships. The primary stakeholders of coastal resource
utilization in the Cox’s Bazar coast are fishermen, shrimp farmers, salt
producers, agriculturists and tour operators. The local residents are known
as insider, who cultivates their own land and sometimes their neighbor’s
land on crop sharing basis. On the other hand, if the landowner lease out
the land to a non-resident person(s) for a certain period, the leaseholder
 15

are known as outsider. The leaseholder may operate the area by his
employees or sometimes joint ventures with local residents. Other
stakeholders are government agencies, private/business organizations,
academic or research organizations, religion/cultural groups and donors.

3.6. Conflict resolution

Individuals, either within a community or in several different
communities, share most coastal resources. The attempts of local people to
draw resource-use boundaries are limited by their capability to control the
resources. In these cases, disputes and conflicts on resource utilization are
inevitable both among members of the same communities and between
different communities at Cox’s Bazar coast.

When disputes occur among local communities, the local elders and
respectable persons play important roles in resolving the problems or
requesting involvement of the legal authorities. The village formal
administrative committee is led by an elected Union Parishad Chairman
and composed of several village members. Besides this, there coexists an
informal mechanism, generally composed of a few elders and other
influential figures in the village. Formal ways of resolving disputes are
less preferred by local resource users and are used only when their
informal attempts fail. This is because of the usual passive role of
officials, and the long and costly process of involvement leading to the
perceptions of ineffectiveness and unreliability towards formal procedures
among the local people.

For example, compromise may be needed among fisheries, mangrove,

agriculture, tourism, salt production and public works where these sectors
are all attempting to use the coastal zone simultaneously. Both fisheries
and tourism depend on a large extent on a high level of environmental
quality, particularly coastal water quality. Both sectors are affected by
pollutants, wildlife habitat loss and mangrove forest destruction. Another
example, fisheries may require port services similar to those on which
tourism depends, an infrastructure system that supplies water, sanitation,
transportation and telecommunication. Therefore, planning for both should
be integrated with that for transportation and public works sectors.
 16

4. CONCLUSION
The marginalized coastal people suffer from a dual vulnerability of being
poor and uneducated. The rapid rural appraisal has enabled the research
team to understand the local situation and has given the local people the
opportunity to analyze their situation. The main barricades of community
involvement in the Cox’s Bazar coast are the under-estimation of
knowledge and experience of the local community, and a bias for technical
rather than social considerations in coastal zone management efforts.

The rapid appraisal of coastal resources is envisaged to play a crucial role

in providing timely and reliable information for better decision making.
The output is a primary-stakeholder-managed trial or development activity
that closely involves the local communities. This process is bottom- up and
allows the participation of all staff members at different levels (Figure 7).
The people need to be empowered economically, personally, educationally
and politically to ensure their participation in coastal zone management. It
is also imperative that women be fully involved in all aspects of the
development activities, including management. Women play a key role in
the life of all communities and are often the major end -users of coastal
resources. It is clear that the coastal zone of Cox’s Bazar has suffered from
a large number of management-related problems that have produced poor
economic returns and extensive environmental damage. Many of the
problems caused could have been avoided if good management practices
had been followed. An excellent, comprehensive account of ways to
improve coastal resource utilization is provided in the framework that
deals with some important processes involved in the Cox’s Bazar coastal
zone (Figure 8).

Successful coastal zone management requires the participation of local

people, government authorities, non-government organizations,
researchers and investors. The coastal community must be involved in the
decision, planning and management processes especially for matters that
affect them directly. This participatory approach will reduce user conflicts,
to avoid ecosystem over-exploitation and to promote an understanding
about inter-connectivity of coastal habitats that are essential for long-term
management of the coastal natural resources.
 17

Top down National Government

approach

Departments:
? Fisheries
? Environment
? Forest
? Land
? Tourism

District administration

Thana/Upazila administration

Local administration
? Union council
Bottom up
approach

Primary Stakeholders
Salt Fishermen
Shrimp
producer
farmer Tour
Farmer operator

Trader

Figure 7. Top-down and bottom-up integration for coastal resource

management.
 18

Management issues:
? Land/resource use conflict
? Population growth
? Coastal pollution
? Infrastructure development
Natural resources:
? Land Coastal processes
? Waterways (Physical and Biological):
? Mangroves ? Shrimp/fish farming
? Mangrove clearing
? Beach
and afforestation
? Shrimp/fish
? Salt production
? Coastal tourism
? Fishing
? Agriculture
? Urban waste disposal

Management
Shrimp farming: Approach
Salt production: Mangrove Coastal tourism:
? Zoning ? Zoning afforestation: ? Zoning
? Area allocation ? Area allocation ? Zoning ? Area allocation
? Time sharing ? Common land ? Area allocation ? Infrastructure
? Carrying capacity distribution ? Community development
-Environmental CC ? Incentives participation ? Tourist facility
-Economic CC ? Proper valuation ? Homestead -Accommodation
? EIA of salt nursery -Restaurant
? Licensing ? Develop development -Recreation
? Code of conduct warehouse -Sight seeing
facility ? Community
participation

Management requirement
? Horizontal integration
? Inter-Department
? Inter-Council
? Inter-Community
? Top down integration
? National level - Community level
? Bottom up integration
? Community level - National level

Figure 8. An ICZM framework for coastal resource management in Cox’s

Bazar.
 19

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BBS. 2000. Bangladesh Bureau of Statistics. Dhaka: Statistics Division,
Ministry of Planning, Government of the People’s Republic of
Bangladesh.
Chambers, R. 1980. Rapid rural appraisal: rationale and repertoire.
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Fezzardi, D. 2001. Community participation in coastal resources
management: lessons learned from a case study of Songkhla Lake,
Southern Thailand. M.Sc. thesis, Asian Institute of Technology,
Bangkok, Thailand.
Hossain , M.S. 2001a Biological Aspects of the Coastal and Marine
Environment of Bangladesh. Ocean & Coastal Management, Vol.
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Hossain, M.S. 2001b Integrated multiple uses of the coastal zone in Cox’s
Bazar, Bangladesh. M.Sc. thesis, Asian Institute of Technology,
Bangkok, Thailand.
Hossain, M.S, Lin, C.K. and Hussain, M.Z. 2001 Goodbye Chakaria
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resource management. 3 vols. International Institute of Rural
Reconstruction, Silang, Cavite, Philippines.
KKU (Khon Kaen University). 1987. Rural Systems Research and
Farming Systems Research Projects: Thailand. Proceedings of the
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Pido, M.D. 1995. The Application of Rapid Rural Appraisal Techniques in
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Pido, M. D., Pomeroy, R. S., Carlos, M. B., and Garces, L. R. 1996. A
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(version 1). Manila, Philippines: ICLARM.
 20

Pomeroy, R.S. 1995. Community-Based and Co-Management Institutions

for Sustainable Coastal Fisheries Management in Southeast Asia.
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Sudara, S. 1999. Who and What is to be Involved in Successful Coastal
Zone Management: a Thailand Example. Ocean & Coastal
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Townsley, P. 1996. Rapid Rural Appraisal, Participatory Rural Appraisal
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Warren, P. 2001. Survey at-a-distance on Assessment of Stakeholder
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