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Bridging the gap in women’s career development

Bridging The Gap In Women’s Career Development

United Kingdom Report

Dr Pamela M Clayton

Department of Adult and Continuing Education, University of Glasgow

Contents

Page

1 Gendered statistics, United Kingdom 2

2 Issues in Women’s Employment in the United Kingdom 16

3 The Infrastructure for Vocational Guidance in the United Kingdom 21

4 Draft typology of women’s needs in the United Kingdom 25

5 Bibliography 27

6 Other reading 29

7 List of acronyms 30

8 Suggested questions for: 32

Providers of guidance

Social partners and policymakers


Bridging the gap in women’s career development: United Kingdom Task One Report, by Pamela M Clayton

1 Gendered statistics relevant to women’s employment

The particular constitution position of the United Kingdom dictates that these statistics
variously apply to England, England and Wales, Scotland, Great Britain (excluding Northern
Ireland) and the United Kingdom (including Northern Ireland). In general, despite some
regional variations, there is little overall difference in women’s labour market position.
‘Economic activity’ is officially defined as being in employment or self-employment, on a
government scheme (training or work) or unemployed (seeking a job or waiting to take up a
job). ‘Economic inactivity’ is defined as being neither (self-) employed nor seeking paid
work. Those deemed ‘economically inactive’ comprise students (excluding those who work
part-time - these are included in the economically active group), those who are permanently
sick, disabled, retired and ‘other’. In the majority of cases, ‘other’ means ‘looking after the
home or family’, that is, doing unpaid work in the home.
The International Labour Organisation (ILO) definition of the unemployed, as used in the
Labour Force Surveys carried out in all the member states, is: those, whether registered
unemployed or not, without paid employment, who had sought work in the previous four
weeks, were available for work within the next fortnight or were waiting to take up
employment already gained.
‘Part-time’ is sometimes defined as doing paid work for less than 35 hours per week. There is
a wide range of hours subsumed under this category, and differences between men and
women. Men and women in the United Kingdom work longer hours than other countries in
the European Union.

The changing nature of participation in the labour market


Table 1. The economically active by sex, as percentages of all aged 16+, 1981 and 1991
(based on a stratified 10% sample of private households & of persons in communal
establishments, of those usually resident in Great Britain).
1981 1991
Status Women Men Total Women Men Total
Active 46 78 61 50 73 61
Inactive 54 22 39 50 27 39
Based on data from the Office of Population Censuses & Surveys/Registrar General Scotland (1984).
Census 1981 and 1991: Economic Activity - Great Britain

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Bridging the gap in women’s career development: United Kingdom Task One Report, by Pamela M Clayton

Table 2. Economic activity and unemployment by sex, Great Britain, 1981 and 1991
1981 1991
Women Men Mean Women Men Mean
Economic status: 16-59 16-64 16-59 16-64
% economically active 56.90 90.40 73.65 67.62 86.56 77.09
% in employment 54.20 79.90 67.05 91.80 87.24 89.52
% out of employment 2.70 10.50 6.60 6.98 11.33 9.16
% economically inactive 43.10 9.60 26.35 32.38 13.44 22.91
% paid work part-time 50.20 not stated n/a 37.75 3.34 20.55
Adapted from Office of Population Censuses & Surveys/Registrar General Scotland (1984 and 1994).
Census 1981 and 1991: Key statistics for local authorities - Great Britain

The current labour market situation of women and men


Table 3 Economic activity rates by sex, United Kingdom, 1997, percentages
Women 16-59 Men 16-64
Economically active 71 84
ILO unemployment rate 5.9 8.2
Source: ‘Women in the Labour Market: Spring 1997 Labour Force Survey’, Labour Market Trends
March 1998

Table 4 Population of working age by sex and employment status, United Kingdom, 1997,
millions
Women aged Men aged All
16-59 16-64
Population of working age 17.0 18.7 35.7
All economically active 12.1 15.7 27.9
In employment:
full-time 6.0 11.0 17.0
part-time 4.5 0.9 5.4
self-employed 0.8 2.4 3.1
other 0.2 0.2 0.3
Total in employment 11.4 14.5 25.9
Unemployed 0.7 1.3 2.0
Economically inactive 4.9 2.9 7.8
Source: ONS (1998) Social Trends 1998, p. 75

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Bridging the gap in women’s career development: United Kingdom Task One Report, by Pamela M Clayton

Table 5. Labour force by sex and age, millions, United Kingdom, 1997
Age group Women Men
16-24 2.0 2.4
25-44 6.4 8.1
45-54 2.9 3.4
55-59 0.8 1.1
60-64 0.4 0.7
65+ 0.2 0.3
Total 12.7 16.0
ONS (1998). Social Trends 1998, p. 75

Table 6. Relationship to labour market (self-employment, unemployment, part-time


employment), by sex, 1997, percentages
Women 16-59 Men 16-64 All
All in employment 44 56 100
Self-employed 20 80 100
Unemployment claimants 23 77 100
Part-time workers 81 19 100
Sources: ‘Women in the Labour Market: Spring 1997 Labour Force Survey’, Labour Market Trends
March 1998; Autumn 1997 Labour Force Survey Statistics in Labour Market Trends, February 1998
GB figure

Table 7. Weekly hours worked (%) by part-time men and women employees aged 16 or over
in Great Britain, 1997
Weekly hours worked: 16 or fewer 17-21 22-24 24 or more Total
Women: manual 42.3 24.2 9.8 23.7 100
Men: manual 43.5 19.2 11.2 26.1 100
Women: non-manual 37.0 29.0 11.2 22.8 100
Men: non-manual 53.1 20.1 7.2 19.7 101
Source: ONS (1997). New Earnings Survey1997

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Bridging the gap in women’s career development: United Kingdom Task One Report, by Pamela M Clayton

Pay and status of employment of women and men


Table 8. Full-time employees on adult rates of pay whose pay (£) for the survey pay-period
was not affected by absence, United Kingdom, April 1997
Manual Non-manual All
Women Men Women Men Women Men
Average gross weekly earnings 201.1 314.3 317.8 483.5 297.2 408.7
of which overtime payments 13.4 45.3 6.1 13.6 7.4 27.6
Public sector 219.3 296.2 338.5 451.1 328.2 404.1
Private sector 198.6 318.5 302.0 496.0 278.2 409.6
Private non-profit making sector 186.4 247.5 344.0 456.2 323.2 412.7
% increase in average gross 4.9 4.9 6.8 6.5 6.7 6.0
weekly earning 1996-7
Source: ONS (1997). New Earnings Survey 1997

Table 9. Full-time employees on adult rates of pay whose pay (£) for the survey pay-period
was not affected by absence, Hours of paid work, percentage increase in average weekly
earnings and average weekly earnings (£), by sex, United Kingdom, April 1996-March 1997
Women 16-59 Men 16-64
Average hours worked (manual occupations) 40.2 45.1
Average hours worked (non-manual occupations) 39.1 37.1
Average hours worked (all industries) 37.6 41.8
Average hourly pay (£) (manual occupations) 4.90 6.79
Average hourly pay (£) (non-manual occupations) 8.55 12.39
Average hourly pay (£) (all occupations) 7.88 9.82
% increase in average gross weekly earnings 1996-7 6.7 6.0
Average gross weekly earnings (£) 297 409
Source: ONS 1997 New Earnings Survey 1997

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Bridging the gap in women’s career development: United Kingdom Task One Report, by Pamela M Clayton

Table 10. Adults aged 16-64 who have been economically employed at any time in the past 8
years, by sex and social class, Winter 1996-7, percentages
Women Men
Professional 3 8
Intermediate 28 29
Skilled non-manual 37 12
Skilled manual 8 31
Partly skilled manual 19 15
Unskilled manual 6 5
Source: ONS (1998). Social Trends 1998

Table 11. Full-time employees on adult rates whose pay for the survey pay-period was not
affected by absence, sex, occupational group and average gross weekly earnings, United
Kingdom, April 1997
Women Men
Non-manual:
managers and administrators 414.9 594.1
professional occupations 442.6 542.7
associate professional and technical occupations 366.8 491.1
clerical and secretarial occupations 248.5 282.6
personal and protective service occupations 211.2 327.0
sales occupations 225.0 327.9
Manual:
craft and related occupations 207.5 345.1
plant and machine operatives 217.3 317.4
All non-manual occupations 317.8 483.5
All manual occupations 201.1 314.3
All occupations 297.2 408.7
Source: ONS (1997). New Earnings Survey 1997

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Bridging the gap in women’s career development: United Kingdom Task One Report, by Pamela M Clayton

Table 12. Occupational groups by sex, 1981 and 1991, percentages, using the 1981
classification and based on a stratified 10% sample of private households & of persons in
communal establishments of those 'usually resident' in England and Wales.
1981 1991
Occupational classes: Women Men Women Men
Professional & related supporting management; senior 21 79 33 67
national & local governmentt managers
Professional & related in education, welfare & health 65 35 69 31
Library, artistic & sports 35 65 43 57
Professional & related in science, engineering, technology & 9 91 14 86
similar fields
Managerial (inc foremen, office managers, armed forces 23 77 30 70
officers)
Clerical & related 74 26 78 22
Selling 59 41 62 38
Security & protective service 10 90 12 88
Catering, cleaning, hairdressing & other personal service 80 20 78 22
Farming, fishing & related 16 84 19 81
Materials processing: making & repairing (excluding metal 32 68 30 70
& electrical)
Processing, making, repairing & related (metal & electrical) 6 94 5 95
Painting, repetitive assembly, product inspecting, packaging 43 57 41 59
& related
Construction, mining & related, not identified elsewhere 1 99 1 99
Transport, distribution, storage 6 94 7 93
Miscellaneous & inadequately described 23 77 25 75
All occupations 40 60 44 56
Adapted from Office of Population Censuses & Surveys/Registrar General Scotland (1984). Census
1981 and 1991: Economic Activity - Great Britain

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Bridging the gap in women’s career development: United Kingdom Task One Report, by Pamela M Clayton

Table 13. Employees by sex and industry, United Kingdom, June 1997, percentages
Women Men
Distribution, hotels, catering and repairs 26 20
Manufacturing 10 26
Financial and business services 19 16
Transport and communications 3 9
Construction 1 7
Agriculture 1 2
Energy and water supply - 1
Other services 40 19
Millions 11.3 13.4
ONS (1998) Social Trends 1998

Table 14. Employment in management and the professions by sex (‘000s), 1996
Managers and Professional
administrators* occupations†
Women 1,330 1,090
Men 2,714 1,637
Female share of employment % 33 40
Source: Labour Force Survey, Spring 1996
* These include senior civil servants, local government officers, senior police, general managers, bank
managers, self-employed owners of small businesses and farmers.
† These include scientists, engineers, teachers, doctors, lawyers and chartered accountants.

Table 15. Men and women in the legal profession in the United Kingdom, percentages, 1996
Women Men
England and Wales
Solicitors holding practising certificates 31 69
Called to the bar 1995/6 39 61
Practising barristers 24 76
Queen’s Counsels 10 90
High Court judges 7 93
Scotland
Solicitors on the Roll 34 66
Practising advocates 20 80
Adapted from: Equal Opportunities Commission Briefing on Women and Men in Britain: Management
and the Professions, 1997
Note that Scotland has a separate and different legal system from England and Wales. Men
are much more likely than women to be partners, while women are much more likely than

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Bridging the gap in women’s career development: United Kingdom Task One Report, by Pamela M Clayton

men to be assistant solicitors. There was only one female Lord Justice and no female Law
Lords in England and Wales in 1996, and only one female judge in Scotland. Although the
proportion of women in the legal profession has increased substantially since 1987, men still
dominate the upper levels of the profession.

Table 16. Men and women employed in the state education sector, Scotland, percentages,
1996-7
% women % men Total
Primary schools:
All teachers 91.3 8.7 100
Head teachers 75.1 24.9 100
Depute head teachers 89.1 10.9 100
Secondary schools:
All teachers 51.8 48.2 100
Head teachers 9.4 90.6 100
Depute head teachers 18.3 81.7 100
Higher Education Institutions:
All academic staff 29.9 70.1 100
Professors 8.1 91.9 100
Senior lecturers 16.4 83.6 100
Source: Scottish Education Statistics Fact Card 1998: The Scottish Office Education and Industry
Department (SOEID), September 1998

Mothers in the labour force


Table 17. Economic activity status of women by age of youngest dependent child, United
Kingdom, Spring 1997, percentages
Women No All
dependent
Age of youngest dependent child
children
0-4 5-10 11-15
Employed full time 18 23 34 48 38
Employed part-time 33 43 40 24 29
Unemployed 4 5 4 4 4
Economically 45 29 45 25 29
inactive
Millions 3.0 2.2 1.5 10.3 17.0
Source: ONS, Social Trends 1998, p. 80

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Bridging the gap in women’s career development: United Kingdom Task One Report, by Pamela M Clayton

Table 18. Economic activity rates of women with dependent children, lone and partnered
mothers, United Kingdom, 1997
Percentage economically
active
Women with dependent children, all ages 67
Women with dependent children aged 0-4 55
Lone mothers 48
Partnered mothers 68
Sources: ‘Women in the Labour Market: Spring 1997 Labour Force Survey’, Labour Market Trends
March 1998; Brannen et al. (1997), Mothers, Fathers and Employment, DfEE Research Report 10

Table 19. Reasons given for economic inactivity, by sex, people of working age, United
Kingdom, 1997
Women Men All
Does not want a job 70 67 69
Wants job but not sought one in last 4 weeks
because:
long-term sick or disabled 6 14 9
looking after family or home 14 2 9
student 3 5 4
discouraged worker 1 2 1
other 4 5 5
Source: ONS (1998). Social Trends 1998, p. 76

Qualification levels of women and men


Table 20. Qualified* 'manpower' by sex, percentages, by sex: 10% sample, Great Britain
1981 1991
Level of qualification: Women Men Women Men
a: higher university degrees 19 81 27 73
b: first degrees & equivalent 35 65 37 63
c: qualifications obtained at 18 or above 55 45 55 45
All qualified 43 57 45 55
Adapted from Office of Population Censuses & Surveys/Registrar General Scotland (1984 and 1994).
Census 1981 and 1991: Qualified Manpower *Qualified people are those with higher university
degrees, first degrees & equivalent and other qualifications obtained at 18 or above, above A
level/Higher & below 1st degree. It includes most teaching/nursing qualifications.

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Bridging the gap in women’s career development: United Kingdom Task One Report, by Pamela M Clayton

Table 21. Percentage of working age population without qualifications, United Kingdom,
1997
Women 16-59 Men 16-64
21 16
Source: ONS (1998) Social Trends 1998, p. 67

Table 22. Highly educated (with qualifications above GCE Advanced Level) women in the
labour market, percentage activity rate, 1997
Women with children aged 0-4 years: Economic activity rate (%)
With higher qualifications 77
Without qualififications 26
Source: ‘Women in the Labour Market: Spring 1997 Labour Force Survey’, Labour Market Trends
March 1998

The future? Educational attainment of children and young women and men
Table 23. Educational attainments of school-age children, by sex, percentage attaining level,
England 1997
Girls Boys
Level 2 at key stage 1 (aged 7)
Reading 84 75
Spelling 67 56
Writing 85 75
Mathematics 85 82
Level 4 or above at key stage 2 (aged 11)
English 70 57
Mathematics 61 63
Science 69 68
Level 5 or above at key stage 3 (age 14)
English 67 48
Mathematics 60 60
Science 60 61
Source: ‘National Curriculum Assessments of 7, 11 and 14 Year Olds in England 1997’, DfEE
Statistical Bulletin, Issue 4/98 April 1998

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Bridging the gap in women’s career development: United Kingdom Task One Report, by Pamela M Clayton

Table 24. GCSE (General Certificate of Secondary Education) and GCE (General Certificate
of Education) Advanced Level passes, England 1995/6, by sex, percentages
Percentage: Girls Boys
gaining 5 or more GCSEs grades A-C 49.4 39.9
gaining 5 or more GCSEs at grades A-G 88.3 84
of 17 year olds gaining a score of at least 30 points at GCE A/AS 13 15.5
level
of 17 year olds gaining at least 2 GCE A/AS passes 32.2 26.7
Source: ‘GCSE and A/AS Examination Results 1995/6, England’, DfEE Statistical Bulletin, Issue 6/97
May 1997

Table 25. Education and vocational training in England, by sex, 1995 and 1996
Percentage: Female Male
with five or more A-C grade GCSEs*, 1995 49 40
with no qualifications on leaving school, 1995 6 7
aged 16 staying on in full-time education, 1995 74 68
aged 16 entering full-time further education, 1995 39 35
aged 16 not in any form of education or training, 1995 12 15
aged 18 in education/training, 1995 59 60
of women and men studying for NVQ† level 1, 1996 7 7
of women and men studying for NVQ† level 2, 1996 34 23
of women and men studying for NVQ† level 3, 1996 27 28
of women and men studying for NVQ† level 4/5, 1996 11 17
Adapted from Equal Opportunities Commission Briefing on Women and Men in Britain: Education and
Vocational Training (1997)
* GCSE = General Certificate of Secondary Education
† NVQ = National Vocational Qualification, where level 1 is the lowest and 5 the highest

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Bridging the gap in women’s career development: United Kingdom Task One Report, by Pamela M Clayton

Table 26. Students registered on Higher Education vocational courses* in Further Education
colleges in Scotland, percentages, by sex, selected subjects, 1995-6
% women % men Total†
All subjects 49.1 47.5 96.6
Personal Care 93.7 3.0 96.7
Office and Secretarial 90.5 8.1 98.6
Social Work 80.2 17.2 97.4
Health and Safety 66.7 27.3 94.0
Social Studies 65.4 33.1 98.5
Business and management 63.8 33.7 97.5
Education 57.6 41.6 99.2
Science and Mathematics 49.4 48.4 97.8
Media Studies 43.8 55.9 99.8
Information technology 35.1 62.8 97.9
Manufacture / Production 16.3 78.9 95.2
Construction 8.7 72.9 81.6
Engineering 5.2 92.3 97.5
Source: Scottish Education Statistics Annual Review 3: 1998 Edition, The Scottish Office Education
and Industry Department (SOEID), September 1998
* Including sub-degree nursing courses and Higher National Diplomas/Certificates
† Where totals do not equal 100, this is because of gaps in the statistics on sex.
Note. The statistics for Further Education courses follow a similar pattern but are not
recorded here because the non-recording of sex is too great in many subjects.

Table 27. Students registered in Further Education Colleges in Scotland, percentages, by sex
and age, 1996-7
Age-group Women Men
Under 18 17.8 22.1
18 - 20 14.2 18.7
21 - 24 10.2 10.5
25 and over 57.8 48.6
Totals 100 99.9
Source: Scottish Education Statistics Annual Review 3: 1998 Edition, The Scottish Office Education
and Industry Department (SOEID), September 1998

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Bridging the gap in women’s career development: United Kingdom Task One Report, by Pamela M Clayton

Table 28. Percentages of graduates from Higher Education courses by sex, Scotland, 1986-7
and 1995-6
First degree Postgraduate degree
Year: Women Men Total Women Men Total
(number) (number)
1986-7 47.0 53.0 100 37.4 62.6 100
(13,240) (4,521)
1995-6 49.9 50.1 100 54.2 45.8 100
(26,766) (7,672)
Source: Scottish Education Statistics Annual Review 3: 1998 Edition, The Scottish Office Education
and Industry Department (SOEID), September 1998

Table 29. University performance in the United Kingdom, for the Academic Year 1996/7,
and percentage obtaining science degrees, by sex
Women Men Total
Percentage all first degree graduates 52 48 100
Percentage obtaining first degree in science 41 59 100
Source: ‘Qualifications Obtained by and Examination Results of Higher Education Students at Higher
Education Institutions in the United Kingdom for the Academic Year 1996/7’, HESA (Higher
Education Statistics Agency), February 1998

Table 30. Percentages attaining first or upper second class degrees, and percentage increase
in those obtaining science qualifications, by sex, United Kingdom, 1996/7
Women Men
Percentage attaining first or upper second class degree 51 45
Percentage increase in those obtaining science qualifications 14 1
Source: ‘Qualifications Obtained by and Examination Results of Higher Education Students at Higher
Education Institutions in the United Kingdom for the Academic Year 1996/7’, HESA, February 1998

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Bridging the gap in women’s career development: United Kingdom Task One Report, by Pamela M Clayton

Table 31. Percentage of full-time first degree entrants to Higher Education, by subject and
sex, Scotland, 1996-7
Subject Women Men Total (number)
Total 52.7 47.3 100 (33,182)
Allied Medicine 79.5 20.5 100 (2,528)
Education 77.2 22.8 100 (1,471)
Languages 71.4 28.6 100 (1,189)
Creative Arts 63.3 36.7 100 (1,518)
Mass Communication 62.4 37.6 100 (585)
Social Studies 62.2 37.8 100 (2,813)
Biological Sciences 61.7 38.3 100 (2,587)
Business Administration 59.5 40.5 100 (5,742)
Medicine and Dentistry 56.1 43.9 100 (1,036)
Multi-Disciplinary Studies 55.6 44.4 100 (4,360)
Humanities 53.1 46.9 100 (765)
Agriculture 51.4 48.6 100 (469)
Physical Sciences 36.3 63.7 100 (1,575)
Architecture 24.3 75.7 100 (1,401)
Maths and Computing 20.2 79.8 100 (1,649)
Engineering/Technology 14.8 85.2 100 (3,494)
Source: Scottish Education Statistics Annual Review 3: 1998 Edition, The Scottish Office Education
and Industry Department (SOEID), September 1998

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Bridging the gap in women’s career development: United Kingdom Task One Report, by Pamela M Clayton

2 Issues in Women’s Employment in the United Kingdom

The changing nature of participation in the labour market


Over half of British women are engaged in the labour market: women now constitute nearly
half the workforce and have lower ILO unemployment rates (see tables 1, 2, 3 and 4).
Although their participation varies over the age range, the same is true of men (see table 5).
Over the past seven years male employment has fallen by 600,000 while female employment
has risen by 300,000. Overall, the average time spent in a job since 1975 has risen for women
while it has declined for men (CBI 1998:14). Women are, however, much less likely to be
self-employed than men (see table 6).
The increasing proportion of women in the labour market has been explained by a number of
factors. On the one hand there is an increased demand for female labour, arising from: growth
of routine non-manual work and services, traditionally ‘women’s jobs’; employers’
preference for ‘flexible’ labour, particularly part-time (see tables 4 and 6) to match
fluctuations in work flow - part-timers are easier to hire and dismiss, because they are less
well protected by legislation and less likely to be in trade unions; and male labour shortages
in the 1960s and early 1970s.
On the other hand there is an increased supply of female labour, arising from: decreasing
family size; changing social conceptions of women’s roles; increasing qualification of
women through the education system; and the desire to increase household income.

Hours worked
Women are much more likely than men to work part time, but this can constitute a substantial
number of hours (see table 7). At least two-thirds of part-time employees (nearly all of whom
are female - male part-timers are likely to be students) were content to work part time (British
Social Attitudes Survey 1994/5). Women working full time work fewer hours than men (see
table 9) and do less overtime.

Income and position in career structure


For women working full time, it is principally the hourly rate which affects their gross pay.
Hence, there is a still a pay gap, though women’s pay increased slightly more than men’s in
1996-7 (see tables 8 and 9).
Women’s class position, based on occupational strata, is similar to that of men at all levels
(taking skilled non-manual and manual as roughly equivalent - which is, however, debatable)
except in the professions where there are eight men for every three women (see table 10).
Men’s average earnings are always higher (see tables 11). Within strata, women tend to
participate in different sectors from men, although the sex balance in the upper occupational
classes has been shifting slowly towards women (see table 12).
There is a variety of reasons for the pay gap:
• men and women tend to be employed in different sectors, with women concentrated in
lower-paid occupations such as catering and services (see table 13)

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Bridging the gap in women’s career development: United Kingdom Task One Report, by Pamela M Clayton

• men are more likely to work in the private sector where top rates of pay are higher (see
table 8)
• men tend to occupy the top posts (see tables 14, 15 and 16)
• women who have children are more likely to take a career break, which limits their
prospects of promotion
• where women and men do different work, it is difficult (though it has not proved
impossible) to establish parity between them in order for women to benefit from equal pay
for equal work legislation
Managerial occupations and the professions have together expanded rapidly since 1981 and
women have been increasing their share of such employment relative to men in all areas
except science and engineering. Despite a marked increase in the number of women in senior
and middle management, however, women are estimated to make up only 3.3 per cent of
directors and in many large companies there are no women on the board. Furthermore, male
directors and managers earn more than women in the same categories (EOC 1997b).

Discrimination: direct and indirect


Equal Opportunities Commission enquiries relating to employment increased by more than
half between 1991 and 1993 (Social Trends 1996). One explanation casting some light on
discrimination in the labour market is the concept of the dual labour market. The ‘primary’
labour market is composed of jobs offering high salaries, career structures, the chance to
acquire skills on the job and stable and secure employment; the ‘secondary’ labour market is
composed of jobs offering low wages, few possibilities for advancement or the acquisition of
skills, and unstable, insecure employment. Studies in the United States of America have
shown that ethnic minorities and women are more likely to be selected for secondary jobs,
and white males for primary ones. Women and minorities are stereotyped as making
insufficiently reliable and stable employees, which is why they are discriminated against and
excluded from the better jobs.
There is evidence that the same is true to some extent in the United Kingdom. Market
segregation is fairly universal, with men and women being employed in different sectors. The
reasons for this are, however, complex. For example, women have a greater tendency than
men to enter public sector employment. On the one hand, pay in this sector is lower than in
the private sector; on the other hand, conditions of service are often better, particularly in
relation to extra-statutory maternity leave, and women working full-time in the public sector
have higher average gross weekly earnings than in the private sector, although this is reversed
for men (see table 8). Furthermore the ethos of service rather than profit, and women’s
greater propensity to seek work that is satisfying rather than well-paid, may attract
disproportionate numbers of women into the public sector (Clayton & Slowey 1997).

The burden of care


Being a mother does not necessarily prevent women working outside the home, particularly
as the children get older (see table 17), though it increases their difficulties in so doing,
particularly in the case of lone mothers (see table 18). Nevertheless, the propensity of women
to enter, leave and re-enter the labour market because of the burden of care means that they
have a greater problem maintaining employability (Confederation of British Industry [CBI]
1998:14). According to the CBI, it is the role of government to ensure accessible and
affordable early years services, after-school clubs and eldercare (CBI 1998:16). At the same
time, employers should implement equal opportunities strategies such as family-friendly
working arrangements (CBI 1998:20). Such arrangements include maternity benefits beyond
the statutory minimum; paternity leave; and flexible working arrangements. Overall, 92% of

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Bridging the gap in women’s career development: United Kingdom Task One Report, by Pamela M Clayton

establishments provide at least some of these arrangements, but only 5% provided all of
them. Furthermore, only 10% of workplaces provide practical assistance with childcare, and
only 2% had a workplace nursery (Forth et al. 1996).

Childcare
The average age of a mother at her first birth has risen to 28.6 years (ONS 1998, Social
Trends, p. 52) and most women will have some work experience prior to motherhood. Two-
thirds of women who worked during pregnancy returned to work within 9 months of the birth
(Callender et al. 1997).
Survey data indicates that 4 out of 5 non-working mothers with children aged under 12 would
seek employment if they could obtain satisfactory childcare (British Social Attitudes Survey
1994/5); and over one-third of women who did not return to work after maternity leave stated
they could not afford to pay for childcare (Callender et al. 1997). The United Kingdom has
the highest childcare costs in Europe (Bradshaw et al. 1996). Average childcare costs
constitute about one quarter of the earnings of mothers, whether employed full-time or part-
time (Kozak et al. 1998). Where a family has two children, one pre-school and one at school
but needing after-school and holiday care, a typical childcare bill is around £6,000 per annum
(Daycare Trust 1997). Nearly three-quarters of working mothers with children aged 0-4 use
informal care (British Social Attitudes Survey 1994/5).
Although the majority of economically inactive women choose not to seek employment, a
further 14% would like to take paid work but cannot because they are looking after family or
home (see table 19). One-quarter of part-time employees said they would work more hours
given adequate childcare (British Social Attitudes Survey 1994/5). Particularly disadvantaged
are mothers of disabled children or with adult children who continue to live at home. British
lone parents have lower employment rates than in other European Union countries, partly
because of the ‘benefit trap’ but principally because of the cost of childcare.

Educational qualifications: now and in the future


Women on average are less well qualified than men (see tables 20 and 21). This fact not only
reduces women’s average income, it also makes it more difficult for mothers to enter the
labour market. It is notable that mothers with higher qualifications are very much more likely
to be in paid employment than those with none (see table 22).
There has, however, been a general increase in the qualifications of young people in England
for both boys and girls. The performance of girls at school in mathematics and science has
greatly improved and in the early years they do as well as or better than boys in these
subjects. Since the Sex Discrimination Act of 1975 provided for the equal treatment of girls
and boys, careers guidance and opportunities for work experience must be provided on a non-
discriminatory basis. In addition, positive action is allowed to encourage pupils into non-
traditional types of work (Scottish Office 1998). Girls continue to do well in English and
modern foreign languages, but now also out-perform boys in science, mathematics and
technology at GCSE; they are also more likely than boys to stay in full-time education. They
are less likely, however, to take the higher level NVQs which employers now claim to value
above school qualifications (see tables 23, 24 and 25).
Although subjects such as physics and home economics remain sex-segregated, these attract
relatively few pupils of either sex. However, gender-stereotyping remains as is shown by the
subject choices of 14 year olds studying foundation level General National Vocational
Qualifications (GNVQs) (EOC 1997a) and the subject choices of students in Colleges of
Further Education (see table 26). It can be argued that women, in avoiding the declining
industrial and construction sectors in favour of the ever-growing tertiary industry, are making

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Bridging the gap in women’s career development: United Kingdom Task One Report, by Pamela M Clayton

a sensible choice. Their relatively low participation in information technology, however,


appears at this time to be mistaken. It is, however, of interest that the majority of women in
Further Education colleges are aged 25 or over and it is probable that many of these are
returners to learning (see table 27).
That gender segregation in higher education and work continues to exist has been explained
as arising from the sexual division of labour outside school and the ‘hidden curriculum’
within schools, in that girls are socialised into different expectations from boys. Research in
Scottish schools shows that in physics, technology and mathematics, boys tend to have more
confidence than girls, and they are more likely to ‘see computing as enjoyable and necessary
to their future prospects ... girls often have lower expectations and less motivation’ (Scottish
Office 1998).
The Modern Apprenticeship scheme, which includes study for NVQs level 3 and above,
started with males taking 89% of the apprenticeships, but by June 1996 52% of those starting
were female. Gender stereotyping, however, is prevalent: young women are concentrated in
the ‘caring’ occupations, hairdressing and business administration, while young men
predominate in engineering, manufacturing, construction and the motor industry. There is a
more even balance in retailing and catering. Similarly, the majority of female Youth Trainees
are in office and sales occupations (EOC 1997a).
Although girls do better than boys at school up to the age of 16, they do less well after that.
Although Scottish women are now more likely than before to attend university, now
outnumber men, and are obtaining better class degrees and more postgraduate qualifications
(see tables 28 and 30), research shows that ‘proportionately fewer well-qualified girls than
boys enter higher education in Scotland’ (Scottish Office 1998). When they do enter higher
education, they are still less likely than men, though more likely than before, to study
mathematics, sciences or engineering (see tables 29 and 30). Nevertheless, Scottish women
are entering former male domains such as medicine and business administration, which
potentially lead to high-status, well-paid occupations (see table 31).

Conclusions
The traditional image of women disengaging from the labour market to rear a family
following which they may wish to re-enter full-time is no longer, if it ever was, adequate as a
paradigm on which to base education and training policies. Furthermore, there is a new
emphasis by employers on ‘flexible’ working, with increasing periods of part-time work, self-
employment, contract work, geographical mobility etc. - and flexible working requires
flexible education and training. As a result, the role of impartial, good quality educational
guidance and counselling becomes crucial in assisting individuals to choose from the myriad
of education and training opportunities available that which best suits their particular needs at
a particular time (Clayton & Slowey 1996). The CBI sees the role of government as including
universal access to high quality impartial careers information and guidance (CBI 1998:16).
In the United Kingdom, women’s labour market participation is high and their ILO
unemployment rates are lower than men’s. Accessing employment does not present a great
difficulty for the majority of women who wish it; and the availability of part-time work suits
the expressed needs and wishes of the majority of women who opt for it.
Nevertheless, the biggest barrier in the United Kingdom for women entering and staying in
the labour force, and working the number of hours that they wish, is undoubtedly the expense
of childcare. Even when children start attending full-time school (at the age of four or five),
they may need after-school and holiday care. Eldercare is another barrier and even less help
is available than for those seeking childcare.

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Bridging the gap in women’s career development: United Kingdom Task One Report, by Pamela M Clayton

This is not an area in which vocational guidance can directly intervene, although services can
give advice on issues in choosing childcare (for example, South & East Cheshire TEC Ltd,
1998), and by building strong links with local employers, they can act as advocates of family-
friendly working arrangements.
On the other hand, one vital statistic is the very much greater labour market participation of
qualified women with pre-school children than unqualified women in similar circumstances.
This surely is due to the greater income that a qualified woman can command, thus finding
childcare affordable. Here vocational guidance can play a role, through advising women on
educational opportunities and progression routes.
Another role for guidance is confidence-raising, particularly in terms of career progression.
Women need the confidence to request further training and education leading to
qualifications and to apply for promotion. The great disparity between men and women in the
education sector, for example, is, it is claimed, partly due to the reluctance of women to apply
for higher level posts. Employers claim to want confident workers, who will take the
initiative in advancing themselves and thus advancing the success of their company or sector.
The greater educational attainment of young women and equal opportunities policies in
school curricula may point to a future change in women’s career progression. Furthermore,
their participation in science degree programmes is increasing. Women are marrying and
having children later, which gives them the opportunity to develop a career over perhaps ten
years or so. Many more women now attend university and attain the qualified status that
raises the income from employment.
While there is some evidence of trends towards greater convergence in men’s and women’s
patterns of employment, gender inequality remains strong. As a recent European Report on
women in the labour market comments:
There is little evidence that the current thrust of labour market policies is likely to bring about a new
gender order, involving a more equitable distribution of wage work, domestic work and access to
income. Indeed some of the tendencies of current labour market policies may be identified as likely
to intensify rather than reduce current levels of gender differentiation and inequality, while at the
same time involving an ever increasing share of men and women in unsocial and irregular hours,
with all the negative consequences of such working arrangements for a satisfying social and family
life (Commission of the European Community, 1995, p. 6).
We have to return, however, to the question of women’s role in the home: one reason for
many women’s apparent lack of ambition in the workforce is the dual burden under which
many of them eventually labour, of paid work and domestic responsibilities. Even those with
school-age children must spent large amounts of time on caring and domestic work. The
situation is worst of all for lone mothers.
Vocational guidance - where it exists - certainly has a role to play in women’s career
progression; but it operates in a climate where the cost of childcare and the expectations that
women will shoulder the majority of domestic responsibility make it very much more
difficult for women than men to focus on building satisfying careers which give them the
income they need.

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Bridging the gap in women’s career development: United Kingdom Task One Report, by Pamela M Clayton

3 The Infrastructure for Vocational Guidance in the United Kingdom

There is no statutory provider of vocational guidance open to all adults, but there is state
funding for certain categories of people (notably, the young and the unemployed), and there
are state-funded information and advice initiatives for adults considering education and
training. On the other hand, there is a range of non-statutory bodies offering adult vocational
guidance, largely in the education/training and voluntary sectors. Scotland is a particularly
fertile field for guidance, which is supported by the Scottish Office through initiatives such as
financial support for Adult Guidance Networks. Nevertheless, there is no uniformity of
provision in Scotland or in the United Kingdom as a whole.

STATUTORY PROVISION
The unemployed
The state Employment Service (ES) offers guidance to the unemployed and a specialised
service for disabled people, as well as advice, placements and Job Clubs, but does not claim
to be a holistic, client-centred guidance and counselling service. The ES is currently involved
in two major government initiatives, Welfare to Work (the New Deal) and Employment
Zones.
Welfare to Work The amount allocated to New Deal generally is £3.5 billion. It began in
April 1998 and involves all aged 18 to 24 who have been unemployed for six months or
more. From June 1998 those aged 25 or over were included. Those on the scheme have four
options: to enter for 12 months paid employment, the voluntary sector, an environmental
taskforce or full-time education/training. The ‘fifth option’ is to lose state benefits. Special
initiatives for lone parents began in Autumn 1998 and measures for disabled people will
follow. In Scotland an option in New Deal is known as Gateway. This consists of a client-
based guidance programme operated by the ES in conjunction with specialised vocational
guidance and counselling services and includes indepth guidance and personal development.
Employment Zones Areas throughout the United Kingdom were invited to bid to become
Employment Zones. These are targeted at people aged 25 or over and unemployed for at least
one year, with special emphasis on labour market returners, disabled people and lone parents.
Unlike New Deal, it is a voluntary process. The Glasgow Learning Alliance won its bid,
which began in February 1998 and lasts for two years. Initiatives include Learning for Work,
help with starting a business (also available under New Deal) and an intermediate labour
market. One feature is the development of an Employee Development Programme (EDP)
among SMEs. There is an integral role for guidance and the Alliance works closely with the
Glasgow Adult Guidance Network.

The young
Schools have a statutory duty to provide guidance; but this service is poor in about one-third
of schools (NACETT) (1997).

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Bridging the gap in women’s career development: United Kingdom Task One Report, by Pamela M Clayton

Careers Services across the country offer a service to young people in schools, school
leavers, full-time and some part-time students in colleges and adults with disabilities. All are
now run on contract from the DfEE and many have become Careers Companies, private
companies limited by guarantee, formed from former Local Authority Careers Services and
obliged to serve people aged 21 or below. Young people in education also have access to
guidance (see below) but this is variable in availability and quality.

Adult learners
Learning Direct is a telephone advice line, offering information on local education
opportunities, which is free to the user.
The University for Industry (UfI) is a brokering service, intended to raise the educational and
skill levels of the workforce, particularly those with low skills and/or working in small and
medium enterprises (SMEs). Its principal functions are likely to be motivating, guiding,
informing, tutoring and mentoring, as well as ensuring the existence of an accessible range of
quality-assured learning centres, developed out of Learning Direct (Hillman 1997). The pilot
in the north east of England has a one-stop shop, free phone line and website, including
online booking for courses and online learning (free ‘taster’ courses are available). However,
although vocational guidance services are used, they do not form part of the partnership.
Careers Services in Scotland have been directed by the Scottish Office Education and
Industry Department (SOEID) to offer vocational guidance to certain groups of adults. These
include adults attending full-time college courses, or part-time courses which involve
studying to improve job prospects or status, and adults with learning difficulties who could
be in employment, education or training.

NON-STATUTORY PROVISION
Employment Service Job Centres are open to adults who require information on job
vacancies and government training programmes (Training for Work), which are funded by
central government to support those seeking employment or training.
Careers Services are allowed to develop adult guidance but have to find their own funding
for this and provision varies widely. Some are able to finance ‘non-core’ work, enabling any
adult to request vocational guidance; others have introduced charges to employed adults.
Careers Services which do offer a broad adult guidance service can provide one-to-one
vocational guidance interviews, careers information and the opportunity to make use of
career interest guides, such as Adult Directions.
Colleges of Further Education offer pre-entry guidance and counselling to adult enquirers,
and some also offer on-course guidance with trained personnel, but there is no uniformity of
provision, and there are doubts about the impartiality of such guidance in some cases (Payne
& Edwards 1996). Some colleges, such as Glasgow’s Cardonald College, have set up
sophisticated advice centres, using Careers Service personnel, which offer a full guidance
service to all members of the community.
Higher Education institutions provide guidance and information which focuses mainly on
full-time students and graduates. Increasingly, institutions employ specialists who work with
non-traditional entrants into higher education. Such posts are usually attached to flexible
study and access programmes designed for adults, and educational guidance is offered at all
stages, including pre-entry. The Open University, however, incorporated guidance and
counselling into its courses from the beginning, and was instrumental in persuading adult
educators of the value of guidance and in helping to set up and supporting many educational
guidance services for adults (EGSAs).

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Bridging the gap in women’s career development: United Kingdom Task One Report, by Pamela M Clayton

Local authorities across Britain provide EGSAs, usually through community education or
similar departments which offer a range of learning opportunities to adults. Guidance offered
is usually linked only with educational opportunities.
Public libraries, which receive many enquiries from adults, should not be overlooked: many
work closely with their local EGSA (Taylor 1988).
Training and Enterprise Councils (TECs, England and Wales), Local Enterprise
Companies (LECs, Scotland) and Local Development Companies (LDCs) are involved in a
range of guidance initiatives. Some offer pre-entry guidance to adults considering Training
for Work. They have been involved in both redundancy counselling, support for recruitment
and placement of graduates and the provision of courses for labour market returners.
Private sector organisations involved in the delivery of adult guidance. Some careers
advisers work on a freelance basis and change fees to clients or organisations to which they
are contracted. Some agencies offer psychometric testing and c.v. preparation.
National specialised services for disadvantaged groups include the National Association for
the Education and Guidance of Offenders (Bridgebuilders), an association of professionals
involved in educational services to prisoners and ex-offenders, which aims to promote
education and guidance work with such individuals. Some local services have been set up to
provide education and guidance for prisoners and ex-offenders. The Royal National Institute
for the Blind (RNIB) has a Student Support Service which comprises of a national team of
advisers for students in mainstream, further and higher education. Assistance on matters
related to study is offered, as is advice on career planning, mobility and library services.
Local and regional services for disadvantaged groups include the Off the Streets and Into
Work initiative targets the young homeless or in housing need. Linking Education And
Disability (LEAD) Scotland, through involvement in local guidance networks, has been able
to extend guidance services to users in their own homes. LEAD North, operating in LEC
areas in the Highlands and Islands of Scotland, has used ESF grants to develop a team of
local organisers and volunteers to offer home tuition and guidance. The Refugee Access
Project (RAP) provides careers guidance and counselling for refugees and asylum seekers in
the Edinburgh area, targeting in particular those who are unemployed for at least six months
and with English as a second language. Women and New Directions (WAND) is a community-
based adult guidance project for women funded by the Scottish Office, aimed at relieving
poverty and advance the employment, education and training opportunities for women in the
Pilton area of Edinburgh. Priority is given to the low-waged, unemployed and less qualified.
The Ethnic Minority Enterprise Centre (EMEC) in Glasgow offers guidance in particular to
those wishing to start their own business. Unemployed Workers’ Centres in Glasgow also
offer guidance.
Education/training programmes and intermediate labour market organisations
increasingly include vocational guidance. These include the Women’s Technology Centres.
Voluntary sector initiatives have resulted in the establishment of adult vocational guidance
services, especially in disadvantaged areas. These are usually funded from a variety of
sources, often on an annual basis. Most of these consist of ‘one-stop shops’, offering access
to jobs, education and training as well as information, advice and guidance. Some of them
offer mobile services, typically carried on guidance buses.

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Bridging the gap in women’s career development: United Kingdom Task One Report, by Pamela M Clayton

Summary and conclusion


Vocational guidance and counselling is carried out in the United Kingdom by a wide range of
practitioners and organisations. No single agency acts as a statutory provider of adult
guidance, although local adult guidance networks have brought providers together to share
information, ideas on good practice and facilitate appropriate referral of users. At present,
there is no nationally or locally agreed professional qualification in adult vocational guidance
although a structure exists for careers guidance in general and there are moves towards
harmonisation of adult guidance qualifications. Although there is a number of committed and
enthusiastic voluntary sector guidance services for adults, there are questions about their
quality, given the low level of initial and in-service training and qualifications. There is too
little systematic networking and no common quality standards.
Even where, as in Scotland, there is a relatively large amount of guidance provision, there are
difficulties for potential clients. In some areas there is duplication of provision, and unhelpful
competition between providers; in other areas there is none. There is ample targeting of the
unemployed, but poor provision for those facing redundancy, planning retirement or those
seeking a career change or career break..
A major problem for adults seeking to compete in today’s rapidly changing labour market is
that independent vocational guidance and counselling, with tried and tested methods for
facilitating entry to education, training and employment, has a low profile, is not uniformly
available and is often hard to access. There is still a tendency to prioritise vocational
guidance for school pupils.

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Bridging the gap in women’s career development: United Kingdom Task One Report, by Pamela M Clayton

4 Draft typology of women’s needs in the United Kingdom

Employers’ criteria for employability


‘The qualities that employers look for in recruits - and the qualities needed to manage one’s
own career - are often generic and transferable rather than specific. Specialist skills are
required in many areas, but in all areas equal emphasis is put on the values, attitudes and
skills which are vital in employees contributing effectively in work - in short, on personal
development’ (CBI 1998:27).

Women for whom career development (entry and progression) is particularly difficult
include:

• those with inadequate literacy/numeracy

• those with no/low qualifications

• those with no employment experience

• returners with previous employment experience but whose skills/qualifications require


updating

• returners with previous employment experience but whose labour market knowledge is
out-of-date

• returners whose confidence and self-esteem have fallen through absence from
employment

• part-time employees

• full-time employees with low expectations

• women in organisations which prioritise the training of men

• non-unionised women

• women living in disadvantaged areas and subject to postcode discrimination

• women in rural areas

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Bridging the gap in women’s career development: United Kingdom Task One Report, by Pamela M Clayton

All of the above are aggravated in the case of

• those with child/eldercare responsibilities, particularly:


♦ lone mothers
♦ women with unemployed husbands

• women with adult children living at home

• members of ethnic minorities, whatever their qualifications, particularly:


♦ those with inadequate English
♦ those who belong to groups which are adversely stereotyped

Accordingly, their needs include:

• access to basic education, including English for Speakers of Other Languages (ESOL)

• access to vocational education and reskilling

• work placements

• up-to-date labour market information

• confidence-building, including assessment of prior (experiential) learning (AP[E]L)

• motivating

• personal development

• role models, mentors

• skills for bargaining for training

• accommodation addresses

• training in starting and running small businesses

• ICT skills

• information, advice and helping finding childcare, including before, after school and in
school holidays

• contact with support organisations (e.g. for help with eldercare)

• advocacy

• interpreting services

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5 Bibliography

Bradshaw et al. (1996). The Employment of Lone Parents: a comparison of policy in 20


countries.
Brannen et al. (1997). Mothers, Fathers and Employment. DfEE Research Report 10
Callender et al. (1997). Maternity Rights in Britain 1996. DSS Research Report 67
Clayton, P. & Slowey, M. (1996). ‘Toward the ‘flexible’ workforce? Implications for gender
and the education and training of adults’, Scottish Journal of Adult and Continuing
Education, 3(1), pp 45-62
Clayton, P. & Slowey, M. (1997).‘Was it worth it? A comparison of the role of adult
education and training in the labour market insertion and progress of men and women in the
West of Scotland: results of qualitative research’, AAACE /AERC / CASAE / ESREA /
SCUTREA International Conference, INSERT TITLE, Royal Holloway College, 1st to 3rd
July 1997
CBI (1998). In Search of Employability: a CBI discussion document. London: Confederation
of British Industry (CBI) Publications Unit
Daycare Trust (1997). Sharing the Costs of Childcare.
DfEE Statistical Bulletin (1997). GCSE and A/AS Examination Results 1995/6, England.
Issue 6/97 May 1997
DfEE Statistical Bulletin (1998). National Curriculum Assessments of 7, 11 and 14 Year Olds
in England 1997. Issue 4/98 April 1998
EOC (1997a). Briefing on Women and Men in Britain: education and vocational training.
Manchester: Equal Opportunities Commission (EOC)
EOC (1997b). Briefing on Women and Men in Britain: Management and the Professions.
Manchester: Equal Opportunities Commission (EOC)
European Commission (1995). Unemployed Women in the European Community: statistical
facts. Luxembourg: Office for Official Publications of the European Communities
Forth et al. (1996). Family Friendly Working Arrangements in Britain. DfEE Research
Report 16
HESA (1998). Qualifications Obtained by and Examination Results of Higher Education
Students at Higher Education Institutions in the United Kingdom for the Academic Year
1996/7. Higher Education Statistics Agency
Hillman, J. (1997). University for Industry: creating a national learning network. London:
Institute for Public Policy Research
Kozak, M. (1998). Employment, Family Life and the Quality of Care Services: a review of
research in the UK (1994-1996). Sheffield: DfEE
Labour Force Survey (1996).
Labour Market Trends (1998). ‘New Earnings Survey April 1996/7’, February 1998

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Bridging the gap in women’s career development: United Kingdom Task One Report, by Pamela M Clayton

Labour Market Trends (1998). ‘Autumn 1997 Labour Force Survey Statistics’, February
1998
Labour Market Trends (1998). ‘Women in the Labour Market: Spring 1997 Labour Force
Survey’, March 1998
NACETT (1997). Skills for 2000: report on progress towards the National Targets for
Education and Training. London: National Advisory Council for Education and Training
Targets (NACETT)
Office for National Statistics (1996). 25 Years of Social Trends on CD-ROM (1970-1995),
London: ONS
Office for National Statistics (1997). New Earnings Survey 1997. London: The Stationery
Office
Office for National Statistics (1998). Social Trends 1998. London: The Stationery Office
Office of Population Censuses & Surveys/Registrar General Scotland (1984). Census 1981
Economic Activity - Great Britain
Office of Population Censuses & Surveys/Registrar General Scotland (1984). Census 1981:
Key statistics for local authorities - Great Britain
Office of Population Censuses & Surveys/Registrar General Scotland (1984). Census 1981:
Qualified Manpower
Office of Population Censuses & Surveys/Registrar General Scotland (1994). Census1991
Office of Population Censuses & Surveys/Registrar General Scotland (1994). Census 1991:
Key statistics for local authorities - Great Britain
Office of Population Censuses & Surveys/Registrar General Scotland (1994). Census 1991:
Qualified Manpower
Payne, J. & Edwards, R. (1996). ‘Impartial guidance in Further Education colleges’, Adults
Learning. Leicester: NIACE, March, 1996
Scottish Office (1998). Raising Standards - Setting Targets: gender issues in raising
attainment. Scottish Office: HMI Audit Unit
Scottish Office Education and Industry Department (SOEID) (1998). Scottish Education
Statistics Annual Review 3: 1998 Edition, September 1998
South & East Cheshire TEC Ltd (1998). Best Practice Guidance Pack. Liverpool: Meridien
Projects Ltd (available from South & East Cheshire TEC Ltd)
Taylor, J. (1988). ‘Educational guidance for adults in the United Kingdom: developments
through the 1980s’, 1988 SCUTREA Conference Proceedings
TUC (1998). Learning in the Workplace: a negotiater’s guide. London: Trades Union
Congress

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6 Other reading
Bhavnani, Reena (1994). Black women in the labour market. Manchester: Equal
Opportunities Commission
Chisholm, L. (ed.) (1997). Getting In, Climbing Up and Breaking Through: women returners
and vocational guidance and counselling. Bristol: The Policy Press
Clayton, P. (1995). ‘Learning workers in two organisations in the West of Scotland: social,
economic and personal outcomes of training’, in Towards a Learning Workforce, conference
at Lancaster University Department of Continuing Education, 12-13 September 1995, pp 28-
33
Clayton, P. (1996). ‘A transnational study of vocational guidance and counselling provision
for women returners’, Adults Learning October 1996, pp 40-41
Clayton, P. (1998). ‘Access issues in vocational guidance and counselling’, Adults Learning,
September 1998, pp 6-7
McGivney, V (1993). Women, Education and Training: barriers to access, informal starting
points and progression routes. Leicester: NIACE
Owen, David (1994). Ethnic minority women and the labour market. Manchester: Equal
Opportunties Commission
Sloane, Peter J. (ed.) (1990). Women and low pay. London: Macmillan

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7 Acronyms

AP(E)L Assessment of prior (experiential) learning


CBI Confederation of British Industry
CEDA Castlemilk Economic Development Agency
c.v. curriculum vitae
DfEE Department for Education and Employment
DSS Department of Social Services
EDP Employee Development Scheme
EGSA educational guidance service for adults
EMEC Ethnic Minority Enterprise Centre
EOC Equal Opportunities Commission
ES Employment Service
ESF European Social Fund
GCE General Certificate of Education
GCSE General Certificate of Secondary Education
GDA Glasgow Development Agency
GNVQ General National Vocational Qualifications
HESA Higher Education Statistics Agency
HMI Her Majesty’s Inspectorate
ICG Institute of Careers Guidance
ICT Information and Communication Technology
ILO International Labour Organisation
LEAD Linking Education and Disability
LEC Local Enterprise Company (Scotland)
NACETT National Advisory Council for Education and Training Targets
NIACE National Institute for Adult and Continuing Education
NICEC National Institute of Career and Employment Counselling
NOW New Opportunities for Women
NVQ National Vocational Qualification
ONS Office for National Statistics

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Bridging the gap in women’s career development: United Kingdom Task One Report, by Pamela M Clayton

RAP Refugee Access Project


RNIB Royal National Institute for the Blind
SME small or medium enterprise
SOEID Scottish Office Education and Industry Department
STUC Scottish Trades Union Congress
TAP Training Access Point
TEC Training and Enterprise Council (England and Wales)
TUC Trades Union Congress
UfI University for Industry
WAND Women and New Directions

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Bridging the gap in women’s career development: United Kingdom Task One Report, by Pamela M Clayton

8 Questions for Task 2

A Providers of guidance
Name and address of service
Phone/fax/email
Opening hours
Name and position of contact person
a) Functions and philosophy of the service
1. What are the broad functions of the service?
2. What, if any, are the female target groups? Are there any language or cultural problems?
Who is allowed to use the service? What area is covered (eg local, regional, national)?
3. Are any other facilities provided by the service? Are other activities carried out at the
centre and if so what?
4. What is the philosophy behind what you do?
b) History, general structure and access
1. What year did the service start?
2. By whom/what organisation was it inaugurated?
3. What kinds of people are represented on the Management Board (or equivalent)?
4. What is the funding position?
5. Staffing, qualifications and training
6. How do users physically access the service? (e.g., one-stop shop, mobile guidance service,
telephone helpline, local college)
7. How is the service advertised / how do users find out about it?
8. How do users make the first contact? (drop-in / phone)
9. Is the agency a welcoming place for women?
10. Are there childcare facilities?
11. What if anything do users pay?
12. What, if any, financial help is available? (e.g. for travel, training, childcare, living
expenses while training, other)
13. Are home visits offered?
14. Are there any outreach initiatives?
15. Is there a time limit on use of your services (ie for how long can an individual continue
coming? How many hours ‘allowance’ do they have?)
16. Is continuing guidance available after a user has started an education/training course or a
job?

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Bridging the gap in women’s career development: United Kingdom Task One Report, by Pamela M Clayton

c) Content of the service


1. Information: Are there free leaflets / information packs available? Are there informative
posters inside the reception area? Are job vacancies displayed on noticeboards? Is there a
library? Is there access to TAP or other computerised facilities?
2. Is psychometric testing available?
3. Is individual labour market counselling available? If so, does it include:
(self)-assessment of skills (self)-assessment of abilities
(self)-assessment of experiential learning confidence-building
motivating raising self-esteem
information/advice about training information/advice about reschooling
information/advice about further education information/advice about employment
possibilities?
the development of a personal / career plan? counselling on social, medical, legal,
financial, family, accommodation
problems
other

4. Are gender-specific courses and group counselling available? If so, do they include:
self-awareness peer-group counselling
assertiveness training career information
help with job search career planning projects
work experience placements
help with setting up own business other

5. Does advocacy play any role in your work?


6. Do you run mentoring or befriending schemes?
7. Do you use role models to motivate women?
8. What other methods do you use to help women’s career development?
d) Clients
1. What do your female clients want when they first use the service?
2. What problems do women typically have in developing their careers?
3. Do you follow up the progress of clients after they have left the service?
4. If so, what are the most typical progression routes to employment or career development?
5. What methods have you found the most successful?
e) Networking
1. With which if any other guidance/counselling agencies do you have cooperative links?
2. Does the agency have links with other relevant agencies and institutions, and if so which?
Do you actively work with any other service?
3. Do you maintain close contacts with local employers?
4. Do you have access to up-to-date local labour market information?

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Bridging the gap in women’s career development: United Kingdom Task One Report, by Pamela M Clayton

B Social partners and policymakers

Trade unions
Do you think women fare worse than men in the workplace, in terms of career progression?
If so, what do you think are the reasons for this?
Do you have special initiatives to help women develop their careers?
What can vocational guidance services do to assist women in improving their career position?
What can women do to help themselves?

Employers
What qualities do you look for in your employees?
Do you think women fare worse than men in the workplace, in terms of career progression?
If so, what do you think are the reasons for this?
What is the situation in your organisation?
What can vocational guidance services do to assist women in improving their career position?
What can women do to help themselves?

Careers services (state-funded)


Do you think women fare worse than men in the workplace, in terms of career progression?
If so, what do you think are the reasons for this?
What should careers services be doing to help women’s career development?
What can adult vocational guidance services do to assist women in improving their labour
market position?
What can women do to help themselves?

Local government
Have you conducted a gender audit of women and paid work?
Are there any particular problems faced by women in your area?
Do you think women fare worse than men in the workplace, in terms of career progression?
If so, what do you think are the reasons for this?
What should careers services be doing to help girls’ career development?
What can adult vocational guidance services do to assist women in improving their labour
market position?
What can women do to help themselves?

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Bridging the gap in women’s career development: United Kingdom Task One Report, by Pamela M Clayton

National/regional government
How important is the quantity and quality of female labour in the national economy?
Are you satisfied with the situation concerning women’s career progression?
What government initiatives are likely to be particularly helpful in assisting women to
improve their labour market position?
Is adult vocational guidance one of your priorities?
If so, how do you propose to resource this service for the sake of those who cannot pay,
including low-paid, unemployed and ‘inactive’ women?

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