ME 2252 MANUFACTURING TECHNOLOGY II OBJECTIVE

LTPC 3003

To understand the concept and basic mechanics of metal cutting, working of standard machine tools such as lathe, shaping and allied machines, milling, drilling and allied machines, grinding and allied machines and broaching. To understand the basic concepts of computer numerical control (CNC) machine tool and CNC programming. UNIT I THEORY OF METAL CUTTING cutting, cutting tool materials, tool wear, tool life, surface finish, cutting fluids. UNIT II CENTRE LATHE AND SPECIAL PURPOSE LATHES methods, special attachments, machining time and power estimation. Capstan and turret lathes automats single spindle, Swiss type, automatic screw type, multi spindle - Turret Indexing mechanism, Bar feed mechanism. UNIT III OTHER MACHINE TOOLS 9 Reciprocating machine tools: shaper, planer, slotter - Milling: types, milling cutters, operations - Hole making : drilling Quill mechanism , Reaming, Boring, Tapping - Sawing machine: hack saw, band saw, circular saw; broaching machines: broach construction push, pull, surface and continuous broaching machines UNIT IV ABRASIVE PROCESSES AND GEAR CUTTING 9 Abrasive processes: grinding wheel specifications and selection, types of grinding process cylindrical grinding, surface grinding, centreless grinding honing, lapping, super finishing, polishing and buffing, abrasive jet machining Gear cutting, forming, generation, shaping, hobbing. UNIT V CNC MACHINE TOOLS AND PART PROGRAMMING 9 Numerical control (NC) machine tools CNC: types, constructional details, special features design considerations of CNC machines for improving machining accuracy structural members slide ways linear bearings ball screws spindle drives and feed drives. Part programming fundamentals manual programming computer assisted part programming. TOTAL : 45 PERIODS TEXT BOOKS 1. HajraChoudry, Elements of Work Shop Technology Vol. II, Media Promoters.2002 2. HMT Production Technology, Tata McGraw-Hill, 1998. REFERENCES: 1. Rao, P.N. Manufacturing Technology, Metal Cutting and Machine Tools, TataMcGrawHill, New Delhi, 2003. 2. P.C. Sharma, A Text Book of Production Engineering, S. Chand and Co. Ltd, IVedition, 1993. 3. Shrawat N.S. and Narang J.S, CNC Machines, DhanpatRai& Co., 2002. 4. P.N.Rao, CAD/CAM Principles and Applications, TATA Mc Craw Hill, 2007. 5. M.P.Groover and Zimers Jr., CAD/CAM Prentice Hall of India Ltd., 2004. 6. Milton C.Shaw, Metal Cutting Principles, Oxford University Press, Second Edition,2005. 7. Rajput R.K, Atext book of Manufacturing Technology, Lakshmi Publications, 2007. 8. Philip F.Ostwald and Jairo Munoz, Manufacturing Processes and systems, JohnWiley and Sons, 9th Edition, 2002. 9. MikellP.Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing,Materials, Processes andSystems, John Wiley and Sons, 9thEdition, 2007. 10. Chapman. W. A. J and S.J. Martin, Workshop Technology, Part III, Viva BooksPrivate Ltd., 1998 9 Centre lathe, constructional features, cutting tool geometry, various operations, taper turning methods, thread cutting 9 Introduction: material removal processes, types of machine tools theory of metal cutting: chip formation, orthogonal

Review of MANUFACTURING TECHNOLOGY I

METAL CASTING PROCESSES JOINING PROCESSES BULK DEFORMATION PROCESSES SHEET METAL PROCESSES MANUFACTURING OF PLASTIC COMPONENTS To understand the concept and basic mechanics of metal cutting, working of standard machine tools such as lathe, shaping and allied machines, milling, drilling and allied machines, grinding and allied machines and broaching. To understand the basic concepts of computer numerical control (CNC) machine tool and CNC programming. The word manufacture is derived from two Latin words,manus (hand) and factus (make); the combination means made by hand. Manufacturing is the economic term for making goods and services available to satisfy human wants. Economically, manufacturing is the transformation of materials into items of greater value by means of one or more processing and/or assembly operations. Technologically, manufacturing is the application ofphysical and chemical processes to alter the geometry, properties, and/or appearance of agiven starting material to make parts or products. In fact, manufacturing involves a series of related activities and operations such as : (ii) Material selection; (iii) Process planning; (iv) Inventory control; (i) Product design and development; DEFINITION MANUFACTURING:

OBJECTIVE:

(v) Quality assurance; (vi) Marketing, etc. In view of the above activities and operations, manufacturing is no longer a simple operation but has become a system where a number of sub-systems interact in a dynamic manner. CLASSIFICATION OF MANUFACTURING PROCESSES:

I. Constant mass processes: 1. Casting : (i) Sand casting, (ii) Shell mould casting, (ii) Precision investment casting, (iv) Plaster mould casting, (v) Permanent mould casting, (vi) Die casting , (vii) Centrifugal casting. 2. Metal forming processes:(i) Rolling, (ii) Drop forging,(iii) Press forging, (iv) Upset forging, (v) Extrusion, (vii) Sheet metal operations, (vi) Wire drawing 3. Powder metallurgy processing. 4. Heat treatment. II. Metal removalprocess : 1. Machining: (1) Turning, (ii) Drilling, (iii) Milling, (iv) Shaping and planning, (v) Sawing, (vi) Broaching. 2

2. Grinding and finishing 3. Unconventional machining. III. Material addition processes : 1. Welding and allied processes: (i) Gas welding, (ii) Electric arc welding,(iii) Electric resistance welding, (iv)Thermit welding (v) Cold welding (vi) Brazing(vii) Soldering. 2. Mechanical joining : (i) Bolting (ii) Riveting, etc. SELECTION OF A MANUFACTURING PROCESS The origins of machine tool industry can be traced to the human civilization. In the Stone Age, man first learned to make round holes in stones using hands to rotate a wooden stick while pressing sand against the surface being worked upon. Later on man learned the use of ropes and the bow string torotate the tools at a much faster rate. The history of bow- driven turning lathes, for making wooden ornaments, has been traced to as far back as 5000 B.C. Arelatively more sophisticated foot-driven turning lathe bas been found depictedon a fourteenth century miniature by a French artist. By the year 1568, a lathe using a pedal and wooden spring, and a tool rest was in use for making articleslike eating plates, flasks, wind instruments, vessels and furniture parts, etc. The eighteenth century saw the use of water power and horse power for driving lathes and its use in the production of highly complicated articles such as vases, tables, ornaments and snuff boxes etc. made of wood andbone, and also precision parts for use in watch manufacture. The early boring machines were perhaps made in the fifteenth century to obtain bores in gun barrels. By the eighteenth century, boring machines were inuse for machining cylinders of pumps and steam engines. The first artificial abrasive (silicon carbide) for the grinding wheels was produced in 1891. Milling machines came into being because of the need of gears in everlarger numbers to be fitted in clocks in the seventeenth century. Vertical milling machines came into existence in 1870 and the modem knee-and-column typemilling machine in 1910. The planning machines were first constructed in the seventeenth century forproducing precision flat surfaces for instruments. Around 1800, the first shaping machine with a crank-connecting rod mechanism was put into use. Until the advent of the first Industrial Revolution, i.e., till about 1750,machines were made by skilled craftsmen and each machine took a long time. The most rapid growth of machine tool industry and technology has occurred in the twentieth century. Notable achievements of the past century are new tool materials such as carbides and oxides, special purpose machines for flow lineproduction, machining heads, transfer machines, numerically-controlled machinetools, development of robots, automated guided vehicles (AGVs) and flexible manufacturing systems. The first numerically controlled machine was developedin 1951 and in these models, data was fed by punched tape. This has, now, beendeveloped into computer controlled machine tool. Each machine has a separatecomputer attached to machine and it can be programmed, thus eliminating punched tape. 3 HISTORY OF METAL CUTTING:

These are called computer numerical control or CNC machines. More powerful computers are used to operate more than one machine, Thesemachines are called direct numerical control (DNC) machines. A new type of machine called machining centre has been developed. It can perform severaldifferent operations and bas an array of tools for the purpose. Definition of metal cutting or machining, the term is intended to include operations in which a thin layer of metal, the chip or swarf, is removed by a wedge-shaped tool from a larger body. Metal cutting processes are industrial processes in which metal parts areshaped by removal of unwanted material. Machining is any of various processes in which a piece of raw material is cut into a desired final shape and size by a controlled material-removal process. (Wiki)

INTRODUCTION:MATERIAL REMOVAL PROCESSES

Studying metal cutting and machine tools is a fascinating experience. Machining of materials is basicallyadopted to get higher surface finish, close tolerance and complex geometric shapes, which areotherwise difficult to obtain. All components undergo a material removal operation at somepoint. A machine tool is one which while holding the culling tools is able to remove the metal from awork piece in order to generate the requisite part of the given size, configuration and finish. It is differentfrom a machine, which is essentially a means of converting the source of power from one form to the other. Machine tools are mother machines, since without them no component can be finished. There are three major components of a machiningsystem: the machine tool, the cutting tool, and the fixture. For machining it is necessary to have relative motions between the workpiece and the tool. Two types of relative motions are necessary. For example, if we want to drill a hole, we may rotate the drill or work piece, and besides this, we have to press the drill against the work piece so that it penetrates the work piece. 4

The first motion (i.e. rotation of drill or work- piece) is called the primary or cutting motion and the second one is called the feed motion. In turning a circularcylinder on lathe, the cutting motion is obtained by the rotation of the work piece,and feed motion from the motion of the tool parallel or perpendicular to workpiece axis and normal to the cutting motion. The cutting speed is the rate ofprimary cutting motion and it determines the rate at which the material is being removed. The feed motion enables the cutting process to be extended to the entire surface of work piece. After machining a work piece, it is removed or unloadedfrom the machine and another un-machined work piece or blank is loaded on the machine. Auxiliary or handling motions to facilitate the handling and clamping ofthe work piece in the machine, advancing the cutting tool to engage the workpiece, positioning it in a desired orientation with respect to the work piece,disengaging tool from the cut, withdrawing the tool and removing the machinedwork piece from the machine, are also provided on machines.

In all machine tools, the primary cutting motion is powered. Apart fromsmall machines with hand feeds, feed motions on most of the machine tools are also powered. On manually operated machine tools, the auxiliary motions areperformed manually by the operator. In automatic machine tools, the auxiliarymotions are carried out in the required sequence by the machine itself.

TYPES OF MACHINE TOOLS: Cutting tools are classified as follows: 1. Single point cutting tools: These tools have only one cutting edge; such as lathe tools, shaper tools, planer tools, boring tools, etc. 2. Multipoint cutting tools: (1) Solid tool, (ii) Brazed tool, (iii) Inserted bit tool. These tools have more than one cutting edge; such as milling cutters, drills, broaches, grinding wheels, etc. SINGLE POINT CUTTING TOOL : Fig(a) shows a single point right-hand cutting tool. Although these tools have traditionally been produced from solid tool-steel bars, they have been so largely replaced by carbide or other inserts of various shapes and sizes (Fig b). TOOL ELEMENTS: (i) Shank. It is the main body of the tool at one end of which the cutting portion is formed. (ii) Flank. The surface (or surfaces) below and adjacent to the cutting edge is called the flank of the tool. (ii) Face. The surface on which the chip slides is called the face of the tool. (iii) Heel. It is the intersection of the flank and base of the tool. 5

(iv) Nose. It is the point where the side cutting edge and end cutting edge intersect. (u1) Neck. The portion which is reduced in section to form necessary cutting edges and angles is called neck. (vii) Cutting edge. It is the edge on the face of the tool which removes the material from the work piece.

Fig. 8.3. Single point right-hand cutting tool.

Fig. Various angles of a single point tool. Tool Angles: Slide cutting edge angle. It is angle between the side cutting edge and the side of the tool shank. It is also known as lead angle'. Its complementary angle is called 'Approach angle'. This angle prevents interference as the tool enters the work material. Its satisfactory values vary from 15 to 30 for general machining. 6

End cutting edge angle. This is the angle between the end cutting edge and a line normal to the tool shank. This angle provides a clearance or relief to the trailing end of the cutting edge to prevent rubbing or drag between the machined surface and the trailing part of the cutting edge. Only a small angle is sufficient for the purpose. An angle of 8 to 15 has been found satisfactory in most cases on side cutting tools, like boring and turning tools. End cutting tools, like cut off and necking tools often have no end cutting-edge angle. It is the angle between the portion of the side flank immediately below the side cutting edge and a line perpendicular to the base of the tool, and measured at right angle to the side flank. End. Relief angle. It is the angle between the portion of the end flank immediately below the end cutting edge and a line perpendicular to the base of the tool, and measured at right angle to the end flank. The side and relief angles are provided so that the flank of the tool clears the work piece surface and there is no rubbing action between the two. The side and relief angles are provided so that the flank of the tool clears the workpiece surface and there is no rubbing action between the two. These angles range from 5 to 15 for general turning. Small relief angles are necessary to give strength to the cutting edge when machining hard and strong materials. Tools with increased values of relief angles penetrate and cut the workpiece material more efficiently and this reduces the cutting forces. Too large relief angles weaken the cutting edge and there is less mass to absorb and conduct the heat away from the cutting edge. Bock rake angle. It is the angle between the face of the tool and a line parallel to the base of the tool and measured in a plane (perpendicular) through the side cutting edge. This angle is positive, if the side cutting edge slopes downwards from the point towards the shank and is negative if the slope of the side cutting edge is reverse. Sick rake angle. It is the angle between the tool face and a line parallel to the base of the tool and measured in a plane perpendicular to the base and the side cutting edge. This angle gives the slope of the face of the tool from the cutting edge. The side rake is negative if the slope is towards the cutting edge and positive if the slope is away from the cutting edge. The "rake angle" specifies the ease with which a metal is cut. Higher the rake angle, better is the cutting and less are the cutting forces. There is a maximum limit to the rake angle and this is generally of the order of 15 for high speed steel tools cutting mild steel (increase in rake angle reduces the strength of the tool chip as well as the heat dissipation). It is possible to have rake angle as zero or negative. These are generally used in case of highly brittle tool materials such as carbides or diamonds for giving extra strength to the tool tip. Side Relief angle

Clearance angle. This is the angle between the machined surface and underside of the tool called the flank face. The clearance angle is provided such that the tool will not rub the machined surface thus spoiling the surface and increasing the cutting forces. A very large clearance angle reduces the strength of the tool lip, and hence normally an angle of the order of 5 to 6 is used. Nose angle. It is the angle between the side cutting edge and end cutting edge. Nose radius is provided to remove the fragile comer of the tool; it increases the tool life and improves surface finish. Too large a nose radius will induce chatter. TOOL SIGNATURE (OR TOOL DESIGNATION): The seven important elements comprise the signature of the cutting tool and are always stated in the following order: (i) Back rake angle; (ii) Side rake angle; (iii) End relief angle ; (iv) Side relief angle ; (v) End cutting edge angle ; (vi) Side cutting edge angle; (vii) Nose radius. It is usual to omit the symbols for degrees and mm, simply listing the numerical value of each component: A typical tool designation (signature) is: 0-10-6-6-8-90-1 mm.

(a) Left Hand Single Point Cutting Tools (b) Right Hand Single Point Cutting Tools

THEORY OF METAL CUTTING:

The major objectives of metal cutting mechanics are to determine the cutting force and the cutting power through analyzing the thermo mechanical processes involved in the cutting process. The Work metal ahead of the cutting edge deforms plastically before it goes to form the chip. This plastic zone is of significant dimensions compared to the uncut chip thickness. However, due to the complexity of an exact analysis, most researchers have preferred to assume that the chip formation occurs only in an infinitesimally thin zone of deformation, called the shear plane. THE MECHANICS OF CHIP FORMATION: A typical metal cutting process can be schematically represented as in Fig. A wedge shaped tool is made to move relative to the work piece. As the tool makes contact with the metal, it exerts a pressure on it resulting in the compression of the metal near the tool tip. This induces shear-type deformation within the metal and it starts moving upward along the top face of the tool. As the tool advances, the material ahead of it is sheared continuously along a plane called the Shear plane. This shear plane is actually a narrow zone (of the order of about 0.025 mm) and extends from the cutting edge of the tool to the surface of the work piece. The cutting edge of the tool is formed by two intersecting surfaces. The surface along which the chip moves upwards is called Rake surface and the other surface which is relieved to avoid rubbing with the machined surface, is called Flank". The angle between the rake surface and the normal is known as Rake angle (which may be positive or negative), and the angle between the flank and the horizontal machined surface is known as the relief or clearance angle Most cutting processes have the same basic features as in Fig. where a single point cutting tool is used (a milling cutter, a drill, and a broach can be regarded as several single-point tools joined together and are known as multipoint tools).

TYPES OF CHIPS: The chips produced, whatever the cutting conditions be, may belong to one of the following three types : 1. Continuous chip 2. Discontinuous chip 3. Built-up chip.

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Continuous chip : Refer to Fig (i). These chips are produced while machining more ductile materials. This type of chip is most desirable. The continuous chip which is like a ribbon flows along the rake face. Production of continuous chips is possible because of ductility of metal About 95% of the power expended for metal removal is Used in the deformation taking place in the shear zone. This is the work required to form and remove the chip and incidental plastic deformation of the surface layer of the finished workpiece. The remaining power consumed, about 5% of the total, is expended in stored elastic energy or residual stresses in the workpiece and friction. These chips are most useful chips since the surface finish obtained is good and the cutting is smooth. It also helps in having higher tool life and lower power consumption. However, because of the large coils of chips, chip disposal is a problem. For this purpose various forms of chip breakers have been developed which are in the form of a step or groove in the tool rake face. The chip breakers allow the chips to be broken into small pieces so that they can be easily disposed off. These chips are usually produced while cutting more brittle materials like grey cast, iron, bronze and hard brass. In this type the chip produced is in the form of discontinuous segments (deformed material instead of flowing continuously) gets ruptured periodically. Discontinuous chips are easier from the view point of chip disposal. However, the cutting force becomes unstable with the variation coinciding with the fracturing cycle. Also they generally provide better surface finish. However, in case of ductile materials they cause poor surface finish and low tool life. Discontinuous chips are likely to be produced under the following conditions Discontinues chip: Refer to Fig.(ii).

- Low cutting speeds; - Small rake angles; - Higher depths of cut (large chip thickness). Built-up chip: Refer to Fig (iii). When machining ductile materials, conditions of high local temperature and extreme pressure in the cutting zone and also high friction in the tool-chip interface may cause the work material to adhere or weld to the cutting edge of the tool forming the buildup edge (BUE). This causes the finished surface to be rough. However, since the cutting is being carried by the BUE and not the actual tool tip, the life of the cutting tool increases while cutting with BUE. In general low cutting speed, high feed and small rake angle are conducive to BUE formation. Presence of BUE increases power consumption.

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MECHANICS OF ORTHOGONAL METAL CUTTING:

There are two schools of thoughts with regard to plastic deformation at the cutting zone. The thin zone model is more useful for analytical purposes. The current analysis is based on Merchant's thin shear plane model which considers the minimum energy principle. This model is applicable at very high cutting speeds which are generally practiced in production.

The assumptions with regard to this model are: (i) The tool is perfectly sharp and there is no contact along the clearance face. (ii) The surface where the shear occurs is a plane. (iii) The cutting edge is a straight line which extends perpendicular to the direction of motion and generates a plane surface as the work moves past it (iv) The chip docs not flow to either side, or there is no side spread. (v) Uncut chip thickness is constant. (vi) Width of the tool is greater than the width of the work. (vii) A continuous chip is produced without any BUE. (viii) Work moves with a uniform velocity. (ix) The stresses on the shear plane are uniformly distributed. Fig: Various forces acting in orthogonal cutting FH- Cutting Force to the Primary Cutting Motion Direction Fv - Force perpendicular to the primary tool motion (thrust force) Fs - Force along the shear plane Ns - Force normal to the shear plane F - Frictional force along the rake face N - Normal force perpendicular to the rake face

Fig. Forces acting on an isolated chip in metal cutting

All these forces can be represented at the tool point in place of their actual point of action. 12

By doing so it is possible to construct a cutting force circle as shown in Fig. which is often called Merchant's circle as it was he who demonstrated it for the first time. It would then be easy to derive the various relationships among the forces.

Fig.1_Merchant's cutting force circle in orthogonal cutting Fig.2 Part of merchants force diagram From Figs 1 and 2 we can write From Figs 1 and 2, we can write

-----(1) If is 1he coefficient of friction along the rake face. Then

- the friction angle Fig.3 Part of merchants force diagram Area of the shear plane. As is given by - the mean shear stress in the shear plane. Mean normal stress in the shear plane. () We can show that by resolving Substituting Eq. 1 in 2 we get Similarly In rearranging, we get ------ (2)

Shear Angle

The shear force is given by b - width of cut t Uncut Chip Thickness

Merchant considered that would have the value of the yield shear stress for the work material and that would have the usual value for any dry sliding friction.

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To determine he assumed the minimum energy principle applied in metal cutting so that the deformation process adjusted itself to a minimum energy condition, or

Experimentally determining the shear angle: From Fig. The chip thickness ratio r, which is also termed as cutting ratio, would

be

Experimentally the chip thickness ratio r could be determined by measuring the overage thickness of the chips produced under given conditions of feed and speed. From this it is possible to evaluate the shear angle using the above equation. However, direct measurement of chip thickness is difficult, because of the roughness on the outside of the chip. For this purpose an indirect measurement is followed wherein the length of a chip lc equivalent to a known length of an uncut chip is measured. Then, considering the fact that the depth is the same, the average chip thickness tc would be given by To get an exact size of uncut chip length l. we may introduce a small saw cut parallel to the axis on the work piece so that the uncut chip size is D - diameter of the workpiece

Where l= length of the uncut chip

VARIOUS VELOCITY ASSOCIATED WITH ORTHOGONAL CUTTING: The chip velocity Vc is the velocity of the chip relative to the tool and directed along the tool face. The shear velocity Vs is the velocity of the chip relative to the workpiece and directed along the shear plane. These two velocities along with the cutting velocity V would form a closed triangle as shown in Fig. From this we can get

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ENERGY CONSUMED IN METAL CUTTING: Most of the energy consumed in metal culling is utilized in the plastic deformation. The total work done W is given by The work done in shear Ws, is Similarly the work done in friction Wf is Thus,

PROBLEMS: Sample Problem 1: A bar of 75 mm diameter is reduced to 73 mm by a cutting tool while cutting orthogonally. If the mean length of the cut chip is 73.5 mm. find the cutting ratio. If the rake angle is 15, what is the shear angle?

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