1L1WL 1T WL 1^t1 ZT

Eff"ct or variaton in the Sun's declinaton

The eff ect of the seonal change of declination S to cuse the bt of prq urc
and their Asiated 0 to move twards thcntth 4the northe summe,
and towards the suth in the southe summer. The amount of this oscillation
i much smAller than that of the Sun itself and, in eoe|.80Wonly to some
+ degrees of latitude. Furhermore this movement Ia Mme to 8 wes
behind that of the Sun so that the zones shown in Fig. 113 reach their most
northerly position in July-Augut and their mot Dhly QD8DDD in January
FebruAry.
Effect of the distibtion mland ad sea
The eft of large land mase is U modi f greatly the 'planetary' distribution
of prW ure m:d wind. The b of high

rq urc in about ltde 30 north

and Muth Are sQlit into separate cHb of high presure (anticyclone) situated
over the teO part of ech of the oceans; the belt of low pre in about
latitnde q is lWi se modifed into separate M of low preure ituate
4 the vicinity of Iceland and the Aleutian Island. In the Muthem heisphcre_
there is little or no land 4 th1 zone covered by this low*yr urM belt, ad
consequently it exteds almost without interQtion aound the Earth.
Superimposed upon the above modifctions of the general ylanctatysystem,
temperature over large land masses become high in summer and V in winter,
while over the oceans the seasnal variation ii much less. As a reult, pressure
become relatively high over land masses in winter and low in summer. This
seasonal change in yrcrc dist1i butioo causes correponding modifcations
to the ocncwind in the vicinity, and in certain areas results in the etablish
ment of senal winds or moJM+
GENERAL DESCRIPTION OF OCEANIC WINDS AND
WEATHER
The Climato Othe Oceans
The general distribution of oceAnic winds in winter and summer is shown in
Figs. 1 1+ atld 115. %cau baromctrtc p1 ure in Janua ry and July is shown in
Figs. 116 and 117.
Aorc dctm 1cd inom:anoo regarding ic winds and weather cn be
found in the ntlafM:~alC/mtr,while detailed infrmation relating
to sifc localitie s:vi omc,oe/tyml@1tomur.
The Juatia|Tugb(oldrums)
This is the name givcn to that part of the ocean lying in the cqutorial trough
of low pressure situated between the Trade wind of the two hemisphere.

219 CHAPTER t9ELEMENTARY METEOROLOGY

The normal positons of the Equatorial Trough (Doldms) u February and
August are show in Figs. JJ+a1d US. The characteristic feature of tis zone
are calms and light variable winds alterating with squalls, heavy rains a
thundertors. The width of the zone average about ?Vmile, but there are
+qco1idembv|ddMy-tody variations. The severity of the weather
W#vae gretly; at ma shigmy$W the belt and wncfne wether,
while on other ocions scvere squalls, volent thunderstrms amuch heavy
rain may be omrtcrcd. It has been fund that weather in the Equatorial
Trough is generally worst when the strength of the Trde winds is greater than
the normal, ad bet when the Trades are abnormally light.
3c2mdows
Betwen the Equatorial Trough and the ocenic high-pre aeas in each
hemisphere blow the Trade winds, north-easterly in the norther hemisphere
and south-:sterly in the souther hemisphere. These winds blow permanently
and with great steadines and peistence throughout the year. Trade winds,
however, do not blow in all the OtM the South-west Monsoon wind (s
b) mthe East Atlantic, North Indian Ocea idin the wetern part of the
Norh Pacfc Ocen show this.
The average stnngth of the Trade about force 3-, though vzriztions
occur betwe diferent oceans and at difrent scWns.
Weather in thi nzne is generally fair or fne, with small detachd cumulus
cloud. On the easter sides of the oceans cloud amounts and r ainfa\l arc small,
while on the WO side cloud amounw are larger and rain is comparatively
fequet, being maimum in the sununer months. cloud and the frequency
and intensity of mincr towzrdsuc~mtoniaITmugh.
Por visibility on faiy frequently in the eutem parts of the Trade
wind belts, due in part to mist or fog forming at time ovcr tht coldcuvrents
and in part to sand and dust bing carried out to sea by the prevziling omhor
Wnm. Ln the wester sides of the oceaM visibility is ou~except when
reduced hy hevy rin -and fog .t rre.
1uVariable
In the C covered by the oceanic anticyclone, and situated betwen the
Trade winds and the Westerlies farther polewards, there exist zones of light
and variable winds. In thc North Atlantic this region is known th Uorsc
Latitude'. The weather in these zones .s genemlly fair or fne; cloud amounts
are small and rainfll scaty.
3oYcstcrbcs
On the polar side of the oceanic anticyclones the wind direcuion becme
prevailingl y wcstcrly. Thee winds a nt, however, permanent winds in the
same way as are the Trade winds on the equatorial side of the 'highs'. The
constnt passage of deymsions from a westerly to an eateJly point across this
zone causes the winds to vary greatly in direction and stren_th.
Lfn.Te gly fir weaher of the Tad ia liale, 4TAT4WW88nd n
<mloC lilies, to Ditrpted by U d8nUu81m[M!fD8Whh arc described
in detail on y8ZZZ~Z3Z.
OCEANIC WINDS AND WEATHER 215
Gale are frequent, epecialy m wmter; the We1ther is subect to rapid
change ad fne weather is seldom prolonged+ In the Southern Ocen the
frequency of gales in the belt enrcl 1g the Earth south of about latitude 4S
has eared toI it the name of the 1ori ng I ortics.
T n the norther hemisphere fog is common in the weste parts othis zone
during the summer. It also occurs fWi rly frequently in the Souther Ocen in
the summer of that hemisphere.
1c may be ecountered in crtain QO of this zone at cr seaons (see
Volume 1, Lhpter XIIl).
3hvPolar Regions
The greater part of the region lying on the polar siM. of the Weterli0 is
unnavigahlc on account of ice. The prevailing wind i generally from some
e:terly point and gal are common in the winter months, though les so than
in the 7one of the We terlic. Weather is usually very cloudy and fog is frequMnt
in the &UtM monthY.
WDMU6O Monsons
As mentioned above, the alterate hating and cooling of large land mase
rCults in the formation there of areas of low pressure in the summer and o
high pressure in winter, and consequently in W seasonal \hang in the prevailing
winds over the adjacent ocens.
The 1st important areas subject to thee seasonal winds arc the Tndian
Ocean and weter Pacifc and the regios adjacent to the coasts of Wet AfriC
and North America.
Monsons of tbeNoobIdiaQcea adcstcwYacmo
The outh-urxt onr66. In the norther summer the vast land mas of
souther Aia becomes greatly heted, which results in the establishment of a
large area of low pressure cntred approximately over north-west India (see
Fig. 117). TheSE Trade wind of the South Idi W Ocean and wester South
Pacifc 8MWacros the equator, are defeed to the ri ght by the efect of the
Eanh's rottion, and join in the cyclonic wind circulation set up around this
area of low presure. The resulting south-weterly wind which is felt in the
Arabian Se, Bay of Bengal, China Sea, and wetern North Pacifc is known 4
the South-west Monsoon. The season of the SW Monsoon i s from about May
to September. It is only B light wind in the weter Pxciuc dChua Sea and
is moderate to fJsh elsewhere, except in the western part of tbcArabian Sea,
where it blows freh or strong and frequently attains gale force at the height
of the seaon.
8 WUTM islan< lyin1 D the SW m, y U mcerable oiu
and height, CU =Unm xn H=d ond weother experien in diferent
locotes; it `mnot posille threfore t rve here moT t ucw picre oC the
tituatio' Detailed information oC the #v1otcxwill bCou in the meteorlogical
tection of the aggto]Jvolume Dlthc dmralrySail:Qirnrit.
WIND CHART FOR JANUARY FEBRUARY MARH
Fi.l14
/
L\X^T1 1TJ ^T ^1&V 2I7
Weather in the Arabian Sea and Day cDengal generally loudy and ra;;
unsetted at this season, being worst when the monsoon is blowing strongest.
Doth cloud and rainfall increase greatly to windward of high ground, and
rainfall on the west coasts of India and Burma is very heavy. In the open ocean
of the western Pacifc north of the equator conditions generally fair, but
with an increase in cloud and showers during the night and early morning.
In the Timor and raura Seas, where the SE Trade p1evail at this season,
cloud amounts arc small and rainfall is scanty, epecially in the former area.
Visibility is good in the open oc-.m except when reduced by rain. ln the
Timor and 1\rafura Seas, however, extesive haze prevails to leeward of
Australia-especially in the Timor Sea towards the end of the season. Fog S
prevalent on the China coast U the spring and summer, reaching its maimum
frrqueny in Aril of Hong Kong, in June off the Yangtse, and I July of
Shantung.
Thc 1bmd1WA0m0m. In the norther winter the great land mass of
A a becomes very cold, and an intense area of high pressure becomes etablished
over Mongolia (see Fig. 116). The anticyclonic circulation thus set up reults in
the establishment in the weste North Pacifcj Bay of Bengal and Arabian Se of
north-easterly winds known as the NE Monsoon. In the South Indian Ocean
between the equator and the Equatorial Trough, the Monsoon & 0e.ccted
to the left on crossing the equator and is felt here W4 a north-westerly wind.
The limits of this north-westerly wind-or 'cross monsoon' as it is sometime
called-arc indicated in Fig. 114. In simiIar manner, in the wc,tcrn Pacifc
south or the equator the north-esterly winds, being defleted to U;c left, are
felt as far 4 about latitude 128 to TS wcstcrIy or n

n-wcstcrIy winds
known W the NW Monsoon.
The season of the NE Monsoon s from about October to March and that
of the NW Monsoon from about Novembe to March. Wind are l ght in the
North Indian Ocean, but freh and sometimes strong in the China Sea and in
the North Pacifc east of T'ai-wan and the Philippines. Elsewhere they are
generally moderate or light.
Weather in the Arabian Sea and Bay of Bengal is generally fne, cloudamounts
are small, and zansTrcecet in the extreme south-west of the Bay of Bengal,
where it is cloudy with nsi0e1ble mto windward of the coasts of Southern
India Sri Lanka. In the open ocean of the wester Pacifc weather sgnerally
fair, with an increase of cloud and showers by night and mthe early moring.
In the China Sea north of latitude 20N cloudy or overcast skies are common
and there are frequent periods of light ran and drizzle. Among the Lland. to
the south and south-east of the Philippines wether is generally cloudy and
unsettled, with considerable rainfll.
8eesooelWods mmmocceoc atcas
In no other Ocnc areas arc the adjacent land W of sufcient size to cause
Q radical a change the oceanic wids W are cxrn cr0mthe North 1D0 .
Ocean and western Pacic. Nevertheless fairly well-marked seasonal changes
in the prevailing winds occur over the oceans adjacent to other large land masses.
WlO LMAK LK JULT AULU1 Lr1LNbLK
l | A" |10 lV % & % m tw 2" |+
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|7I WINDS &
The most mporant are thus afete are as follows:
wrstAfca. In the northern summer pr urc low over norther Africa
and the Equatorial Trough is distorte towards the north. The SE Trade on
crosing the equator are defected to the ri@ht, and ar t south~weBtely
winds between about latitude and 1"I. and east of about longitude 30W.
The seon of the south-weterly windis at its height in August (:eeFig. IJ5).
They bring coudy and very wet wether t these coasts, U marked contra to
the fine, hot we eecd in the winter months.
F.The eubli shmet of relatively low pr ure over the North
Aerican contt during the summer, and te nseuent bending of the
Equatorial Trough towards the nortJ, reults in the SE Trades Lindefeted
to the right on crossing the equator and in the prevalence of south-weterly
winds at this season between the equator and about latitude I~I5N and
east of about lonptud ?JV (~ Fi g. 115). Thee south-westerly winds
replace the mm I Trade wind which prevails in this area during the
northe winter and bring wet, cloudy wether to the wt coats of Central
Americ.
IOLAI IMO8
1ms T
The reular alteaton of lnd and se br `x a cnspicuous fature of
most tropical and subtropical CW ad islands (other thanvsmall ones).
Land and sea breezes also occur at tm ItWperate xttudc ufne, settld
wether in the summer, though they are hercmuch weaker and less well marked
than in lowe lattude.
The cause of thee breezes m the unequal heating and coling of the land
and the se by the Sun's radiation. By day the urface of tlle Earth rapidly
acuire het under the inuence of the Sun's rays
,
wherea the sea temperature
r virtually unafeted. The heat of the land is communic to tle
in cntct with it, which epands and rise. Air from over the se fows in to
take its plac, producing an onshore wind known as the 8 ore'.By night
the land rapidly loses het by radation, and become much colder than the
adjacent sea. The air over the land is \hilled,becomes denser and hevier, and
fows out to sea under the infcnce of gravity. This constitutes the 'land breeze'.
The se breeze usually sets ;n at about 1000-1100 h local time, attin it
maximum strength (usually about Beufrt force 3-4) at about , and die
away about sunset. It extends normally abut 20 mile to saward, though under
fvourable conditions it ha been detcted at as much M 10 me from the
coast. The land breee is usually le well marked ad wmr than the sea
breee ~ often being inappreciable. V < during the ft watch and blows
until shortly ae sunrw. The eect of these bree2es may be to deviate the
prevailing w`nc,1o reinforce it, to neutralize it, or even to reverse it .

~

I11b Avmgc gDw 8D M-w awpnW at 8u m J
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222 CHAPTER 19ELEMENTARY METEOROLOGY
The following factors are favourable to the formation of well-marked land
and sea breze:
1. A dry desert coast, as opposed to forests and swamps.
2. 1igh ground near the coast.
3. A weak prcvalngwind;
cold currcnt along the coast also has the efe1t of favouring the establish
ment of a well-marked sea breeze.
The brcczc produced by two adjacent lanc masses is the resultant of the
two eff ects. Small islands less than 10 miles in diamctcr will not usually produce
land and sea brcczcs.
Katabtic =nds
On clear nights there is often a downwd fow of air on mountain and hill
slopes, and particularly along valley bottomsg known as |b|r ud. It is
caused by the gravitational fow of air cooled by contact with a land surface
which is losing its heat by rdiation. In temperate and high latitudes where the
coast is backed by snowcovered
mountains, such winds may occur by day as
well as by nightA In these circumstances, radiation from the snow-covere high
grounds is intcnse, and a mass of cold air accumulates among the mountains.
A light generWl off shore wind then suflices to impel this cold air towards the
seaward-facing slopes, down Whch it fows with gathcring momentum, being
felt of the coast as a strong or gale-force wtud. The usually sudden onset of thte
winds coupled with their strengt often makes them a men<e to small craft
and to ships at anchor.
Among areas whee these winds are common arc :hc coasts of Greenland,
Norway, the norther Adriatic, and the eastern part of the Black Sea.
IJnwnds
A flhn is a warm, dry wind experienced to leeward of high ground. The air
ts frced to rise up the windward side of the mountains nd during its ascent
it is cooled and condensation takes place in the form of cloud and rain. The
tem
p
erature of the air frst decreases at a rate of 0 9C per 100m (330f) of
ascent, but after it becomes saturated and condensation occurs, its temperature
fa of at only about 0 5C per 100m. Having attained the summit, the air
decend. the lee side of the range. Having preipitated much of its moisture on
the wjndw:d slope, and being heated Jcompression consequent upon its
dcccnt, it soon ceaseavbe saturated. Its temperature therefore increases at a
rate of 0 9C per 100 m, and it arrives at the bottom of the slope both warmer
and drier than at its starting point on the windward side of the rnge.
TROPICAL REYDLYJNG 8TDRM8
In December 194, vessels of the !m u States Pacific Fleet, operating to the
east of the Philippine, were Ight near the centre of a typhoon of cxtrcmc
violence. Three destroyers capsized and went down with prctially all hands.
Serious d8age was sustaned by a light cmiscr, three small crriers, three
|
TROPICAL REVOLVING STORMS
ZZ}
er crrier and thre detoyers. Leser dWm#ge was uat leat
19 oter vessls, from heavy cruisers down toer veselq. Fire occurred in
three orcra crrie whe plane were smashed in U hangars; some 14
aircraft were dd bond repair by ns,by being smhwup, or by beng
whed overboard. About 790 ofcers and men w.re lost or killed. Several
surviving dest reported rollmg 70 or more.
The following reports were typical during this storm+
1. Viibility zero to one thousand yards.
2. Ships nut meely rolling but heeled over continualy by the forc of the
wind, thus leaving them very litte margin for further rolling to lerd.
3. Water being shipped m quan through ventilators, blower in and
every upper-deck op.
4. Switchboards ad eletricl machinery of all kinds shor-muit
foed; fr reulting fom short-circuit.
5 1 of steering cntrol, failure nf pnwcr and lighting and stpping of main
engin1; loss of rad wcmmunications facilities.
v .

ree water up to Lwo or three fet over engines or engine-room dek-plates

and in many other compartments.
7. Wind sp1ds and ses which carried away mast, funnels, boats, davits and
deck structures generally and made it impossible for menmsecure gear
which had gone adrift, or to jetison or strike below topside w ghts, when
the n ity had beome paaount.
. Ships lust took a long roll to leeward, varying from to,hung there
for a little while and then cpsized, foating for ony a short tie before
sming+
All thee are major hazards to seamen and may be experienced in a fully
developed tropical revolving storm. These storms therefore merit a speial study.
Tropial revolving strs are so named because they originate in crtain
tropical oceanic areas and because the wind blows round an area of low preure
situated at the centre. The dirCion of rotation is anti-clockwise in the northern
hmisphere, and clockwise in the southern hemisphere. The wind due not
revolve round the centre of the low pressure in concentric circles, but has a
spiral movement inwards towards the centre.
A tropiCl st0rm s not so extensive W the depression of highe r latitude
(se next chapter), hut within 75 mile or % of the cntre the wind is often far
more
violnt, and Uchigh ad om seas ner the centre may M cn
mdctablc damage even to large and well-found ships. The danger greter
when ships <re Cught mretricted w:ters without adcuate rom to manouvre.
Within 5to |0 mil of the cntre the wind is l ight or moderate and variable,
the sky is cler or partially so, and there is a hevy, sometime mountainous,
confused swell; U\sarea is known as the 'eye' of the storm. Owing to torrtial
rain and sheet of :most continuous spray, visibility near the storm-centre
(but outside the 'eye') is almost nil.
224 CHAPTER 19ELEMENTARY METEOROLOGY
Every ship navigating in an are subject to tropical storms during the season
of teir occurrence should be constantly on the alert for any sign of their
approach, so that steps can be taken to avoid the danger zone while there is
still time and sea-room.
Lcali
rpc storms occur for the most part on the Wcstcrn and equator i 1l sides
of the subtropical anticyclones, alhough they are also experienced in the
Arabian Sea and Bay of Bengal the south-east Indian Ocean of the north-west
coast of Australia and of the wet coast of Central America. They are unknown
in the South Atlantic. They are given various names accrding to the region
in which they occur+
8uon
Western North Atlantic
Easter North Pacc
South Pacifc
We.ter North Pacifc
Indian Ocean
Bay of Bengal
Arabian Sea
North-wet Australia
} Hurricane
Typhoons
}cyclones
Willy-willics
They are most frequent during the late summer and early autumn of their
hemisphere; they are comparatively rare in the souther hemisphere from
mid-May 1 November, and in the northern hemisphere from mid-November
to mid-June. In the Arabian Sea, however, storms are most likely to occur at
the change of the monsoon, i.e. October-November and May-June, though they
average only one or two a year. Out-of-season storms occur from time to time,
particularly in the western North Pacifc, where no month is entirely s|c, and
in the Indian Ocean, where one is reported south of the equator perhaps once
in two years outside the usual season.
1ruguecy
The following table shows t he average number of severe tropical storms per
year for various areas:
West Indies and North Atlantic 47
China Sea and west North Pacifc 22
Wester South Pacc
23
South Indian Ocean (wet of 80E) 58
8outhJ nc|anOeean
( ea$t of 80E) 2 0
Bay of Bengal 47
Arabian Sea 12
Eastern North Pacifc 3 1
Wet coast of Australia 1
J11 1N1NJV >\W
225
It should be noted that variations in any one year mounting to bvper cent
above or below the average are not unusual .
Ifctlstory
Storms originate as a general rule betwee t he parallel of 7 and 1b`. though
some may origi nate nearer the equator. Those which acct the wtcrn parts
of the achc, South Indian, and North Atlant ic Oceans are first reporu:d in
the western parts of those oceans, though there are exceptions such as in the
North Atlantic during August and September when an occasional storm
originates near the Cape Verde Isla nds.
In the northern hemisphere they move of in a direction between 275" and
J50".though most often within 3"of due west. When in a latitude of 25" or so,
they usually recurve awayfrom the Equator, and by the time they have reached
the Jth par`llel they will be moving along a north-easterly course. In the
southern hemisphere they move off from the aren of origin in a WSW to SSW
directi on (usually the for1er),reurve in latitude I5"5to 2S(approximately),
and thereafter dopt a south-easterly path. Some storms, however, do not
recurve but continue in a west-north-westerly (or west-south-westerly) direction
until they reach the mai nland, where they fairly quickly fll.
The speed of these storms is usually about 10 knots in their early stages,
ncrei ng a little with latitude; it seldom cxccd 15 KD0l5 before recurving,
but thereafter 20 to 25 knots is usu1l, though speeds of ^v knots or even more
have bee.n known.
Occasionally storms move erratically, the path turnig towards the Equator,
or adopt ing an easterly component in a low latitude, or even making a complete
loop; but on such occasions their speed is low, g .. nerally less than 10 knots
while the unusual path is being followed.
The extent of the storm area varies considerably with individual tonns,
but generally spcaknwinds o 0ICt or more are improbable at more than
ZU miles from the centre (epecially on the equatorial side of the storm area);
while winds of force 8 are unlikely to oc exceeded at more thzn \ miles
from the cetre in latitudes lower than 20. Hurricane-force winds are likely
within 75 miles of the centre, and gusts of over \5 knots have occasionally
been reported within 50 miles (except in the eye of the storm). Tlu::after the
radius increases with latitude, so that these distances are nearly .oubled i n
lttude 35, but the i ntensity near the centre diminishes. Subsequently the
strms usually acquire the characteristics of deep temperate-latitude depressions
(snext chapter) and continue to move north-eastwards (or south-eastwards),
eentually flling up and disappearing.
Nomenclature
The /mnt oJRecurustvrr is the most wltcrly point reached by the centre of
the storm before it recurve.
The 1ll- Ssu-cls is that semicircle which lies on the side of the
path frthet from the nonna direction in which the storm recurves (that is,
on the equat orial side of the path). D low-powered or sailing sh` p situated within
this semicircle will tend to be u i own away from the storm centre, and the re
curvature of the storm will increase her distance from the ceotre(sccFig. 118).
226 CHAPTER 19ELEMENTARY METEOROLOGY

^TM
AlTERNATIVi
--
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RECURVATUf
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APPROXIMATE
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-mcsistic
PATH
NMC 1 CC T 1R 1>>
YWM f f B R uicum
s:.ug @j
W
Fig. 118
11W1 1N1N1W1 1 227
After the 6TOrwwthe navigable smii ne is on the polar side of the
path.
The Dae s Semi circ/1 le on the side of the path towards the usual
direction of reLTature, I.e. the right-hd semicrcle (looking along the path)
"D the norther hemi sphere, and the left-hand emiie in the Muthcrn
hemisphere. 1 low-powered or sailing ship caught in the dagcrous semicircle
may be blown toward the path along which the stor will pas, or the storm
may e and the cntrc pover her.
The D Qant is the leading quadrant of the dg^ smi
circle. wing of storm has been reeived, W1and speed should
norma y b adjusted W that the ship keeps out of this quadrant.
Wa signs
In mot wang of the poition, intensity and probable movement of
storm is gven by radioat frequent intervals. Admiralt Lt ofRado Signals,
lo|= J contains up-to-date i uoJWti on for al ara of the time at which
wain broadcast. They are usually r%ted on operational circuits
with high inal priority.
Sometimes, hMr, there is insufcient evidence available for an accumte
waring or even a general w0rning to be given, and ships must be guided by
their own observations, always bearing in mind that very little warning may be
expeted of an intense stoIof unusually small mi Weter-
Bte. At se i the tropi, the barometric pre ure vaie very little
except for diural vantion (sepage 179). When tlw barometer reads 3 milli
bars or 2ore below the mean for the time of the year, a shown ma climatic
atla or in the Sailing Directions for that arta, it may men that a storm is
approaching or frming, and actiMn_ such a preparing to use extra power,
should be taken to mect any development. It should o noted that the baro
meter must be corrected not only for height and temperature, hut also for diurnl
variation, the amount of which i given in the climatic atla and .n the ou|_
Dctmmfor the area. If the reding, thus corrected, i 5 mb or more hclow
normal, there can be littkdoubt that there is a tropical storm in the vicinity, and
it ` o time to take avoiding action. According to W amysis of observations in the
western Pacic, the centre of the storm is prombly hy this time not more than
20 mile away. 1l thi s distance, at any 1te in the China Sea vi i ty, the wind
has usually increased to about force b
Of all the indications of the proximity of a tropical 8torm, the fall of baro
mctriv prcsurc is by far the most rliable within 20 of the ]uator. When
proceeding through an area liable to he visited by these storms it is advisible
to take houJ1y readings of the barometer.
In normal circumstanc, and on occasions when a storm is going to ps
uncmfortably close to the obs Wrver, thee are usually three firly defnite phiiS
in the fal mthe barometer:
I. A slow fll during which the diurnal variation is still apparent on the
barogh tr. This usuxlly occurs between 500 and \? mile from the
centre of the storm.
2 CHAPTER 19-ELEMENTARY METEOROLOGY
2. A dt fall during which the diurnal variation i s almost completely
masked. This usually occurs beteen 120 and 60 miles from the centre.
Throughout this phase the barometer is sometimes very unsteady.
3. A ra_id fall. This usually occurs between 60 and 10 miles from the centre.
In the rer of the storm, the barometer rises as rapidly as it fell in auvanc
of the storm.
It is not uncommon for the barometer at the centre of W storm to stand
60 to 70 mb lower than in the region just outside the storm feld. The stepest
barometric gradient normally encountered is 11 mb in 15 mile.
!U`7X y
M
J1|. \\ Yassao!a:ycon ot Hony Vonq
UMLX q
W 1
Fig. 119 is a reproduction of the barograph trace at Hong Kong when the
centre of a typhoon passd very near to the islad.
Su-.In the open if there is no intervening land between the ship and
the centre, the swell may give the frst indication of a tropical revolving storm~
The swell may etend to a distance of over 1,000 miles from the actual storm,
and in a fully developed storm usually be relied on to make itself felt 4
mile from the centre. The swell move- out from the centre of the storm, and
its direction thusgi*es a oou idea of the bearing of the centre.
TROPICAL REVOLVING STORMS 22
Wrm<at a Jmgreater N700 m)ew
o]tbtmrtr the mremho[mmo[UmtnmCW
v1.
Although the swell incrW a stor approache, ita state doe not give
any reliable indication of the d uIunwof tbe cntr.
W. An appreciable change in the direction and/or an appreciable change
in wind force may indicte the preence or formation of tropicl storm.
Sk. Extensive cm cloud generally preede a storm, followed, $ the
storm centre become closr, by much altostratus cloud and subuently
nimbostratus and 'scud'.
H.See page 2.
Although the precursory signs of the approach of a storm have been dealt
with independetly, it is important to realise that factors of wi nd, y cloud,
weather and barometer must be taken i nto consideration together. The zwzd
paths of storms mdferent months (i ncluded mthe we-.Lher hadbooks fr the
dferent statons, and in m moJe recently nv Sali Dctins) should
be studie, = the place of origin and the path ofte vary with the Wn.
By W doing, the mot likely Wof the storm may be eed. It uonly
by using all the mmUn available that the fullet meure of suc in
pr:di'ion ca be obtained.
Report by ships
In accordance with regulations drawn up by the I ntcmatioJal Conventon for
Safety of Life at 8e,it is the duty of eery ship which su the prece or
fonntion of a tropicl revolving storm immediatly to inform mbm V Is
shore authoritie with all the mean at her d. Wethe reort should
be made by radio at frequet i nterals, giving Wmuch information as possible,
epel y barometer readings. Such res should be crreted in the noral
way, but ncI for diurnal variation.
PatIaItuImtotavoIuopIIss
To decide on the bet cur of action when a stor is suspe t be in the
vicinity, a reuire to k:
1. the bg mthe cntre of M%_
2. the path of the str,
3. whether the ship `x mUtdmor navgable seicircle.
The bearing of the storm'& Ce be found by applying Buy Ballot's
Law, modifed slightly, $follows:
Stand facirUUw,mm&mho[m:t0 wllbe }m !0toJ70"
mqmmtbemmbowm m` m0w M
bem.
This true when the cetre of the strm `x about Zmile away; the baro
meter will by U:m be about 0mb below the men, and te W will have
inc to force or therebout. A a rule the nearer one W U the cntre
the more closely doe the angular displaceet approach
U
2JU 1WYH JV1T7 1L1L\3
The path of the storm mLapproximately determined by t two such
bearings with an interval of from two U three hours between obserations
and allowing for the ship's movement. It can, however, be a umed that the
Storm i not travelling towards the equatorj while in latitudes lower than 20
its path is most unlikely to have an easterly component. On the rare ocsions
when neither of these statements applies, the storm is moving very slowly.
It is a matter of vital importance to avoid pWing within 0 mile or of the
centre of the storm. It is prefrable to keep outside a radius of mil or
more, beu at thisdistance Mwind doe not exced frce 7 (and is generally
not more than force ) and freedom to manoeuvre is maintained. If W ship has
at leat 20 knots at her disposal and shape a course that will take her most
rapidly away from the storm, it is unlikely that the wind will increase sufciently
to restrict her movement, and risk of damage is remOe
Sometime a tropical storm move so slowly that a vesel, if ahead of it,
can easily outpace iti or, if atr of it, can overtake it. Since, however, she is
unlikely to seriously the efect of a storm long a the barometer does not
fall more U 5mb (corrected fr diural variation) below the normal, it W
recommeded that frequent redings should be made uthe preenc of a storm
in the c]is suspeted or known, ad that the vshould continue on her
coure until the barometer has fallen 5mb or until the \nd ha increased to
force 6 ad the barometer has fallen at let Jmb. If and when either of those
events O T she should alter curse in acrdance with the following para
graphs until the barometer risen again above the limits just given and the
wind O decr below force 6. If it is certain that the ship i behind the
storm, or in the navigable semicircle, it will evidently be sufcient to alter
course away from the centre.
1olheTcrthw Wr]here
If the wind is veering, M shp must be in the dangerous semiCircle. 1
power-driven vesel should proceed with all available spe with the wind
10 to 45 (depending upon her speed and that of the storm)on the tarbonrd
bow. 1sailing ves.,el should heave to on the starboard Q . .ither type uship
should haul round U starboard a the wind vers, thereby tracng a course
yztlve mthe storm cetre, a shown by u(J)in Fig. 120a.
11the wind remains stedy i ndirtion, or if it backs, 2 that the ship seems
to be nerly in the path of the storm, or in the navigable semicircle repetively,
a power-driven vesel hould bring the wind well on the stTrd quarter and
proeed with all available speed.* 1 sailing vessel should run with the wind
on the starboard quarter . .ither type of ship should alter course to port the
wind backs, thus tracing a course relative to the storm as shown by track (2)
in Fig. 120a.
If there is i nsumciKt room to run when in the navigable semicircle, and it
is not prcle to seek shelter, W v l should heve to with the wind on the
starboard b.
It is sometmes difcult to determine satisfactry jf U M| t: m1 u thc Q
Uww1bcmU doea not always beha according to rule.
TROPICAL REVOLVING STORMS
7
'
1
!
1
1
\
\
\

v
7
r
.

\l)
>

t:
W8MERM M1%IX?MR
Fig. 120a
Iothc5mthooHcmhoc
''''
7
/
/
1

\
\
\
\
^
^
^
*
`
`
^
`
0I
M1MAW M^11YmtWt
F. 12UD
231
1the wind is backing, the ship must be in the dangerous semicircle. A power
driven ve el should proceed w`+all available sped with the wind 10 to +5
(depending u_o1 her speed and lhat of Ucstorm)on the port bow. A saing
vesel should heave to on the port tc. Each type of ship should haul round
to port the wu:u backs, thereby tracing a course 1lative to the storm similar
to track (3) in Fig. 120b.
1thc:nd s:cmy u: direction or if it veers, so that the ship is in
the path of the storm or in the navigable semicircle respectively, a power
driven vesel should bring the wind well on the port quarter and proceed with
all available speed. A sailing vesel should run with U1cwind broad on the port
quarter. Either type of hip should alte1 course to starboard the w`ncveers;
track (f) 1Fig. 120b shows the relative track of a ship under these conditions.
If there is insufcient room to run when in the navigable semicircle and it
is not practicable to seek shelter, a vesel should heave to with the wind on the
por bow.
TCLBO%OW InK
Wen in harbour much care must be taken at sea in watching the shifing
of the wind and estimating the relative movement of U;c&vD:. Uy so doing
be I be shifted with advantage or other steps taken accrding to circum
stanc. For instanc, if the centre O the storm passes over the ship, it may
be posible to point the ship . i n the direction of the violent squall which follows
the lull. It umuch prefrable, hMr, to put to sea, if this can b d\nc U
232 17IkH 19ELEMENTARY METEOROLOGY
sufcient time to avoid the worst of the storm. iding out a tropical storm in
an anchorage or harbour when the centre pases withi1 50 miles or so, een
dsome shelter is aforded, is an extremely uncomforble and hazrdous
perience, epecially if there are other ships in company.
Discretion must of course be used. For icstacO,in the case of a low-powd
or small vessel with insufcient wing to enable her to gain adeuate distanc
fom the storm by putting to sea, it wiJl be preferable to reWin in a reasonably
sheltered harbour. Conversely, if at sea and warning of approaching storm
sgive, and if there scoumde:cdto be i1mcCt time or sea-room to avoid
the dangerous part of the storm a, it may Dadvi s able for Yhips othstype
to seek shelter.
mM`dS
When a tropical stomt approaches a coast, serious fooding often occurs. At sea
the winds in the storm feld create which travel out ahead of it and
eventually reach the shore, where thly cause a rise in the water beginning
when the storm is 300 to 500 mile 9and Cntinung until the storm crosses
the coast. The height of the food le`1l reached at the shore near the centre of
the storm is sometimes as much as +5m (15 ft) above the predicted tide level.