MEC 251 THERMODYNAMICS

PREFACE TO MEC251- THERMODYNAMICS

Thermodynamics is the basic science of energy transformation that involves heat, work and the properties of substance. It is an essential component of engineering education at higher learning institutions. Through the subjects, students will be exposed to a strong understanding of the fundamentals of thermodynamics, starting with the elementary ideas on temperature, heat, energy, work and the associated changing of properties of substance, developing the fundamental laws of thermodynamics, and lastly, its broad applications in our everyday living. These handouts are in the form of partial notes. Much of the verbal delivery and background of a lecture are already in the handouts. Spaces have been provided for the students to fill them up with appropriate diagrams, equations, important concepts and work examples.
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It is hoped that the handouts allow the students to focus more on the content of the lecture rather than spending time wrting the notes from the board while simultaneously trying to follow the lecture, and forms an organised framework for the understanding of the subject. I strongly encourage my dear students to approach the subject with interest and enthusiasm, employ a creative thinking mind and always seek a deeper and intuitive understanding for thermodynamics as much as in other subjects. I appreciate and welcome any comments and suggestions from my dear colleagues and students in making these handouts meaningful in our endeavour to make Thermodynamics a well-understood, well-liked and fun to learn subject. Thank you.
Prof Madya Muhammad Abd Razak Faculty of Mechanical Engineering UiTM Pulau Pinang. Tel: 04-3823174 email:muhdabdrazak@ppinang.uitm.edu.my 3rd Revision-June 12

The Essence of Thermodynamics When you call a thing is mysterious, all that it means is that you dont understand it. Lord Kelvin Thermodynamics is a funny subject. The first time you go through it, you dont understand it at all. The second time you go through it, you think you understand it, except for one or two small points. The third time you go through it, you know you dont understand it, but by that time you are so used to it, it doesnt bother you anymore. Arnold Sommerfield What everybody must knows about learning Thermodynamics Things get worse under pressure Murphy's Law about Thermodynamics

Thermodynamics Derived from greek word Therme (heat) and dunamis (power/force). A basic science that deals with energy Its forms Its interaction with the matter how energy can be transformed into heat work It involves with the most fundamental laws of nature ie. the conservation of energy principle, or energy cannot be created nor destroyed. Scope of Thermodynamics Classical thermodynamics: A macroscopic approach to the study of thermodynamics that does not require the knowledge of the behaviour of individual particles. Also known as Applied / Engineering Thermodynamics. Statistical thermodynamics: A microscopic approach, study on the average behaviour of large groups of individual particles.
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Applications of Thermodynamics Covers every items around us, starting from household appliances to high-tech rocket sciences.

Basic Definitions System or the thermodynamic system : a quantity of matter or a region in space chosen for study. The surroundings : The region outside the system, ie. the physical space outside the system boundary The boundary : The real or imaginary surface that separates the system from its surroundings.

Fixed Boundaries

Fixed & Moveable Boundaries 7

Classifications of System A closed system : contains a fix amount of mass, (ie. no mass will cross the system boundary). the system boundary may move during an activity or process.

Energy in the form of heat and work may cross the boundary of a closed system.

An open system, or (control volume) mass as well as energy may cross the boundary, (called the control surface) Examples of open systems: pumps compressors turbines valves heat exchangers etc An isolated system is a general system of fixed mass where no heat or work may cross the boundaries It is a collection of a main system and its surroundings that are exchanging mass and energy among themselves and no other system.

Forms of Energy A system has many forms of energy The total energy is the sum of all forms of energy within the system such as Thermal Mechanical Electric Magnetic Chemical Nuclear Internal Energy, U Kinetic (KE) Potential (PE)

Then, the total energy of the system, E, is the sum of : The internal energy, U (due to the molecular structure and the molecular activity of the system). The kinetic energy, KE, (due to the system's motion at a velocity).
KE = 1 mC 2 2 kJ

The potential energy, PE, (due to (systems elevation).

PE = mgz

kJ

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The total energy is then

E = U + KE + PE
kJ ( ) kg

( kJ )

on a unit mass basis, called the specific energy, e

E U KE PE e= = + + m m m m C 2 e = u + + gz 2
E = U + KE + PE

If there is change in stored energy of a system

( kJ )

Closed systems are mostly stationary during a process and, thus, there is no change in their kinetic and potential energies. Therefore

E = U

( kJ )
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Property, State, and Process To describe a system and predict its behaviour, we need to know its properties and how they are related. Property: Any characteristic of a system that can be measured when it is at a particular state. (eg mass, volume, temperature etc.) All properties of a system, which is not undergoing any change, can be measured or computed. A property is independent of the process path used to arrive at the system condition. Properties are usually classified as intensive or extensive. Intensive properties are those that are independent of size. Examples of Intensive Properties a. temperature, T b. pressure, p c. any mass independent property

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Extensive properties are those that depend directly with extent or size of the system. Examples of Extensive Properties a. mass b. volume c. total energy d. mass dependent property

Extensive properties per unit mass are intensive properties. For example the specific volume defined as
v= Volume V = mass m
m3 kg

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State Condition of a system as described by its properties. A change in any one of the properties, will cause a change of the state.

Process any action that change from one state of a system to another. (so are the properties) When any of the properties of a system change, the state also changes. common processes are : Expansion Compression Heating Cooling

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Cycle a series of connected processes, that begins and ends at the same state. Example of a cycle composed of two processes, A and B.
P
Process B

Process A

Thermodynamic Equlibrium Condition when properties are assumed constant from point to point and there is no tendency to change with time.
thermal equilibrium (no change in temperature with time throughout the system) mechanical equilibrium (uniform pressure at any point), phase equilibrium (e.g. ice and liquid water,) and chemical equilibrium etc

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Reversibility When a system changes state where at any instant during the process the state point can be located on a property diagram, then the process is said to be reversible.
P

State Postulate As noted earlier, the state of a system is described by its properties. The number of properties required to fix the state of a simple, homogeneous system is given by the state postulate: The thermodynamic state of a simple compressible system can be completely specified by two independent, intensive properties.

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The First Law of Thermodynamics: Closed Systems An expression of the conservation of energy principle. Energy can cross the boundaries in the form of heat or/and work. Sign Convention For heat and work energy transfers (across the boundary).

+ ve - ve - ve + ve
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Heat Transfer Heat: the energy in crossing the boundary due to the temperature difference (between the system and its surroundings) Net heat transferred to a system is defined as

Q net =
Or

in

out

q = Q/m [ kJ/kg ]

An adiabatic process is one in which the system is perfectly insulated and the heat transfer is zero.

Work the energy spent by a force acting through a distance. Unit is 2 2 Nm/Joule

W 12 = W = Fds
1 1
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Thermodynamic work is the energy in transition across the boundary and is done by a system. Also known as Boundary work

boundary work is done by the system on the piston.(on the surrounding) the mass of a system causes a force on the boundary, ( F = p x A) and making it move. boundary work is then calculated from

Wb = Wb = Fds = pAds
1 1 1

Wb = pdV
1

work per unit mass of system is in kJ/kg. the work is equal to the area under the process curve plotted on a p-V diagram.
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the quantity of (boundary)work is process dependent.

700 kPa

100 kPa

0.01 m3

0.03 m3

P is the absolute pressure and is always positive. When dV is positive, Wb is positive. (this is ..process) When dV is negative, Wb is negative (this is ..process)
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1st Law of Closed System the conservation of energy principle or 1st Law of Thermodynamics

across the system boundary by heat trans fer

net energy tra nsferred in

net energy tra nsferred out across the the system boundary by work

The change in total energy wit hin the system

E in E out = E system
the net heat transfer to the system is the system is

Q and the net work done by

W. Thus,
Qnet Wnet = E system
=0 =0
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but

E = U + KE + PE

Thus the 1st Law of Thermodynamics for Closed System is ,

Qnet Wnet = U
Example : A system receives 5 kJ of heat transfer and experiences a decrease in internal energy in the amount of 5 kJ. Determine the amount of work done by the system.
Qin =5 kJ
E= -5 kJ
Syste m Bound ary

Wout=?

Applying the 1st Law

Ein Eout = Esystem Ein = Qin = 5 kJ Eout = Wout Esystem = 5 kJ

Eout = Ein Esystem Wout = 5 ( 5 ) kJ Wout = 10 kJ

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Determination of Internal Energy (of a system) To apply the 1st law to a system, ways to calculate the change in internal energy of the system enclosed by the boundary must be determined. For real substances (water, Refrigerants), the property tables are used to find the change of internal energy. For ideal gases, the specific heats are used to find the internal energy

Specific Heats Relation With Internal Energy and Enthalpy Define: the specific heat at constant volume, CV is the quatity of heat needed to raise the temperature of a unit of mass of a substance by one degree during a constant-volume process. the specific heat at constant pressure, CP, is the quatity of heat needed to raise the temperature of a unit of mass of a substance by one degree during a constant-pressure process.
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In thermodynamics, the specific heats are defined as

u h cv = and c p = T v T p
in terms of ordinary differentials,

du = cv dT dh = c p dT
We introduce a new property, enthalpy, h, as the sum of the internal energy, u, and the pressure-volume product, pv. h = u + pv

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Relation between CP and CV for ideal gases writing the differential of enthalpy, the relationship between the specific heats for ideal gases is

h = u + Pv dh = du + d ( RT ) CP dT = CV dT + RdT CP = CV + R
or

C p Cv = R

R is the Gas Constant

The specific heat ratio, , is defined as

cp cv
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Equations of State Express the relationship among the state properties; temperature, pressure, and specific volume for an ideal gas, where

pv = RT
R is the gas constant or the constant of proportionality. For all substances, the gas constant is related to the universal gas constant through the molar mass (or molecular weight). Ro,u is the universal gas constant. Then,

Ro R= M

The mass, m, is related to the moles, N, of substance through the molecular weight or molar mass, M.

m= N M
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The ideal gas equation of state then may be written several ways.

pV = mRT V p = RT m pv = RT

p = absolute pressure in kPa, MPa, or bar v = specific volume in m3/kg T = absolute temperature in K R = gas constant (kJ/kgK) Ro= 8.314 kJ/(kmol K)

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Some Typical Processes 1. Constant volume If the volume is held constant, dV = 0 and the cylinder is heated, p p2
Locked

p1 The boundary work becomes 2 then, Wb = pdV = 0 from 1st Law 1 v1=v2 v

Q W = U Q 0 = U Q = U

For a vapour, use tables to find the U For a gas, change in internal energy is

Q = U = mcv (T2 T1 )

U = mcv (T2 T1 )

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2. Constant pressure p

p1=p2 v

v1

v2

For vapour, Q W = U becomes Q = H since it involves change in internal energy and boundary work together For a gas, boundary work equation becomes
2 2

Wb = pdV = p dV = p(V2 V1 )
1 1

And the heat supplied,

Q = H = mcp (T2 T1 )
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3. Constant temperature p p2
cooling

p1 v2 for vapour use table to find the change in internal energy v1

Q W = U
for a gas, u=f(T), therefore U=0. Then

Q =W
then the equation of state provides the pressure-volume relation

mRT P = V

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the boundary work is

mRT dV Wb = pdV = V
2 2 1 1

= mRT 1 ln

V2 V = p1V1 ln 2 V1 V1

p1 = mRT 1 ln p2
4. The Polytropic Process the pressure-volume relation is given as pVn = constant n may have any value from - < n < + depending on the process. p2 p1 v2 v1 v
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p
pVn = constant

Process Constant pressure Constant volume Isothermal & ideal gas Adiabatic & ideal gas

Exponent n 0 1

pVn = constant

= CP/CV

The boundary work during the polytropic process is

C Wb = pdV = n dV V 1 1

p1V1 p2V2 mR(T1 T2 ) = = n 1 n 1

where n 1

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5. The Adiabatic Process p In adiabatic process the working substance do not receive or gives out heat to its surroundings, (expansion and compression) p2 The working substance is thermally insulated. p1 no heat enters or leaves the system the temperature of the gas change, as the v2 work is done at the cost of internal energy the change in the internal energy is equal to the mechanical work done.``

pV = constant

v1

C Wb = pdV = dV V 1 1 p1V1 p2V2 = 1 mR(T1 T2 ) = 1 where 1

Q - W = U 0 W = U W = U

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