1 Chapter 2: THE STRUCTURE OF THE ATOM

2.1 Matter Matter is anything that occupies space and has mass. Matter is made up of very tiny discrete particles. These particles can be atoms, molecules and ions. o Atom ~> smallest particle of an element o Molecule ~> a group of two or more atoms which are chemically bonded together o Ion ~> a positively-charged or negatively-charged particle.

Matter

Element

Compound

Atom

Molecule

Molecule

Ion

Gold

Argon gas

Oxygen gas

Sulphur

Water

Carbon dioxide gas

Sodium chloride

Diffusion occurs when the particles of a substance move in between the particles of another substance. *Refer the diffusion of particles experiment Rate of diffusion of gas particles depends on their masses. o Gases with low molecular masses diffuse faster than those with high molecular masses. Rate of diffusion is affected by the temperature. o The higher the temperature, the faster the particles move and so the faster the diffusion.

The kinetic theory of matter 1. The kinetic particle theory is a model to explain the properties of matter 2. The main points of this theory are: All matter is made up of tiny discrete particles The particles in matter are always in motion The kinetic energy of a particle changes with temperature The average kinetic energy of all particles is directly proportional to the absolute temperature

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State Arrangement of particles

Solid Very closely packed Orderly manner

Liquid Closely packed Disorderly arrangement

Gas

Very far apart from each other Random arrangement

Forces of attraction Very strong forces of Strong forces of between particles attraction between particles attraction between particles but weaker than the forces in solid Motion of particles Vibrate and rotate about a Can vibrate, rotate and fixed position move throughout the liquid Energy content of particles Low (movement is restricted) Higher (can move easily)

Very weak forces of attraction between particles Can vibrate, rotate and move freely. The rate of collision is greater than the rate of collision in liquid. Highest (movement is at random)

~ Solid ~> a fixed volume and shape ~> cannot be compressed ~ Liquid ~> fixed volume, does not have a fixed shape (takes the shape of the container) ~> cannot be compressed easily ~ Gas ~> does not have a fixed shape or volume ~> can be compressed easily Changes in the states of matter

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1. Solid to liquid When a solid is heated, the particles in the solid gain kinetic energy and vibrate more vigorously. The particles vibrate as faster as the temperature increases until the energy they gained is able to overcome the forces that hold them at their fixed positions. At this point, the solid becomes a liquid. This process is called melting. The temperature at this point is called the melting points. 2. Liquid to Gas When a liquid is heated, its particles absorb the heat energy and move at a faster rate. The kinetic energy of the particles increases. The particles move further apart from one another. When the kinetic energy is enough to overcome the forces of attraction among the liquid particles, liquid changes into gaseous state. At this point, the liquid becomes gas. This process is called boiling. The temperature at this point is called the boiling points. 3. Gas to liquid When a gas is cooled, the particles in the gas lose energy and move slower. As the temperature continues to drop, the particles continue to lose more energy until they do not have enough energy to move freely. At this point, the gas becomes liquid. This process is called condensation. The temperature at this point is called the boiling points. 4. Liquid to Solid When a liquid is cooled, the particles in the liquid lose energy and move slower. As the temperature continues to drop, the particles continue to lose more energy until they do not have enough energy to move freely. At this point, the liquid becomes a solid. This process is called freezing. The temperature at this point is called the freezing points.

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Atomic Structure Scientist John Dalton (1803) Model Characteristics Atom as a small, indivisible ball similar to a very tiny ball Atom cannot be created nor destroyed All atom of a particular element are the same (have the same mass and physical features) Weakness Smaller particles are called subatoms Atom can be created and destroyed ( nuclear reaction) Atom of the same element can have different physical features (isotopes) He discovered electron The atom as a sphere of positive charge which contains a few negatively charged particles called electrons He discovered proton The positive charge and most of the mass of the atom are concentrated in a small, central region called nucleus Electron moves outside the nucleus Most parts of the atom contain empty space Weakness The atomic mass calculated using this model is lesser then the actual atomic The electrons move in shells around the nucleus Each orbit is at a fixed distance from the nucleus

J.J Thomsons (1897)

Ernest Rutherford (1871 1973)

Neil Bohr (1885 1662)

James Chadwick (1891 1974)

Proved the existence of neutrons, the neutral particles in the nucleus Neutrons contribute approximately to half the mass of an atom
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Subatomic particles of an atom An atom contains three types of subatomic particles: o Proton o neutron o electron. Proton and neutron are found in the nucleus. Electrons move around the nucleus in fixed orbits. Particles Proton Neutron Electron Symbol p n e Relative charge +1 0 -1 Relative mass 1 1 1/1840

The nucleus is positively charged because of the presence of protons, which are positively charged. Neutrons are neutral. Atom contains the same number of electron as the proton because atom is a neutral particle.

Proton Number and Nucleon Number Proton number of an element is the number of protons in its atom. Nucleon number of an element is the total number of protons and neutrons in its atom.
Nucleon Number = number of protons + number of neutrons Nucleon Number = Proton Number + number of neutrons

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Isotopes Meaning: o Isotopes are atoms of the same element containing the same number of protons but different numbers of neutrons o [Isotopes are atoms of the same element containing the same proton numbers but different nucleons number] Properties o Isotopes have the same chemical properties (because they have the same number of protons) but slightly different physical properties such as melting point and density

Electronic structure of an atom Electron Arrangement of an atom is the arrangement of electron in shells (orbits) around that atoms nucleus (The electrons in an atom are arranged in shells around the nucleus) The maximum number of electrons which can fill a particular shell is as follows: o 1st shell : 2 o 2nd shell : 8 o 3rd shell : 8 or 18 o 4th shell : 36 For atoms with proton numbers of 1 to 20, two electrons can occupy in the first shell, eight electrons in the second shell and eight electrons in the third shell. [Electrons occupy the shells closest to the nucleus first. They only start occupying a new shell when the previous one has been occupied]

Valence electron The electrons in the outermost occupied shell are known as valence electrons There are 8 electrons in the outermost occupied shell of the atom above. Therefore, the valence electrons of a neon atom is 8.

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