MEM310-A

LECTURE 2
THERMODYNAMICS
An Engineering Approach

Chapter 2, Part 1:
Energy, Energy Transfer, and
General Energy Analysis


Dr. Alexander J. Moseson
Department of Mechanical Engineering & Mechanics
Drexel University
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Reading Assignment: Chapters 2, and 3
by lecture next Tuesday
Chapter 4
by lecture next Thursday

Homework: In recitation. See Homework document

Quizzes and Tests: First quiz next Thursday on chapter 1 & 2

Project: Use Google Doc to form projects, teams
Proposal due Week 3

Announcements
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Candy Question
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Chapter 2 (Part 1) in Key Variables
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Variable Symbol Mass Basis Flow
Internal energy U u u
Heat (transfer) Q q q
Work W w w
Energy E (KE, PE) e (ke, pe) e
Pressure P
Volume V
Velocity V
Temperature T
Time t
Density
Force F
Gravity g
Vertical Distance z
Mass m




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Energy, Work, and Heat
Energy is the capacity to do work!!!
Its classification into: Kinetic (by motion) Potential (by position)
e.g., thermal chemical, electrical
Work and Heat are not types of energy, but are processes involving
Transfer of energy. They appear and disappear at the system boundary.
Work is the transfer of energy by
some mechanism other than temp
difference.
Convention:
If work is done by the system,
W > 0.
Heat is the transfer of energy from
one body to another of lower
temerature.
Convention:
If heat flows into the system,
Q > 0.
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Forms of Energy
The total energy E of a system is the sum of all forms of energy within a system.
e.g., thermal, kinetic, potential, electric, magnetic, chemical, and nuclear
The total energy per unit mass e of a system is the total energy of the system
divided by the mass of the system.


Macroscopic forms Microscopic forms
Are related to molecular structure
and molecular activity.
Internal energy U
Is the sum of all of the microscopic
forms of energy of a system.

Energies relative to some reference
frame.
Kinetic energy [J]:
Kinetic energy per unit mass [J/kg]:

Potential energy [J]:
Potential energy per unit mass [J/kg]:

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Physical Insight to Internal Energy
Sensible energy: The portion of the
internal energy of a system
associated with the kinetic energies
of the molecules.
Latent energy: The internal energy
associated with the phase of a
system.
Chemical energy: The internal
energy associated with the atomic
bonds in a molecule.
Nuclear energy: The tremendous
amount of energy associated with
the strong bonds within the nucleus
of the atom itself.
Internal = Sensible + Latent + Chemical + Nuclear
Thermal = Sensible + Latent
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Total Energy
Thermal Energy :
The energy associated with translation, vibration, and rotation of molecules.
Chemical Energy:
The energy associated with the bonds between atoms in molecules.
Nuclear Energy:
The energy associated with the bonds between the particles in the nucleus of
atoms.
Total Energy [J]:

Total energy per unit mass [J/kg]:

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The total energy of a system, can be
contained or stored in a system, and thus
can be viewed as the static forms of
energy.
The forms of energy not stored in a system
can be viewed as the dynamic forms of
energy or as energy interactions.
The dynamic forms of energy are
recognized at the system boundary as
they cross it, and they represent the
energy gained or lost by a system during a
process.
The only two forms of energy interactions
associated with a closed system are heat
transfer and work.
The difference between heat transfer and work: An energy interaction is heat transfer if its
driving force is a temperature difference. Otherwise it is work.
Energy quality
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Mechanical Energy
Mechanical energy: The form of energy that can be converted to
mechanical work completely and directly by an ideal mechanical device
such as an ideal turbine.
Kinetic and potential energies: The familiar forms of mechanical energy.
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Definition of Heat
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Definition of Heat
Heat transferred to a system is considered positive, and heat transferred from
a system is negative.
A process in which there is no heat transfer (Q = 0) is called an adiabatic
process. The symbol Q represents heat.
Heat is a path function. That is the amount of heat transferred when a system
undergoes a change from state 1 to state 2 depends on the path that the
system follows during the change of state.
Closed System
Adiabatic
System
insulation
Q = 0
Q > 0
Q < 0
Heat is defined as the form of energy that is transferred across the boundary of
a system at a given temperature to another system at a lower temperature by
virtue of the temperature difference between the two systems.
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ENERGY TRANSFER BY HEAT
Heat: The form of energy that
is transferred between two
systems (or a system and its
surroundings) by virtue of a
temperature difference.
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Heat transfer per
unit mass
Amount of heat transfer when
heat transfer rate changes
with time
Amount of heat transfer
when heat transfer rate is
constant
ENERGY TRANSFER BY HEAT
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Heat Transfer Modes
Conduction is the transfer of energy from the more energetic particles of a
substance to the adjacent less energetic ones as a result of interaction
between particles:

A different mode of heat transfer takes place when a medium is flowing,
called Convective heat transfer. In this mode the bulk motion of a substance
movers matter with a certain energy level over or near a surface with a
different temperature:

The final mode of heat transfer is Radiation, which transmits energy as
electromagnetic waves in space. The transfer can happen in empty space
and does not require any matter, but the emission of the radiation and the
absorption does require a substance to be present:

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Definition of Work
Work is usually defined as a force F acting through a displacement x, where
the displacement is in the direction of the force. That is


In general, work is a form of energy in transit, that is, energy being transferred
across a system.
Example:
Does work cross the boundary of the system?
YES!!! Replace the fan with the pulley and weight arrangement, as the motor
turns, the weight is raised; therefore, the answer is yes.
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Understanding of Work
Let the boundaries of the system be changed to include the battery.
Does work cross the boundary of the system?
YES!!! The only limiting factor in having the sole external effect be the raising
of a weight is the inefficiency of the motor. When there is a flow of
electricity across the boundary of a system, it is work!!!
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Units for Work
The unit for work is Joule (J): 1 J = 1 Nm
Power is the time rate of doing work. The unit for power is a Watt (W):
1 W = 1 J/s
Mechanical Forms of Work:
Work is force acting through a distance dx or a Torque (T = Fr) acting
Through an angle of rotation. Now the power becomes
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Work
We will consider in some detail the work done at the moving boundary of a
simple compressible system during a quasi-equilibrium process.
Consider as a system the gas contained in a cylinder
and piston. Let one of the small weights be removed
from the piston, which will cause the piston to move
upward a distance dL
But , the change in volume of the
gas, therefore,
The work done can be found by integration only if we
know the relationship between P and V during this
process.
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Work done during this process is represented by
the area under the curve 1-2.


It is possible to go from state 1 to state 2 along
many different quasi-equilibrium paths, such as
A, B, C.
The amount of work done is not only a function of
the end states but al so on the path that i s
followed in going from one state to another.
Work is call a Path Function.
Work
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Polytropic Process
The relationship between P and V
Can be given in terms of experimental data
Makes it possible to fit an analytical relationship, we may then integrate
directly
One common example of functional relationship is a process called a
Polytropic process, one in which (by definition)
throughout the process. The exponent n may possibly be any value from
- to , depending on the particular process.
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Mechanical Work
Work = Force Distance
When force is not constant
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FORMS OF WORK
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Example 1
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