Engineering Mechanics-MIT NOTES

1.
050 Engineering Mechanics I

Fall 2007
Notes and remarks
Lecture Summary Slide
Content Survey
Lecture notes
Homework assignments (weekly)
Exams: 2 in-class quizzes, 1 final
All exams are open-book
Grading:
Two quizzes (25%)
Final (25%)
Homework assignment (50%)
Assignments
Homework / Problem Sets (50%)
Assigned weekly on Wednesday, evaluated and returned to you
(ASAP)
Build homework teams of three students:
Engineering is team work. We expect a true team work, in which
everybody contributes equally to the result. This is testified by
the team members signing a declaration that the signature
confirms that all have equally contributed to the homework.
Typical teamwork:
Each student works individually through the homework set.
The team meets and discusses questions, difficulties and
solutions.
Possibly, meet with TA or instructor.
You must reference your sources and collaborators, whether other
students, sources on the web, archived solutions from previous
years etc
A few things wed like you to remember
We teach the class for you! At any time please let us know if you
have concerns or suggestions, or if you have difficulties. Well do
the best to cater to your needs!
The goal is that you will have an excellent basis for engineering
science in many other applications aside from the mechanics topic
covered here
Our goal: Discover Engineering Mechanics with you starting at
fundamental concepts (Newtons laws) to be able to apply the
knowledge to complex engineering problems.
1.050: Engineering Mechanics
Why are there no monsters on Earth?
Images removed due to copyright restrictions.
Normandy Bridge 900m (1990ies)
Can we build bridges
J ack and the giant J ack and the giant
Copyright , The British Library Copyright , The British Library
Between continents?
Hurricane Katrina
What caused major flooding in the city?
Why did the levees break?
Geotechnical Design
- Load < strength capacity
- Failure (plasticity or fracture)
- Mechanism
Photograph of floodwaters removed due to copyright restrictions.
Impact
- 2 million people
- Nationwide Life Line interruption
What caused this to happen?
- Global warming?
- Policy: Role of the federal
government?
Minnesota bridge collapse
Aging infrastructure
-What caused the bridge to
collapse?
-Are our bridges safe?
-Can we detect failure before
tragedy happens?
Photographs of collapsed bridge removed due to copyright restrictions.
Fixing the problems
-Retrofitting?
-Rebuilding new bridges?
-Funding? -- Policy change to
allocate more funding to fix
unfit infrastructure
Earthquake disasters
Earthquake in Peru
(August 2007)
Map of Peru showing epicenter location removed
due to copyright restrictions.
Structural Design
- Service State (Elasticity)
Photographs of collapsed roads removed due to copyright restrictions.
- Failure (Plasticity or Fracture)
- Mechanism
Impact
- Millions of people
- Nationwide Life Line interruption
- Economy
9-11: The Fall of the Towers
North Tower: 8:46 am above 96
th
floor, failed at 10:28 am
South Tower: 9:03 am above 80
th
Immediate Question: How did the towers fail? - Mechanism Lecture 4
Three sequential photographs of tower collapse removed due to copyright restrictions.
Engineering science paradigm: Multi-scale
view of materials
Buehler and Ackbarow, Materials Today, 2007
Courtesy Elsevier, Inc., http://www.sciencedirect.com. Used with permission.
Atomistic mechanisms of fracture
Simulations of
atomistic
fracture
mechanisms
Reveals new
fracture
mechanism:
Supersonic
fracture
View the complete movie at:
http://web.mit.edu/mbuehler/www/research/supersonic_fracture.mpeg.
Buehler et al., Nature, 2003; Nature, 2006
Fracture is linked to the mechanics of
chemical bond breaking
Fracture mechanics
Mesoscale
Mechanics of chemical interactions
Buehler et al., Nature, 2003; Nature, 2006
Impact of cement on worldwide CO2 production
Worldwide Cement Consumption
Worldwide Cement Consumption equates to 10% of worldwide CO2 Emission
YEAR
M
e
t
r
i
c

T
o
n
s

(
m
i
l
l
i
o
n
s
)
2001: 1.7 x 10
9
t/yr
~1 m
3
/capita/yr
~350 kg CO
2
/capita/yr
2050: 3.2-7.5 x 10
9
t/yr
3 12
3
m 10 9 :
m 000 , 2 500 , 1 :
Total
Car
Can drive 200 million times
Around the world
Chaturvedi, S. and Ochsendorf, J ., Global Environmental Impacts Due to Concrete and Steel, Structural Engineering International,
14/3, Zurich, Intl. Assoc. of Bridge and Structural Engineers, August 2004, 198-200.
Courtesy of John Ochsendorf. Used with permission.
Concrete: A complex multi-scale material
New materials for construction industry?
Ti, Mg based cement?
New production pathways?
Mortar
few mm
Cement paste
Concrete
1 cm
< 0.1 mm
Molecular
mechanics
Images of concrete from the nanometer to centimeter scale
C-S-H
removed due to copyright restrictions.
< m
Platelets
few 10 nm
Enables
structures
Chemistry
Kilometers
Angstrom-nm
Image of suspension bridge removed due to copyright restrictions.
silica Dreierketten
Ca octahedra
Water layer
Ca octahedra
silica Dreierketten
Ca octahedra
Water layer
Ca octahedra
Opening molecular-nanoscale for
engineering design
Production of green concrete
Reduce CO2 emission during
production
Understand diffusion of
radioactive waste through concrete
Long-term stability/durability
avoid disasters
Environmental effects (chemicals,
moisture,..)
Mechanical stability
Mechanics in life sciences
Elasticity of
environment directs
stem cell
differentiation
Brain tissue
Muscle
Bone
D. Discher, Cell, 2006
Change of mechanics in
diseases?
How can we use self-
assembly to synthesize new
materials?
Courtesy Elsevier, Inc., http://www.sciencedirect.com.
Used with permission.
Buehler and Ackbarow, Materials Today, 2007
Single point mutations in IF structure causes severe diseases such as rapid
aging disease progeria HGPS (Nature, 2003; Nature, 2006, PNAS, 2006)
Cell nucleus loses stability under cyclic loading
Failure occurs at heart (fatigue)
Substitution of a single DNA base: Amino acid guanine is
switched to adenine
Experiment suggests that mechanical properties of
nucleus change (Dahl et al., PNAS, 2006)
Images from the organismal to cell to molecular scales removed due to copyright restrictions.
1.050 Content overview
I. Dimensional analysis
1. On monsters, mice and mushrooms
2. Similarity relations: Important engineering tools
II. Stresses and strength
2. Stresses and equilibrium
3. Strength models (how to design structures,
foundations.. against mechanical failure)
III. Deformation and strain
4. How strain gages work?
5. How to measure deformation in a 3D
structure/material?
IV. Elasticity
5. Elasticity model link stresses and deformation
6. Variational methods in elasticity
V. How things fail and how to avoid it
7. Elastic instabilities
8. Plasticity (permanent deformation)
9. Fracture mechanics
Lectures 1-3
Sept.
Lectures 4-15
Sept./Oct.
Lectures 16-19
Oct.
Lectures 20-31
Nov.
Lectures 32-37
Dec.
1.050 Content
The contents of 1.050 will be important in several subjects
Spring: 1.060 Engineering Mechanics II
Fluid Mechanics
Hydrostatics
Hydrodynamics
Open Channel Flow
Application in many engineering applications and in engineering
science
Biomechanics
Molecular mechanics & molecular dynamics
Microfluidics
Environmental science and application
Earthquake engineering
Structural engineering
Materials science

Lecture 1: Introduction & Galileo's problem
Lecture 2: Dimensional Analysis and Atomic Explosion
Lecture 3: Dimension analysis and application to engineering
structures
IV. Elasticity
1.050 Engineering Mechanics
Lecture 2: Dimensional Analysis
and Atomic Explosion
Lectures 1-3
Sept.
Lectures 4-15
Sept./Oct.
5. How to measure deformation in a 3D Lectures 16-19
structure/material?
Oct.
IV. Elasticity
Lectures 20-31
Nov.
Lectures 32-37
Dec.
structures
IV. Elasticity
Discorsi e Dimonstrazioni Matematiche
intorno a Due Nuove Scienze (1638)
We clearly see, by what has been demonstrated, that it
is impossible to magnify structures to large dimensions,
whether in art or nature; [...] it would be equally
impossible to create huge bone structures for humans,
horses or other animals that would function normally,
unless the material employed was much harder and
more resistant than usual [...]. Obviously, if we wish to
maintain the same proportions of a normal man in a
giant, it would be necessary to find a harder and more
resistant material to build his bones, or yet admit that his
robustness would be proportionally smaller; as he grew
up immeasurably we would see him collapse under his
own weight.
Discorsi e Dimonstrazioni Matematiche
intorno a Due Nuove Scienze (1638)
another way [...] of making giants or other large animals
to live and move like the smaller ones:
this would be possible only by increasing the strength of
the bones and also the strength of parts that support the
weight and additional loads; but also keeping the same
proportions the bone structure would resist only if its
specific weight were reduced, as well as the specific
weight of the flesh and all other parts supported by the
bones.
Galileo Number
Exercise: Atomic Explosion
r(t)
E
Trinity Test Nuclear Explosion, New Mexico, J uly 16, 1945 Library of Congress
Steps of Dimensional Analysis
Recipe
Exercise
1. Problem Formulation
2. Dimensional Analysis
1. Build the exponent matrix of
dimensions of N+1
2. Rank of matrix = k =
number of dimensionally
independent variables (see
next slide)
3. Choose k independent
variables, express N+1-k
dimensionless variables
4. Determine exponents by
solving linear system (see
next+1 slide)
3. Dimensionless expression
Here:
k = 3 N +1 k =1
N +1= 4
Technique 1: Number of
dimensionally independent variables
Method 1: Look for the maximum number
of linearly independent rows or columns
Method 2: Rank of a matrix
Manually: Identify the dimension of the
biggest sub-square matrix that has a non-zero
determinant (math: non-singular)
Software: Matlab, Maple, Excel, etc
Technique 2:
Determination of the exponents
Find a
1
, a
2
, a
3
In a log-representation
Linear system: Ax=y
a

2/5

a
2
=

1/5

a
3
1/5
G.I. Taylors Analysis*

Top Secret: What is the
D-Analysis
energy E released by a
nuclear explosion?
But: High speed
photographs were
available, giving r and t
Air density = 2.5 kg/m
3
const ~ O(1)
known known
m r 100 ~
ms t 30 =
(*) G.I. Taylor (1950)
G.I. Taylors Analysis (contd)
Back Analysis:
5
2
logr(t =10
4
s) ~8
1
E
2
log = 8 log( ) 10
4
=

12
E ~10
21
erg=100,000GJ
Comparison: ~ hourly energy production of
20 nuclear power plants
10.5
9.5
8.5
-3.0 -2.0 -1.0
log t
5
2
log r
5
2
1
2
E
log r = log ( ) + log t

~8
-4
Figure by MIT OpenCourseWare, adapted from Taylor, G. I. "Formation of a Blast .
Wave by a Very Intense Explosion. II. The Atomic Explosion of 1945."
Proceedings of the Royal Society A 201 (1950): 175-186.
Summary
Pi-Theorem
Most critical step: problem formulation if you forget one
parameter on which the problems depends, the problem is ill-
posed!
By means of dimensional analysis reduce the complexity of a
problem from N+1 parameters to N+1-k parameters:
Some technique: Exponent matrix linear system
Of critical importance for lab testing: instead of (N)
a
tests, you only
need to carry out (N-k)
a
tests
Critical for model scaling: Model (e.g. human) and Prototype (e.g.
monster) must have the same invariants.
Best invariants: not unique, some try and error you can always
recombine invariants as power functions of others.
If N = k, jackpot you have the solution (close to a multiplying
constant).
In the next lecture and recitation: Applications
Lecture 3: Dimension analysis and
application to engineering
structures
Lectures 1-3
Sept.
Lectures 4-15
Sept./Oct.
structure/material?
Oct.
IV. Elasticity
Lectures 20-31
Nov.
Lectures 32-37
Dec.
structures
IV. Elasticity
D-Analysis of Tall Buildings
Graphic of tall buildings removed due to copyright restrictions.
http://www.joelertola.com/grfx/grfx_update_feb_05/tall_buildings.jpg
Hurricane Katrina
Wind speeds 200 km/h
http://www.nasa.gov/images/content/126301main_Katrina_082805_516.jpg
http://www.asiatraveltips.com/newspics/074/BurjDubai.jpg
Photograph of skyscraper removed due
to copyright restrictions.
Lab Results: Drag Coefficient
on smooth objects
400
200
100
60
40
20
10
6
4
2
1
0.6
0.4
0.2
0.1
0.06
10
-1
10
0
10
1
10
2
10
3
10
4
10
5
10
6
10
7
Smooth Cylinder
Smooth Sphere
D
E
C
B
A
Reynolds Number Re =
1
=
1 UD
v
C
D

=

2
0

=
2
F
D
a
(
U
D
)
2
a
U
2
D
2
C
D
=
24
Re
0
=
F
D
UD
v
= F (
1
= )
Figure by MIT OpenCourseWare.
Lecture 4: Stresses and Strength
Stresses and Equilibrium
Discrete Model
structure/material?
IV. Elasticity
Lectures 1-3
Sept.
Lectures 4-15
Sept./Oct.
Lectures 16-19
Oct.
Lectures 20-31
Nov.
Lectures 32-37
Dec.
Lecture 4:
Newtons laws, fall of the WTC towers
Lecture 5: Stress vector and stress tensor
Lecture 6:
Hydrostatic problem
Lecture 7: Soil mechanics / geostatics problem
Lecture 8:
Beam stress model
Lecture 9: Beam model II and summary
Lecture 10: Strength models

IV. Elasticity

Content lecture 4
1. Review: Newtons Laws of Motion
2. Application: Discrete Model
Linear Momentum & Dynamic Resultant Theorem
Angular Momentum & Dynamic Moment Theorem
3. Exercise: The Fall of the WTC Towers
1. Free Fall Assumption
2. Discrete Model
3. From Discrete to Continuum
Goal: Put Newtons Laws to work.

911
9-11-2001: The Fall of the Towers
North Tower: 8:46 am above 96
th
South Tower: 9:03 am above 80
th
Immediate question: How did the towers fail?
Three sequential photographs of tower collapse removed due to copyright restrictions.
Physics Background
The Three Laws of Motion of Isaac Newton (1642 1727):
1. Every body continues in its state of rest, or of uniform motion
in a right line, unless it is compelled to change that state by
forces impressed upon it.
2. The change of motion is proportional to the motive force
impresses, and is made in the direction of the right line in
which that force is impressed.
3. To every action there is always opposed an equal reaction: or,
the mutual action of two bodies upon each other are always
equal, and directed to contrary parts.
Our Aim:
Translate these Laws into powerful tools of Engineering
Mechanics
Dynamic Resultant Theorem:
Discrete Mass System
Linear motion of a mass is quantified by
the linear momentum vector:
Dynamic Moment Theorem:
Discrete System
The angular motion of a mass point i is
quantified by the angular momentum vect:
cross product
9-11: engineering questions
Free Fall? Dynamic Resultant
Theorem:
def
dp
dt
=m
0
a e
z
=m
0
g e
z
Integrate twice +
Initial velocity
North Tower:
South Tower:
0
V
110 = N
80 = M
96 = M
(contd)
Return to Problem Formulation
Dimensional Analysis
Exponent Matrix (k=3)
Pi-Theorem
0
m
0
m
T
m
T
m
,
max
V
110 = N
96 = M
(contd)
Kausels Discrete Mass Formulation
h
0
,V m
0

1
= V ?
1
=m m
0
+m

2
= V ?
2
=m m 2
0
+ m
? =
i
V
0
+ =
i
im m m
( )
?
max
0
= =
+
=
M N
M N
V V
m M N
m m
Sequence of 1-story free-falls: when mass collides with floor below, they continue
together the free fall until next floor level. There is no resistance to this fall (neither
Strength, drag force, etc)
Application of Dynamic Resultant
Theorem
1 1
,
i i
V m
0 = V
Linear Momentum before
collision
i
i i
V
m m m + =
1
i
i i
V
m m m + =
1
0 = V
p
i1
=m
i1
V
i1
e
z
Linear Momentum after
collision
p
i1
=m
i
V
i
e
z
h
0 = V
Instantaneous Conservation of
Linear Momentum
p
i
=0 V
i
=
m
i1
V
i1
m
i
Time of free fall over inter-story
Before
After
Collision
Collision
height
V V
t
i
=
i i1
g
Results of the Discrete Model
110
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
V
0
Free Fall
e
r

a
b
o
v
e

G
r
o
u
n
d
After
Before
Collision
Collision
o
o
r

N
u
m
b
l
F
V /V
0
110
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
V
0
Free Fall
e
r

a
b
o
v
e

G
r
o
u
n
d
After
Before
Collision
Collision
o
o
r

N
u
m
b
l
F
V /V
0
(M = 80) = 9.0s
( ) M = 96 =10.8s
M = 96
M = 80
From the Discrete Model to the
Continuum Model
Discrete Model Continuum Model
Discrete mass system Continuous mass
m
i
= m
0
+ i m
h/ H =1/110 <<1
( ) =
m
( ) m z z t
h
Momentum balance at Momentum balance on
each floor level the moving front:
p = 0 V =
m
i1
V
d p d(m(z(t))V)
i i i1
= e
m
i
dt dt
z
=
m
h
(z
&
2
+ z
&
z
&)e
z
=
m
h
zge
z
Continuum Approach
0
V
0
V
Differential Equation
NN ==110 110
for collapse front
MM == 96 96
MM == 80 80
Boundary Conditions
Solution* yields
Evaluate for
(*) with MATLAB
9-11: engineering questions (last)
Why did the towers not tilt?
Think: Dynamic Moment Theorem
And ask yourself, whether the resulting
Photograph of airplane about to strike the south
moment would have been large enough
tower removed due to copyright restrictions.
to reach the strength limit of a building
designed to withstand the moment
generated by forces of a hurricane
(weight equivalence of 1000 elephants)
World Trade Center Towers (1973 2001)
Engineer: Leslie E. Robertson
Boeing 767 aircraft approaching the South Tower (www)
Max Fuel: 90 m
3
- Total max weight ~500 tons
Approaching Speed V ~691 km/h (NT) / 810 km/h (ST)
Lecture 4: Stresses and Strength
Stresses and Equilibrium
Discrete Model
structure/material?
IV. Elasticity
Lectures 1-3
Sept.
Lectures 4-15
Sept./Oct.
Lectures 16-19
Oct.
Lectures 20-31
Nov.
Lectures 32-37
Dec.
Lecture 4:
Lecture 6:
Hydrostatic problem Applications
Lecture 8:
Beam stress model

IV. Elasticity
Content lecture 5
1. 3-scale continuum model: Molecular scale,
representative volume element (REV), macro-scale
2. Stress vector, stress matrix and stress tensor
Definition of stress vector
Generalized expression as stress matrix
Definition of stress tensor
3. Implement dynamic resultant theorem for REV
Use Gauss theorem (divergence theorem)
Develop differential equilibrium: Partial differential equation
Lecture 6: Stresses and
Equilibrium
Application: Hoover Dam
structure/material?
IV. Elasticity
Lectures 1-3
Sept.
Lectures 4-15
Sept./Oct.
Lectures 16-19
Oct.
Lectures 20-31
Nov.
Lectures 32-37
Dec.
Lecture 4:
Lecture 6:
Lecture 8:
Beam stress model

IV. Elasticity
Content lecture 6
1. Review: 3-scale continuum model: Molecular scale,
representative volume element (REV), macro-scale;
stress vector and stress tensor
2. Implement dynamic resultant theorem for REV
Use Gauss theorem (divergence theorem)
Develop differential equilibrium: Partial differential
equation
3. Application: Hoover Dam (hydrostatic problem)
Photographs of Hoover Dam removed due to copyright restrictions.
http://www.concreteresources.net/images/graphics/clip_image004.jpg
http://www.sdsuniverse.info/Upload/hoover_dam.jpg
Energy Production ~4 billion kilowatt-hours a year ~1.3 million people
Forces that act on Hoover Dam
( )n z p T =
) (n T
Forces that act on Hoover Dam
Force reduction formula
Forces from stress
vector
Force Equivalence
( )n z p T =
y
e
x
e
x
F
y
F
y
F
dydz dS
x
=
Surface on
which stress Hoover Dam: F ~ 16 billion Newton
x
Vector acts (weight equivalence of 20 million people,
or of the entire population of Australia)
Lecture 7:
Application: Hoover Dam and Soil
Mechanics
structure/material?
IV. Elasticity
Lectures 1-3
Sept.
Lectures 4-15
Sept./Oct.
Lectures 16-19
Oct.
Lectures 20-31
Nov.
Lectures 32-37
Dec.
Lecture 4:
Lecture 6:
Lecture 8:
Beam stress model

IV. Elasticity
Content lecture 7
1. Application I: Hoover Dam (hydrostatic problem)
finishing
2. Application II: Soil mechanics / foundation
II. Stresses and Strength
Application in Structural
Mechanics
Program 8
th
Lecture
1-050 CONTENT
I. Dimensional Analysis:
II. Stresses & Strength
2. Stresses and Equilibrium
1. Discrete Model
2. Continuum Model
3. Beam Model
3. Strength Models
III. Deformation and Strain
4. How Strain Gages work?
IV. Elasticity
5. Elastic Model
6. Variational Methods in
Elasticity
V. How Things Fail? And How
to avoid it.
TODAY:
1. Scales of Structural mechanics:
Section vs. Beam structure
2. Link between stresses and
forces and moments
3. Beam Equilibrium Conditions
4. Example
Goal: Construct a Force-Moment
Beam Model
Appreciate the link between Continuum
Model and Beam Model
Three Scale Approach
Beam Scale defined
by beam length
Cross-section scale
(height, width)
(h,b) <<l
Continuum scale
1/3
O(d ) <<(h,b) <<l
From the Continuum Scale to the
Cross Section Scale
Continuum Quantity:
Stress vector
T(n=e
x
)=e
x
Section Quantities:
Forces
F
S
=

e dS
x
S
Moments
M
S
=

x(e
x
)dS
S
x
e x,
y
e y,
z
e z,
|
|
h
b
dS n
d
From the Cross Section Scale to
the Beam Length Scale
Differential Force
equilibrium
ee
zz
M
z
M
z
+
dM
+
z
dM
z
dx dx
ee
zz
dx dx e e
dF
S
ext
yy
MM
y
+
y
+ dx
dx
ee
yy
dM dM
y
y

+ f =0

dx
dx

dx
MM ee
xx xx
ff
ext ext
FF
x
e
x
e
xx
ee ee
dx dx
x x xx
FF
y
e
y
e
y y
MM
x
+
x
+
dM dM
x
dx
x

dx
ee
xx

dx
dx

FF ee
zz zz
Differential Moment
MM ee
yy yy
e
z
e
z zz
yy
MM e e
equilibrium
ee
zz
dM
S
+e
x
F
S
=0
dx
Formulation of a Beam Boundary
Value Problem
Example Force and Moment
Boundary Conditions
Sum of all forces and
Moments along x is
zero
x
Differential
Equilibrium of
Section forces
Section moments
z
ext
e gS f =
R
y
z
II. Stresses and Strength
Examples: Beam Statistics
Program 9
th
Lecture
1-050 CONTENT
I. Dimensional Analysis:
II. Stresses & Strength
2. Stresses and Equilibrium
1. Discrete Model
2. Continuum Model
3. Beam Model
3. Strength Models
III. Deformation and Strain
4. How Strain Gages work?
IV. Elasticity
5. Elastic Model
6. Variational Methods in
Elasticity
V. How Things Fail? And How
to avoid it.
TODAY:
1. Review: Beam Stress Model
2. Formulation of a Beam
Boundary Value Problem
3. Statically Determined vs.
Statically Indetermined Beam
Structures
4. Closure: Stresses &
Equilibrium
Goal: Appreciate Force-Moment
Beam Model for solving beam problems
Review: Beam Model
1. Scales in Structural
Mechanics
2. Reduction Formulas:
(from stresses to section
forces and section
moments)
3. Equilibrium: along
beam axis, differential
equilibrium of forces
and moments
1/3
O(d ) <<(h,b) <<l
REV Section Beam
Dimension length
F
S
=
e
x
dS
S
M
S
=
x(e
x
)dS
S
ext
d F
S
+ f =0
dx
d M
S
+e
x
F
S
=0
dx
Formulation of a Beam Boundary
Value Problem
Example Force and Moment
Boundary Conditions
Sum of all forces and
Moments along x is
zero
x
Differential
Equilibrium of
Section forces
Section moments
z
ext
e gS f =
R
y
z
Stresses & Equilibrium
Discrete System Continuum System Beam System
Elementary
System
Internal
Stresses
Boundary
Condition
Continuity
Condition
Diff. Force
Equilibrium
Diff. Moment
Equilibrium
Lecture 10:
Strength models
1D examples truss structures
structure/material?
IV. Elasticity
Lectures 1-3
Sept.
Lectures 4-15
Sept./Oct.
Lectures 16-19
Oct.
Lectures 20-31
Nov.
Lectures 32-37
Dec.

Lecture 8:
Beam stress model
Lecture 10: Strength models: Introduction (1D)
Lecture 11: Mohr circle strength criteria 3D
Lecture 12: Application foundations

IV. Elasticity
Quiz I
Covers first 15 lectures
QUIZ I:
Dimensional analysis, stresses and strength
Monday October 15 in class
Start to prepare early!
P
P
Surface
roughness
Image of crack propagation removed due to copyright restrictions.
See Figure 3 in: Buehler, Markus, et al. Threshold Crack Speed Controls
Dynamical Fracture of Silicon Single Crystals.
Physical Review Letters 99
(2007): 165502.
A
1
A
3
A
2
A
1
/A
3
=2 same strength
0
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
R
o
b
u
s
t
n
e
s
s

r
a
t
i
o
g
a
m
m
a
_
1
/
g
a
m
m
a
_
3

0 20 40 60 80 100
Angle phi
Lecture 11:
Strength models
3D model Mohr Circle
structure/material?
IV. Elasticity
Lectures 1-3
Sept.
Lectures 4-15
Sept./Oct.
Lectures 16-19
Oct.
Lectures 20-31
Nov.
Lectures 32-37
Dec.

Lecture 8:
Beam stress model
Lecture 12: Application soil mechanics: How to build sandcastles
Lecture 13: Strength criterion in beams (I/II)
Lecture 14: Strength criterion in beams (II/II) convexity of strength domain
Lecture 15: Closure strength models & review for quiz

IV. Elasticity
Christian Otto Mohr (1835-1918)
German civil engineer, one of the most
celebrated of the 19
th
century
Important contributions in strength of materials,
design of steel trusses, bridges
Professor of Mechanics at Stuttgart Polytechnic
Photograph of Mohr removed due to
copyright restrictions.
and Dresden Polytechnic
Student of Mohr: Foeppl, the doctoral advisor
of Ludwig Prandtl, who was the advisor of
Theodore von Krmn (Caltech)
Lecture 12:
Strength models
3D model Mohr-Coulomb model
Application to sand piles
structure/material?
IV. Elasticity
Lectures 1-3
Sept.
Lectures 4-15
Sept./Oct.
Lectures 16-19
Oct.
Lectures 20-31
Nov.
Lectures 32-37
Dec.

Lecture 8:
Beam stress model

IV. Elasticity
Sand piles
Photograph of sand dunes removed due to copyright restrictions.
http://cic.nist.gov/lipman/sciviz/scan/jun24_ptC1a.jpg
http://www.maths.bris.ac.uk/~majhs/desert.bmp
Photograph of ornate sand castle removed due to copyright restrictions.
http://fixiefoo.typepad.com/photos/uncategorized/sand_castle.jpg
Another photograph of sand castle removed due to copyright restrictions.
http://uzar.files.wordpress.com/2007/04/sandcastle.jpg
Lecture 13:
Strength models
Strength models for beams (I/II)
structure/material?
IV. Elasticity
Lectures 1-3
Sept.
Lectures 4-15
Sept./Oct.
Lectures 16-19
Oct.
Lectures 20-31
Nov.
Lectures 32-37
Dec.

Lecture 8: Beam stress model

IV. Elasticity
Photographs removed due to copyright restrictions.
http://www.civeng.unsw.edu.au/research/images/semi-continuous.jpg
http://members.tripod.com/str_n_tips/eq/eq_rcc2/g23.jpg
Photograph of beam failure removed due to copyright restrictions.
http://www.emeraldinsight.com/fig/1100210504010.png
Lecture 14:
Strength models for beams (II/II)
M-N coupling
Convexity of strength domain
structure/material?
IV. Elasticity
Lectures 1-3
Sept.
Lectures 4-15
Sept./Oct.
Lectures 16-19
Oct.
Lectures 20-31
Nov.
Lectures 32-37
Dec.

Lecture 8:
Beam stress model
IV. Elasticity
Quiz I
Wednesday, October 17 in class
Please be on time
Covers first 15 lectures
Open book
Preparation:
Lecture material, PSs, recitation
Old quizzes (posted) instead of PS this week
Alberto will work through one example
(nanoindentation) in recitation
Study old quizzes before recitation this week
Strength models
Equilibrium conditions only specify statically admissible
stress field, without worrying about if the stresses can
actually be sustained by the material S.A.
From EQ condition for a REV we can integrate up
(upscale) to the structural scale
Examples: Many integrations in homework and in class;
Hoover dam etc.
Strength compatibility adds the condition that in addition to
S.A., the stress field must be compatible with the strength
capacity of the material S.C.
In other words, at no point in the domain can the stress
vector exceed the strength capacity of the material
Examples: Sand pile, foundation etc. Mohr circle
Strength models
Max. shear stress
c
Tresca criterion
Max. tensile stress
c
0 = c
Tension cutoff criterion
n
v
: f(T
v
)
Strength models
=
Max. shear stress
c cohesion
function of
Mohr-Coulomb
c=0 dry sand
Review: Beam models
Beam model: Special case
of the general continuum
model
Special geometry highly
distorted system (much
longer than wide)
Special form of stress
tensor:
h,b << l
y
z
Section
= (x;y,z)
For fixed x (section choice):
= (y,z)
Link between section quantities
and section stress field
y
Section force and moment distribution is due to a
particular stress tensor distribution in the section
z
Reduction formulas
dS=dzdy
y,z: C.S. in section
Torsion
Bending
Example
Stress distribution in section Equivalent normal force
N
x
Review: Beam models
Beam model Continuum model
dx d Differential element
Equilibrium condition
0
Line force
density
Hydrostatics (fluid):
2D:
Simplification
+BCs
z
+BCs
x
Beam models: Moments
Cantilever beam
Dead weight (gravity)
2D Example
EQ and solution
Q
z
Example: Coupled M-N strength
domain
l (1)
(2)
(I)
Moment distribution
Normal force distribution
(II) P
l
(3)
N
M
y
=Pl
N=P
1
(3) (2) in (I)
(1) in (I)
1
Lecture 15:
Closure strength models & review
for quiz
structure/material?
IV. Elasticity
Lectures 1-3
Sept.
Lectures 4-15
Sept./Oct.
Lectures 16-19
Oct.
Lectures 20-31
Nov.
Lectures 32-37
Dec.

Lecture 8:
Beam stress model
IV. Elasticity
Lecture 16:
Introduction: Deformation and
strain
structure/material?
IV. Elasticity
Lectures 1-3
Sept.
Lectures 4-15
Sept./Oct.
Lectures 16-19
Oct.
Lectures 20-31
Nov.
Lectures 32-37
Dec.
Lecture 16: Introduction: Deformation and strain
Lecture 17: Strain tensor and small deformation
Lecture 18: Mohr circle in strain space
Lecture 19: Beam deformation
IV. Elasticity
Stresses
Thermodynamics
Energy balance
Momentum
Deformation
Geometrical analysis
conservation
Lectures 1-15
Lectures 20-..
Lectures 16-19
0
0
1
2
3
4
1 2 3
Ferry
alloy
Constantan
alloy
40% Gold / Palladium
Nickel
% Strain
10%
Rhodium
/ Platinum
%
R
R
Lecture 17:
Deformation and strain (contd)
structure/material?
IV. Elasticity
Lectures 1-3
Sept.
Lectures 4-15
Sept./Oct.
Lectures 16-19
Oct.
Lectures 20-31
Nov.
Lectures 32-37
Dec.
Lecture 16: Introduction: Deformation and strain
Lecture 17: Strain tensor
Lecture 18: Simplification for small deformation; Mohr circle in strain space
Lecture 19: Beam deformation
IV. Elasticity
Goals of this lecture
Review: The main tool deformation
gradient tensor
Applications to calculation of
Volume change
Surface normal and surface area change
Length change
Angle change

General solution procedure
Elasticity condition (no dissipation): d = W reflecting that dD=0
(this is the result from analyzing the TD as done in class)

Step 1: Express
d(x,x ,..)= dx + dx +...= dx
1 2 1 2 i
x
1
x
2
x
i
F F
Step 2: Express
W(
1
,
2
,..)= d
1
+ d
2
+...= d
j
j

Step 3: Solve equations
x
i
dx
i
=
j
d
j
dx
i
,d
j
Collect all terms dx
i
and d
j
and set the entire expression to zero.
In EQ, the expression must be satisfied for all displacement changes dx
i
,d
j

Example II: Truss structure (1)
Problem statement: Structure of three trusses with applied force F
d
:
Forces in each truss
1
1
0
F
d
1
,N
1
2
,N
2
Distance L=1 between the trusses
N =k
1 1
N =k
3
,N
3
Trusses
behave
2 2
like
springs
Goal: Calculate displacements
i
,
0
for given
F
d
N
3
=k
3
Rigid bar: If two displacements
1
,
2
are specified can calculate the other
displacements (kinematic constraint):
Deformation
1
1
2 1
0
Therefore:
3 1
3
=
1
+2
2 1
=2
2
0
=
2

1
1 2 2
Solution procedure:
Elasticity condition (no dissipation): d = W
Step 1:
d(
1
,
2
)=
1
k[(4
1
4
2
)d
1
+(4
1
+10
2
)d
2
]
2
Step 2:
W(
1
)=F
d
1
2
d
1
+
2
3
d
2
Step 3: Solve equations d = W

dx
i
,d
j
1
2
k[(4
1
4
2
)d
1
+(4
1
+10
2
)d
2
] =F
d
1
2
d
1
+
2
3
d
2
2k 2k +
1
F
d
d +
2k +5k
3
F
d
=0
1 2 1 1 2 2
2

2

! !
=0
=0 for elastic EQ
This results in linear system of equations:
1

1
ad bc
=

/2
/2
d
d
F
3F
=
b
2 k 2 k
M
Solve for the unknown variables
1
,
2
,..
Note that (forming the inverse of a 2x2 matrix):
2k 5k
a b
c d c a
This can be used to calculate M
1
to solve for
1
,
2
This results in:
d
2

M
1
Solve for the other unknown variables (utilize kinematic relationships and the

spring equations):
2
d
5

F /2 F 1
=
1/12
1/3

d
k k 2 6
3F /2
3
=7/12
F
d
k
1/12 F
d
N =
i
N k =
1
i
1/3 F
d
N =
=
2
F
d
0
=11/24
k
N
3
7/12 F
d
Lecture 22:
Isotropic elasticity
structure/material?
IV. Elasticity
Lectures 1-3
Sept.
Lectures 4-15
Sept./Oct.
Lectures 16-19
Oct.
Lectures 20-31
Oct./Nov.
Lectures 32-37
Dec.
IV. Elasticity
Lecture 20: Introduction to elasticity (thermodynamics)
Lecture 21: Generalization to 3D continuum elasticity
Lecture 22: Special case: isotropic elasticity
Lecture 23: Applications and examples

Important concepts: Isotropic
elasticity
Isotropic elasticity = elastic properties do not depend on direction
In terms of the free energy change, this means that the change of
the free energy does not depend on the direction of deformation
Rather, it depends on quantities that are independent on the
direction of deformation (i.e., independent of coordinate system)
Idea: Use invariants of strain tensor to calculate free energy change
Volume change
Shape change (shear deformation)
Note: Invariants are defined as properties of strain tensor that are
independent of coordinate system (C.S.)
Important mathematical tools
Trace of a tensor
( ) = :1=
11
+
22
+
33
=
d d
Relates to the chain of
tr
d 0
volume of REV
d
Independent of C.S.
0
trace of a tensor is an
invariant
=
1
( :
T
) =
1
ij
2
Magnitude of a tensor (2
nd
order norm)
2 2
i j
Note: Analogy to the magnitude of a tensor is the norm of a first order tensor
(=vector), that is, its length
Overview: Approach
Step 1: Calculate change in volume
v
= tr( ) = :1
Step 2: Calculate magnitude of angle change
Define strain deviator tensor = tensor that describes deformation without the
volume change (trace of strain deviator tensor is zero!)
=

1
tr( )

tr e =
11
+
22
+
33
1
(3(
11
+
22
+
33
= e 1 ( ) )) 0
d
= 2e = 2
1
(e:e
T
) = 2
1
e
ij
2
2 2
i j
Step 3: Define two coefficients to link energy change with deformation
(spring model):
=
2
1
2
v
K +
2
1
2
d
G
Bulk modulus
Shear modulus
Note
The approach that the free energy under deformation depends only on
volume change and overall angle change is not derived from physical
principles
Rather, it is an assumption, which is made to model the behavior of a solid
(modeling is finding a mathematical representation of a physical
phenomenon)
Generally, models must be validated, for instance through experiments
Alternative approach: Calculation of from first principles by explicitly
considering the atomistic scale of atomic, molecular etc. interactions
Spring 2008: 1.021J Introduction to Modeling and Simulation (Buehler,
Radovitzky, Marzari) continuum methods, particle methods, quantum
mechanics
Stress-strain relation
Total stress tensor = sum of contribution from volume change and
contribution from shape change:
= +
v d

v
=
v
=

d
d
Next step: Carry out differentiations

Total stress tensor = sum of contribution from volume change and
contribution from shape change:
= +
=

v
=

d
v d
v d

1. Calculation of
v
v v v
v
=
1
K
v
2
v
=

=

:
=K
v
1
2

v
v
(tr( )) (:1)
v
=K
= = =1
v

v

2. Calculation of
d
d
=
1
G
d
2
2
d d
=
e
:
e
=2Ge:
1
1
3
11
=2Ge
1
3
(e:1)1
d
=0
since:
1
(2e:e
T
)
e
1
tr(e) =0
d
= G =2Ge
=1 11
e 2 e
3
Note (definition of
d
):
tensor product
Note (definition of e ):
d
=2e =2
1
2
(e:e
T
)
e=
1
3
v
1=
1
3
( :1)1
Complete stress-strain relation
3. Putting it all together:
= +
v d
= K
v
1+ 2Ge= K
v
1+ 2G
v
1
e=

1
tr( )

Deviatoric part of the strain tensor

=
K
2
G
v
1+ 2G Reorganized

=
K
2
3
G
v
1+2G =
K
2
3
G
(
11
+
22
+
33
)1+2G
Writing it out in coefficient form:
11
=
K
2
G
(
11
+
22
+
33
) +2G
11
22
=
K
2
G
(
11
+
22
+
33
) +2G
22
33
=
K
2
G
(
11
+
22
+
33
) +2G
33
12
=2G
12
23
=2G
23
13
=2G
13
Rewrite by collecting terms multiplying
ii
11
=
K+
4
G
11
+
K
2
G
22
+
K
2
G
33
(1)
3

3

3
22
=
K
2
G
11
+
K+
4
G
22
+
K
2
G
33
(2)
3

3

3
33
=
K
2
G
11
+
K
2
G
22
+

K+
4
G
33
(3)
3

3

3
collecting terms multiplying
12
,
23
,
13
12
=2G
12
23
=2G
23
13
=2G
13
4

2

2
11
=
K+
3
G
11
+
K
3
G
22
+
K
3
G
33
(1)
4
c
1111
=K+ G
3
2
c
1122
=K G=c
1133
3
2

4

2
22
=
K
3
G
11
+
K+
3
G
22
+
K
3
G
33
(2)
2
c
2211
=K G=c
2233
3
4
c
2222
=K+ G
3
33
=
K
2
G
11
+
K
2
G
22
+

K+
4
G
33
(3)
3

3

3
2
c
3311
=K G=c
3322
3
4
c
3333
=K+ G
3

12
=2G
12
23
=2G
23
13
=2G
13
c
1212
=2G
c
2323
=2G
c
1313
=2G
All other
c
ijkl
are zero
Summary: Expression of elasticity
tensor
4
c
1111
=c
2222
=c
3333
=K+ G
3
2
c
1122
=c
1133
=c
2233
=K G
3
c
1212
=c
2323
=c
1313
=2G
Examples numerical values
Concrete
K= 14 GPa G= 10 GPa
Quartz (sand, stone..)
K= 27 GPa G= 26 GPa
Steel
K= 200 GPa G= 140 GPa
Lecture 23:
Example detailed steps
1
Problem statement
p
Note: p is applied pressure at the top of the soil layer K,G given
r
Goal: Determine (x
r
),(x
r
),(x
r
)
On the next few slides we will go through steps 1, 2, 3 and 4 to solve this problem.
g
r
H
x
z
Isotropic solid
(soil) on a rigid
substrate (infinitely
large in x-y-
directions)
rigid substrate
(no displacement)
2
1
Reminder: 4-step procedure to solve
elasticity problems
Step 1: Write down BCs (stress BCs and displacement BCs),
analyze the problem to be solved (read carefully!)
Step 2: Write governing equations for stress tensor, strain tensor,
and constitutive equations that link stress and strain, simplify
expressions
Step 3: Solve governing equations (e.g. by integration), typically
results in expression with unknown integration constants
Step 4: Apply BCs (determine integration constants)
3
Step 1: Boundary conditions
Write out all BCs in mathematical equations
Displacement BCs: At z=H: Displacement specified
r
d
(z=H)=(0,0,0) or
x
d
=0,
y
d
=0,
z
d
=0
(no displacement at the interface between
the soil layer and the rigid substrate)
Stress BCs: At z=0: Stress vector provided
T
r
d
(n
r
= e
r
,z=0)= pe
r
z z
Note: Orientation of
surface and C.S.
4
2
Step 2: Governing equations
Write out all governing equations and simplify
Due to the symmetry of the problem (infinite in x- and y-directions),
the solution will depend on z only, and there are no displacements in the
r
x- and y-directions (anywhere in the solution domain):
= e
r
z z
Governing eqn. for strain tensor:
ij
=
j
i
x
2
1
+
i
j
x
Calculation of strain tensor simplifies

(symmetry):
zz
=
z
z
(*)
Note : only 1
nonzero coefficient
of strain tensor
Governing eqn. for stress tensor: div + g
r
0 =
(contd next slide)
5
Step 2: Governing equations (contd)
Gravity only in z-
direction
xx
xy
y

xz
Governing eqn. for stress tensor:
+ + + g =0
xy
+ +
yz
+ g =0
x y z
y
z
x
yy

x
xz
+ + + g
z
=0
yz
y

zz
x z
Due to symmetry, only dependence on z-direction
xz
=0
yz
=0
z z
Final set of governing eqns. for stress tensor
zz
(1)
+ g=0
(note: g
z
=g )
6
z
3
Link between stress and strain
Linear isotropic elasticity (considering that there is only one nonzero
coefficient in the strain tensor,
zz
):
11
=
K
2
G
33
22
=
K
2
G
33
33
=
K+
4
G
33
(2)
7
Now combine eqns. (*), (1) and (2):
Substitute (2) in (1):
z
zz
K+
4
3
G
+g=0 (4)
Substitute (*) in (4):
2
z
2
z
K+
4
3
G
+g=0
z
=
g
xz
yz
z
2
K+
4
G
(5)
z
=0
z
=0 (6)
3
Step 2 results in a set of differential eqns.
8
4
Step 3: Solve governing eqns. by integration
g
From (5):
z
z
=
4
z+C
1
=
zz (first integration)
K+ G
3

zz
=
K+
4
G
g
z+C
1
(knowledge of strain enables
K+
4
G
to calculate stress via eq. (2))

3
z
=
2
1 g
4
z
2
+C
1
z+C
2
(second integration)
K+ G
3
From (6):
xz
yz
z
=0
z
=0
xz
=const.=C
3
yz
=const.=C
4
9
Solution expressed in terms of integration constants C
i
Step 4: Apply BCs
Stress boundary conditions: Integration provided that
xz
=const.=C
3
yz
=const.=C
4
Stress vector at the boundary of the domain:
T
r
d
(n
r
= e
r
z
,z=0)= pe
r
z
=
!
xz
e
r
x
yz
e
r
y
zz
e
r
z
BC Stress vector due to stress tensor at z =0:
T
r
(n
r
= e
r
z
,z=0)= (z=0)(e
r
z
)
Left and right side
xz
=C
3
=0,
yz
=C
4
=0
Note: Orientation of
must be equal,
surface and C.S.
therefore:
= p
zz
10
5
Step 4: Apply BCs (contd)
Further,

4
zz
=K+ G
4
z+C
1
(general solution)
3
K+ G
zz
(z=0)=C
1
K+
4
G
=
!
p (at z=0, see previous slide)
This enables us to determine the constant C

1
C
1
=
p
4
K+ G
3
11
Displacement boundary conditions:
z
=
1 g
z
2
p
z+C
2
(general solution, with C
1
2
K+
4
G K+
4
G
included)
3 3
Displacement is known at z =H:
(z=H)=
1 g
H
2
p
H+C =
!
0
z
2
K+
4
G K+
4
G
2
3 3
This enables us to determine the constant C
2
C
2
=
1
g
H
2
+pH
K+
4
G
2
12
3
6
Final solution (summary): Displacement field, strain field, stress field
z
(z)=
1
4
g
(H
2
z
2
)p(zH)
K+ G
zz
(z)=
gz+ p
4
K+ G
3
zz
(z)=gz+p
13
Solution sketch
Displacement profile
Stress profile:
g
2
p
H H
2
K+
4
G
K+
4
G
3
3
z=0
p
z=0
z zz
z z
z=H z=H
(p+ gH)
14
7
Lecture 24:
Beam elasticity derivation of governing
equation
1
structure/material?
IV. Elasticity
Lectures 1-3
Sept.
Lectures 4-15
Sept./Oct.
Lectures 16-19
Oct.
Lectures 20-31
Oct./Nov.
Lectures 32-37
Dec.
2
1
IV. Elasticity
Lecture 24: Beam elasticity
Lecture 25: Applications and examples (beam elasticity)
Lecture 26: contd and closure

3
Goal of this lecture
Derive differential equations that can be solved to determine stress,
strain and displacement fields in beam
Consider 2D beam geometry:
z
x
+boundary conditions (force, clamped, moments)
Approach: Utilize beam stress model, strain model for beams and
combine with isotropic elasticity
4
2
Stress
( ) =

0
xx
0
0
xz
ij
0

0 0

xz
Shape of stress tensor
for 2D beam problem
N =

xx
dS
Q
z
=

xz
dS
S
S
M
y
=

z
xx
dS
S
dM
y
= Q
z
d
2
M
y
= f
z
dx
dx
2
dN
= f
dx
x
Isotropic elasticity: =

K G
1+ 2G
5
v
Strain
Navier-Bernouilli beam model
=
0
+
0
z
xx xx y
0
d
2
z
0
y
=
2
Curvature
dx
d
0
0
=
x
Axial strain
xx
dx
Thus:
d
0
d
2
0
x z
xx
=
2
z
dx dx
Strain completely determined from
displacement of beam reference axis
Derivation of beam constitutive equation in 3-step

approach
Section number below corresponds to section numbering used in class
Step 1: Consider continuum scale alone (derive a relation between stress and
strain for the particular shape of the stress tensor in beam geometry)
2.1)
Step 2: Link continuum scale with section scale (use reduction formulas)
2.2)
Step 3: Link section scale to structural scale (beam EQ equations)
2.3)
6
3
Overview
Continuum
scale
Section
scale
Structural
scale
,
y z
M Q N , ,
) ( ), ( ), (
), ( ), ( ), (
x x x
x M x Q x N
z x y
y z

Reminder:
Rotation (slope)
0
z
slope
z
x
Curvature (=first derivative of rotation)
0
y
=
d
z
0
y
0
=
d
2
2
z
0
=
d
y
0
7
dx
dx dx
x
F
0 0 0
2.1) Step 1 (continuum scale)
xx
0 0
z
Consider a beam in
uniaxial tension:
( )
ij
=
0 0 0
xx
=
K
2
G
(
xx
+
yy
+
zz
)+2G
xx
(1)
3 unknowns, 2
(2)
yy
=
K
2
G
(
xx
+
yy
+
zz
)+2G
yy
=
!
0
equations; can
eliminate one
variable and obtain
zz
=
K
2
3
G
(
xx
+
yy
+
zz
)+2G
zz
=
!
0 (3)
relation between 2
remaining ones
Eqns. (2) and (3) provide relation between
xx
and
yy
,
zz
:
13K2G
= = =
yy zz xx xx
2 3K+G
8
=: Poissons ratio
4
10
Physical meaning Poissons effect
The Poisson effect refers to the fact that beams
contract in the lateral directions when subjected to
tensile strain
= =
yy zz xx
d
1
d
2 d
2
= (1+
yy
)d
1
= (1
xx
)
9
9KG
From eq. (1) (with Poisson relation):
=
xx xx
3K+ G
=:E Youngs modulus
xx xx
E =
This result can be generalized: In bending, the shape of the stress tensor is
identical, for any point in the cross-section (albeit the component
zz
typically
varies with the coordinate z)
Thus, the same conditions for the lateral strains applies
xx
(z) 0 0
( ) =

0 0
Therefore: We can use the same formulas!
ij
0
0 0 0
5
11
2.2) Step 2 (link to section scale)
Now: Plug in relation
xx
=E
xx
into reduction formulas
Consider that
xx
=
d
dx
x
0
d
dx
2
2
z
0
z and thus
xx
=E
d
dx
x
0
d
dx
2
2
z
0
z
Results in:
Assume: Econstant over S
=0
d
dx
x
0
d
dx
2
2
z
0
N =E
d
dx
x
0
S
dSE
dx
d
2
2
z
0
S
zdS
N = E z dS
=0
M
y
=

S
E
d
dx
x
0
z
d
dx
2
2
z
0
z
2
dS
M
y
=E
dx
d
x
0
S
zdSE
d
dx
2
2
z
0
S
z
2
dS
=I
Finally: N =ES
d
x
0
M
y
= EI
d
2
2
z
0
Area
dx dx
moment
of inertia
2.3) Step 4 (link to structural scale)
Beam EQ equations: Beam constitutive equations:
d
4
0
z
M = EI = f
y
4
z
dx
d
2
M
y
= f
z
dx
2
d
4
0
f
z z
=
with: dx
4
EI
z
0 dN
= f
x
M
y
= EI
d
dx
2
2
0
d
2
x
=
f
x
2 dx
d
0 dx ES
x
N =ES
dx
12
6
Beam bending elasticity
Governed by this differential equation:
d
4
0
f
z z
=
dx
4
EI
Integration provides solution for displacement
Solve integration constants by applying BCs
Note:
E=material parameter (Youngs modulus)
I=geometry parameter (property of cross-section)
f =distributed shear force
z
How to solve? Lecture 25
13
7
1.050 Engineering Mechanics I
Lecture 25:
Beam elasticity problem solving technique
and examples
Handout
1
structure/material?
IV. Elasticity
Lectures 1-3
Sept.
Lectures 4-15
Sept./Oct.
Lectures 16-19
Oct.
Lectures 20-31
Oct./Nov.
Lectures 32-37
Dec.
2
1
IV. Elasticity

3
Beam bending elasticity
Governed by this differential equation:
d
4
f
z z
=
dx
4
EI
Integration provides solution for displacement
Solve integration constants by applying BCs
Note:
E =material parameter (Youngs modulus)
I =geometry parameter (property of cross-section)
f
z
=distributed shear force (force per unit length)
f
z
= pb
0
where p
0
=pressure, b=thickness of beam in y-direction
4
2
4-step procedure to solve beam elasticity
problems
Step 1: Write down BCs (stress BCs and displacement BCs),
analyze the problem to be solved (read carefully!)
Step 2: Write governing equations for
z
,
x
...
Step 3: Solve governing equations (e.g. by integration),
results in expression with unknown integration constants
Step 4: Apply BCs (determine integration constants)
Note: Very similar procedure as for 3D isotropic elasticity problems
5
Difference in governing equations (simpler for beams)
Physical meaning of derivatives of
z
d
4
z
=
f
z
d
4
z
EI = f
Shear force density
dx
4
EI
dx
4
z
d
dx
3
3
z
=
Q
EI
z
d
3
3
z
EI =Q
z
Shear force
dx
d
2
z
=
M
y
d
2
z
EI =M
Bending moment
dx
2
EI
dx
2
y
d
z
=
y
d
z
=
y
Rotation (angle)
dx
dx
Displacement
z
z
6
3
8
Step-by-step example
z
p =force/length
x
l length
Step 1: BCs
z
(0)=0
EI
x =0
(0)=0
y
z
(l)=0
x =l
M
y
(0)=0
7
Step 2: Governing equation
d
4
z
f
z
d
4
z
p
=
=
dx
4
EI
dx
4
EI
p applied in
negative z-
direction
Step 3: Integration
'''
=
p
x+C
z 1
EI
2
z
''
=
p x
+C
1
x+C
2
EI 2
''''
=
p
3 2
z
EI
z
'
=
p x
+C
1
x
+C
2
x+C
3
EI 6 2
4 3 2
z
=
p x
+C
1
x
+C
2
x
+C
3
x+C
4
EI 24 6 2
4
Step 4: Apply BCs
z
'''
=
p
x+C
1
=
Q
z
EI EI
z
z
''
=
p x
+C
1
x+C
2
EI 2
3 2
z
'
=
p x
+C
1
x
+C
2
x+C
3
EI 6 2
EI
M
y
y
=
=
4 3 2
=
p x
+C
1
x
+C
2
x
+C
3
x+C
4
EI 24 6 2
Known quantities are marked 9
z
(0)=0C
4
=0
y
(0)=0C
3
=0
z
(l)=0
p l
4
+C
1
l
3
+C
2
l
2
=0
EI 24 6 2
M
y
(0)=0
p l
2
+C
1
l+C
2
=0
EI 2
l
3
l
2
l
4
C
1
=
p 5
l

C
1
=
p
24
EI 8
6
l 1
2
C
2
EI
l
2
p 1
2

C = l
2
2
EI 8 10
5
Solution:
Q
z
(x)= p
x
5
l
8

M
y
(x)= p
1
l
2
+
x
2
5
lx
8 2 8
y
(x)=
EI
p
1
8
l
2
x+
x
6
3
16
5
lx
2
z
(x)=
p
1
l
2
x
2
+
x
4
5
lx
3
EI
16 24 48
11
6

Lecture 26
Beam elasticity how to sketch the solution
Another example
Transversal shear in beams
Handout
1
I. Dimensional anal ysis
1. On monsters, mice and mushrooms Lectures 1-3
Sept.
Lectures 4-15
Sept./Oct.
structure/material?
Oct.
IV. Elasticity
Lectures 20-31
Oct./Nov.
Lectures 32-37
Dec.
2
IV. Elasticity

3
Drawing approach
Start from f
z
=EI
z
''''
, then work your way up
Note sign changes:
''''
~f
z z
+
'''
~Q
z z
''
~M
z y
'
~
z y
+
~
z z
At each level of derivative, first plot extreme cases at ends of beam
Then consider zeros of higher derivatives; determine points of local min/max

z
represents physical shape of the beam (beam line)
4
1
Review: Finding min/max of functions
Example
f(x)=x
2
f(x) function of x
f'(x)=0
necessary condition for
min/max
f'(x)=2x
f''(x)<0 local maximum
f''(x)>0 local minimum
f''(x)=0 inflection point
f''(x)=2
Example solved in lecture 25:
z
p =force/length
x
l length
EI
Q
z
(x)= p
x
8
5
l
y
(x)=
EI
p
8
1
l
2
x+
x
6
3
16
5
lx
2
1
2
x
2
5
p 1
2 2
x
4
5
3
M
y
(x)= p
8
l +
2
8
lx

z
(x)=
EI
16
l x +
24
48
lx
6 5
p
f
z
(x)= p~
z
''''
5
pl
8 3
8
pl
Q
z
(x)= p
x
5
l
~
z
'''
8
8
+ =
3
4
2 2
48
5
24 16
1
) ( lx
x
x l
EI
p
x
z
48
1
3
EI
pl
8
2
pl
min
max
M
y
(x)= p
1
l
2
+
x
2
5
lx
~
z
''
8 2 8
y
(x)=
p
1
l
2
x+
x
3
5
lx
2
~
z
'
EI
8 6 16

z
(x)=
p
1
l
2
x
2
+
x
4
5
lx
3

EI
16 24 48
7
min
2
Illustration of various BCs Example with point load
z
Free end
r
l
P
F =0 =0
z
r
x
M =0
M =0 y
Concentrated force
=0
z
(0)=0 Q
z
(l)= P
x
=0
Step 1: BCs x =0
(0)=0
x =l
M (l)=0
Q
z
= P
y y
y
P
Hinge (bending)
r
=0
Step 2: Governing equation
d
4
z
=0
M =0
y
=0
dx
4
y
9 10
Example with point load (contd)
Step 3: Integrate
z
''''
=0,
z
'''
=C
1
=
Q
z
EI
M
z
''
=C
1
x+C
2
=
y
2
EI
z
'
=C
1
x
+C
2
x+C
3
=
y
2
3 2
z
=C
1
x
+C
2
x
+C
3
x+C
4
6 2
Step 4: Determine integration constants by applying BCs
z
(0)=0C
4
=0
y
=
z
'
(0)=0C
3
=0
P Pl
M
y
(l)=EI( l+C
2
)=0C
2
=
EI EI
P
11
Q
z
(l)= C
1
EI = PC
1
=
EI
Example with point load (contd)
f
z
=0
Q
z
= P
M
y
=P(lx)
P x
2
Pl
= x
y
EI 2 EI

P x
3
Pl x
2
=
z
EI 6 EI 2
12
3
f
z
(x)=0~
z
''''
P
Q
z
(x)= P~
z
'''
Pl ''
M
y
(x)=P(lx)~
z
max 2
(x)=
P x
Pl
x
~
'
1 Pl
2 y z
EI 2 EI
2 EI
P x
3
Pl x
2
z
(x)= ~
z
max
EI 6 EI 2
1Pl
3
13
3 EI
P
P x
3
Pl x
2
z
(x)=
14
EI 6 EI 2
Plotting stress distribution in beams Example: Plotting stress distribution in
cross-section beams cross-section
Given: Section quantities known as a function of position x
z
Fixed x:
Want: Calculate stress distribution in the section
0
xx
=E(
xx
+
y
z)
N =ES
0
(z) xx
xx
with:
M =EI
y y
N(x)
M
y
(x) N(x)
M
y
(x)
N
M
y
xx
(z;x)=E
ES
+
EI
z
=
S
+
I
z
15
N >0,M
y
>0
xx
(z)=
S
+
I
z
16
4
Lecture 27
Introduction: Energy bounds in linear elasticity
1
4. Strength models (how to design structures, foundations..
against mechanical failure)
6. How to measure deformation in a 3D structure/material?
IV. Elasticity
Lectures 1-3
Sept.
Lectures 4-15
Sept./Oct.
Lectures 16-19
Oct.
Lectures 20-31
Oct./Nov.
Lectures 32-37
Dec.
2
IV. Elasticity
Lecture 27: Introduction: Energy bounds in linear elasticity (1D system)
Lecture 28: Introduction: Energy bounds in linear elasticity (1D system),
contd

Lectures 32..37
3
Convexity of a function
f(x)
f
| (ba) f(b) f(a)
x x=a
secant
f(x)
tangent
x
a
b
4
Example system: 1D truss structure
We will use this example to illustrate all key concepts
5
Total external work
v r v r
W
d
= F
d
+
d
R
Work done by Work done by
prescribed prescribed
forces displacements,
Displacements force unknown
unknown
6
Total internal work
N
i
*
i
Complementary free energy

State equations
N
i
=
i
=
i
*
i
N
i
Free energy
i
N
i
=
i
*
(N
i
)+
i
(
i
)
i
7
Combining it
v r v r
!
W
d
= F
d
+
d
R= +
*
* d d
(
v
R
r
)=
!

v
F
r
Complementary
Complementary
energy
energy
=: =:
com pot
Solution to elasticity problem
com
=
pot
8
Quiz II Monday Nov. 19
Focus on material presented in lectures 16-26
Preparation: Problem sets, old quizzes, lecture
material
Deformation and strain, isotropic elasticity, beam
deformation (beam bending and beam
stretching), forensic beam elasticity, sketch
solution of beam problems, concept of
superposition (frame structures)
9
Lecture 28
Introduction: Energy bounds in linear elasticity (contd)
1
IV. Elasticity

Lecture 28: Introduction: Energy bounds in linear elasticity (1D system), contd
Lecture 29: Generalization to 3D, examples

Lectures 32 to 37
3
Sept.
Lectures 4-15
Sept./Oct.
structure/material?
Oct.
IV. Elasticity
Lectures 20-31
Oct./Nov.
Lectures 32-37
Dec.
2
Outline and goals
Use concept of concept of convexity to derive conditions that
specify the solutions to elasticity problems
Obtain two approaches:
Approach 1: Based on minimizing the potential energy
Approach 2: Based on minimizing the complementary energy
Last part: Combine the two approaches: Upper/lower bound
4
1
5
Reminder: convexity of a function
f(x)
f
| (ba) f(b) f(a)
x x=a
secant
f(x)
tangent
x
a b
Total external work
v r v r
W
d
= F
d
+
d
R
Work done by
prescribed
forces
Displacement
s unknown
Work done by
prescribed
displacements,
force unknown
6
Free energy and complementary free energy functions are convex!
i i
,
*
Total internal work
N
i
*
i

State equations
Combining it
v r v r !
W
d
= F
d
+
d
R= +
*
N
i
=
i
=
N
i
Free energy
i
N
i
=
*
(N
i
)+ (
i
)
i
7
* d d
(
v
R
r
)=
!

v
F
r
Complementary Potential
energy energy
=: =:
com pot
Solution to elasticity problem
com
=
pot
8
2
11
Rigid boundary
1 3 2
N
1
N
3
N
2
Rigid bar
3
P
0
9
Minimum potential energy approach
(1)
0
'
P=
N
i
i
'
(2)
0
P=
N
i
i
(1)-(2)
P(
0
'
0
)=
N
i
(
i
'
i
)=
(
i
'
i
)
i i
N
i
=
'
'
i
Convexity:
(
i
i
)(
i
)(
i
)
i
P(
0
'
0
)(
i
'
)(
i
)
) , ( ) ( ) ( ) , (
'
0
'
pot
'
0
'
0 0 pot

i i i i
P P = =
Consider two kinematically admissible (K.A.)
displacement fields
(1)
Approximation
1

=
2
=
3
=
0

to solution
(K.A.)
1
N
1
(2)
2 3
2
N
3
N
1
2
P
2
=
1
+
2
(
0
1
) Actual solution
3
0
Prescribed force
3
=
1
+
4
(
0
1
)
3
Unknown
displacement
10
pot
(
i
,
0
)=(
i
)P
0
(
i
'
)P
0
'
=
pot
(
i
'
,
0
'
)
Potential energy of actual solution is always smaller than the solution
to any other displacement field
Therefore, the actual solution realizes a minimum of the potential
energy:
pot
(
i
,
i
)= min
pot
(
i
'
,
i
'
)
'
i
K.A.
To find a solution, minimize the potential energy for a selected choice
of kinematically admissible displacement fields
12
We have not invoked the EQ conditions!
3
14
16
Minimum complementary energy approach
Conditions for statically
admissible (S.A.)
Consider two statically admissible force fields
N
1
+N
2
+N
3
=R
(1)
3N
1
+N
2
N
3
=0
N
1
'
N
2
'
N
3
'
Approximation N
1
'
,N
2
'
,N
3
'
to solution
Still S.A.
1
R
'
N
1
(2)
2 3
2
N
3
N
1
2
R
3
N
1
N
2
N
3
N
1
=1/12R
Actual
0
d
N
2
=1/3R
solution
Prescribed (obtained in
displacement lecture 20) N
3
=7/12R
Unknown force R
13
(1)
0
d
R
'
=
N
i
'
i
(2)
0
d
R=
N
i
i
(1)-(2)
0
d
(R
'
R)=
i
(N
i
'
N
i
)=
*
(N
i
)
(N
i
'
N
i
)
i
N
i
*
i
i
=
N
Convexity:
N
i
*
(N
i
'
N
i
)
*
(
i
N
i
'
)
*
(N
i
)
0
d
(R
'
R)
*
(N
i
'
)
*
(N
i
)
) , ( ) ( ) ( ) , (
' '
com
'
0
' *
0
*
com
R N R N R N R N
i
d
i
d
i i
= =
) , ( ) ( ) ( ) , (
' '
com
'
0
' *
0
*
com
R N R N R N R N
i
d
i
d
i i
= =
15
Complementary energy of actual solution is always smaller than the
solution to any other displacement field
Therefore, the actual solution realizes a minimum of the
complementary energy:
) , ( min ) , (
' '
com
S.A.
com
'
R N R N
i
N
i
i
=
To find a solution, minimize the complementary energy for a selected
choice of statically admissible force fields
We have not invoked the kinematics of the problem!
Combine: Upper/lower bound
Recall that the solution to elasticity problem
com
=
pot
Therefore
' '
com
(N
i
,R)=max(
com
(N
i
,R)) (change sign)
'
N
i
S.A.
( , )= min (
'
,
'
)
pot i i
i
K.A.
pot i i
'
' '
max( (N ,R))
'
com i
i
com
(N
i
'
,R
'
)
N S.A.
isequalto
pot
(
i
'
,
i
'
)
' '
min (
i
,
i
)

Lower bound
i
'
K.A.
pot
Upper bound
At the solution to the elasticity problem, the upper and lower bound coincide
4
17
Approach to approximate/numerical
solution of elasticity problems
Minimum potential energy approach:
Select a guess for a displacement field; the only condition that must be satisfied is
that it is kinematically admissible. In a numerical solution, this displacement field is
typically a function of some unknown parameters (a
1
,a
2
,)
Express the potential energy as a function of the unknown parameters a
1
,a
2
,
Minimize the potential energy by finding the appropriate set of parameters
(a
1
,a
2
,) for the minimum generally yields approximate solution
The actual solution is given by the displacement field that yields a total
minimum of the potential energy. Otherwise, an approximate solution is
obtained
Minimum complementary energy approach:
Select a guess for a force field; the only condition that must be satisfied is that it is
statically admissible. In a numerical solution, this force field is typically a function
of some unknown parameters (b
1
,b
2
,)
Express the complementary energy as a function of the unknown parameters
b
1
,b
2
,
Minimize the complementary energy by finding the appropriate set of
parameters (b
1
,b
2
,) for the minimum generally yields approximate solution
The actual solution is given by the force field that yields a total minimum of the
complementary energy. Otherwise, an approximate solution is obtained
At the elastic solution, the minimum potential energy approach solution and
the negative of the solution of the minimum complementary energy
approach coincide
5
Lecture 29
Energy bounds in 1D systems
Examples and applications
structure/material?
IV. Elasticity
1
Lectures 1-3
Sept.
Lectures 4-15
Sept./Oct.
Lectures 16-19
Oct.
Lectures 20-31
Oct./Nov.
Lectures 32-37
Dec.
2
Rigid boundary
1 3 2
IV. Elasticity

N
1
N
3
N
2
Rigid bar
3
Lecture 29: 1D examples
Lecture 30: Generalization to 3D P

Lectures 32 to 37
0
3 4
1
1
Conditions for
Consider two kinematically admissible (K.A.)
kinematically admissible
displacement fields
(K.A.): Deformation
must be compatible w/
(1)
rigid bar
Approximation
1

=
2
=
3
=
0

to solution
(K.A.)
N
1
(2)
2 3
2
N
3
N
1
2
P
2
=
1
+
2
(
0
1
) Actual solution
3
0
Prescribed force
3
=
1
+
4
(
0
1
)
3
Unknown
displacement
5
(1)
Approximation
1

=
2
=

3
=
0

pot
(
0
'
)=
1
P
2
to solution
6k
(K.A.)
is larger than
(2)
2
=
1
+
2
(
0
1
) Actual solution
3
3
=
1
+
4
(
0
1
)
3
2
1 0 pot
48
11
) ( , P
k
=
7
pot
(
i
,
0
)=(
i
)P
0
(
i
'
)P
0
'
=
pot
(
i
'
,
0
'
)
Potential energy of actual solution is always smaller than the solution
to any other displacement field
Therefore, the actual solution realizes a minimum of the potential
energy:
pot
(
i
,
i
)= min
pot
(
i
'
,
i
'
)
'
i
K.A.
To find a solution, minimize the potential energy for a selected choice
of kinematically admissible displacement fields
We have not invoked the EQ conditions!
6
Conditions for statically
admissible (S.A.)
Consider two statically admissible force fields
N
1
+N
2
+N
3
=R
(1)
3N
1
+N
2
N
3
=0
N
1
'
N
2
'
Approximation
N
1
'
,N
2
'
to solution
Still S.A.
1
R
'
0
d
N
1
(2)
2 3
2
N
3
N
1
2
R
3
N
1
N
2
N
3
N
1
=1/12R
Actual
0
d
N
2
=1/3R
solution
Prescribed (obtained in
displacement lecture 20) N =7/12R
Unknown force R
0
d 3
8
2
12
1
) , ( ) ( ) ( ) , (
' '
com
'
0
' *
0
*
com
R N R N R N R N
i
d
i
d
i i
= =
9
Complementary energy of actual solution is always smaller than the
solution to any other displacement field
Therefore, the actual solution realizes a minimum of the
complementary energy:
) , ( min ) , (
' '
com
S.A.
com
'
R N R N
i
N
i
i
=
To find a solution, minimize the complementary energy for a selected
choice of statically admissible force fields
We have not invoked the kinematics of the problem!
(1)
N
1
'
N
2
'
Approximation
N
1
'
,N
2
'
to solution
Still S.A.
com
(R
'
)=
1
k(
0
d
)
2
5
R
'
0
d
(2)
is larger than
N
1
N
2
N
3
N
1
=1/12R
Actual
solution
N
2
=1/3R
(obtained in
lecture 20)
R
0
d
N
3
=7/12R
( )
2
0 1 com
11
12
(R ) ,
d
k N =
10
Treat this BC with complementary energy approach
N
1
com
(N
1
)=
*
(N
i
)
0
d
R
=0
2 3
2
N
3
N
1
2
P
3
(N )=
1
(12N
2
2PN +P
2
)
0 com 1 1 1
4k
Prescribed force
Unknown displacement
Find min:
com
(N
1
)
=0 N =
1
P
com
=
11
P
2
N
1
1
12
48k
11
' '
max( (N ,R))
'
com i
i
' '
N S.A.
' '
com
(N
i
,R)

isequalto

pot
(
i
,
i
)
' '
min (
i
,
i
)

Lower bound
i
'
K.A.
pot
Upper bound
=
11
P
2
=
11
P
2
com com
48k 48k
pot
(
0
,
1
)=
11
P
2
48k
At the solution to the elasticity problem, the upper and lower bound coincide
3
Another example
Approximate solution for coupled
beam-truss problem
13
Rigid boundary
Step-by-step approach
Step 1: Determine K.A. displacement field (for
approximation, find appropriate assumed displacement
field)
Step 2: Express work balance find
pot
/
com
Step 3: Find min of
pot
/
com
Step 4: Determine displacement field, forces etc.
Solution is approximation to actual solution 14
Step 1: Assume K.A. displacement field
2
1 3 2 4
z
(x;,)= +
3L
N
1
N
3
N
4
N
2
(approximation of the actual solution)
L L
L
1
Elastic beam
x
2

4
P
= = ) 0 (x
z
(x
z
+ = = ) 3L
3
0
15 16
4
18
Displacement of the four truss members
1
=
z
(x= 0)=
2
=
z
(x= L)= +

9 2
x
z
(*)
3
=
z
(x= 2L)= +
4
(x;,)= +
3L
4
=
z
(x= 3L)= +
0
=
4
17
Step 2:
Page 215 in manuscript
Total free energy of a beam:
(chapter 5)
3L h/2 b/2
1
0 0
2
B
=

E(
xx
+
y
z) dydzdx
2
x=0 z=h/2 y=b/2
with:
0
= 0 (no displacement in the x-direction)
xx
0
=

2
z
=
2
(curvature can be calculated from
y
x
2
9L
2 the assumed displacement field)
B
=
E 4
2
4
3L h/2 b/2
z
2
dydzdx
B
(,)=
bh
3
E
3
2

2 81L
2
1
: =
B
k
162L
x=0z=h/2 y=b/2
spring constant
B
()=
1
k
B
2
2
Total free energy:
1
2
Sum of free energies of four trusses
i
= k
i
2
(,)=
B
()+

i
(,)
i=1..4
(,)=
1
2
k
B
2
+
1
2
k
2
+
+

9
2
+
+
4
9
2
+ ( + )
2
External work W = F( + )
19
pot
(,)=
2
1
k
B
2
+
2
1
k
2
+
+

9
2
+
+
4
9
2
+ ( + )
2
F( +)
min( (,)) Step 3:
,
pot
How to find minimum of this function?
Take partial derivatives, and set each to zero
20
5
1
2
k
B
2
+
1
2
k
2
+

2
+
+
4
9
2
+ ( +)
2
F( + )
=0

1
2
k
B
2
+
1
2
k
2
+

2
+

+
4
9
2
+ ( + )
2
F( +)
=0
Results in a system of linear equations:
98 14
1
98 14

k
B
+
81
k
9
k
F
k
B
+ k k
F
14
81 9
14
k 4k
k 4k

9
9
99F
Step 4: Based on solution, determine

2(81k
B
+49k)
displacement field
i
(from (*)), then
=
F(81k
B
28k)
forces:
N
i
=k
i
4k(81k
B
+49k)
21
6
Lecture 30
Energy bounds in 1D systems
Examples and applications
1
structure/material?
IV. Elasticity
Lectures 1-3
Sept.
Lectures 4-15
Sept./Oct.
Lectures 16-19
Oct.
Lectures 20-31
Oct./Nov.
Lectures 32-37
Dec.
2
IV. Elasticity

Lecture 30: Generalization to 3D

Lectures 32 to 37
3
Lecture 31
Energy bounds in beam elasticity
1
structure/material?
IV. Elasticity
Lectures 1-3
Sept.
Lectures 4-15
Sept./Oct.
Lectures 16-19
Oct.
Lectures 20-31
Oct./Nov.
Lectures 32-37
Dec.
2
IV. Elasticity

Lecture 31: Energy bounds in beam elasticity
Lecture 32: Energy bounds in beam elasticity: How to solve problems
Lectures 33 to 37
3
Sept.
Lectures 4-15
Sept./Oct.
Lecture 32
Energy bounds in beam structures (contd) - 5. How strain gages work?
How to solve problems
structure/material?
Oct.
IV. Elasticity
Lectures 20-32
Oct./Nov.
Lectures 33-37
1 2
Dec.
Review: 3D isotropic elasticity
max(
com
('))

'S.A.
r
com
(')
isequalto
pot
(')
IV. Elasticity
'S.A.
rmin
pot
(
r
')

r
' K.A.

' K.A.

Lecture 29: 1D examples Lower bound Solution Upper bound
Complementary energy
Potential energy
Lecture 31: Energy bounds in beam structures
Lecture 32: Energy bounds in beam structures (contd): How to sol ve problems
approach
approach
V. How things fail and how to avoid it r
Lecture 33 (Mon): Buckling (loss of convexity)
(')=
*
(')W
*
(T')
Lecture 34 (Wed): Fracture mechanics I (and surprise!)
com
Lecture 35 (Fri): Fracture mechanics II
r r
Lecture 36 (Mon): Plastic yield
pot
(')=(')W(')
Lecture 37 (Wed): Wrap-up plastic yield and closure 3 4
1
7
Beam structures (2D)
*
=
1 N
2
+
1
M
y
2
dx
2 ES 2 EI
x=0..l
Free energy
1
0
2 1
0
2
= ES( ) ( ) dx

xx
+ EI
y
x=0..l
2 2
Note: For 2D, the only contributions are axial forces & moments and
axial strains and curvatures (general 3D case see manuscript page
263 and following)
5
Clapeyrons formulas
=
*
=
1
(W
*
+W)
2
pot
=
1
(W
*
W)
2
com
=
1
(W W
*
)
2
Significance: Calculate solution potential/complementary
energy (target) from BCs
Beam structures
External work by prescribed displacements
*
r
d
r
d d d d
W =
[ (x
i
) R+
y
(x
i
)M
y,R
] =
[
x
(x
i
)R
x
+
z
(x
i
)R
z
+
y
(x
i
)M
y,R
]
i i
External work by prescribed force densities/forces/moments
r r r r
0 d 0 d d
W =

f (x)dx+
[ F (x
i
)+
y
M
y
(x
i
)]
x=0..l
i
0 d 0 d 0 d 0 d d
=
[
x
f
x
(x
i
)+
z
f
z
(x
i
)]dx+
[
x
F
x
(x
i
)+
z
F
z
(x
i
)+
y
M
y
(x
i
)]
x=0..l
i
6
Beam elasticity
max ( (F
r
', M '))
N',M
y
' S.A.
com S y
com
(F
r
S
', M
y
')

isequalto

pot
(
r
r
',
y
')
N',M
y
'S.A.
min (
v
', ')
'K.A.

r
' K.A.
pot y
Lower bound Solution Upper bound

r
F
S
' , M
y
'
Potential energy
approach that provide
approach
Stress approach absolute max
Displacement
of
com approach)
r
Work with unknown but
',
y
'
S.A. moments and
Work with unknown
forces
that provide
but K.A. displacements
absolute min
8
of
pot
2
10
Step-by-step solution approach
Example
Use complementary energy approach!
Step 1: Express target solution (Clapeyrons formulas) calculate
complementary energy AT solution
P
Step 2: Determine reaction forces and reaction moments
Step 3: Determine force and moment distribution, as a function of reaction
forces and reaction moments (need M
y
and N)
l/2
l/2
Step 4: Express complementary energy as function of reaction forces and =unknown displacement at point of
reaction moments (integrate)
load application
Step 5: Minimize complementary energy (take partial derivatives w.r.t. all
Structure is statically indeterminate to degree 1
unknown reaction forces and reaction moments and set to zero); result: set of
unknown reaction forces and moments that minimize the complementary energy
Can not be solved by relying on static equilibrium only (too many
unknown forces, hyperstatic).
Step 6: Calculate complementary energy at the minimum (based on resulting
forces and moments obtained in step 5)
Step 7: Make comparison with target solution =find solution displacement
9
Goal: Solve problem using complementary energy approach
Example Example
Step 1: Target solution =
1
P
Step 3: Determine force and moment distribution
Concept of
com
2
(as a function of hyperstatic force R):
superposition often
helpful
Step 2: Determine hyperstatic forces and moments (here: R)
Pl 2x x
P
M
y
(x)=
2
(1
l
)R'l(1
l
) 0xl/ 2
P
R'l(1
x
l
) l/ 2<xl
M
y
(x)
+
Note: Only need expression for N and M
y R
l/2
l/2
M (x)
y
Hyperstatic force
2 ES 2 EI
11
com
(R')=
1
l
3
R'
2
5
l
3
R'P+
1
l
3
P
2
12
Step 4: Express complementary energy

2
N
=0
W
=0
No contribution R
com
=
*
W
*
=

1
+
1 M
y
2
dx
*
from prescribed
displacements
x=0..l
2EI
3 24 24
3
Example
Step 5: Find min of (R')
com
(R')
com
=0
R'
1 2l
3
R' 5
l
3
P
=0
2EI
3 24
5
R'= P
16
Step 6: Minimum complementary energy
com
(R'=
5
P)=
7
l
3
P
16 1536EI
13
Example
Step 7: Compare with target solution
com
=
1
P
com
(R'=
5
P)=
7
l
3
P
2 16 1536EI
7
3
l P
768EI
=
7
l
3
P represents a minimum of the complementary energy
768EI
Is it a global minimum, that is, the solution?
1. M
y
is S.A.
2. R is the only hyperstatic reaction force (in other words, the only
source of additional moments)
3. Therefore, the minimum is actually a global minimum, and therefore, it
is the solution
14
Generalization (important)
For any homogeneous beam problem, the minimization
of the complementary energy with respect to all
hyperstatic forces and moments
X
i
= {R
i
,M
y,R;i
}
yields the solution of the linear elastic beam problem:
X
i
(
com
(X
i
)) =
!
0
1
*
(W W ) min (X )
2
X
i
com i
15
4
Clapeyrons formulas for 1D
For the linear elastic case:
(
i
) =
*
(N
i
)
We will now exploit this property
(specific to linear elasticity!) to
derive a set of equations called
Clapeyrons formulas:
Recall, total external work (lecture 27):
v r v r
W
d
= F
d
+
d
R
We split this up into: (1) work due to force BCs
v v r
W ( ) = F
d
and (2) work due to displacement BCs
r v r
W
*
(R) =
d
R
Therefore
(
i
) +
*
(N
i
) = W
*
+ W
Using the fact that the complementary free energy and free
energy are equal, we arrive at:
(
i
) =
1
(W
*
+ W )
2

*
(N
i
) =
1
(W
*
+ W )
2
Now we calculate the potential and complementary energy:
pot
= (
i
) W
com
=
*
(N
i
) W
*
By using the expressions for the free energy and
complementary free energy:
pot
=
1
(W
*
W )

com
=
1
(W W
*
)
2
2
1
Summary the following set of equations are called Clapeyrons
formulas
(
i
) =
1
(W
*
+ W )
2

*
(N
i
) =
1
(W
*
+ W )
2
*
pot
=
1
(W W )
2
com
=
1
(W W
*
)
2
Significance: Can calculate free energy, complementary free
energy, potential energy and complementary energy directly from
the boundary conditions (external work)!
2
Lecture 33
How things fail and how to avoid it
Elastic buckling
structure/material?
IV. Elasticity
1
Lectures 1-3
Sept.
Lectures 4-15
Sept./Oct.
Lectures 16-19
Oct.
Lectures 20-32
Oct./Nov.
Lectures 33-37
Dec.
2
IV. Elasticity
Lecture 34 (Wed): Fracture mechanics I (and surprise!)
Lecture 35 (Fri): Fracture mechanics II
Lecture 37 (Wed): Wrap-up plastic yield and closure
3
Characterization of failure
Elasticity =characterized by convexity (basis
for energy methods)
Failure =characterized by loss of convexity
(beyond elasticity)
4
1
Types of failure
Elastic buckling (lecture 33)
Purely elastic phenomenon, reach bifurcation point at
which potential energy of system loses convexity (leads
to sudden change of shape of structure); non-
dissipative, fully elastic throughout
Fracture and cracking (lecture 34, 35)
Brittle character, that is, stored elastic energy due to
work done by external forces is suddenly released;
energy dissipated into breaking of atomic bonds
Plastic collapse (lectures 36, 37)
Ductile character, that is, ability of system to store
energy supplied by external forces is exhausted leading
to frictional dissipation
5 6
( )
2
2
el
EI
P P
crit
= <
2 = e
1 = e
2
1
= e
Other boundary conditions: Euler buckling
Clamped cantilever beam
Single supported beam
Double clamped
cantilever beam
P
Summary: Elastic buckling
Loss of convexity is characterized by bifurcation points
at which the determinant of the solution matrix (2
nd
order
beam theory) reaches zero: No solution exists
Approximation using potential energy method leads
to upper bound of the actual buckling load (use for
complex boundary conditions, numerical approach..)
General solution approach leads to different critical
buckling loads for different boundary conditions
7 8
( )
2
2
2l
EI
P P
crit
= <
Example: Concrete column w/
circular cross-section
P
d =0.2 m
E =25 GPa
64
4
d E
EI
=
I =5 m
kN 194 =
crit
P
Circular cross-section
2
Lecture 34
How things fail and how to avoid it
Additional notes energy approach
1
Sept.
Lectures 4-15
Sept./Oct.
structure/material?
Oct.
IV. Elasticity
Lectures 20-32
Oct./Nov.
Lectures 33-37
Dec.
2
IV. Elasticity
Lecture 34 (Wed): Fracture mechanics I
Lecture 35 (Fri teaching evaluation): Fracture mechanics II
Lecture 37 (Wed): Wrap-up plastic yield and closure
3 4
( )
2
2
el
EI
P P
crit
= <
2 = e
1 = e
2
1
= e
Selection of boundary conditions: Euler
buckling
Clamped cantilever beam
Single supported beam
Double clamped
cantilever beam
P
effective length el
1
5
( )
2
2
2l
EI
P P
crit
= <
Example: Concrete column w/
circular cross-section
P
d =0.2 m
E =25 GPa
64
4
d E
EI
=
I =5 m
kN 194 =
crit
P
Circular cross-section
Equation provides critical buckling load: Force must be
below this load to avoid failure
Express potential energy for large
deformation beam theory
P
Reminder:
Slight imperfection
Governing equations:
dM
y
= Q
Conventional, small deformation beam theory
dx
z
Moment generated by rotation of beam
dM
y
= Q + Q
Large deformation beam theory
dX
z y x
Moment generated by rotation of beam
7
6
Recall lecture 33
Analyzed buckling instability (displacement convergence at
point where load is applied) using two approaches:
(i) iterative solution using conventional small deformation
beam theory (divergence of series)
(ii) application of large-deformation beam theory
(nonexistence of solution since determinant of
coefficient matrix is zero - bifurcation point)
(iii) instability is equivalent to loss of convexity (energy
approach)
Goal: Show that elastic instability corresponds to a loss of convexity
pot
=
pot
(
y
,
y
)
New term
large-deformation beam theory
Note: Potential energy in large-deformation beam theory
depends also on rotation (because rotations create moments)
Calculation of potential energy
pot
(
y
,
y
)=
2
1
(EI
y
2
+ F
x
y
2
)dX W(
r
0
,
y
)
8
l
2
Express potential energy for large Express potential energy for large
deformation beam theory deformation beam theory
P
As studied previously:
pot
(
y
,
y
)
pot
(
y
',
y
')
Assume K.A. displacement field:
Potential Potential energy at any
energy at other K.A. displacement
Parameter
solution field
Lower bound approach
f(X/l) must satisfy BCs:
Solution corresponds to absolute min of
potential energy for K.A. displacement
field
9 10
pot
(
y
,
y
)=
l
2
1
(EI
y
2
+F
x
y
2
)dX W(
r
0
,
y
)
Now express potential energy as function of parameter :
1
2
d
2
f
2
df
2
pot
=
2
EI
dx
2
dx
dX P
l
11
Necessary condition for minimum of potential energy:
pot
=
EI
d
2
2
f
2
P
df
dX P
=
!
0
dx

dx
l
Also, the expression of
pot
must be convex!
pot
Convexity:
pot
>0
Loss of convexity:
2
0
2
Elastic instability!
pot
pot
12

3
14
pot
Loss of convexity:
0
pot
=
EI
d
2
f
2
P
df
2
dX
2
l
dx
2
dx
Instability occurs if
d
2
f
2

EI
dx
2
dX
P

=P
crit
=
df
2
dx
dX
13
l
Notes:
Critical load obtained from potential energy approach
yields upper bound of actual critical buckling load
Iterations with first order displacement field leads to
identical series expansion as in the iterative approach
with small deformation beam theory
Approximate solution: Actual solution:
EI
2
EI EI
P
crit
=2.5
2
>
P
crit
= =2.4674
l 4 l
2
l
2
Summary
Analyzed buckling instability (displacement convergence at
point where load is applied) using two approaches:
(i) iterative solution using conventional small deformation
beam theory (divergence of series)
(ii) application of large-deformation beam theory
(nonexistence of solution since determinant of
coefficient matrix is zero - bifurcation point)
(iii) instability is equivalent to loss of convexity (energy
approach)
15
Fracture mechanics
How brittle materials fail
crack extension
16
4
17
Brittle fracture
Brittle fracture =typically uncontrolled response of a structure, often leading to
sudden malfunction of entire system
Images removed due to copyright restrictions: Photograph of fault line,
World Trade Center towers, shattered wine glass,
X-ray of broken bone.
18
Brittle failure crack extension
Snapshots show microscopic processes as a crack extends.
During crack propagation, elastic energy stored in the material is dissipated
by breaking atomic bonds
M.J . Buehler, H. Tang, et al., Phys. Rev. Letters, 2007
Images removed due to copyright restrictions.
5
displacement
Example: In-class demonstration of buckling
phenomenon
Beam elements
No load applied
Small load applied
below buckling load
Structure stable
Large load applied beyond
buckling load
Divergence of lateral
P<<P
crit
P<P
crit
P>P
crit
Review session
1
structure/material?
IV. Elasticity
Lectures 1-3
Sept.
Lectures 4-15
Sept./Oct.
Lectures 16-19
Oct.
Lectures 20-32
Oct./Nov.
Lectures 33-37
Dec.
2
1
Notes regarding final exam
Please contact me or stop by at any time for any questions
The final will be comprehensive and cover all material discussed in
1.050. Note that the last two p-sets will be important for the final.
To get an idea about the style of the final, work out old finals and the practice
final
There will be 2-3 problems with several questions each (e.g. beam problem/
truss problem, continuum problem)
We will post old final exams from 2005 and 2006 today
We will post an additional, new practice final exam on or around Wednesday
next week
Another list of variables and concepts will be posted next week
Stay calm, read carefully, and practice time management
3
Stress, strain and elasticity -
concepts
4
2
5
Overview: 3D linear elasticity
0 div = + g
r

) (x
r
Stress tensor
Basis: Physical laws
(Newtons laws)
BCs on boundary of domain
n n T
d
T
d
r r
r
r
= ) ( :
:
n n T
r r
r
= ) (
ji ij
=
) (x
r
Strain tensor
Basis: Geometry
r r
r
=
d
d
:
Linear deformation theory
1 Grad <<
r
( ) ( )
T

r r
grad grad
2
1
+ =
S
t
a
t
i
c
a
l
l
y

a
d
m
i
s
s
i
b
l
e

(
S
.
A
.
)
K
i
n
e
m
a
t
i
c
a
l
l
y

a
d
m
i
s
s
i
b
l
e

(
K
.
A
.
)

Elasticity
: c =
kl ijkl ij
c =
G G K
v
2 1
3
2
+
=
Basis: Thermodynamics
Isotropic solid
=
i
j
j
i
ij
x x
2
1
=

K
2
G
v
1+2G =

K
2
G
(
11
+
22
+
33
)1+2G
3

3
11
=
K
2
G
(
11
+
22
+
33
) +2G
11
3
=
K
2
G
( + + ) +2G
3
Linear isotropic elasticity
22 11 22 33 22
33
=
K
2
3
G
(
11
+
22
+
33
) +2G
33
Written out for individual
12
=2G
12
stress tensor coefficients
23
=2G
23
13
=2G
13
11
=
K+
4
G
11
+
K
2
G
22
+
K
2
G
33
3 3 3
22
=
K
2
G
11
+
K+
4
G
22
+
K
2
G
33
stress tensor coefficients,
3 3 3
collect terms that multiply
33
=
K
2
G
11
+
K
2
G
22
+
K+
4
G
33
strain tensor coefficients
3 3 3
4
12
=2G
12
c
1111
=c
2222
=c
3333
=K+ G
3
23
=2G
23
2
c
1122
=c
1133
=c
2233
=K G
13
=2G
13
3
6
c
1212
=c
2323
=c
1313
=2G
3
Variable Definition Notes & comments
G K
G K
+
=
3
2 3
2
1
xx zz yy
= =
Poissons ratio (lateral
contraction under uniaxial
tension)
E
G K
KG
E
+
=
3
9
xx xx
E =
Youngs modulus (relates
stresses and strains under
uniaxial tension)
x
z
F
F = F/A
x = x/L
7
Uniaxial beam deformation
Solving problems with
strength approach
Use conditions for S.A. plus
strength criterion (S.C.)
8
4
Two pillars of
stress-
strength
approach
At any point, must be:
(1) Statically admissible (S.A.)
and
(2) Strength compatible (S.C.)
9
Equilibrium conditions only specify statically admissible
Hoover dam etc.
Strength compatibility adds the condition that in addition
to S.A., the stress field must be compatible with the
strength capacity of the material S.C.
D
S Strength domain for beams
Moment capacity for beams
For rectangular cross-section
b,h
N =N
0
=bh
0 N =N x
lim x Strength capacity for beams lim
0
M N
y x
f(M
y
,N
x
)= + 10
M
0
N
x
2
M N
y x
f(M
y
,N
x
)= +
10
M
0
N
x
M-N interaction (linear)
f(M
y
,N
x
)0
M-N interaction (actual);
convexity
10
1
1
5
Safe
strength
domain
: load bearing capacity of
i-th load case
Linear combination is safe
(convexity)
11
Mohr circle
Display 3D strain tensor in 2D
projection enables us to see largest
shear stresses, largest normal
stresses
Thereby facilitates application of
strength criterion
12
6
Strength domain (general
D
k
definition)
Equivalent to condition for S.C.
c
D
k,Tresca
Tresca criterion
Max. shear stress
n
v
:
D
k,Tensioncutoff
Max. tensile stress
c
0 ( T f ) = c
v
Tension cutoff criterion
13
,Mohr Coulomb
D
k
=
c cohesion
c=0 dry sand
Max. shear stress
function of
Mohr-Coulomb
14
Angle of repose
7
S
=
S
dS S
Cross-sectional area
I
=
S
z dS I
2
Second order area moment
EI
y
z
y
EI
dx
d
EI M
= =
2
0 2 Beam bending stiffness
(relates bending moment and
curvature)
ES
f
dx
d
x x
=
2
0 2
Governing differential
equation, axial forces
EI
f
dx
d
z z
=
4
0 4
equation, shear forces
Step 1: Write down BCs (stress BCs and
displacement BCs), analyze the problem to be
solved (read carefully!)
Step 3: Solve governing equations (e.g. by
integration), results in expression with unknown
integration constants
Step 4: Apply BCs (determine integration
constants)
... ,
x z

15
Solution procedure to solve
beam elasticity problems
Energy approach
Approximate solution or find exact
solution
16
8
Upper/lower bounds
max( ('))
'S.A.
com
com
(')

isequalto

pot
(')
'S.A.
min (
r
')

r
'K.A.

r
'K.A.
pot

Potential energy
approach
approach
r
com
(')=
*
(')W
*
(T')
r r
pot
(')=(')W(')
17
Boundary conditions
Important concept in 1.050 and
elsewhere
18
9
Important BCs in beams/frames
Free end
r
F =0
=0
z
r
M =0 M =0
y
Concentrated force
=0
x
Q
z
= P
=0
y
P
Hinge (bending)
r
=0
M =0
y
=0
y
19
Buckling of beams in
compression
Elastic instability
20
10
21
Euler beam buckling
Different boundary conditions
Buckling
Fracture mechanics
How to treat cracks in a continuum
22
11
Example: 3D fracture model
Expressions for G can be found for a variety of geometries and structures:
d
far away from
For this geometry:
0 z
crack
0
a
z
e
r
x
e
r
r
r
T e =
r
r
0
Surface crack
T
d
=
0
e
z
23
2
a
2
!
G=1.12
0
=2
E
s
2 E
s
0
=
2
1.12 a
Ic
K
a
2 0
12 . 1
1
=
24
Concrete beam
Measure length of crack
E.g. add fluorescent fluid
use UV light
m
a
m
a
http://www.amesresearch.com/images/cshst/block_before.jpg
Example application
Detect crack of length
m
a
12
Photograph of crack (crack length of a(sub
m
)
removed due to copyright restrictions.
25
Example application
Detect crack of length
m
a
Question: Will structure fail?
Concrete beam
Solution: Solving beam problem provides us with stress distribution in section
(z;x)=
M
y
I
(x)
z (z)=
h
/
0
2
z
z
h/2
(z)
xx xx
xx
h/2
Calculate critical fracture stress and compare with stress in beam structure
xx
(z=
h
)
0,crit
failure
1
2
0,crit
=
1.12
2
a
K
Ic
m
xx
(z=
h
)<
0,crit
nofailure
2
13
Lecture 1 - summary
Introduction to the engineering
science approach
Galileo problem: Could we simply
upscale an animal, human..
several times and could it still exist?
Dimensional analysis shows: If
same material is used, a monster
can not exist
Remedy: Change material (density)
as the height is increased in order
to create physical similarity
h
1
h
2
Express physical situation as function of
nondimensional parameters (critical: find
correct dependence on variables)
Galileos Problem:
g
2
h
3

0
0
h
2
F
lim
0
(
1
,
2
)
Robustness: = = 1
mg
2
1
Thus, for a monster to exist need material with
higher strength OR material with lower density.
Definition of Galileo number:
Two events are similar if the invariants
are the same, here the Galileo Number:
1 ( )
h
(i) (i)
h
1
0
(1)
(2)
( ) 2
g
1
=
1
=
0
( )
=
h
2
=
0
( ) 2
( )
i
1
Lecture 2 - summary
Review: Galileo problem
Pi-theorem (allows one to systematically
approach the problem of expressing a
physical situation in nondimensional
variables)
By means of dimensional analysis reduce
the complexity of a problem from N+1
parameters to N+1-k parameters
Procedure:
Define physical problem (critical!) define N+1
parameters that characterize the problem
Set up exponent matrix linear system;
determine rank k
Choose k independent variables and express
N+1-k other variables as functions of these
(log representation, solve linear system)
yields nondimensional formulation
Best invariants are not unique, some try
and error you can always recombine
invariants as power functions of others.
If N = k, jackpot you have the solution
(close to a multiplying constant)
Application: Atomic bomb explosion
pp. 8-15 in manuscript
known known
unknown
D-analysis
10.5
9.5
8.5
-3.0 -2.0 -1.0
log t
5
2
log r
5
2
1
2
E
log r = log ( ) + log t

~8
-4 Figure by MIT OpenCourseWare, adapted from Taylor, G. I. "Formation of a Blast Wave by a Very Intense
Explosion. II. The Atomic Explosion of 1945." Proceedings of the Royal Society A 201 (1950): 175-186.
Lecture 3 - summary
Additional examples of application
of Pi-theorem for engineering
problems (flow problem, WTC, tall
buildings)
Combine two analyses (wind drag
force AND strength of building) into
robustness analysis
Drag force analysis
Strength analysis
Robustness analysis
F
=
x,lim
1
F
D
F
x,lim
mg 1N
2
b
= =

Gal
F
D
2F
D
N
Gal
h
(1) Experiments provide functional relationship:
or
(2) Theoretical approaches (strength of
materials theory) provide relation for
strength analysis
Analysis for WTC: Robustness 15..20
Main idea: Do few lab experiment to get relationship between Pi
i
and then rescale
problem! (Important engineering concept)
400
200
100
60
40
20
10
6
4
2
1
0.6
0.4
0.2
0.1
0.06
10
-1
10
0
10
1
10
2
10
3
10
4
10
5
10
6
10
7
Smooth Cylinder
Smooth Sphere
D
E
C
B
A
Reynolds Number Re =
1
=
1 UD
v
C
D

=

2
0

=
2
F
D
a
(
U
D
)
2
a
U
2
D
2
C
D
=
24
Re
0
=
F
D
UD
v
= F (
1
= )
Lecture 4 - summary
The Three Laws of Motion of Isaac Newton (1642 1727):
1. Every body continues in its state of rest, or of uniform
These laws can be used to solve real
motion in a right line, unless it is compelled to change that
engineering problems
state by forces impressed upon it.
Example: Fall of the WTC towers
0
V
80 = M
96 =
110 = N
2. The change of motion is proportional to the motive force
on 9/11 2001
impresses, and is made in the direction of the right line in
which that force is impressed.
3. To every action there is always opposed an equal reaction:
Photograph of towers removed
or, the mutual action of two bodies upon each other are
always equal, and directed to contrary parts.
due to copyright restrictions.
pp. 37-48 in manuscript
Test 2 hypotheses:
1) Free fall
2) Kausels model discrete mass formulation
Instantaneous
Conservation of linear
momentum under
h
0 0
,V m
?
1
0 1
= V
+ = m m m
?
2
2
0 2
=
+ =
V
m m m
changing mass
p
i
=0 V
i
=
m
i1
V
i1
V
i
V
i1
m
i
t
i
=
g
Discrete
Free fall mass model Measurement
North Tower:
10.9 s
10 s
South Tower:
8.9 s
Lecture 5 - summary
Introduction of the continuum model
Three scales:
Structural scale (H,B,D..) >> REV >> molecular scale
The three scales are separated (>> operator)
Goal: Derivation of equilibrium equations for REV d
d
Continuum
representative
Atomic bonds
volume element
O(Angstrom=1E-10m)
REV
Equilibrium:
Definition of stress tensor (description of
material forces only as function of position,
External forces: not normal):
Stress vector
Integration over entire material/structure volume:
Complete problem (Dynamic
Resultant + Moment Theorems):
Local equilibrium:
: onS
) ( : on n T T
d
=
=0 (static)
Skyscraper photograph courtesy of jochemberends on Flickr.
Lecture 6 - summary
Review: Continuum model
Three scales:
Structural scale (H,B,D..) >> REV >> molecular scale
The three scales are separated (>> operator)
: onS
) ( : on n T T
d
=
Application: Hydrostatics problem
In cartesian coordinates
Equilibrium condition
Solution after integration:
Satisfying BCs leads to:
Stress tensor and stress vector:
Lecture 7 - summary
Problem-schematic
Solution
Application: Stress distribution in
foundation
BCs: Pressure at surface
Two soils thus two domains with different
density
Connection between domains: Stress vector
continuity (used to obtain condition for stress
tensor continuity)
Note:
Problem can not be solved completely 3 of
the 6 stress tensor coefficients are
undetermined
Reason: Missing information about material
law statically indeterminate system; EQ
and BCs insufficient to close problem
Solution: Use material law (later in 1.050!)
Lecture 10- summary
No material or structural element can sustain infinite load!
Physical reason: Atomic bonds inside a material can only sustain a critical load, on the order
of a few nN.
Therefore - need to satisfy two condition in structural problems:
1. Static equilibrium, that is, statically admissible (S.A.)
2. Strength compatibility (S.C.)
Expression of S.C. in terms of material strength
0
:
A
3
A
1
/A
3
=2 same strength
0
R
o
b
u
s
t
n
e
s
s

r
a
t
i
o

g
a
m
m
a
_
1
/
g
a
m
m
a
_
3

1
0
0 50
Angle phi
A
1
8
7
6
A
2
4
5
3
2
Same robustness
for
30 degree angle
Failure occurs
simultaneously
in all rods
100
Lecture 11- summary
Representation
of stress vector
in normal and
shear
component
Stress tensor
diagonalization
Can immediately draw
three Mohr circles
then apply strength
criteria
Max. shear stress
Lecture 12- summary
Mohr-Coulomb strength criterion
Physical meaning: Strength
=
increased due to compression
N
c cohesion
F = tan N = N
Applicable to: Concrete, soil, sand,

c = 0 no cohesion (e.g. dry sand)
Application: Sand pile Solution:
S.C.
Dry sand (c=0)
Wet sand (c>0)
Larger angle of repose
E.Q.
Lecture 13- summary
Beam section strength criterion:
Compatibility with strength criterion
Example: Statically indeterminate beam
Lecture 14- summary
Beam section strength criterion:
Compatibility with strength criterion
Example: Structure with coupled M-N
Coupled moment and normal load:
P
l
l
Moment distribution
Normal force distribution
(2) (1)
(3)
(I)
(II)
M
y
=Pl
N=P
N
(2) in (I) (3)
(1) in (I)
1
1
Lecture 16 - summary
Topic: How to measure and describe deformation
Goal is to develop a mathematical language to describe deformation
Definition of strain:
Measurement of strain: Electrical, optical, mechanical, acoustical
Strain gages: Measure deformation based on
changes of electrical resistance R
=
1 R
GF R
0
Lectures 20-..
Lectures 1-15
Stresses Deformation
Thermodynamics
Lectures 16-19
Geometrical analysis
Momentum
conservation
Energy balance
r
x
Deformed position
r
X
r
r
dx
Initial position
Displacement
r
x
r r
r
F =1+Grad dX FdX = =
r
X
Topic: How to describe deformation (contd from lecture 16)
Goal is to develop a mathematical language to describe deformation
Topics covered:
1.) Review and example deformation gradient tensor (main tool) Deformation gradient:
Deformation
x
x
y y
0 0

( ) =

0 1 0
F
ij
0 0 1

2.) Applications to:
2.1 Volume change
J =
d
d
= detF
J = J acobian
d
0
2.2 Surface normal / surface area change
n
r
da = J (F
T
)
1
N
r
dA
r r r r
L
2
d
L
2
0
= dX (F
T
F 1) dX = dX 2E dX
E = F
T
F 1
Strain
2.3 Length change
tensor
=
L

2E
+11
relative length variation in
the -direction
L
0,
2.4 Angle change
sin
,
=
2E

(1+
)(1+
)

Topic: Linear deformation theory
Key assumption: Small deformation
1
r r
T
Small strain tensor = ( grad +( grad ) )
2
1 r r
1 r r
Distortion
2
(e
,e
)=
m
r
,n
r
=m n
(general)
Dilatation
(e
r
)=
n
r
=n
r
n
r
(general)
Volume change
Surface change
Strain Mohr circles
E
r
(n
r
)= n
r
(strain vector)
Concept: Decompose deformation into dilatation and distortion (3 Mohr circles for general )
II
The Mohr circle

Displacement vector Strain tensor
r
=
r
0
+
r
S
=
0
+
S
Decomposition into beam reference axis and section
r
From displacement in beam reference axis,
0
(x)
:
Navier-Bernoulli assumption (N-B):
An initially plane beam section which is perpendicular to
the beam reference axis remains plane throughout the
beam deformation and perpendicular to the beams axis
in the deformed configuration.
S
r
1
st
consequence
r
= (x)X
r
S
(y,z)
(section remains plane):
r
Therefore: From knowledge of
2
nd
consequence:
can calculate displacements and
(remains perpendicular)
strain tensor!
Total displacement and strain tensor coefficients:
r r
0
r
r
0 ' '
0
1 1
'
=
0
+
1
+
1
'
y
= +(x)X
S
(y,z)
xx
=
xx
+
y
z
z
y
xy
=
xy
x
z
xz xz
2
y
2
x
1
Pi-theorem (also definition of
physical quantities,)
Physical similarity means that
Physical similarity
all Pi-parameters are equal
Galileo-number (solid
mechanics)
Reynolds number (fluid
mechanics)
Extended base dimension
system
Lectures 1-3 and PS2
Important concepts include the extended base dimension system, distinction
between units and dimensions, the formal Pi-theorem based procedure and the
concept of physical similarity.
Applications include calculation of physical processes like atomic explosion, drag
force on buildings etc.
2
r
v
v
r
= dx
r
/dt
Velocity vector
r
r
a
a = dv
r
/dt
Acceleration vector
Unit vectors that
e
r r r
1
,e
2
,e
3
define coordinate
system =basis
Normal vector
r
Always points outwards of
n
domain considered
Force vector (force that acts
on a material point)
Angular momentum
r
x x
r
= x e
r
+ x
r r
1 1 2
e
2
+ x
3
e
3
Position vector
r
r r
p
p = mv = m(v
1
e
r
1
+ v
2
e
r
v e
r
2
+
3 3
)
Linear momentum
x
r r
r r r r
i
p
i x
i
p
i
= x
i
m
i
v
i
r
F F
r
= F e
r r r
x x
+ F
y
e
y
+ F
z
e
z
Covered in lecture 4 and PS1
Basic definitions of linear momentum, angular momentum, normal vector of domain
boundaries
3
Dynamic resultant theorem
r v
def r
Change of linear momentum
d(p)/dt = d(mv)/dt = F
is equal to sum of external
forces
Dynamic moment theorem
Change of the angular motion
of a discrete system of i =1,N
particles is equal to the sum of
the moments (or torque)
generated by external forces
Newtons three laws
Static EQ (solve truss problems)
1. Every body continues in its state of
rest, or of uniform motion in a right
line, unless it is compelled to change
that state by forces impressed upon
it.
2. The change of motion is proportional
to the motive force impresses, and is
made in the direction of the right line
in which that force is impressed.
3. To every action there is always
opposed an equal reaction: or, the
mutual action of two bodies upon
each other are always equal, and
directed to contrary parts.
d
N
( )
r r
def
N
x
i
m
i
v
i
= (
r
r
)
N
r
x F
ext ext
i
=
M
dt
i i
i=1 i=1 i=1
Lecture 4: These laws and concepts form the basis of almost everything well do in
1.050.
The dynamic resultant theorem and dynamic moment theorem are important
concepts that simplify for the static equilibrium. This can be used to solve truss
problems, for instance.
4
REV=
Representative volume element
d=differential element
Must be:
(1) Greater than any in
homogeneity (grains,
molecules, atoms,..)
(2) Much smaller than size of the
system
Atomic bonds
O(Angstrom=1
E-10m)
Grains,
crystals,
REV
d
Continuum
representative
volume element
REV
Note the difference between

Surface of domain
d and ' o ' perator
Lecture 5
The definition of REV is an essential concept of continuum mechanics: Separation
of scales, i.e., the three relevant scales are separated sufficiently. There are three
relevant scales in the continuum model. Note: The beam model adds another
scale to the continuum problem therefore the beam is a four scale continuum
model.
Skyscraper photograph courtesy of jochemberends on Flickr.
5
T
r
x
r r
Stress vector
T(n, x) =

T
y
(note: normal always points
T
z
out
of domain)
Force density that acts on a
material plane with normal n
r
at point x
r
T
r
(n
r
, x
r
) = (x
r
) n
r
Stress matrix
Stress tensor
p
Pressure (normal force per area
that compresses a medium)
= e
r
ij i
e
r
j
Lecture 5, 6, 7
These concepts are very important. We started with the definition of the stress
vector that describes the force density on a particular surface cut.
The stress tensor (introduced by assembling the stress matrix) provides the stress
vector for an arbitrary plane (characterized by the normal vector). This requirement
represents the definition of the stress tensor; by associating each entry with two
vectors (this is a characteristic of a second order tensor).
The pressure is a scalar quantity; for a liquid the pressure and stress tensor are
linked by a simple equation (see next slide).
6
Differential equilibrium (solved
by integration)
onS :
d
on: T = T(n)
EQ for liquid (no shear
stress=material law)
Divergence theorem (turn
surface integral into a volume
integral)
div + (g
r
a
r
) = 0 Differential E.Q. written out
for cartesian C.S.
In cartesian C.S.
Lecture 5, 6, 7
We expressed the dynamic resultant theorem for an arbitrary domain and
transformed the resulting expression into a pure volume integral by applying the
divergence theorem. This led to the differential EQ expression; each REV must
satisfy this expression. The integration of this partial differential equation provides
us with the solution of the stress tensor as a function of all spatial coordinates.
7
Divergence of stress tensor in cylindrical C.S.
Divergence of stress tensor in spherical C.S.
PS 4 (cylindrical C.S.)
This slide quickly summarizes the differential EQ expressions for different
coordinate systems.
8
Section quantities - forces
=
=
Stress tensor beam geometry

Beam geometry
Section quantities - moments
N
x
z
y
h,b <<l
z
Section
Lecture 8
Introduction of the beam geometry. The beam is a special case of the continuum
theory. It introduces another scale: the beam section size (b,l) which are much
smaller than the overall beam dimensions, but much larger than the size of the
REV.
9
Beam EQ equations
+BCs
+BCs
2D planar beam EQ
equations
z
x
Lectures 8, 9
The beam EQ conditions enable us to solve for the distribution of moments and
normal/shear forces.
The equations are simplified for a 2D beam geometry.
10
EQ for truss structures
(S.A.)
Strength criterion for
truss structures (S.C.)
0
Tensile strength limit
F
max
0
=
A
0
P P
F
max
= F
bond
N
A
0
#bonds per area A
0
Strength per bond
A
0
Concept: Visualization of the
strength
Number of atomic bonds per
area constant due to fixed
lattice parameter of crystal
cell
Therefore finite force per
area that can be sustained
x
x
x: marks bonds that break at max force
F
bond
Lecture 10, PS 5 (strength calculation)
11
Mohr plane ( and )
Mohr circle
(Significance: Display 3D
stress tensor in 2D)
T
r
(x
r
,n
r
) = n
r
+t
r
,
Basis in Mohr plane
Principal stresses
Principal stress directions
Principal stresses and
directions obtained through
eigenvector analysis
Principal stresses
=Eigenvalues
Principal stress directions
=Eigenvectors
I
,
II
,
III
u
r
I
,u
r
II
,u
r
III
Lecture 11
12
At any point, must be:
Two pillars of
(1) Statically admissible (S.A.)
stress-
strength
and
approach
(2) Strength compatible (S.C.)
Equilibrium conditions onlyspecify statically admissible

Hoover dam etc.
Strength compatibility adds the condition that in addition
to S.A., the stress field must be compatible with the
strength capacity of the material S.C.
Lecture 10, 11, 12 (application to beams in lectures 13-15)
13
Max. shear stress
c
Tresca criterion
Strength domain (general
definition)
Equivalent to condition for S.C.
D
k
D
k,Tresca
v
v
n : f (T) = c 0
Max. tensile stress
D
k,Tensioncutoff Tension cutoff criterion
c
Lecture 11
14
Mohr-Coulomb
D
k,MohrCoulomb
=
c cohesion
c=0 dry sand
Angle of repose
Max. shear stress
function of
N
Friction force
Shear resistance increases
with increasing normal force
F N N
F
frict
= = tan
frict
F
frict
Lecture 12 (Mohr-Coulomb criterion)
The definition of friction is included here for completeness
15
Moment capacity for beams
For rectangular cross-section
b,h
N
x
=
lim
N
0
N
x
= N bh
lim
0
=
0
Strength capacity for beams
M-N interaction (linear)
f (M
y
,N
x
) 0
M-N interaction (actual);
convexity
M
N
f (M , ) =
y
+
x
y
N
x
1 0
M
0
N
x
M
y
N
2
f (M , ) = +
x
y
N
x
1

0
M
0
N
x
1
1
D
S Strength domain for beams
Lecture 13 and 14
16
Safe
strength
Linear combination is safe
domain
(convexity)
: load bearing capacity of
i-th load case
Lecture 15
Summary of variables/concepts
Lecture 16-26
1
Define undeformed position
Deformed position
Displacement vector
X
r Position vector, underformed
configuration
Note: Distinction between
capital X and small x
x
r
Position vector, deformed
configuration
r
X x
r
v
r
=
Displacement vector
j i ij
e F e F
r r
=
Grad( ) 1 Grad( )
r
r
+ = = x F
j
i
ij
x
x
F
=
F dX dx
v
r
=
Deformation gradient tensor
Relates position vector of
undeformed configuration with
deformed configuration
Lectures 16 and 17: Introduction to deformation and strain
Key concepts: Undeformed and deformed configuration, displacement vector, the
transformation between the undeformed and deformed configuration is described by
the deformation gradient tensor
Derivation first for general case of large deformation
2
Variable Definition
L
a
r
g
e
-
d
e
f
o
r
m
a
t
i
o
n

t
h
e
o
r
y

d
J =
d
=detF
d
0
r
T
nda =J ( ) F
1
N
r
dA
2 2
E =F
T
F 1 L
d
L
0
=dX
r
(F
T
F 1)dX
r
=dX
r
2E dX
r
=
L
2E
+11
L
0,
2E
sin =
,
(1+
)(1+
)
r
Grad <<1
1
r r
T
= (grad + (grad ) )
2
=
1
i
+
ij
2
x
j
x
i
Notes & comments

J =J acobian volume change
Surface change (area & normal)
Definition of strain tensor
Relative length variation in the
-direction
Angle change between two
vectors
Small deformation strain tensor
For Cartesian coordinate system
Lecture 18: How to calculate change of geometry (angle, volume, length..)
Small deformation theory: The small deformation theory is valid for small
deformations only; for this case the equations simplify. These concepts are most
important for the remainder of 1.050.
3

= )= , (
2
1
e e
r r

)= (e
r
n n
n
r r
r
=
n m
m n
r r
r r
=
,
2
1
S
m
a
l
l
-
d
e
f
o
r
m
a
t
i
o
n

t
h
e
o
r
y

Angle change
Dilatation
Volume change
Surface change
II
n E n
r r
r
= ( ) (strain vector)
The Mohr circle
Mohr circle of strain tensor
Lecture 18: Small deformation - Mohr circle for strain tensor. Any strain tensor can
be represented in the Mohr plane; this way, one can display a 3D tensor quantity in
a 2D projection. All concepts are the same as for the stress tensor Mohr plane.
The quantities on the x/y-axes are dilatations and angle change (shear).
4
W Work done by external forces
d
Free energy change
W d =
Non-dissipative deformation=
elastic deformation
All work done on system
stored in free energy
Defines thermodynamics of
elastic deformation
j
j
i
i
d dx
x
j i
d dx ,
Solution approach 1D truss systems
kl ijkl ij
c =
=c :
Link between stress and
strain
Also called generalized
Hookes law
Lectures 20 and 21: Elasticity, basic definitions. The most important concept of
this lecture is that elastic deformation is a thermodynamic process under which no
energy dissipation occurs. This concept can be generally applied to characterize
any elasticity problem. We derived elasticity for 1D systems (including solution
strategy), and then generalized it to 3D. This led to the link between stress and
strain.
5
Elastic properties of material
do NOT depend on direction
Isotropic elasticity described
uniquely by 2 parameters, K
and G
( )
= =
i j
ij
T 2
2
1
:
2
1
Length of a tensor
tr( ) ( )
0
0
33 22 11
:1 tr

= + + = =
d
d d
d

Volume change of a tensor
) , (
d v

2 2
2
1
2
1
d v
G K + =
Free energy due to volume
strain and shear strain
(assumption, mathematical
model to describe elastic
behavior of isotropic solids)
( ) G G K G G K
v
2 1
3
2
2 1
3
2
33 22 11
+ + +
= +
=
Tensor notation
Lecture 22: Isotropic elasticity, basic concepts. The most important equation on
this slide is the one on the bottom, for linear isotropic elasticity. Note that isotropic
elasticity is fully characterized by two constants, K and G. These two parameters
have physical meaning; K describes how the free energy changes under volume
changes, and G describes how the free energy changes under shear (shape)
changes.
6
Variable Definition
11
=
K
2
G
(
11
+
22
+
33
) +2G
11
22
=
K
2
G
(
11
+
22
+
33
) +2G
22
33
=
K
2
G
(
11
+
22
+
33
) +2G
33
12
=2G
12
23
=2G
23
13
=2G
13
11
=
K +
4
G
11
+
K
2
G
22
+
K
2
G
33
3 3 3
22
=
K
2
G
11
+
K +
4
G
22
+
K
2
G
33
3 3 3
33
=
K
2
G
11
+
K
2
G
22
+
K +
4
G
33
3 3 3
12
=2G
12
23
=2G
23
13
=2G
13
Notes & comments
stress tensor coefficients
stress tensor coefficients,
collect terms that multiply
strain tensor coefficients
4
c
1111
=c
2222
=c
3333
=K + G
3
2
c
1122
=c
1133
=c
2233
=K G
3
c
1212
=c
2323
=c
1313
=2G
Lecture 22: Isotropic elasticity, equations that relate stress and strain. Here we
summarize the equations in different forms. On the bottom, right, you see how to
calculate the elasticity tensor coefficients from K and G.
7
Overview: 3D linear elasticity
0 div = + g
r

) (x
r
Stress tensor
Basis: Physical laws
(Newtons laws)
n n T
d
T
d
r r
r
r
= ) ( :
:
n n T
r r
r
= ) (
ji ij
=
) (x
r
Strain tensor
Basis: Geometry
r r
r
=
d
d
:
Linear deformation theory
1 Grad <<
r
( ) ( )
T

r r
grad grad
2
1
+ =
S
t
a
t
i
c
a
l
l
y

a
d
m
i
s
s
i
b
l
e

(
S
.
A
.
)
K
i
n
e
m
a
t
i
c
a
l
l
y

a
d
m
i
s
s
i
b
l
e

(
K
.
A
.
)

Elasticity
: c =
kl ijkl ij
c =
G G K
v
2 1
3
2
+
=
Basis: Thermodynamics
Isotropic solid
=
i
j
j
i
ij
x x
2
1
Summary, 3D linear elasticity. This page may be useful to keep an overview over
the methods and approaches covered here. This summary is valid for any linear
elasticity problem.
8
Variable Definition
displacement BCs), analyze the problem to
be solved (read carefully!)
stress tensor, strain tensor, and constitutive
equations that link stress and strain, simplify
expressions
integration), typically results in expression
with unknown integration constants
constants)
Notes & comments
3D elasticity problems
Lecture 23: Solution approach, 3D isotropic elasticity problems. This is a 4-step
solution procedure that guides you through the process.
9
xx
z
y xx xx
0 0
+ =
2
0 2
0
dx
d
z
y
=
Curvature
z
dx
d
dx
d
z x
xx 2
0 2 0

=
dx
d
x
xx
0
0
=
Strain
Navier-Bernouilli beam
model; strain distribution in
beam section
z
x
F
Uniaxial beam deformation
G K
G K
+
=
3
2 3
2
1
xx zz yy
= =
Poissons ratio (lateral
contraction under uniaxial
tension)
E
G K
KG
E
+
=
3
9
xx xx
E =
Youngs modulus (relates
stresses and strains under
uniaxial tension)
Lecture 19 and 24: Beam deformation and beam elasticity. Here we only review
the beam bending case for 2D systems. Beam elasticity is a special case of 3D
elasticity, adapted for the particular (stretched) geometry of beams. This slide also
reviews the introduction of Youngs modulus E and Poissons ratio. Both can be
calculated from K and G.
10
S
=
S
dS S
Cross-sectional area
I
=
S
z dS I
2
Second order area moment
EI
y
z
y
EI
dx
d
EI M
= =
2
0 2 Beam bending stiffness
(relates bending moment and
curvature)
ES
f
dx
d
x x
=
2
0 2
equation, axial forces
EI
f
dx
d
z z
=
4
0 4
equation, shear forces
displacement BCs), analyze the problem to be
solved (read carefully!)
integration), results in expression with unknown
integration constants
constants)
... ,
x z
beam elasticity problems
Lecture 25: Beam elasticity, contd. Note the two differential equations for axial
load/displacement and shear load/displacement in the z-direction. This slide also
summarizes the 4-step approach to solve beam problems.
11
Variable Definition
B
e
a
m

s
t
r
e
t
c
h
i
n
g

B
e
a
m

b
e
n
d
i
n
g
(
a
x
i
a
l

f
o
r
c
e
s
.
.
)

(
s
h
e
a
r

f
o
r
c
e
s
,

m
o
m
e
n
t
s
.
.
)

d
4
z
f
z
d
4
=
z
EI = f
dx
4
EI
dx
4 z
d
3
z
Q
z
d
3
z
=
EI =Q
dx
3
EI
dx
3 z
d
2
2
z
=
M
y
d
2
2
z
EI =M
y
dx EI
dx
d
z
=
d
z
=
dx
y
dx
y
z
x
d
2
2
x
0
=
f
x
ES
d
2
2
0
= f
x
dx ES
dx
d
x
0
=
0
dx
xx
0
x
Notes & comments
Shear force density
Shear force
Bending moment
Rotation (angle)
Displacement
Axial force density (e.g. gravity)
Axial strain
Axial displacement
Lecture 25: Beam elasticity, governing equations for both beam bending and beam
stretching. This slide reviews the physical meaning of the different derivatives.
12
Variable Definition
f (x)
f '(x)=0
f ''(x)<0
f ''(x)>0
f ''(x)=0
function of x
necessary condition for
min/max
local maximum
local minimum
inflection point
Start from f
z
=EI
z
''''
, then work your way up
''''
~f
+ Note sign changes:
z z
z
'''
~Q
z
''
~M
z y
'
~
z y
+
~
z z
At each level of derivative, first plot extreme cases at ends of
beam
Then consider zeros of higher derivatives; determine points of
local min/max

z represents physical shape of the beam (beam line)
Notes & comments
How to find
min/max of
functions
Drawing/sketching
approach
Lecture 26: Drawing of beam problems. Note the sign changes, as indicated. The
approach is based on the concept of considering min/max values of the functions;
since all physical quantities are derivates of one another, this approach can be
easily applied to plot the solution.
13
Example
' 2
3
2
~
16
5
6 8
1
) (
z y
lx
x
x l
EI
p
x
+ =
' ' '
~
8
5
) (
z z
l x p x Q
=
' '
2
2
~
8
5
2 8
1
) (
z y
lx
x
l p x M
+ =
+ =
3
4
2 2
48
5
24 16
1
) ( lx
x
x l
EI
p
x
z
' ' ' '

~ ) (
z z
p x f =
x
z
p =force/length
l length
EI
Lecture 26: Example. Remember to clearly indicate the coordinate system when
you draw beam elasticity solutions.
14
Variable Definition
Free end r
F =0
=0
z
r
M =0 M =0
y
Concentrated force
=0
x
Q
z
= P
=0
y
P
ng) di Hinge (ben
r
=0
M =0
y
=0
y
xx
(z;x)=E
N(x)
+
M
y
(x)
z
=
N(x)
+
M
y
(x)
z
ES EI
S I
Notes & comments
Commin beam
boundary conditions
Stress distribution within
cross-section
Lecture 26: Common boundary conditions in beam problems, plotting of stress
distribution within cross-section.
15
Summary of variables/concepts
Lecture 27 - 37
1
Variable Definition
f(x)
secant
f
f(x) | (ba) f(b) f(a)
tangent x x=a
Notes & comments
Convexity of a function
External work
Free energy and
complementary free energy
1
3 2
N
1 N
2
N
3
2
P
0
a b
W
d
*
i
i
x
W
d
=
v
F
r
d
+
v
d
R
r
N
i
=
i
*
N
i
i
=
N
i
i
*
i
Complementary
free energy
Free energy
i
N
i
=
i
*
(N
i
)+
i
(
i
)
i
Lectures 27 and 28: Basic concepts: Convexity, external work, free energy,
complementary free energy, introduced initially for truss structures (see schematic
show in the lower right part).
2
Variable Definition
Truss problems
* d d
(
v
R
r
)=
!

v
F
r
com
=
pot
Complementary Potential
energy energy
com
: =
pot
: =
' '
max( (N,R))
'
com i
i
' '
N S.A.
' '
com
(N
i
,R)

isequalto

pot
(
i
,
i
)
min (
'
,
'
)
Lower bound
i
'
K.A.
pot i i
Upper bound
Notes & comments
At elastic solution: Potential
energy is equal to negative of
complementary energy
Upper/lower bound
At the solution to the
elasticity problem, the upper
and lower bound coincide
Consequence of convexity of
elastic potentials ,*
Lectures 27 and 28: Introduction to potential energy and complementary energy,
definition at the elastic solution, upper/lower bound, example of energy bounds for
truss structures. The upper/lower bounds of the expressions are a consequence of
the convexity of the elastic potentials (see previous slide).
3
*
(1-D)
Free energy (1-D)

Contributions from external
W =

F
v
i
d

r
i
W =

R
r
i
d

r
i
d
W,W
*
i=1..N i=1..N
work
=
1
(W
*
+W)
Clapeyrons formulas
2
Significance: Enables one
*
=
1
(W
*
+W)
calculate free energy,
2
complementary free energy,
potential energy and
pot
=
1
(W
*
W)
2 complementary energy
directly from the boundary
com
=
1
(W W
*
)
conditions (external work),
2
at the solution ( target )!
Lectures 27-29: The equations for free energy and complementary free energy for
truss structures are summarized. Lower part: Clapeyrons formulas, used to
calculate the target solution, that is, the results at the solution. These equations
are generally valid, not only for truss structures (but the expressions of how to
calculate the individual terms that appear in these equations are different).
4
( )
. A . K '
pot
pot
. A . K '
com
. A . S '
. A . S '
com
) ' (
) ' ( min
to equal is
) ' ( max
) ' (

r
r
r
r

Lower bound Upper bound Solution
approach
Potential energy
approach
) ( ) ' ( ) ' (
* *
com
d
T W
r
=
Upper/lower bound for 3D
elasticity problems
(3-D, isotropic material)
Free energy
(3-D, isotropic material)
*
Complementary energy and

potential energy
External work contributions
Volume force
contribution
Stress vector
contribution
) ( ) ' ( ) ' (
pot
d
W
r r
=
Displacement
contribution
+ =
d
G
s
K
m
2 2
*
2
1
) trace(
3
1
=
m
( )
2 2
3 :
2
1
m
s =
( ) + =
d G K
d v
2 2
2
1

) trace( =
v
= =
2 2
3
1
: 2
v d

Lecture 30: Energy bounds for 3D isotropic elasticity. Note that the external
work contribution under force (stress) boundary conditions involves a volume
integral due to the volume forces (gravity). The lower part summarizes the
equations used to calculate the free energy and complementary free energy, as well
as the external work contributions (external work contribution part).
5
*
dx
EI
M
ES
N
l x
y
+ =
0..
2 2
*
2
1
2
1

(for beams)
( ) ( ) dx EI ES
l x
y xx
+ =
0..
0
2 2
0
2
1
2
1

Free energy (for beams)
Note 1: For 2D, the only
contributions are axial forces
& moments and axial strains
and curvatures
Note 2: Target solution using
Clapeyrons formulas
P
l/2
l/2
=unknown displacement at
point of load application
Target solution P
com
2
1
=
[ ] [ ]

+ + = + =
i
y R i
d
y z i
d
z x i
d
x
i
y R i y i
d
M x R x R x M x R x W
, ,
*
) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) (
r r
External work by prescribed
displacements
[ ]
[ ] [ ]

+ + + + =
+ + =
=
=
i
i
d
y y i
d
z z i
d
x x
l x
i
d
z z i
d
x x
i
i
d
y y i
d
l x
d
x M x F x F dx x f x f
x M x F x dx f W
) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) (
) ( ) ( ( )
0 0
0..
0 0
0
0..
0

r r r r
External work by prescribed
force
densities/forces/moments
Lecture 31: How to calculate free energy, complementary energy and external
work for beam structures.
6
max ( (F ' , M '))
F
x
', M
y
'S.A.
com x y

com
(F
x
' , M
y
')
isequalto

pot
(
x
',
y
')
F ', M 'S.A. ',, 'K.A.
x y
pot x y
x y
min ( ', ')
x y
', ' K.A.
F
x
' , M
y
'
Complementary
that provide
Potential energy
approach
energy
absolute
approach
max of
Displacement
Stress approach
com
approach)
x
',
y
'
Work with unknown that provide Work with unknown
but S.A. moments and absolute but K.A.
forces min of
pot
displacements
Step 1: Express target solution (Clapeyrons formulas) calculate complementary
energy AT solution
Step 2: Determine reaction forces and reaction moments
Step 3: Determine force and moment distribution, as a function of reaction forces
and reaction moments (need My and N)
Step 4: Express complementary energy as function of reaction forces and reaction
moments (integrate)
Step 5: Minimize complementary energy (take partial derivatives w.r.t. all unknown
reaction forces and reaction moments and set to zero); result: set of unknown
reaction forces and moments that minimize the complementary energy
Step 6: Calculate complementary energy at the minimum (based on resulting forces
and moments obtained in step 5)
Step 7: Make comparison with target solution =find solution displacement
Step-by-step procedure
how to solve beam
problems with
complementary energy
approach
Lectures 31-32: How to solve beam problems using the complementary approach.
This slide shows the overview over the upper/lower bounds. The lower part
summarizes a step by step procedure of how to solve statically indeterminate beam
problems with a complementary energy approach.
7
For any homogeneous beam problem, the minimization of
the complementary energy with respect to all hyperstatic
forces and moments yields the solution of the
linear elastic beam problem:
{ }
i r y i i
M R X
; ,
, =
( ) 0 ) ( =
i com
i
X
X
( ) ) ( min
2
1
*
i com
X
X W W
i

+
P
R
) (x M
y
) (x M
y
+ =
2 3 3 2
3
24
1
'
24
5
'
3 2
1
) ' ( P l P R l R
l
EI
R
com
0
'
) ' (
=
R
R
com
Example:
P l
EI
P R
com
3
1536
7
)
16
5
' ( = =
P R
16
5
'=
P l
EI
P R P
com com
3
1536
7
)
16
5
' (
2
1
= = =
P l
EI
3
768
7
=
Hyperstatic force
Lectures 31-32: Corollary, how to solve statically indeterminate beam problems
using the complementary approach. Summary of the concept that the minimization
of the complementary energy with respect to hyperstatic forces and moments
provides the exact solution of the linear elastic beam problem.
8
Euler beam buckling
Different boundary
conditions
Example: Euler buckling
of a frame structure
Lectures 33: Buckling of beam structures under compressive load. The lower part
summarizes the experiment presented in class.
9
Properties and
characteristic of instability
phenomenon
Introduction: Fracture
application and
phenomena
Lectures 34: Summary characteristics of buckling phenomenon (equivalency of
divergence of series, nonexistence of solution/bifurcation point/loss of convexity).
Introduction to fracture.
10
Images removed due to copyright restrictions:
photograph of fault line, World Trade Center towers,
shattered wine glass, X-ray of broken bone.
Variable Definition
P
2 bEI
s
P
max
=
2
l
P
Out-of-plane thickness: b
lb=
G=
pot
=unit
G=2
s
(lb) crack
area
Notes & comments
P
P
Useful scaling laws
Griffith condition for
crack initiation
Lectures 34 and 35: Fracture mechanics. The most important concept is the
Griffith condition. The example on the top summarizes the derivation done in class,
representing two beams that are pulled away from each other. This
11

2 1.12
2
0 2
= =
E
a
G
a
E
2 0
1.12
2
=
a
0
Fracture in a
continuum
Initial surface crack of
length a
Lectures 35: Fracture in continuum. The equations summarized in the left side
provide the energy release rate G for the geometry shown on the right. At the point
of fracture, the energy release rate must equal the surface energy. This condition
can then be used to determine the critical stress at which the structure begins to fail.
12
1.050: Checklist Exercises
Due: Wednesday September 12, 2007 (In Class)
MIT 1.050 (Engineering Mechanics I)
Fall 2007
Instructor: Markus J. BUEHLER
This subject, 1.050 Engineering Mechanics I, builds upon what you have learned in
your physics and mathematics courses, in particular at MIT, 8.01 and 18.01. The following
exercises, which are inspired from problem sets in 8.01 and 18.01, are designed for you to
refresh your memory after the long summer. They are also important for us to get a good
feel on what we can build together now that we start to explore the world of Engineering
Mechanics. In all these exercises, specify your assumptions, and feel free to add any physics
quantity you may need to provide an engineering answer. Furthermore, specify all the
resources you use for your solution.
Team Building and Team Work We strongly encourage you to form Homework teams
of three students. Each team only submits one solution for correction. We expect true team
work, i.e. one where everybody contributes equally to the result. This is testied by the team
members signing at the end of the team copy a written declaration that the undersigned have
equally contributed to the homework. Ideally, each student will work rst individually through
the homework set. The team then meets and discusses questions, diculties and solutions, and
eventually, meet with TA or instructor. This rst assignment is a good occasion for team building.
1. A waiters job: A new waiter is given the task of holding a tray of size 5|, with three
drinks of various weights. The drinks are distributed in the tray as displayed in the
gure. Calculate the location along the tray where the waiter should place his hand in
order to lift and equilibrate all the items.
w
4w
w
l l l 2l
Due: Wednesday September 12, 2007 (In Class) page 2
2. The oating egg:
(a) When Alberto placed an egg in a container full of water, he noticed that it sank.
Why was that so? Explain the phenomenon.
(b) Someone told Alberto a trick to make the egg oat: add some salt to the water,
mix thoroughly, and surely enough, the egg oated! If the container Alberto used
had 1 liter of water, how much salt did he add to make the egg oat? Make
any assumptions you think appropriate, just make sure to justify your procedure.
Use the handout from the CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics posted in
the for data on concentration of salt and mass per unit weight of
water.
water salt + water
2
class website
3. Hanging from the ceiling: A rope of length 1 is hanging from the ceiling. The left
end of the rope is xed to the ceiling. The right end is connected to a mass (:
2
) after
passing around a pulley. A second mass (:
1
) hangs from the rope as shown in the
gure. Both pulleys are frictionless. Find the position
1
, for which the system is at
rest (Hint: use energy arguments).
m
1
m
2
y
1
w
y
2
y
3
3
4. A drag force exercise: From the top of a skyscraper, one decides to drop a ball with
an initial velocity \
0
. In a rst approach, the drag force 1
D
due to air resistance can
be approximated in the form,
1
D
= c:\
where c is the drag coecient, : the mass of the object, and \ the velocity.
(a) Set up the dierential equation, and solve for the position of the ball as a function
of time, . (t). Use the appropriate boundary conditions.
(b) Calculate the terminal velocity for the motion of the ball. Assume that the height
of the building and the time to reach the oor are large enough to allow the ball
to reach the terminal velocity.
(c) Numerical application: Using a drag coecient c = 0.1 s
1
, plot the velocity of the
ball as a function of time (t) for three dierent initial velocities: \
0
= 10. 100. 200
m/s. For this numerical application, use MATLAB to construct the plot. Inter-
pret your results.
0
V
h
cmV F
D
=
4
5. Building of a channel: You have just been hired as an engineer to design a channel
for water ow. The available material has a width n, and it is bent into three straight
sections as observed in the gure. Your goal as the designer is to maximize the ow
of water on the channel, which is directly proportional to the maximum cross-section
area.
(a) Find the optimal dimensions | and c for the channel displayed in the gure.
(b) A colleague of yours in the company proposes the use of a semi-circular shape for
the same size of cross-section area obtained in part (a). Would this be advan-
tageous? Explain your answer in terms of other engineering aspects involved in
optimization problems (e.g. material cost, labor).
l w 2
l l

5
6. On vectors and more vectors
(a) About a triangle: Find the area of a triangle determined by two vectors:
!
: =
4
!
c
1
+7
!
c
3
and
!
t = 2
!
c
1
3
!
c
2
+
!
c
3
. Also, calculate the unit vectors that are
normal (perpendicular) to the plane described by
!
: and
!
t .
(b) World map: Ecuador and Malaysia lie on the Equator (approximately). Ecuador
is located 80
\ and Malaysia is located 110
1. Calculate the distance between

the two countries:
i. along the shortest route on the surface of our planet.
ii. along a direct path going through (or inside) our planet.
(c) Dust particle: A dust particle has the following motion as a function of time t,
!
: (t) = , [1 cos (ct)]
!
c
1
+ , [ct sin (ct)]
!
c
2
where c. , are constant coecients.
i. Determine the velocity and acceleration of the particle as functions of time.
ii. For what values of time t is the dust particle at rest?
iii. Calculate the angle formed by the velocity and acceleration vectors.
6
1.050: Dimension Analysis (HW #2)
Due: September 19, 2007
Fall 2007
Instructor: Markus J . BUEHLER
Team Building and Team Work: We strongly encourage you to form Homework teams of three
students. Each team only submits one solution for correction. We expect true team work, i.e. one where
everybody contributes equally to the result. This is testified by the team members signing at the end of the
team copy a written declaration that "the undersigned have equally contributed to the homework". Ideally,
each student will work first individually through the homework set. The team then meets and discusses
questions, difficulties and solutions, and eventually, meets with TA or instructor. Important: Specify all
The following set of exercises is designed to train you in the use of dimensional analysis.
1. A vertical excavation: Consider a vertical excavation of a cohesive soil with strength
0
.
(a) Using dimensional analysis, determine how deep can one cut into the soil before it
collapses under the action of its own weight. What type of information does dimensional
analysis provide at the end of the analysis? Comment.
(b) One OFifty Engineering Consultants have run an excavation experiment and determined
the following properties for soil MIT1050:
=2.4g / cm
3
0
=10kPa
h =0.425m
Using this data, could one determine explicitly the relation between the height of the
excavation and the strength and weight of the soil wall?
(c) Your 1.050 TA run some soil tests and determined the following properties for two soil
types:
clay:
0
=30 kPa, =1.7 g / cm
3
sand:
0
=3 kPa, =1.4 g / cm
3
Based on your dimensional analysis results and the experimental data from One OFifty
Engineering Consultants, determine the heights of excavation if you were working on
those two types of soils. Comment on your results.
Due: Wednesday September 19, 2007 (In class) Page 2 of 7
h
g
r
before
excavation
after
excavation
2. D-Analyzing a record-breaking suspension bridge: Civil engineers are currently working
on the design of an intercontinental bridge across the Red Sea, providing ground
transportation between the Arabian Peninsula and the Horn of Africa. Upon successful
completion of the project, it will surpass by more than 700 m the current record for the
worlds longest suspended span.
a) Read the article Record-breaking suspension span to link two continents from Civil
Engineering Magazine
*
.
Comment on the challenges that engineers have to face in this project.
b) During recitation of week 2 (September 13-14), we will cover the application of
dimensional analysis to bridge systems. Using the results derived in recitation (which can
also be found in the class manuscript) and the relevant information about this new
suspension bridge, calculate the Galileo Number and length factor l / l
lim
/(1 l / l
lim
)for
the proposed suspension span. Plot your result in the following figure. Comment on the
trend displayed in the figure.
*
Brown, J . L. (2007) Record-breaking suspension span to link two continents. Civil Engineering, 77 (8), August.
2
3. Velocity of a body in an included surface:
Problem text removed due to copyright restrictions. In addition to the variables
shown in the diagram below, this problem considers the terminal velocity v and the
frictional energy E
frict
.
This is a typical physics problem. However this time, you will not resort to your physics
problem-solving toolbox to analyze this problem. Instead, you will use your new dimensional
analysis toolbox from 1.050
.
(i) Before applying dimensional analysis, clearly establish which variables are
dependent and which variables are independent.
(ii) Determine using dimensional analysis the possible valid relations among the given
variables.
(iii) Could you explicitly calculate the terminal velocity by means of dimensional
analysis alone? Comment.
m

m

h
g

Problem presented in Szirtes, T. (2007) Applied Dimensional Analysis and Modeling, 2nd Ed. Elsevier,
Amsterdam.
3
4. Dimensional analysis in fluid mechanics: A spherical object of diameter D = 10 cm and
density =1,000 kg/m
3
is vertically falling through air. Assuming the object started its
trajectory from a high altitude, calculate its steady-state speed due to the presence of air drag.
Use the Reynolds number Drag Coefficient information from the enclosed figure for your
calculations.
100
2F
D
C
D
=2
0
=
a
(UD)
2
10
1
0.1
10 100 1000 10000 100000
Re =
1
1
=
UD
4
5. Euler - Buckling & the World Trade Center Towers: Following the destruction of the
World Trade Center Towers on September 11, 2001, it has been reported that buckling of the
columns had onset the fall of the towers. The focus of this exercise is to check this conjecture
by means of a dimensional analysis. The first part of this exercise aims at deriving the
governing equation of buckling; the second part then uses this result to make an informed
analysis of the buckling of the columns of the WTC towers.
a) The buckling of columns is one critical stability problem in the design of beam-type
structures. In contrast to the strength limit, the elastic stability problem of a column
relates to the presence of imperfections. The elastic column buckling can be described as
follows: consider a column of length l , and (for purpose of analysis) circular section of
radius R < l . The column is made of an elastic material whose stiffness is defined by the
Young's modulus E
. The column is subjected at its top to a force P . If the force were

applied exactly in the column axis, the column would not buckle. However,
imperfections are unavoidable. To consider those imperfections consider that the force
was applied with an eccentricity of R e << (see figure).
i. Buckling occurs when the applied force P reaches the buckling load P
crit
.
Formulate the problem, i.e., find the relevant parameters of the problem.
ii. The eccentric applied force causes a moment M = Pe , which leads to the
deformation ( ) of the column as sketched in the figure. As we will see later on w z
in these lectures, the moment is related to this deformation by a linear moment
curvature constitutive law:
4
d
2
w
M ER
dz
2
The concept of stiffness relates to the ability of the material to deform under application of loads. In 1.050, we will
study this concept in depth, but at this time we will only introduce it within the framework of dimensional analysis.
5
(the term d
2
w / dz
2
is defined as the curvature). By choosing an appropriate base
dimension system, show that the dimension function of the Young's modulus in
the problem is:
4 3 2
[E] = L
r
L
z
MT
where L
r
stands for the length base dimension in any direction perpendicular to
the column span direction.
iii. From a dimensional analysis, determine the dimensionless relation for the
buckling load. Show (and explain why?) that:
P
crit
l
2
lim
e / R0
4
= const.
ER
b) In a real-life tall building, the columns are held by the connecting floors, which work as a
horizontal bracing system (see figure). The columns in between two floors are designed
so that the vertical load P is much smaller than the buckling load P
crit
, defining the
robustness
0
( ) = P
crit
/ P z z ( ). In the light of the results so far obtained, explain the
following:
i. The initial impact of the planes on the 110 floor World Trade Center towers may
have destroyed one floor at the impact height, 96th floor in the North Tower and
80th floor in the South Tower. How did this change the robustness w.r.t. the
design robustness
0
?
ii. Using the analysis of part (i), develop an expression for the change in the
robustness w.r.t. the design robustness
0
and the number of destroyed floors.
6
iii. It was reported that the ravaging fire close to the impact zone led to the
destruction of several floor systems below the impact zone over time. If
0
(z = 0)
is the design robustness of the columns in the WTC at ground level, how many
floors were destroyed before the tower collapsed? Make an estimate by
considering the robustness of the WTC determined in the lecture to be
0
(z = 0) ~20 . Distinguish North Tower vs. South Tower.
(Hints:
0
=
0
( ) , since P = . Assume that P(z) evolves linearly and it is a z P(z)
function of the dead weight of the structure).
iv. The North Tower was hit at 8:46 am above the 96th floor and remained erect until
10:28 am; the South Tower which was hit above the 80th floor at 9:03 am
collapsed less than an hour later at 9:59 am. Explain why in a quantitative fashion.
7
1.050: Stresses and Equilibrium (HW #3)
Due: September 26, 2007
Fall 2007
The following set of exercises is designed to train you in the use of equilibrium conditions for
discrete systems. For each exercise, show us how you come to your answer and result. We highly
encourage you to make drawings (for instance of free body diagrams) where appropriate. Dont
forget to add the coordinate system.
1. Stress tensor and REV.: We use Cartesian coordinates. Display an REV and draw the stress
vectors it is submitted to, for the following cases:
1 1 0
1 0 1
0 1 1 0 2
2 0 1
0 2 0
1 3 0
3 2 0
0 0 0 3 0
1
0 2 1

= ;

= ;

= ;
3 2 0
1
=
2. Stress state inside a truss member: The figure below displays a typical truss member of
cylindrical shape with cross section area A . The rod is subjected to a force F at its ends.
a. The goal of this problem is to calculate the stress state inside truss member. Display your
result in tensorial form; that is, write out the stress tensor in tensor notation. Also write
out the stress vector for the normal that points in the axial direction.
b. Draw a typical REV from within the truss member and display the stress vector(s) it is
submitted to.
c. Numerical example: If the material strength is
0
=100 MPa, and the cross-section area of
the rod is A =5 cm
2
, calculate the maximum force that the rod can sustain.
F
F
A
3. Instability: Show that the following structure is unstable. Modify it so that it becomes stable,
while it remains statically determinate.
P
4. Truss structure as a discrete system: For the truss system shown in the figure below,
a. Is this truss system statically determinate?
b. Calculate the reactions at the structures supports.
c. Calculate the force in all truss members, as a function of angle .
d. Given the information about material strength (
0
and cross-section area A
bar
) for each
truss member, calculate the angle for which the stress in the each member does not
exceed the allowed material strength (Note: the material strength
0
is valid for both
tension and compression behaviors).
P

P =220kN
L =2m
A
bar
=4cm
2
0
=500MPa
L / 2 L / 2
5. A truss system in a bridge deck: In recitation, we learned about the Akashi-Kaikyo
suspension bridge in J apan. As shown in the photograph below, the bridges deck rests on a
truss system. While the actual truss system is a complex 3-D structure, we will analyze a 2-D
section as displayed below. The 2-D truss system is subjected to a distributed load of
D =800 kN/m, which represents the weight of the deck. The goal of this exercise is to
calculate the force in all truss members. Think carefully about how to handle the distributed
load in order to analyze the truss structure. Discuss what kind of implications your
assumptions may have, and what kinds of phenomena may not be captured correctly.
m
kN
D 800 =
14m
m 14 @ 4
Photograph adapted from: O'Donnell, P.S. (2007) Akashi Kaikyo Suspension Bridge, in David Denenberg,
www.bridgemeister.com, http://www.bridgemeister.com/pic.php?pid=996.
Photograph removed due to copyright restrictions.
6. A 3-D truss structure:
You have probably observed at the gym a punching bag. In some
cases, the bag is hanging from a truss structure that is connected to
the wall, as depicted in the sketch to the left.
The goal of this exercise is to determine the force in members AB,
AC, and AD. Indicate if the members are subjected to tension or
compression. In addition, compute all the reaction forces at nodes
B, C, and D.
m =60kg
0.6m
0.5m 0.3m
P
m 6 . 0
m 4 . 0
A
C B,
D
D
B C
A
P
m 4 . 0
*
Problems presented in Mase, G.T. and Mase G.E. (199
Courtesy of CRC Press, and used with permission.
1.050: Hydrostatics and Geostatics (HW#4)
Due: October 3, 2007
Fall 2007
The following set of exercises is designed to train you in the use of continuum model for the
evaluation of the stress distribution in hydrostatics and geostatics engineering problems. For each
exercise, show us how you came to your answer and result. We highly encourage you to make
drawings where appropriate.
1. Stress vectors and equilibrium
*
:
9) Continuum mechanics for engineers. 2
nd
ed., CRC Press, Boca Raton.
Problem removed due to copyright restrictions.
Due: Wednesday October 3, 2007 (In class) Page 3 of 6
2. Strip Foundation: The sketch below shows a soil continuum below a strip foundation of
width B in the x-z plane. The extension in the y-direction can be assumed to be infinite. In
addition to its dead weight (specific weight g ), the soil substrate is subjected to the line
force P (of dimension [ ] [ ] F L
y
1
) of the strip foundation. The contact between the P =

foundation and the soil substrate is assumed to be frictionless.
P P
xx
Fr F ictionle rictionless ss
Contact Contact
zz
BB
a. Specify precisely the conditions that a stress field in the soil substrate needs to satisfy
in order to be statically admissible.
b. To simplify the problem, we break the load (dead weight and foundation force) up in two
separate load cases: the dead weight and the foundation load:
i. Load Case 1: Dead weight - For the dead weight, consider a hydrostatic stress
field of the form:
= ( ) z 1
Determine the distribution o (z) in response to the dead weight.
ii. Load Case 2: Foundation Load - In order to analyze the stress field in
response to the foundation load, we break the soil domain up in three sub-
domains, which have a common interface along z >0 at x = B / 2 (see
sketch). In the two domains we consider the following constant diagonal
stress fields:
<B / 2: =a1 x
r r r r r r
x >B / 2:
=b(e
x
e
x
+e
y
e
y
)+ce
z
e
z
Determine the three constant stress values a, b, c so that
is statically
admissible.
iii. Superposition: Why must it be true that the sum of the two previous stress

fields + is statically admissible?
c. It is common practice, in the engineering design of shallow foundation to neglect the
dead weight of the soil. On the basis of your results, develop a rational criterion under
which circumstances this assumption holds (approximately) true.
3. Borehole pipe: The enclosed figure (in particular sketch (a)) shows a cylindrical borehole
pipe used for CO
2
sequestration. The system has the following dimensions:
R =0.5m
h =40m
The pipe holds liquid CO
2
, with a density of
CO
2
=1.10 g/cm
3
, and it is subjected to a
pressure p
0
=300 kPa. This pressure is used to pump some liquid CO
2
into the ground upon
the opening of an outlet door at the bottom end of the pipe (see sketchs (a) and (b)). For this
exercise, we will only focus at the (hydro)static case where the liquid CO
2
is contained in the
pipe under the prescribed pressure p
0
and the outlet door is closed.
a. Formulate precisely how you can write the stress tensor prevailing in the liquid CO
2
for this particular case.
b. Write down the conditions in the borehole in order to be (hydro)statically admissible
(Note: for this problem, use cylindrical coordinates). Using these conditions, determine
the pressure distribution and specify:
i. What is the pressure in the liquid CO
2
immediately below the free surface
in the top end of the pipe?
ii. What is the pressure at the bottom of the borehole pipe?
iii. Sketch the stress distribution within the pipe (in radial and angular
direction) as well as in the height direction.
iv. Discuss how the stress distribution changes as a function of applied
pressure on the top; for this purpose plot the ratio of pressure on the top
over the pressure on the bottom as a function of the applied pressure on
the top. Discuss the results.
c. Determine the resulting force that acts at the outlet door in the bottom of the pipe. The
outlet door in the pipe is given in the sketch (b), where:
l =1.0m
R
1
=0.25m
d. Strength of the pipe: Using the hydrostatic state of the liquid CO
2
at depth (h l ) in the
radial direction, calculate the stress in the cylinder wall, =Q / t due to the constant
internal pressure (see sketch (c)). The thickness of the pipe wall is t =2.5cm.

g
0
p
h
oil
l
outlet
(a) (b)
R
R
1
(c)
Q Q
r
p
at depth
( ) l h
t
thickness of
pipe wall,
Figure, Problem 3
1.050: Continuum Strength Models (HW#5)


Fall 2007


The following set of exercises is designed to train you in the use of equilibrium and strength
models for continuum systems. For each exercise, show us how you came to your answer and
result. We highly encourage you to make drawings where appropriate.

1. Stress state and strength criterion: We consider the next two stress tensors (parameter
p > 0), given in a Cartesian system of coordinates of basis(e
r
1
,e
r
2
,e
r
3
) :

3 0 0 0 2 0

= p 0 2 0 ; = p 2 3 0

0 0
1

0 0 3

For each stress tensor, obtain:

a. The eigenvalues and eigenvectors.
b. Display the Mohr circles.
c. Find the minimal value of p at which the material fails for a material governed by a
Tresca strength criterion of cohesion c =1.
d. Find the two failure planes (in the (e
r
1
,e
r
2
,e
r
3
) basis) and the stress vectors that act on
them.
e. What is the underlying assumption for the Tresca strength model?
f. Answer the same questions (a through d) in the case of a material governed by a Mohr-
Coulomb criterion of cohesion c =1 and of friction angle = /5.

2. A nano truss: Advances in nanoscience and nanotechnology
*
now enable us to build
structures at molecular scales, with atomistic precision. An important building block of
many nanostructures are carbon nanotubes (CNTs), a particularly sturdy form of carbon
arranged in a tubular structure. A picture of a CNT is shown below.

From a mechanical perspective, CNTs are particularly intriguing as they are one of the
strongest and stiffest materials known; yet, they are extremely lightweight. Applications of
CNTs range from reinforcement for concrete (to supplement or replace steel reinforcement),
polymers to important applications in energy related technologies, such as hydrogen storage
for fuel cell applications. Nanoscopic truss structures of CNTs may find applications in ultra-
small devices to clean water, to harvest sunlight or to analyze genetic information.

This exercise introduces you to the possibility to utilize structural engineering tools typically
applied to macroscopic objects like bridges, buildings etc. to nanostructured objects.

Snapshots of a CNT. It can be envisioned as a rolled up sheet of graphene (graphene
denotes a single layer in graphite). Many different types of CNTs (different sizes, multiple
nested CNTs like in a Russian Doll) can be synthesized.

Here we consider a truss structure build out of CNT elements. We will consider a particular
geometry of a CNT as shown on the next page. Below you will find some relevant
information about the material and the geometry of CNTs:

Youngs modulus (a measure of stiffness), E = 2 TPa
Bond strength of a single covalent C-C bond, P
bond
= 3 nN
Outside radius of CNT, R
0
= 8
Area moment of inertia (assuming circular cross-section),
R
4
I =
4
Critical buckling load for a simply supported column (which we had applied earlier to
our truss members),
EI
2
P
crit
=
L
2
, where I is the area moment of inertia, and L is
the length of the member.

*
Richard Feynman (Professor at Caltech and Nobel Laureate) is often considered the founding father of
nanoscience and nanotechnology. In a famous speech in 1959 he first articulated the possibility of controlling
matter at atomistic and molecular scale and utilizing this for technological applications
(http://www.rpi.edu/dept/materials/COURSES/NANO/shaw/Page2.html
). Over the past decades, many advances
have been made in this field, among others, a new form of carbon has been discovered, arranged in a tube-like
structure, referred to as carbon nanotubes. Some of Feynmans visions have become a reality, while many aspects
still remain a research topic. Eric Drexler, an alumnus of MIT, is a pioneer in the implementation of such ideas and
was maybe the first nanoengineer.
Both triangles defined in the nano-truss are isosceles, with side lengths L =10 nm
Loads applied on the nano-truss, P = 20 nN

For this problem, perform the following tasks:

a. Compute the axial forces in each member of the nano-truss.
b. For the given geometry, material, properties, and loading condition, determine the
robustness for each member (hint: consider a range of possible failure modes for each
member). Derive all material parameters from the information given above.
c. Given the analysis in part (b), what could be a critical condition to be optimized to
ensure optimal utilization of the material? Outline several steps towards that goal,
e.g. changes of geometry, the structure of the CNT and others.

A selection of views of the carbon nano tube (CNT) that is used to build the truss structure.
Images generated in Center of Computational Science web application, University of Kentucky,
https://www.ccs.uky.edu/~ernst/carbontubes/structure.html (you could use this tool to create
your own CNT structures!)

Sketch of the nano-truss. All members have the same length. The CNTs are connected by
molecular structures that represent frictionless joints.
3. Limit Load Below a Circular Foundation: Sketch (b) shows a soil continuum below a
circular foundation of radius R, subjected to the foundation load P. We want to evaluate the
maximum load the soil substrate can support.

Throughout this exercise (parts (a) and (b)), we make the following simplifying assumptions:

- All contacts are frictionless.
- The weight of the soil is neglected.
- We adopt cylindrical coordinates of basis (e
r
e
r
e
r
r
,

,
z
), see sketch.

P
p p
z
e
r
GGCCTTSS Te Test stiinngg Syst Systeemmss (2 (2000077)). Un . Univers iversaal te l testin sting g mmaacchhiinnee,,
htt http:/ p://w /www ww.g .gct cts. s.com/i com/im mag ages es/ /pphot hotos/ os/17 173. 3.j jpg pg
Courtesy of GCTS Testing Systems. Used with permission.

r
e
r
e
r
z
e
r
R 2
1

P

Figures for Problem 3. a Triaxial test experiment (top)
b Soil continuum below a circular foundation (bottom).

a. Triaxial Test: In order to characterize the soil behavior, it is common engineering
practice to core a cylindrical sample of radius R and height H . The sample is brought
into a lab, where they are subjected to the so-called triaxial test. The test consists of
placing the cylindrical specimen between two rigid plates of a material testing machine
(see figure). The lower surface z = H is fixed. The upper plateau ( z = 0) exerts a
r
r
vertical force F
ext
= Pe
z
(with P > 0) on the specimen surface. In addition to the vertical
force, a pressure p is exerted on the cylinder wall. Both P and p are increased until the
failure is reached. Throughout this exercise (parts (a) and (b)) we assume P > pR
2
.

i. Statically Admissible Stress Field: For the triaxial test, specify precisely the
conditions that statically admissible stress fields need to satisfy. Among all possible
statically admissible stress fields, determine one that is constant

in the sample
(Reminder: use cylinder coordinates).
ii. Mohr-Stress-Plane: In the (, ) Mohr stress plane, display the chosen constant
stress field. In both the Mohr plane and the material plane, determine the surface
and the corresponding stress vector, where the shear stress is maximum.
iii. Mohr-Coulomb material: The triaxial tests reveal that the material obeys a Mohr-
Coulomb strength criterion, defined by the cohesion c and the friction angle .
Display the strength criterion in the Mohr-stress plane. Determine the relationship
that links P and p when the material reaches the strength limit. In both Mohr
plane and material space, determine the orientation of the surface(s) of the sample
where the material reaches the strength limit.

b. From the Triaxial Test to the Limit Load of a Circular Foundation: With the strength
values in hands, we turn to the circular foundation problem. For purpose of analysis, we
divide the substrate in two domains
1
and
2
, whose interface is situated at r = R .
i. Statically Admissible Stress Field: In both domains we assume constant stress fields,
of the form:

( ) i
= a
(i )
e
r
e
r
(i )
r
r

r
+ b e
e
r
+
(i )
e
r
c
z
e
r
z

where a
( ) 1
,b
( ) 1
,c
( ) 1
and a
(2)
,b
(2)
,c
(2)
are six constants which you need to determine so
that the stress field is statically admissible everywhere in =
1
+
2
. Hint: For
domain
1
(which is situated below the foundation), you may want to consider the
triaxial stress field from part (a). Then check how to extend this stress field into
2
.
ii. Mohr-Stress-Plane: Display the stress fields of
1
and
2
in the Mohr-stress plane.
iii. Mohr-Coulomb material: In the Mohr-Stress plane display the Mohr-Coulomb
criterion. For the two domains, determine the stress vector components ( ) , where
the material reaches the strength criterion. On this basis, determine the maximum load
P the soil substrate can support without violating neither equilibrium nor Mohr-
Coulomb strength criterion. Determine the orientation of the surfaces, e.g. the angle
relative to vertical, where the material reaches the strength criterion.
b

1.050: Beam Stress-Strength Models (HW#6)
Fall 2007
questions, difficulties and solutions, and eventually, meets with the TA or the instructor. Important:
Specify all resources you use for your solution.
The following set of exercises is designed to train you in the use of equilibrium and strength
models for 2-D beam-type structures. Display your responses graphically in form of free body
moment, shear force, and axial force diagrams.
1. Wood beam design problem: The sketch below shows a cantilever beam structure
supporting a punching bag of mass m at its free end (point C). The deadweight of structural
members is neglected in this exercise.
L / 2
C
h

L / 4
B
P
schematic of
connection at
point B
L
B
b
A
h
a) Determine the moment, shear force and axial force along the beams axis A-B-C.
b) The beam section is a wooden rectangular section of height h and width b (see sketch,
right side). The wood is assumed to obey the Tresca strength material law. As a function
of the structural dimensions (L), the section dimensions (h, b) and the uniaxial wood
strength
0
, determine the load-bearing capacity of the structure. In particular,
distinguish:
i) Pure bending moment capacity.
ii) Combined axial force and bending moment capacity. (Neglect the effect of shear
forces on the strength capacity).
iii) By comparing the load bearing capacity of i) and ii), conclude under which conditions
one can neglect the effect of the axial force on the load bearing capacity of this beam-
type structure.
c) Design Application
We consider the following data: L =2 m, mass of punching bag, m =130kg.
i) Determine the cross-section parameters h and b? For typical values of wood strength
0
, conduct a web search.
ii) Design the connection at point B. You have at your disposal steel nails, of strength
0,steel
=250 MPa, and 4 mm diameter. Propose a tentative arrangement of the nails
at the connection, and estimate the number of nails you need. Sketch a drawing for
your proposed design. Assume that the wood can stand the pressure from the nails.
(Be creative! You do not need to give the exact minimum number of nails required to
prevent failure, but provide a good engineering estimate with its justification).
2. Tall building under wind load: We consider a tall building subjected to extreme wind load.
The goal of this exercise is to analyze the stress distribution inside the beam at the root of the
building and to determine if the building will collapse under the wind load.
For our analysis, the following quantities are considered. The building has a square cross-
section of side length D =30 m, height H =300 m, and an estimated density of
b
=1000 kg/m
3
. The density of air is
air
=2 kg/m
3
, and its kinematic viscosity is
air
=1.6 10
5
m/s
2
.
In our engineering model, the building is treated as a beam structure, with no variation of
forces and stresses in the y direction.
a) Determine the drag force exerted by a hurricane with wind speed of U =250 km/h. Use
the graph below for the analysis.
C
D
10
-2
10
0
10
-2
10
0
10
2
10
4
10
6
10
2
10
4
10
6
10
8
10
8
100
1
0.1
Re
10
b) Determine the distribution of the section quantities: normal force, shear force, and
moment. Assume that the drag force acts as a point force at half of the height of the
building (see schematic). Also, consider the deadweight as a distributed load and as a
function of height.
c) Sketch the solutions for the three section quantities obtained in part b).
d) Determine the critical location where the structure is subjected to maximum axial force
and bending moment.
e) Failure Analysis: You have been hired as a young engineer to asses the following
scenario.
The given building has collapsed (with no fatalities) due to the passing of the hurricane
with wind speed U =250 km/h. The failure zone corresponded to the critical location
determined in part d). Your goal is to determine if the concrete material used to build the
tall building complied with the specified strength reported by the construction company.
For your analysis consider the following steps:
i) Establish the axial force capacity N
0
and bending moment capacity M
0
as functions
of the concrete strength
0
using the block-stress field approach (see lecture notes).
The concrete is assumed to obey the Tresca strength material law (In reality, concrete
behaves significantly different under tension or compression load cases. Our
assumption to treat it as a Tresca-type material is just a first-order analysis of this
challenging problem).
ii) Determine the combined bending moment axial force strength capacity from a
linear combination of the pure bending moment capacity and the axial loading
capacity (neglect the effect of shear forces on the strength capacity).
iii) Determine the effective uniaxial strength of the concrete, from the derived result
from part ii) and the load combination determined in part d). Compare your estimate
with the reported strength given by the construction contractor of
0
=17 MPa.
f) Mohr Circles and Shear Stresses: For the analysis performed in part e), we restricted
ourselves to considering a uniaxial stress field, which at failure takes the form:
= e
r
e
r
x x
in the zone of the cross-section subjected to maximum stresses (the parameter changes
its sign at a point z
0
in the cross section; here we only consider the compressive part). In
particular, corresponds to the result obtained in part iii), section e).
i) Plot the Mohr circle(s) corresponding to this uniaxial stress field, knowing that is a
compressive stress in the part considered here.
ii) Now, consider the effect of the shear force due to the wind load F
D
(use your result
from part b). Translate this shear force into a shear stress
xz
. Plot the new stress
tensor in the Mohr plane:
= e
r
e
r
+ e
r
e
r
+ e
r
e
r
x x xz x z xz z x
Compare your results to part i) of this section and discuss briefly how the
consideration of shear stresses would modify the initial analysis using only axial force
bending moment combination.
1.050: Deformation and Strain Tensor
(HW#7)
Fall 2007
The following set of exercises is designed to familiarize you with deformation and strain
measurements.
1. Derivation: Show the derivation of:
J =det F
for the special case of a volume change in only two directions. From the lecture notes, we
derived that the deformed volume d
d
is related to the original volume d
0
by:
d
d
= (F dX
r
1
) (F dX
r
2
F dX
r
3
) =det F[dX
r
1
(dX
r
2
dX
r
3
)] =Jd
0
where d
0
=dX
r
1
(dX
r
2
dX
r
3
). For the 2-D case, the deformation gradient F and the
material vectors are:
F
11
F
12
0 a
1
a
2
0
F =
F
21
F
22
0
; X
r
1
=
b
1
; X
r
2
=
b
2
; X
r
3
=
0 0 1 0 0 1

2. A Simple Shear Exercise: In this exercise, we will investigate the deformation of a cube by
simple shear. The cube has sides of unit-length. The magnitude of the simple shear is given
on the sketch below.
e
r
2
2a
1 = L
1
e
r
3
e
r
1 = L
The displacement field for the simple shear is defined by:
r
(x, y, z) = (2ay)e
r
1
Where y is the distance in the e
r
2
-axis.
a. FINITE DEFORMATION THEORY: From finite deformation theory (refer to manuscript
and lecture notes), the following results are obtained:
Change in volume:
d
t
d
0
= 0
d
0
2
Change in surface oriented by N
r
= e
r
1
: da = 1+ 4a dA
r
Maximum dilation: ( ) = 2a
2
+ 2 a
4
+ a
2
+1 1 u
I
Distortion in plane (e
r
1
e
r
2
) : (e
r
1
,e
r
2
) = sin
1
1+
2a
4a
2
For this part of the exercise, use your geometry skills only to calculate:
i. The change in volume (d
t
d
0
)/ d
0
ii. The change in surface da for the surface oriented by N
r
= e
r
1
iii. The distortion (e
r
1
,e
r
2
)
iv. Do your results match with the results from finite deformation theory?
b. INFINITESIMAL (LINEAR) DEFORMATION THEORY:
i. Under what condition can we restrict our study of simple shear to linear deformation
theory? Recall that ( ) ( )
T
Grad tr Grad Grad
r r r
= , where tr is the trace of the
matrix.
ii. Assuming that linear deformation theory is valid, calculate the strain tensor .
iii. Draw the Mohr circles for the result of part ii). In what direction do you get
maximum dilation? What is the value of the maximum dilation?
iv. Compute the same quantities required in parts a) i-iii using now infinitesimal
deformation theory. Discuss your results.
c. Numerical Application: Using the previous results from finite and infinitesimal
deformation theories, construct plots for:
r
i. Maximum dilation, ( ) u
I
ii. Distortion in plane (e
r
1
e
r
2
) , (e
r
1
,e
r
2
)
as functions of length parameter a . Use a scale between 0 < a < 0.5 . Comment on your
results and provide an estimated range over which linear deformation theory could be
applied for the single shear deformation.
Due: Wednesday October 31, 2007(In class) Page 4 of 9
3. Tunneling: During the excavation of a tunnel, one often observes that the walls of the tunnel
tend to move inward, such as displayed on the following sketch (on the left side).

rrr
eee
r, rr,,eee
rrr
rrr,,,eee
rrr
uu
00
45 45
oo
222RRR 222RRR

This phenomenon is called convergence. Given the symmetries of the problem, we decide to
work in cylindrical coordinates. We assume that the displacement field is given by:

r
( ) r,, z =
u
0
R
e
r
r

r

a. Under what condition can we restrict our study to the linear deformation theory? (Use the
same approach as in Problem 2, Part b,i).
b. Assuming that the linear deformation theory is valid, calculate the strain tensor .
c. What is the volume strain?
d. What are the eigenvalues and eigenvectors? Using these results, draw the Mohr circles.
e. In what direction do you get maximim dilation? In what direction do you get maximim
distortion?
f. To measure the strains, strain gauges are placed in the wall of the tunnel. Their
arrangement is displayed in the top figure (on the right side). In view of the given
displacement field, what dilation do you expect each of the strain gauges to measure?

4. Three-Truss System: Consider the truss system displayed in the following figure. The
structure is composed of three bars of the same length L , supported at the top and connected
on the bottom side to a rigid beam device, which is subjected to a load P at location
x = (3/ 4)l . In a first approach, this truss system can be considered as a discrete system. The
objective of this problem is to determine the axial force in each truss member and evaluate
the displacement
0
at the point of load application.
l l l l
4 4 4 4
rigid
The solution of this problem requires the following steps:
a. Apply force and moment equilibrium (around the point of load application), and derive
the two equations relating the axial forces N
1
, N
2
, N
3
and load P (Note that the axial
force N
i
corresponds to bar i =1, 2, 3).
b. From the result in part a), what is the degree of indeterminacy?
c. In order to solve the given problem, we need to ensure the kinematic compatibility
between the bar elongations
i
(which correspond to the elongations of bars i =1, 2, 3)
and the constraints on both the top (where the bars are fixed) and the bottom where each
bar is constraint by the displacement
i
of the rigid bar at the nodes. The geometrical
compatibility conditions are:
1
=
1
2
=
2
=
1
+
2
(
0
1
)
3
3
=
3
=
1
+
4
(
0
1
)
3
Explain how the compatibility conditions were derived.
d. There exists a relation between the elongation and the force in each bar given by:
N
i
=K
S
i
where
i
corresponds for the elongation of bar i. This offers additional equations to
eliminate the indeterminacy of the problem. Substitution of these relations and the
geometrical compatibility conditions in the equilibrium relations obtained in part a),
determine the displacements
0
and
1
.
e. Finally, using these results, determine the axial forces in the three truss elements.
5. Variation of Quiz 1
To provide additional practice, please redo a slightly modified version of Quiz I.
A cylindrical pothole in a pavement is filled with a new material subjected to vehicle traffic.
The aim of this exercise is to analyze stresses and strength compatibility of this repair
solution.
Engineering Model: To this end, we model the pothole as a cylinder of diameter and height
L (see figure below). The surrounding pavement (old material) is so old that it can be
considered as rigid compared to the new material filling the cubic pothole. The load to which
the pot hole is subjected is the tire pressure p. We neglect body forces (i.e. deadweight), and
all surfaces between the new material in the pothole and the rigid material surrounding it, are
frictionless. The entire problem will be solved in a cylindrical coordinate system.
5.1 Statically admissible stress field
The goal of the first part of this exercise is to calculate the stress field inside the pothole.
a. Formulate precisely all conditions the stress field inside the pothole needs to satisfy to be
statically admissible (S.A.). In particular:
r
i. Formulate the stress vector boundary condition (that is, T
d
) on the surface of the
pothole.
ii. Formulate the stress vector boundary condition on the frictionless surface between the
pothole and the rigid material, as well as at the bottom of the pothole.
iii. Assuming that the stresses are constant in the pothole (neglect gravity), show that the
stress field is compatible with a diagonal form of the stress tensor (
rr
=
due to
equilibrium):
=a(e
r
r
e
r
r
+e
r
e
r
) +be
r
z
e
r
z
.
where a and b are two unknown stress parameters.
b. The stress field has two parameters, a and b. Which of these two parameters can be
determined from the analysis done in part a)? Determine this parameter. (The other
parameter remains unknown; we will determine it in part 5.2).
5.2 Mohr circle plot and strength criterion
a. Sketch the Mohr circle, indicating the parameters a and b in the Mohr plane (assume that
a >b ).
b. The pothole is filled with concrete. The strength of concrete can be approximated by
using a Tresca strength model (this is a rough approximation, but considered sufficient
for the present analysis). In terms of principal stresses it reads (see lecture notes):
f () =
I
III
2c 0
i. Define the condition at the strength limit.
ii. Determine the three principal stresses
I ,II ,III
based on the stress field given in
part 5.1).
iii. Using the Tresca strength model, find an expression for the missing stress field
parameter (a or b), assuming that the strength limit is reached under the load p (this
expression will be a function of p as well as the Tresca parameter c.
Hint: precisely define the condition at the strength limit.
5.3 Application of strength criterion, numerical values
a. The Tresca strength model contains one material parameter, the cohesion c . The goal of
this question is to determine this parameter from a laboratory experiment. The laboratory
experiment that is carried out on concrete specimens made of the same material as used
to fill the pothole is the uniaxial tensile test. From the experiments, the uniaxial tensile
strength of
t
=3 MPa was determined.
By carefully determining the principal stresses in the laboratory test, determine cohesion
c of the concrete. In particular:
i. To facilitate your calculation, first sketch the Mohr circle for the test (Hint: first
determine
I
and
III
for the uniaxial tension test).
ii. Sketch the Tresca strength criterion in the Mohr plane in the situation when the
strength limit in uniaxial tension is reached.
iii. By using the mathematical expression of the Tresca strength criterion, determine the
cohesion c.
Note: No graphical analysis is needed to obtain the answer for part iii); points i) and
ii) are only to visualize the concepts. This exercise can be solved independently.
b. The typical axle load (4 tires) of a US Highway truck is 400 kN (equivalent to 40 metric
tons), which is transmitted over a tire contact surface of roughly A=200 cm
2
. Determine
the values of the stress tensor components.
For these values, is the vertical interface between the old and the new material subjected
to tension or compression?
1.050: Beam Torsion & 1-D Elasticity (HW#8)

Due: November 7, 2007

Fall 2007


The following set of exercises is designed to familiarize you with the use of the elasticity model
and of thermodynamics of reversible processes in Engineering Mechanics of truss systems, as
well with the analysis of beam structures under combined bending moment and torsion.

1. Design of a Highway Sign: The sketch below shows a typical highway sign. The objective
of this problem is to design the column (vertical beam element) holding the sign using a
stress-strength approach. In this problem, we consider only the effect of a wind load acting
perpendicular to the face of the sign (the self-weights of the beam structure and of the sign
are neglected).

MIT
1.050
MIT
1.050
H
2 / h
2 / h
L 2 / h

Due: Wednesday November 7, 2007 (In class) Page 2 of 4
a. Determine the distribution of the section quantities: normal force, shear force, bending
moment and torsion moment for the column. Display quantitatively the results for all section
quantities in the form of force and moment diagrams.

b. Design the cross-section of the column using a strength criterion given a design wind
pressure, p . The beam section is a hollow square, whose dimensions are displayed on the
sketch below. The thickness of the wall of the beam is very small with regard to the width of
the beam, i.e. t << b. The beam is made of a material whose stress is governed by a Tresca
strength criterion with uniaxial strength
0
.
b
b
t

For this part of the exercise follow these design steps:

i. Find the maximum bending capacity of the beam M
b
0
.
ii. Find the maximum torsion capacity of the beam M
t
0
(Hint: Consider the stress field

displayed on the picture below).

iii. What is the bending moment - torsion moment strength capacity of the section? (Neglect
any possible effect of shear forces on the strength capacity. The effect of axial forces due
to the self-weight of the structure has been neglected in the analysis of this problem).
iv. By considering the mixed bending moment - torsion moment strength criterion for the
beam, calculate, as a function of
0
, what is the maximum wind pressure p that can be
applied to the beam?
2. 2-D Truss Structure / Another punching bag problem: The sketch below shows a 2-D
two-member truss system fixed against a wall and holding a punching bag of weight P at
point A.

P
H
L
A
B
C

The members are made of the same material and have the same cross-section area S . The
constitutive behavior of each truss member is linear elastic

, defined by a constitutive relation
of the classical Hooke form:

F
S
= K
S

where is the change of length of the truss member, and K
S
= ES /l , where E is the
Young's modulus of the material, S the cross-section area, and l the truss member length
(which is different for the different truss members (see sketch), meaning that the two truss
members have different K
S
).

a. Error during assembly: During the assembly of the truss system, the inclined truss
member AC was built in too long, having a length L
2
+ H
2
( ) 1+ instead of
L
2
+ H
2
(Note that <<1). In the absence of any applied force (i.e. no punching bag
hanging from the truss structure), determine the member forces and the displacement at
point A due to the error in the assembly.

b. Consider now that the structure was built without assembly errors.

i. Application of Hooke's Law: For the given truss system, determine the member forces
and the displacement at point A due to the weight of the punching bag.

ii. Show that the result you obtain in Part (i) can be equally obtained by the application
of the Thermodynamics of Reversible Processes (see Lecture Notes). In particular,
specify:
- The external work rate, W .
- The free energy variation, d.
- Make use of the zero-dissipation condition, dD = 0.

c. Turning an error into a strength: Determine the value of so that the elastic vertical
displacement at the point of load application is zero. Use the principle of superposition
for the results obtained in Parts (a) and (b).

1.050: Beam Elasticity (HW#9)
Due: November 14, 2007
Fall 2007
The following set of exercises is designed to familiarize you with the use of the beam elasticity
model. Where appropriate, display your responses graphically in form of free body force,
moment, rotation, and deflection diagrams.
1. Area Moments of Inertia: For the given isosceles triangle cross-section, determine the
following quantities:
a. The zero-order area moment, S (this represents the cross-sectional area).
b. The centroid of the cross-section in the z-axis, z
c
.
c. The first-order area moment, S
z
.
d. The second-order area moment, I
zz
.
r
z
b
h
y
r
c
z

2. 2-D Beam Elasticity Differential Approach: The sketch below shows two beam
members subjected to different loads and boundary conditions.
a. For the two cases, calculate the shear force, bending moment, rotation, and deflection of
the beam. Outline your process using the 4-step method for solving beam structure
problems presented during 1.050 lectures. Display your responses graphically.
Note: For case 2, consider the self-weight of the hanging beam, as well as the
deformation created in the axial direction.
q
P L
Case 1 Case 2
b. For both cases, the beam's cross-section and its dimensions are displayed on the sketch
below (t << b and t <<h ). Determine rigorously the position of the centroid, and the
relevant area moment of inertia (refer to the example calculation for I as shown in lecture
25 and apply the method to this problem).
Sketch the stress distribution over the cross-section (in the z-direction), at the location x
along the beam's axis where the maximum moment occurs.
b
h
t
t
L

c. Let
o
be the uniaxial strength of the material. For both cases 1 and 2, determine:
i. The elastic limit load q
0
el
, i.e. the limit load you would calculate at failure by
assuming that the stress distribution in the beam is the elastic one.
ii. The maximum load-bearing capacity, as we have done in previous beam-strength
exercises. Consider a bending moment strength criterion for the beam.
d. Design Problem for Case 1
We consider q
0
=20kN/m; L =5m. We also consider the section to be made of steel,
which has a Young's modulus E =250 GPa and a strength
o
=220 MPa. Check for the
section dimensions (height h =20 cm, flange width b =10 cm and thickness t =1cm)
that the following two design conditions are satisfied. If they are not, propose a design
change (but do not recalculate):
i. The load must not exceed the elastic limit load.
ii. The maximum elastic deflection of the beam must not exceed / L =1/500 .

3. Forensic Beam Elasticity: The sketches below show the elastic moment diagrams of a beam
clamped on both sides for two different bending moment responses. For both cases:
a. Determine the shear force distribution, and reconstruct the load (type and orientation) to
which the beam is subjected.
b. Determine the shape of the elastic rotation
y
(x) and the deflection diagram
z
(x).
Indicate where the maximum rotation and deflection occurs ( EI
zz
= const ) (for this
problem, numerical values are not important - the CLEAR SHAPE of the diagram is;
including minima/maxima, deflection points, etc.).
c. Compared to the elastic moment diagram displayed in the sketch, how does the moment
diagram look (shape +values) when the beam reaches its load bearing capacity,
x, ( ) M
0
(where M
0
stands for the maximum bending moment the section can M x
y
support)?
z
x ( ) x M
y
0
M
0
M
0
M
L
z
M
0
x ( ) x M
y
2 /
0
M
2 /
0
M
M
0
L L L L
6 3 3 6

4. Beam Structure Subjected to Hydrostatic Loading: A beam structure of length L and
height H is cantilevered from a ceiling, holding a still body a water, of density
w
, as
displayed in the sketch below. The width of the structure b , in the direction into the paper, is
so large that allows treating this problem as two-dimensional, i.e. evaluate quantities
depending on the width b in terms of per unit width.
a. Application of Hydrostatics Theory: Determine the hydrostatic load distribution (have a look
back to what we have seen in hydrostatics) and determine the resulting pressure distribution
along the beam structure.
Hint: First write the stress vector for any plane (characterized by its normal vector) in the
water domain, and then write the stress vector for the boundaries B-C and between points A
and B. The solution for this part forms the boundary conditions for Part b.
b. Beam Theory: Determine the section forces and section moments that develop in the beam-
type structure in response to the pressure loading determined in Part a of this exercise. Given
that the beam structure has a Young's modulus E and a thickness t , determine the
corresponding linear elastic rotation and deflections of the cantilever beam structure (Note:
consider bending and axial deformation for the vertical beam A-B).
In particular, what are the horizontal and vertical displacements at point D?
H
L
water,
w
A
B
C
D
rigid beam
member, DC
H /3

1.050: Energy Bounds in Elasticity (HW#10)
Due: Friday, November 30, 2007
Fall 2007
The following set of exercises is designed to familiarize you with the use of energy bounds in
linear elasticity. This problem set is focused on 1D methods, and you will be able to apply the
techniques you have learned in Lectures 27, 28 and 29. Please review the lecture notes and
handouts carefully.
For some of the solutions it is recommended to use Maple or Mathematica software to solve the
resulting system of linear equations.
1. Truss structure: The sketch below shows a truss structure constructed with 6 vertical
members and a horizontal rigid bar. The structure of subjected to two loads at points A and B
(thus, this is a force-driven experiment). The top of the truss structure is connected to a fixed
boundary. The goal of this problem is to solve for all displacements and axial forces using
the structures energy content.
L L L L L
P
Fixed boundary
Rigid bar
A B
2P

Due: Friday November 30, 2007 (in class) Page 2 of 7
r
a. Proposed, approximate solution 1: Use the displacement field '=
0
'e
r
z
, which is
displayed in the following sketch:
P
L L L L L
z
e
r
r
' '
0
=
2P
i. Confirm that this displacement field is kinematically admissible.
ii. Compute the potential energy for the truss system, given this displacement field.
iii. Use the theorem of minimum potential energy to determine
0
' and the minimum
potential energy, min E
pot
(
0
').
0
'
iv. Calculate the forces in each truss member. Check if the resulting force field is
statically admissible (Hint: carry out a moment and force balance). Discuss the
results.
b. Proposed solution 2: Derive the displacement field which matches the kinematic
conditions displayed in the following sketch:
L L L L L
P
0
2P

i. Compute the potential energy for the truss system, given this displacement field.
ii. Use the theorem of minimum potential energy to determine
0
,
1
and the minimum
potential energy, min E (
0
).
0
pot
iii. How does the solution for the potential energy for
0
compare with the one obtained
in Part a? Discuss your finding.
iv. Calculate the forces in each truss member. Check if the resulting force field is
statically admissible. Discuss the results.
c. For the same force-driven experiment of Parts a and b,
i. Compute the complementary energy for the truss system.
ii. Use the theorem of minimum complementary energy to determine the axial forces and
the minimum complementary energy, min E
com
(N
i
).
N
i
iii. Compare the solution of Part c,ii to the solution of Part b,ii. What do we conclude
about the quantities
0
,
1
, N
i
? Is the solution from Part a for
0
' an upper or a lower
bound to the actual solution
0
?

2. Minimum potential energy approach: The photograph below shows a section of a
suspension bridge. We will use what we have learned about truss structures, beam
deformation, and energy methods to analyze the deformation behavior of the top cord and the
vertical cables. The engineering model of a simplified structure is presented in the next
sketch.
Photograph adapted from: O'Donnell, P.S. (2007) Akashi Kaikyo Suspension Bridge, in David Denenberg,
www.bridgemeister.com, http://www.bridgemeister.com/pic.php?pid=996.
Photograph removed due to copyright restrictions.
Note: Please take a look at the handout of Lecture 29, which summarizes the approach for
another example. Note that the total length of the elastic beam is 2L .

Solve this problem using the potential energy approach. Assume that the displacement of the
elastic beam is of the form:
x L
z
(x) = +

a. Write the free energy of the system. To do this,

i. First write the displacements of the three points: 1) at member 1, 2) at member 2, and
3) where the load is applied, as a function of the displacement function parameters
, .
ii. Express the free energy of the two trusses as a function of the parameters in the
displacement function.
iii. Express the free energy of the elastic beam as a function of the parameters in the
displacement function. Start from the free energy expression of an elastic beam:
2 L h /2 b /2
1
0 0
2
B
=

2
E(
xx
+
y
z) dydzdx (see handout for Lecture 29)
x=0 z=h /2 y=b /2
iv. Express the external work as a function of the parameters in the displacement
function.
v. Write the expression for the potential energy E
pot
(, ) .
b. Using the minimum potential energy theorem, find the solution for , that
approximates the structure deformation solution. Calculate the potential energy for this
set of parameters. Is the potential energy an upper or lower bound of the absolute
minimum of the potential energy?
c. Plot the displacement function, for E =200 GPa, h =0.05 m, b =0.05 m, L =1 m (h,b,L
are dimensions of the beam element), S =b
2
, H =2 m (S,H are dimensions of the truss
elements), P =100 kN, using Matlab, Excel, Maple, or Mathematica. Do not hand in a
hand-drawn sketch. Also provide the maximum displacement at the point where the force
is applied.
d. Is the displacement
0
an upper bound or lower bound to the actual solution? (Do not
calculate the actual solution; simply discuss this point).
e. Calculate the forces in each truss member, and check if the solution is statically
admissible. Discuss the results.
f. In a few sentences, discuss a possible strategy to arrive at the exact solution to this
problem.

3. Solving a statically indeterminate truss: The objective of this exercise is to determine all
the member forces for the truss structure shown below. The truss is loaded with a force P at
node C . All members in the truss structure have the same cross-section parameters (E,
Youngs modulus and S, the cross-section area). For the solution of this exercise, use the
given notation for nodes (A through D) and truss members (1 through 5).
B
We take advantage of the great tools of energy bounds in elasticity to solve this statically
indeterminate truss by applying the complementary energy approach to the force-driven
problem (recall part 1.3 in Lecture 29, see also slide 11 in the handout for Lecture 29).
a. Determine the degree of indeterminacy for the truss structure.
b. Solve for the member forces of the following alternative truss structure:
B
P
L L
L
A C D
11
22
33
55
44
A C D
11
22
33
55
44
L
P
R
L L

c. Compute the complementary energy:
* d
E
com
(F
j
, R
r
) = (F
j
)
v
R
r
Choose carefully your boundary conditions in order to replicate the original structure.
d. Use the theorem of minimum complementary energy minE (F
j
) to determine all
F
com
j
member forces.

1.050: Energy Bounds in Elasticity (HW#11)
Due: Friday, December 7, 2007
Fall 2007
The following set of exercises is designed to familiarize you with the use of energy bounds in
linear elasticity. This problem set is focused on 3D methods and applications to beam structures
and you will be able to apply the techniques you have learned in Lectures 30, 31 and 32. Please
review the lecture notes and handouts carefully.
1. Warm-up problem: a simple beam structure: The sketch below shows a statically
indeterminate beam of length L, clamped at x = 0, and simply supported at the other end. The
beam is subjected to a concentrated load F
r
d
= Pe
r
z
at x = L/4. In this exercise we are
interested in calculating the elastic deflection of the beam (Hint: Review the class notes and
handout for Lecture 32, and follow the proposed 7-step procedure).
.
P
x
z
L, length
EI
L/4
a. What is the degree of indeterminacy of this structure?
b. Find the target energy solution using Clapeyrons formulas.
c. Determine the force and moment distribution as a function of reaction forces and
moments.

Due: Friday December 7, 2007 (in class) Page 2 of 3
d. Using the lower bound approach, compute the complementary energy for the beam.
e. Minimize the complementary energy w.r.t. the hyperstatic force.
f. Calculate the displacement at the point of the concentrated load application.
2. Beam deformation analysis a statically indeterminate case: A frame structure as
displayed below is loaded by a force F. The frame structure consists of two beam segments
of length L (segment I) and length 2L (segment II), characterized by E (Youngs modulus), I
(area moment of inertia) and S (cross-sectional area). However, in contrast to our previous
studies (this problem appeared in Quiz 2), a design engineer suggests to reduce the vertical
displacement at the point of load application by the addition of a horizontal support at Point
A. The goal of this exercise is to check the efficiency of that proposal using the energy
approach. For simplicity, we consider beam bending only, i.e. ES .
O
II
B
2L
F
L
I
o
45 =
A
E, I
a. By means of the complimentary energy approach, determine the reaction force at Point A.
On this basis, determine and sketch the moment, shear force, and axial force along the
beams axis O-B-A. (Hint: for this problem, use the principle of superposition for
determining the force and moment distributions that will be used for the complementary
energy computations. Also, review the class notes and handout for Lecture 32, and follow
the proposed 7-step procedure).
b. Using the results from Part a), determine the vertical displacement at the point of load
application. How much (in %) does the addition of the horizontal support reduce (or
increases) the vertical displacement.
c. Sketch the deflection curve along the beams axis (do not need numerical values, only
establish minima, maxima, point of inflection, etc.).
3. A water retaining structure Upper Bound Energy Approach: The sketch below shows
a water retaining structure holding a body of water (
w
=1,000 kg/m
3
). The structure is
made of concrete of density
c
=3,000 kg/m
3
, and its dimension in the y-direction is very
large (thus, we will analyze all quantities per unit length in the y-direction). The focus of this
exercise is the estimation of the elastic displacement at several locations along the wall
bottom of the structure.

concrete
Due: Friday December 7, 2007 (in class) Page 3 of 3
concrete
water
fixed
boundary
water
fixed
boundary
In this problem, we will use the upper bound energy approach. In order to simplify our
analysis, we will use the following section of the structure and the given boundary conditions
due to the symmetry of the problem:
water
L
2 / L
x
r
z
r
( ) 0 0 , = = = z L x
d
x
concrete
water
We use the following form for the displacement field:
x

x
1
r
x r
e
r
+ b ' = a e
x z
L L L

where a and b are the degrees of freedom.
r
a. Show that the displacement field is kinematically admissible.
b. Determine the strain tensor '.
c. Using the displacement-based approach potential energy approach, determine a first
r
approximation of the displacement field that minimizes the potential energy min E (').
a,b
pot
d. Numerical application: Consider the elastic properties of concrete, Youngs
modulus E
c
=20,000 MPa, and Poissons ratio
c
=0.2. The length dimension of the
structure is L =50 m. Determine an estimate of the vertical and horizontal displacements
at points x =0.25L , x =0.50L , x =0.75L , x =L . Sketch the deformation at the bottom
of the structure. Are the calculated values an upper or lower bound of the actual
displacements for this structure?
1.050: MATLAB Tutorial
Fall 2007
MATLAB ENVIRONMENT:
Two key components:
1. Command window: In here, you can type all MATLAB commands and operations.
However, you might lose your script (the collection of all your computations) if you exit
MATLAB.
2. Editor: In this window, you can also type all MATLAB commands and operations, but
they will not be executed until you tell the program to run the calculations (see next
section how to create and run your script). The neat about creating a script file is that you
can save it and run it any other time.
Screenshot of the MATLAB environment showing editor and
command window removed due to copyright restrictions.

TA: J . Alberto Ortega

September 7, 2007 Page 2 of 3
How to run your script in MATLAB?
In recitation this week, Alberto walked you through some basic MATLAB commands used for
vector and matrix operations.
In case you missed recitation or you want to learn about creating a MATLAB script, you can
download the file MATLABrecitation.m from the (remember where you save it
in your account or personal computer). This file has all the exercises we did in class.
The goal of this section is to help you load this file, and run the calculation in MATLAB. Once
you learn how this works, you will be ready to create your own .m scripts and perform a series of
operations for your P-sets or other engineering problems you may have to solve using
MATLAB.
1. In your MATLAB main window, go to File / Open and search for the .m of interest (in this
case, MATLABrecitation.m).
2. The file will pop-up in the Editor window. As you can see, there are a lot of commands typed
in there. Some commands at the beginning of the script are new, but they are there to keep
things neat.
clear clears all the variables stored in the memory of MATLAB, so results dont get mixed.
close all closes all figure windows, so that you have fresh graphs every time.
clc clears all contents of your Command Window, so that only the results obtained from
your current script are displayed.
3. The statements that have a % in front are just annotations. This helps you make notes of
what you are doing, and in general is a good programming habit, just in case you have to
share your script with other people.
4. All operations for vectors and matrices are included in the script. MATLAB has some
intuitive labels:
dot , transpose, cross, inv, rank
Other commands, you can learn them:
size(x) displays the number of rows and columns of the vector x.
acosd calculates the arccos of a number in degrees.
norm(x) calculates the length of a vector
5. The last part of the script shows you how to make a plot in MATLAB for the relation
between to quantities. The example used to illustrate this application is plotting the length
dimension x (related to the travel path used by Alberto to save a friend drowning) as a
function of time t.
2
class website
Athena
September 7, 2007 Page 3 of 3
6. Finally, how to run ALL these computations?
Using your mouse pointer, click over the Editor window.
In the main MATLAB window, you will see the menu options:
File Edit Text Go Cell Tools Debug Desktop Window Help
Go to Debug / Run (or alternatively just hit F5)
Then, you will see that all the operations typed into the .m script are performed in the
Command Window! And you can always make modifications to your .m script and re-run
your calculations.
IMPORTANT TO REMEMBER! If you make changes to your script, save them first (File /
Save) and then hit Run.
Hope this MATLAB tutorial is helpful.
3

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Engineering Mechanics-MIT NOTES

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1.

050 Engineering Mechanics I

G.I. Taylors Analysis*

log r = log ( ) + log t

Max. shear stress

Step 3: Solve equations d = W

Next step: Carry out differentiations

Deviatoric part of the strain tensor

Complete stress-strain relation

collecting terms multiplying

Calculation of strain tensor simplifies

(knowledge of strain enables

to calculate stress via eq. (2))

This enables us to determine the constant C

Derivation of beam constitutive equation in 3-step

Therefore: We can use the same formulas!

Complementary free energy

Complementary free energy

II. Stresses and strength

Lecture 27: Introduction: Energy bounds in linear elasticity (1D system)

Lower bound Solution Upper bound

Step 4: Express complementary energy

Lower bound Solution Upper bound

log r = log ( ) + log t

Applicable to: Concrete, soil, sand,

The Mohr circle

Note the difference between

Stress tensor beam geometry

Equilibrium conditions onlyspecify statically admissible

Notes & comments

' ' ' '

Free energy (1-D)

Complementary energy and

Complementary free energy

max ( (F ' , M '))

\ and Malaysia is located 110

1. Calculate the distance between

. The column is subjected at its top to a force P . If the force were

a. Write the free energy of the system. To do this,

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