73

This chapter is important from the point of view of entrance exam like, AIEEE. Every
year minimum one question based on this chapter are generally asked in
examination.
This book consists of theoritical & practical explanations of all the concepts
involved in the chapter. Each article followed by a ladder of illustration. At the end of
the theory part, there are miscellaneous solved examples which involve the application
of multiple concepts of this chapter.
Students are advised to go through all these solved examples in order to
develope bettter understanding of the chapter and to have better grasping level in
the class..
CONDUCTION
Preface
Total number of questions in this chapter are :
(i) In chapter Examples ....................... 06
(ii) Solved Examples ....................... 06
Total no. of questions ....................... 12

74
Heat can be transmitted from one place to the other
by three modes these are :
(1) Conduction
(2) Convection
(3) Radiation.
We will discuss only conduction in this chapter.
1. CONDUCTION
Conduction is the phenomenon of transfer of heat
through one part of the body to another, from particle
to particle in the direction of fall of temperature
without any actual movement of the particles.
For example : When we heat one end of a solid, its
other end becomes hot. Heat goes from one end of
the rod to the other end by conduction.
In the process of conduction when an object is
heated, the particle of the body at higher temperature
give heat to the particle at lower temperature. Hence
the molecular collisions takes place by which the
transfer of energy occurs and the heat is transferred
from one end to the other.
2. THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY
Thermal conductivity of a solid is a measure of the
ability of the solid to conduct heat through it.
Substances differ considerably from one another in
this respect. For example, copper, silver etc. are
very good conductors of heat whereas glass, wood
etc. are bad conductors.
3. TERMS RELATED TO THE THERMAL
CONDUCTIVITY
(i) VARIABLE STATE : As temperature of every
cross section of the rod goes on increasing, the
rod is said to be in variable state.
(ii) STEADY STATE : This state of the rod, in which
temperature of each part becomes constant and
there is no further absorption of heat any where
in the rod is called steady state.
Note that in steady state temperature of each
part of the rod is constant but not same.
Note : Theory of conduction is valid only at steady
state.
(iii) ISOTHERMAL SURFACE : If we consider a
metallic rod in which heat flows from one end to
the other so that after some time, a steady state
is reached. In this state temperature of every
transverse section of rod is same on the whole
area of section. This transverse section of the
rod behaves as an isothermal surface.

(1) At isothermal surface, the temperature of all the
molecules is same.
(2) These surfaces never intersect each other
(3) The shape of isothermal surface depends on the
shape of conductor and nature of flow of heat.
It can be (1D, 2D or 3D) heat flow.
(4) The direction of heat flow is always normal to
the isothermal surface.
(3) TEMPERATURE GRADIENT : The rate of
change of temperature with distance along the
direction of flow of heat is called temperature
gradient.
If we consider a metallic rod having u and
u Au as the temperature of two isothermal
surfaces which are being at a distance of Ax from
each other, than
Temperature gradient =
x A
u A
=
dx
d u
(i) The negative sign indicates that temperature
decreases with distance in the direction of heat
flow.
(ii) The unit of temperature gradient is C per meter.
4. LAW OF HEAT TRANSFER THROUGH
CONDUCTION
In steady state, the rate of flow of heat (dQ/dt),
through the crosssection of the conductor is,
(i) Directly proportional to the area A of surface

|
.
|

\
|
dt
dQ
A
(ii) Directly proportional to the temperature gradient
(du/dx) i.e.

|
.
|

\
|
dt
dQ

|
.
|

\
| u
dx
d

75
On combining the above two forms, we get,

|
.
|

\
|
dt
dQ
A.
|
.
|

\
| u
dx
d

|
.
|

\
|
dt
dQ
=kA
|
.
|

\
| u
dx
d
-----------(1)
Where k is constant called as coefficient of
thermal conductivity of the material. The unit of
coefficient of thermal conductivity is
J/mseck.
Now if dH is the amount of heat transfer in time
interval dt then,

dt
dQ
=
dt
dH

dt
dH
=
x
KA
A
u A
=rate of heat flow
If heat enters from one end such that temperature
decreases with distance in the direction of heat
flow than,

dH
dt
=

KAd
dx
u
Special Point : If heat enters from one end and
the temperature is measured from the other end
opposite to the direction of flow than,

dH
dt
=
KAd
dx
u
5. THERMAL RESISTANCE
Eqn. (1) can be rewritten as
KA / dx
d
dt
dQ u
=
This is analogous to ohms law equation
I =
R
V
the quantity
KA
dx
is called Thermal Resistance, in
analogy to electrical resistance greater the thermal
resistance, better will be the thermal insulation and
poorer will be the thermal conduction.
6. COMPARISON OF HEAT CONDUCTION WITH
ELECTRICAL CONDUCTION
Electrical Conduction
1. Electrical charge flows from higher potential
to lower potiontial
2. The rate of flow of charge is called electric
current.
dt
dq
= I
3. By Ohms law,
R
v v
2 1

= I
4. The electrical resistance is given by
A A
R
o
= =

Where is resistivity and o is conductivity
Thermal Conduction
1. Heat flows from higher temperature to lower
temperature
2. The rate of flow of heat is called as heat current
dt
dQ
= I
3. The heat current is given as
Th
2 1
R
T T
= I
4. The thermal resistance is given by
KA
R
Th

=
Where k is thermal conductivity of the conductor
Heat conduction
Ex.1 Transmission of heat by molecular collisions
is
(A) Conduction (B) Convection
(C) Radiation (D) Scattering
Sol.(A) In the conduction mode, the molecule remain at
their place and transmission of energy occurs by
molecular collisions.
Ex.2 Coefficient of thermal conductivity depends
on
(A) Nature of material
(B) Heat produced
(C) Difference in temperature
(D) Atmospheric pressure

76
Sol.(A) In the formula Q =
t
d
) ( KA
2 1

u u
K is coefficient of thermal conductivity which is
a constant whose value depends on the nature
of material.
Ex.3 The state when there is no more absorption of
heat by the bar to raise the temperature of any
part of it, is called the
(A) Variable state (B) Steady state
(C) Both the above (D) None of the above
Sol.(B) Steady state refers to the mode in which the
temperature remains constant i.e. neither the
absorption nor radiation takes place.
7. COMBINATION OF STRAIGHT RODS
7.1 SERIES COMBINATION : Suppose we have two
rods of same cross-sectional area A. The length of
the rods are
1
and
2
and coefficient of thermal
conductivity are K
1
and K
2
respectively.
The ends of the composite rod are maintained at
temperature u
1
and u
2
. Let u be common temperature
of the junction.
In steady state, any heat that goes through the first
rod also goes through the second rod. So same heat
current passes through the two rods.
Heat current in I
st
rod =
1
1 1
) ( A K

u u
...(1)
Heat current in II
st
rod =
2
2 2
) ( A K

u u
In steady state,
1
1 1
) ( A K

u u
=
2
2 2
) ( A K

u u
K
1

2
(u
1
u) =K
2

1
(u u
2
)
K
1

2
u
1
K
1

2
u =K
2

1
u K
2

1
u
2
u =
1 2 2 1
2 1 2 1 2 1
K K
K K


+
u + u
u =Temp. of meeting point of two rods
Put the value of u in eqn. (1)

dt
dH
= (

+
u + u
u
1 2 2 1
2 1 2 1 2 1
1
1
1
K K
K K

A K

=
K A K
K K
1
1
2 1 1 2
1 2 2 1

( ) u u
+
L
N
M
O
Q
P
=
2 1
1 2 2 1
2 1
K K
K K
) ( A
+
u u
=
A
K K
( ) u u
1 2
2
2
1
1

+
=
1
1
2
2
2 1
AK AK

+
u u
...(2)
(i) In terms of thermal resistance, if we use R
eq
as
net resistance of combination, than
dt
dH
=
. eq
2 1
R
u u
...(3)
Equating eqn. (2) and (3), we have
. eq
R
=
1
1
2
2
AK AK

+
...(4)
R
eq.
= R
1
+R
2
(ii) If K
eq.
is the equivalent coefficient of thermal
conductivity of the combination of rods, then thermal
resistance of the combination becomes
R =
. eq
2 1
AK
+
...(5)
Comparing eqn. (4) and (5), we get,

1
1
2
2
AK AK

+
=
. eq
2 1
AK
+

1
1
2
2
K K

+
=
. eq
2 1
K
+
K
eq.
=
2
2
1
1
2 1
K K


+
+
Series combination of rods
Ex.4 Figure shows a copper rod joined to a steel rod.
The rods have equal length and equal cross-
sectional area. The free end of the copper rod is
kept at 0C and that of steel rod is kept at 100C.
Find the temperature of the junction of the rod.
Conductivity of copper =390 W/m-C
Conductivity of steel =46 W/m-C


77
Sol. Heat current in first rod (copper)
=
390 0 A( ) u

Here u is temperature of the junction and A &

are area and length of copper rod.
Heat current in second rod (steel)
=
46 100 A( ) u

In series combination. heat current remains same.

So,

390 0 A( ) u

=
46 100 A( ) u

390 u =46 u 4600

436 u =4600
u =10.6 C
7.2 PARALLEL COMBINATION : Suppose we have
two rods of same length and area of cross-sections
A
1
and A
2
. The coefficient of thermal conductivity
be K
1
and K
2
respectively.

The ends of the rod are maintained at temperature u
1
and u
2
. The same temperature difference is maintained
between the ends of each rod.
Let
dt
dH
1
and
dt
dH
2
be the heat conducted in first
and second rod. The resultant of these is assumed to
be
dt
dH
.
dt
dH
=
dt
dH
1
+
dt
dH
2
=

) ( A K ) ( A K
2 1 2 2 2 1 1 1
u u
+
u u
=
) (
A K A K
2 1
2 2 1 1
u u |
.
|

\
|
+

..........(1)
(i) If R
eq
is the equivalent thermal resistance of
the combination then,

dt
dH
=
. eq
2 1
R
u u
..........(2)
equating (1) and (2)

. eq
R
1
=

2 2 1 1
A K A K
+

. eq
R
1
=
2 1
R
1
R
1
+
..........(3)
(ii) If K
eq.
is the equivalent coefficient of thermal
conductivity of parallel combination, then
R
eq.
=
) A A ( K
2 1 . eq
+

Using eqn. (3) for R

eq
.

2 1
R
1
R
1
+
=
) A A ( K
2 1 . eq
+

2 1
2 1
R R
R R
+
=
) A A ( K
2 1 . eq
+

2 2 1 1
2 2 1 1
A K A K
A K A K


+

=
) A A ( K
2 1 . eq
+

2 2 1 1
A k A k +

=
) A A ( K
2 1 . eq
+

K
eq.
=
2 1
2 2 1 1
A A
A K A K
+
+
Parallel combination of rods
Ex. 5 An aluminium rod and a copper rod of equal
length 1m and cross-sectional area 1cm

are
welded together as shown in the figure. One end
is kept at a temperature of 20C and other at
60C. Calculate the amount of heat taken out per
second from the hot end. Thermal conductivity
of aluminium is 200 W/mC and of copper is 390
W/mC.
Sol. Heat current through the aluminium rod
=
200 1 10
1
60 20


( )
( )
4
Heat
current through the copper rod
=
390 1 10
1
60 20


( )
( )
4
Total heat=200 10
4
40 +390 10
4
40
=590 40 10
4
=2.36 Joule

78
7.3 MIXED COMBINATION : In mixed combination of
rods, concept of electricity are valid.
Mixed combination of rods
Ex. 6 The three rods shown in the figure (1) have
identical geometrical dimensions. Heat flows from
the hot end at the rate of 40W in arrangement
(1). Find the rate of heat flow when the rods are
joined in arrangement (2). Thermal conductivity
of aluminium and copper are 200 W/mC and 400
W/mC respectively.

0C
(1)
Cu 100C Al Al

0C
(2)
Cu
100C
Al
Al
Sol.(a) In the arrangement (1), the three rods are joined
in series. The rate of flow of heat,

d
dt
u
=
KA( ) u u
1 2

=
u u
1 2

R
But, R =R
1
+R
2
+R
3
[In series]
40 =
100 0
1 2 1

R R R + +
40 =
100
1 2

K A K A KA
+ +
40 =
100
2 1
1 2

A K K
+
L
N
M
O
Q
P

A
2
200
1
400
+
L
N
M
O
Q
P
=
100
40

A
= 200 per m
Sol.(b) In figure (2) two rods all in parallel and resultant
of both is in series the first rod

dQ
dt
=
u u
1 2

R
But R =R
1
+
1
1 1
1 2
R R
+

dQ
dt
=
100 0
1
1
1 2

K A
K A K A
+
+
=
100 0
1 1
1 1 2

A K K K
+
+
L
N
M
O
Q
P
=
100
200
1
200
1
600
+
L
N
M
O
Q
P
=
600 100
200 4

=75W

79
Ex.1 A cubical ice box of thermocule has each side 30
cm and a thickness of 5 cm.4 kg of ice is put in
the box. If out side temp. is 45 C and coefficient
of thermal conductivity =0.01 J S
1
m
1
C
1
,
calculate the mass of ice left after 6 hours. Take
latent heat of fusion of ice =335 10
3
J/Kg.
Sol. Here, length of each side, =30 cm =0.3 m
Thickness of each side, dx =5 cm =0.05 m
Total surface area through which heat enters into
the box, A =6
2
=6 0.3 0.3 =0.54 m
2
Temp. diff. A T =45 0 =45C
K =0.01 J s
1
m
1
C
1
time, A t =6 hrs =6 60 60 s
Latent heat of fusion L =335 10 J/kg
let m be the mass of ice melted in this time =
t
x
T
KA mL Q A |
.
|

\
|
A
A
= = A
L
t
x
T
KA
A
|
.
|

\
|
A
A
=
= 0.01 0.54 3
10 x 335
60 x 60 x 6
x
05 . 0
45
= 0.313 kg

mass of ice left =4 0313 =3.687 kg

Ex.2 An ice box made of 1.5 cm thick styrofoam has
dimensions 60 cm 60 cm 30 cm. It contains
ice at 0C and is kept in a room at 40C. Find the
rate at which the ice is melting. Latent heat of
fusion of ice =3.36 10
5
J /kg. and thermal
conductivity of styrofoam =0.04 W/mC.
Sol. The total surface area of the walls
=2(60 cm 60 cm +60 cm 30 cm +60
cm 30 cm)
=1.44 m
2
.
The thickness of the walls =1.5 cm =0.015 m.
The rate of heat flow into the box is
A
A
Q
t
=
KA
x
( ) u u
1 2

=
( . / )( . )( )
.
004 144 40
0015
2
W m C m C
m

=154 W. .
The rate at which the ice melts is
=
154
336 10
5
W
J kg . /
= 0.46 g/s.
SOLVED EXAMPLES
Ex.3 Calculate approximately the heat passing per hour
through the walls and windows of room 5 by 5
meters if the walls are of bricks of thickness 30
cms and have windows of glass 3mm thick and
total area 5 square meters. The temperature of
the room is 30 below that of the outside and the
thermal conductivity of bricks and of glass is
12 10
4
and 25 10
4
C.G.S. units respectively.
Sol. Let Q
1
be the heat passing through the walls,
then
Q =
KA T T t
x
( )
1 2
Here area of four walls including windows
=500 500 4 =10,00,000
Area of all windows
=5 sq. meter =50,000 sq. cn
Net area of brick walls
=10,00,000 50,000 =9,50,000 sq.cm
K for bricks =12 10
4
C.G.S. units
x =40cm, (T
1
T
2
) =30C and
t =1 hr =3600 sec.
Q
1
=
( )( , , )( )( )
4
12 10 950000 30 3600
30

=4104000 cal
Heat passing through glass windows
Q
2
=
( )( , )( )( )
.
4
25 10 50000 30 3600
03

=45000000 cal.
Total heat passing Q =Q
1
+Q
2
=4104000 +45000000
=49104 10
3
calories.
Ex.4 A compound bar 2m long is constructed of a
solid copper core 1 cm in diameter surrounded
by a steel casing whose outer diameter is 2cm.
The outer surface of the bar is thermally insulated
and one is maintained at 100C, the other is at
0C.
(i) Find the total heat current in the bar.
(ii) What percentage is carried by each material.
K for copper =0.9 cal-cm
1
sec
1
(C)
1
,
and K for steel =0.12 cal-cm
1
sec
1
(C)
1
,

80
Sol. The compound bar is shown in fig. The rate of
flow through copper bar is given by

Q
t
1
=
K r T T
d
1 1
2
1 2
t ( )

where r
1
is the radius

Q
t
1
=
09 314 05 100
200
2
. . ( . )
for steel bar

Q
t
2
=
012 314 1 05 100
200
2 2
. [ . {( ) ( . ) }]
(i) Total heat current in the bar

Q
t
=
Q Q
t
1 2
+
=
09 314 05 100
200
2
. . ( . )
+
012 314 075 100
200
. . .
=
314 100
200
.
[0.9 0.25 +0.12 0.75]
=
314
2
.
[0.225 +0.09]
=
314 0315
2
. .
=0.4945 cal per second.
(ii) On simplification, we get

Q
Q
1
=
09 05
09 05 012 075
2
2
. ( . )
. ( . ) . .

+
=
09 025
0315
. .
.

=
09
126
.
.
=71.42%
Q
Q
2
=100 71.42 =28.58%
Ex.5 A rod of negligible heat capacity has length 20
cm, area of cross-section 1.0 cm2 and thermal
conductivity 200 W/mC. The temperature of
one end is maintained at 0C and that of the
ether end is slowly and linearly varied from 0C
to 60C in 10 minutes. Assuming no loss of heat
through the sides find the total heat transmitted
through the rod in these 10 minutes.
Sol. Since temperature is varying linearly so
sec / C
10
t
. sec / C t
60 x 10
60
T = =

Now,

) T T ( KA
dt
dH
2 1

KAT
dt
dH
=
10
KAt
dt
dH
=

20
KAt
H
2
=

2
2 4
10 x 20 x 20
) 600 ( x 10 x 1 x 200

=
=1800 J oule
Ex. 6 A metal rod of length 20 cm and diameter
2 cm is covered with a non conducting
substance. One of its ends is maintained at 100C
while the other end is put at 0C. It is found that
25 g of ice melts in 5 min. Calculate the coefficient
of thermal conductivity of the metal. Latent heat
of ice =80 cal gram
1
Sol. Here, length of the rod,

A
x =20 cm =20 10
2
m
Diameter =2 cm,
radius =r =1 cm =10
2
m
Area of cross section
a = t r = t (10
2
)
2
t sq. m
AT =100 - 0 =100C
Mass of ice melted, m =25g
As L =80 cal.g1

Heat conducted,
A
Q =mL =25 80
=2000 cal =2000 4.2J

A
t =5 min =300 s
From
x
T
KA
t
Q
A
A
=
A
A

100 x 10 x 300
10 x 20 x 2 . 4 x 2000
K
4
2
t
=

=1.78J s
1
m
1
C
1