1

November 2005
Dr. John W. Labadie
Department of Civil Engineering
Colorado State University
Ft. Collins, CO 80523
Ph. 01-970 491-6898
Email: labadie@engr.colostate.edu


MODSIM: River Basin Management
Decision Support System
Version 8.0

contact:
DRAFT

2
MODSIM 8.0: River Basin Management
Decision Support System


I. INTRODUCTION

MODSIM 8.0 is a generalized river basin management decision support system (DSS)
designed as a computer-aided tool for developing improved basin wide and regional
strategies for short-term water management, long-term operational planning, drought
contingency planning, water rights analysis and resolving conflicts between urban,
agricultural, and environmental concerns. Sprague and Carlson (1982) defined a DSS as
"an interactive computer-based support system that helps decision makers utilize data
and models to solve unstructured problems." A DSS integrates the following interactive
subsystems: (1) model base management subsystem; (2) database management
subsystem; and (3) dialog generation and management subsystem. As illustrated in Fig. 1,
MODSIM embodies all essential components of a decision support system. The
graphical user interface (GUI) connects MODSIM with the various database management
components and an efficient network flow optimization model. The objective function
and constraints of the network flow optimization model are automatically constructed
through the GUI without requiring any background in optimization or computer
programming by the user. Optimization of the objective function essentially provides an
Fig. 1. K-MODSIM as a Decision Support System
Dialog
Subsystem
Database
Subsystem
Models
Subsystem

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efficient means of achieving system targets and guidecurves according to desired
priorities, while assuring that water is allocated according to physical, hydrological, and
institutional/administrative aspects of river basin management.


II. MODSIM 8.0 FEATURES AND APPLICATIONS

A. MODSIM 8.0 Software Development

The MODSIM 8.0 DSS operates under Microsoft Windows ME, 98, NT, 2000, and XP,
although a LINUX version is also available. The Windows version is comprised entirely
of native, object-oriented code written in Microsoft Visual C++.NET. The graphical user
interface for MODSIM is developed in Visual Basic.NET, and includes both native code
and code requiring a developer license, but allowing free distribution of runtime
applications without imposing licensing requirements or any costs to the user.

The Visual Studio .NET IDE facilitates development and management of large-scale
applications, including improved reliability, scalability, security, and performance.
The .NET Framework provides a new architecture that overcomes restrictions of COM-
based technology, while still allowing COM interoperability for development of managed
code that uses COM components. The .NET Framework provides a single API instead of
having to consume a number of APIs such as Win32, ole32.dll, etc. Managed Code
running under the Common Language Runtime (CLR) of .NET provides platform
independence, language interoperability, and performance improvement.

One of the greatest advantages of .NET is the ability of the user to customize MODSIM
for any specialized operating rules, input data, output reports, and access to external
models running concurrently with MODSIM, all without having to modify the original
MODSIM source code. Customized code can be developed in any of the several .NET
languages that are freely provided with .NET Framework. All PUBLIC variables and
object classes in MODSIM are directly accessible to the custom code, and the .NET CLR
produces executable code as opposed to other applications requiring scripts to be
prepared in an interpreted language such as PERL or JAVASCRIPT with poorer runtime
performance. MODSIM is distributed as freeware on the Internet at:
http://modsim.engr.colostate.edu. The MODSIM installer provides the option of
installing the Microsoft .NET Framework if it is not currently installed on the target
machine. Also downloadable at this site are K-MODSIM user manuals, documentation,
example applications, and sample data sets.

B. MODSIM 8.0 Capabilities

MODSIM 8.0 includes many unique features and capabilities not found in other river
basin management models:


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Microsoft .NET Framework. MODSIM is implemented on desktop computers operating
under Microsoft Windows ME, 98, NT, 2000 or XP, and is developed under the new
Microsoft .NET Framework.

Freeware. Since all components of MODSIM are developed entirely from native Visual
C++.NET code, there is no need for MODSIM users to purchase expensive licenses for
proprietary software.

Graphical User Interface. MODSIM employs a powerful, interactive graphical user
interface (GUI) for creating, locating and connecting river basin network components, as
well as a spreadsheet-style data editing capability emulating an object-oriented database
management system. Time series data sets are imported into MODSIM from external
database management systems.

Network Flow Optimization. The basic solver in MODSIM is a state-of-the-art network
flow optimization algorithm that is more than an order of magnitude faster than solvers
currently in use in other river basin modeling packages and capable of modeling
extremely large-scale networks.

Data-driven Model. MODSIM maintains complete reliance on user input data and
specifications for describing system features, operational requirements, and priorities,
which are separated from the network modeling algorithmic structure; no a priori defined
operating policies or priorities are built-in to MODSIM.

Long-term to Real-time Operations. MODSIM is applicable to long term planning
(monthly), medium term management (weekly), and short term operations (daily) in river
systems.

Complex River Basin Configurations. MODSIM allows simulation of a wide variety
of river basin configurations and operating conditions without requiring specification of
complex IF-THEN rules governing allocation of flows and storage. Complex network
topologies can be constructed, including looped and bifurcating flow paths. Network
topology is graphically created by simple point and click actions on the GUI palette. In
addition, georeferenced network structures can be loaded into MODSIM from a
geographic information system (GIS).

Reservoir Operations and Hydropower Generation. Reservoir balancing routines are
included, allowing division of reservoir storage into several operational zones for
controlling the spatial distribution of available storage in a river basin. Hydropower
generation capacity and energy production is based on power plant efficiencies varying
with flow, head, and load factor. On-peak vs. off-peak and firm vs. secondary energy
production calculations are performed, including consideration of tailwater effects and
head-dependent hydraulic capacity restrictions on reservoir discharge.

Conditional Operating Rules. Operating rules on reservoir regulation and demand
allocation can be conditioned on user defined system hydrologic state information for the

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current period, including development of shortage rules for equitably distributing water
demand shortages over a basin during low-flow or drought conditions.

Watch Logic. A highly functional watch logic calculator offering several algebraic and
logical operators is included in the MODSIM GUI that allows user-specified water
allocation rules to be based on flow and storage conditions anywhere in the river basin
network.

Conjunctive Use. MODSIM includes modeling capabilities for conjunctive use of
surface water and groundwater and simulation of stream-aquifer interactions. A stream-
aquifer model based on the USGS sdf approach is included, as well possible linkage with
external groundwater models. A GIS tool called MAPSIM is included with MODSIM
that provides processing of spatially distributed stream-aquifer response functions
obtained from numerical 3-D groundwater models such as MODFLOW.

Water Rights and Storage Contracts. MODSIM is capable of directly incorporating
institutional structures governing water allocation under direct flow or natural streamflow
rights and seasonal storage rights and contracts, including provisions for allocating water
according to specified priorities based on current river basin conditions. Other
administrative mechanisms that can be modeled in MODSIM include rent pools, water
banking, flow augmentation plans, and exchanges that allow flexible system operations
while maintaining water rights and contract legality.

Customized MODSIM. Users can prepare customized code in the Visual Basic.NET or
C#.NET languages that are compiled with MODSIM through the Microsoft .NET
Framework. Users are provided access to all key variables and object classes in
MODSIM, thereby allowing customization for any complex river basin operational and
modeling constructs without the need for reprogramming and recompiling the MODSIM
source code. Custom code can be developed for defining complex operating rules and
policies, executing external modules such as water quality models, input of specialized
data sets for particular applications, preparing customized model output and reports, and
linking MODSIM with database management systems to provide access to timely data
and forecast information for real-time river basin management.

Streamflow Routing. MODSIM includes Muskingum or user-specified time-lagged
hydrologic streamflow routing capabilities for daily simulation. In addition, an
innovative backrouting procedure is available which looks ahead to future time periods in
order maintain legal water allocation under appropriative water rights.

Monte Carlo Analysis. MODSIM allows simulation of synthetic or stochastically
generated inflow/demand sequences for use in Monte Carlo analysis for developing flow-
duration curves and exceedance probability estimates for key variables.

Graphical Plots. MODSIM produces graphical plots of important model time series
variables reflecting system performance, as well as tabulated results showing storage
levels, releases, inflows, energy generation, power capacity, system losses and spills,

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water deliveries, shortages, instream flow requirements, and flows in any reach of the
system. Plotting packages are available for comparative evaluation of operational plans
and scenarios, including display of flow-duration curves and statistical analysis.

C. Successful Applications of MODSIM

The MODSIM model was originally developed at Colorado State University (CSU) in the
late-1970's (Shafer and Labadie, 1978). Since then, MODSIM has undergone dramatic
improvements and updates, and has enjoyed widespread use by numerous governmental
and private organizations for simulating complex river system operations in the U.S. and
throughout the world. Various versions of MODSIM have been successfully applied to a
number of complex river basin systems:

Rio Grande River Basin (Graham, et al., 1986)
sponsor: U.S. Forest Service
scope : Entire Rio Grande River Basin in Colorado, New Mexico, and Texas
monthly time step: stream-aquifer interactions not included since focus is on
incremental surface water inflows to the basin
objective: determination of how additional flows made available through planned
silvacultural activities in the Rio Grande National Forest would be allocated
downstream with consideration of complex in-state water right decrees and interstate
compact agreements; includes analysis of impact of possible future storage facilities

Upper Pampanga River Basin, The Philippines (Faux, et al., 1986)
sponsors: National Science Foundation - International Programs and National
Irrigation Administration, Manilla, The Philippines
scope: Upper Pampanga River Basin covering 6700 km
2
in Central Luzon;
considered the countrys most important rice producing region
monthly time step: surface water modeling only
objective: improve operational efficiency of the Upper Pampanga River Integrated
Irrigation System (UPRIIS), balance hydroelectric generation and irrigation supply,
and identify bottlenecks in the water distribution network for possible expansion of
canal capacity

Colorado-Big Thompson River System, Northern Colorado (Law and Brown, 1989)
sponsor: Northern Colorado Water Conservancy District
scope: both the West Slope and East Slope components of the Colorado-Big
Thompson (C-BT) project of Northern Colorado
monthly time step: surface water modeling only
objective: fully integrated operations of the C-BT/Windy Gap system and portions of
the Cache La Poudre River Basin; predict the yield of a proposed reservoir on the
Cache La Poudre River and investigate various management options
Lower Nile River Basin, Egypt (El-Beshri and Labadie, 1994)
sponsors: Egyptian Ministry of Public Works and Water Resources and USAID
scope: Lower Nile River, including the Nile Delta
monthly time step: both surface water and groundwater modeling

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objective: investigate the conjunctive use of surface water and groundwater in the
Lower Nile Basin in order to reduce pressure on the High Aswan Dam for meeting
current and future water supply requirements.

San Joaquin River, Central Valley, California (Leu, 2001)
sponsor: U.S. Bureau of Reclamation, Mid-Pacific Region, Sacramento, California
scope: San Joaquin River Basin (1,638 mi
2
), California
monthly time step
objective: investigate the use of economic-based strategies such as increased water
prices, tiered water pricing, changes in San Joaquin River environmental flows, and
changes in reservoir operations to improve water management

Gunnison River Basin, Colorado (Weiss, et al., 1997)
sponsor: Colorado Department of Water Resources
scope: Gunnison River Basin, tributary to the Colorado River
monthly time step: surface water modeling only
objective: environmental impact evaluation of proposed AB Lateral Hydropower
Facility, Montrose Colorado; fully integrated modeling of entire river basin including
consideration of over 1000 water rights and complex exchange agreements

South Platte River Basin, Colorado (Fredericks, et al., 1998)
sponsor: Colorado Water Resources Research Institute
scope: Lower South Platte River Basin, Colorado
monthly and daily time steps: conjunctive use of groundwater and surface water;
integration of MODSIM and MODFLOW groundwater model; integration of
MODSIM and GIS
objective: analysis of groundwater augmentation plans to replace depletions that
would otherwise accrue to the South Platte River as a result of well pumping used to
meet irrigation demands

Arkansas River Basin (Kastner, 2001)
sponsor: Office of the Colorado State Engineer
scope: Lower Arkansas River Basin below Pueblo Dam, Colorado
daily time step
objective: evaluation of the Winter Water Storage Program for allocating and storing
winter season water supplies in the Arkansas River basin among water users who
formerly used these waters for direct flow winter irrigation; the stored waters are later
used more effectively and efficiently during the following irrigation season.



Imperial Irrigation District, California (CH2MHill, 2001)
sponsor: Imperial Irrigation District (IID), El Centro, California
scope: District irrigated area of over 460,000 acres; average annual flow of 3,000,000
acre-ft diverted by IID at the All American Canal

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monthly and daily time step: MODSIM network models 230 miles of main canal,
1,440 miles of secondary canals and laterals, and 5,590 delivery gates; applied to both
the water distribution system and the irrigation drainage system; MODSIM network
composed of over 10,000 nodes and links; integration of water quality models into
MODSIM to assess impacts of water conservation programs on drainage water
quality, which impacts the nearby Salton Sea
objective: apply MODSIM to assessing both the water quantity and quality impacts of
voluntary conservation programs that could provide transfer of up to 300,000 acre-ft
of water to metropolitan areas of Southern California

Upper Snake River Basin, Idaho (Larson and Spinazola, 2000; Miller, et al., 2003)
sponsor: U.S. Bureau of Reclamation, Pacific Northwest Region
scope: Upper Snake River Basin, Idaho
monthly time step: conjunctive use of groundwater and surface; integration of
MODSIM and MODFLOW groundwater model
objective: quantification of impacts to irrigation water supply, river and reservoir
recreation, resident fish and wildlife, and other local water uses from various
proposed storage rental and reallocation scenarios for satisfying instream flow
requirements for endangered species.

Piracicaba River Basin, Brazil (de Azevedo, et al., 2000)
sponsor: National Council of Science and Technology, Brazil
scope: Piracicaba River Basin (12,400 km
2
), State of Sao Paulo, Brazil
monthly time step: integration of water quantity and quality modeling
objective: joint application of MODSIM and the QUAL2E-UNCAS stream water
quality model for evaluation of strategic planning alternatives for meeting transbasin
diversion requirements for the city of Sao Paulo, intrabasin water supply needs, and
acceptable water quality according to various reliability criteria

Deschutes River Basin, Oregon (La Marche, 2001)
sponsors: Oregon Water Resources Department and U.S. Bureau of Reclamation
scope: Upper and Middle Deschutes Basin and Crooked River Basin; includes two
major reservoirs: Wickiup (200,000 ac-ft) and Crane Prairie (55,800); beneficial uses
primarily irrigation (100,000 acres of irrigated lands), recreation, fish and wildlife
maintenance, and flood control
monthly time step
objective: optimal allocation of water in the Deschutes River Basin to satisfy both
irrigation demands and instream flow requirements



Lower Arkansas River Basin, Colorado (Dai and Labadie, 2001)
sponsor: Colorado Water Resources Research Institute
scope: Lower Arkansas River Basin below Pueblo Dam, Colorado
monthly time step: conjunctive use of groundwater and surface water; integration of
water quality and water quantity modeling with MODSIM

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objective: Determine opportunities for improving water quality in the Lower
Arkansas River Basin through conjunctive use of groundwater and surface water

Klamath River Basin, Oregon and California (Campbell, et al., 2001)
sponsor: U.S. Geological Survey, Biological Resource Division
scope: Klamath River Basin from Keno, Oregon to Seiad Valley, California
monthly and daily time step: integration of MODSIM with water quality HEC-5Q
model
objective: integrated application of MODSIM and HEC-5Q to explore potential for
changing system operations to improve summer/fall water quality conditions to
benefit declining anadromous fish populations

Little Butte and Bear Creek River Basins, Oregon (Stillwater, 2003)
sponsor: U.S. Bureau of Reclamation, Pacific Northwest Region
scope: Little Butte and Bear Creek Rivers, tributary to the Rogue River, Oregon
(includes over 37,000 acres of irrigated lands); includes transbasin diversions from
the Klamath River Basin
monthly time step: separates USBR project water from natural flow rights and
includes numerous storage accounts in several reservoirs in the basins.
objective: apply MODSIM for the Little Butte/Bear Creeks Management Project
Steering Committee to demonstrate the effects of saved water and alternative and
supplemental water supplies. The irrigation districts and other local irrigators, the
State water master, and technical specialists from Federal and State natural resource
agencies, provided direction and input for MODSIM network development.

Payette River Basin, Idaho (Stillwater, 2004a)
sponsor: U.S. Bureau of Reclamation, Pacific Northwest Region
scope: physical and operational characteristics of reservoirs, river reaches, and
diversions of the Payette River system; reservoirs modeled include Cascade Reservoir,
Deadwood Reservoir, Payette Lake and the Upper Lakes, and Black Canyon
Reservoir.
monthly time step: historical streamflow record extending from 1928 to present
objective: determine the impacts of streamflow augmentation for endangered species
on existing irrigation water supplies

Tualatin River Basin, Oregon (Stillwater, 2004b)
sponsor: U.S. Bureau of Reclamation, Pacific Northwest Region
scope: Tualatin River Basin (700 mi
2
drainage); includes U.S. Bureau of Reclamation
projects Barney Reservoir (20,000 ac-ft) and Hagg Reservoir (53,640 ac-ft),
providing water for irrigation, municipal supplies, stream quality, flood protection
and recreational benefits.
monthly time step: includes conjunctive use of groundwater and surface water
objective: demonstrate the effects of Reclamations current operations in the Tualatin
Basin


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In addition to these applications, MODSIM is serving as a valuable water supply
planning tool for several municipalities, including the City of Colorado Springs,
Colorado (contact: Brett Gracely, Water Resources Planning Supervisor, Colorado
Springs Utilities), the City of Ft. Collins, Colorado (contact: Dennis Bode, Water
Resources Manager, City of Ft. Collins), and the City of Greeley, Colorado (contact:
Todd Williams, Water Resources Manager, City of Greeley).


III. River Basin Network Development in MODSIM 8.0

A. Network Flow Approach to River Basin Modeling

The basic principle underlying MODSIM is that most physical water resource systems
can be simulated as capacitated flow networks. The term capacitated refers to imposition
of strict upper and lower bounds on all flows in the network. Components of the system
are represented as a network of nodes, both storage (i.e., reservoirs, groundwater basins,
and storage right accounts) and non-storage (i.e., river confluences, diversion points, and
demand locations), and links or arcs (i.e., canals, pipelines, natural river reaches, and
decreed water rights) connecting the nodes (Fig. 2). Although MODSIM is primarily a
simulation model, the network flow optimization provides an efficient means of assuring
allocation of flows in a river basin in accordance with specified water rights and other
priority rankings.

Fig. 2. Nodes and links in K-MODSIM

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A network formulation of a river basin system provides a physical picture revealing the
morphology of the system that is readily recognizable. In effect, the graphical network
links are the model decision variables. Network optimization techniques are specialized
algorithms that perform integer-based calculations on linear networks that are
considerably more efficient than real number computations and matrix operations
employed in standard linear programming codes based on extensions of the revised
simplex method. Integer-based calculations are not a disadvantage since appropriate
scaling of link flows can produce solutions for any desired order of accuracy. The high
efficiency of network flow optimization algorithms allows rapid solution of large-scale
networks comprising thousands of nodes and links on desktop computers. This also
makes it feasible to perform several iterative solutions so as to consider certain nonlinear
or dynamic system features.

Important assumptions associated with MODSIM are listed as follows:
All storage nodes and linkages must be bounded from below and above (i.e.,
minimum and maximum storage and flows must be given, with the latter allowed to
vary over time,
Each linkage must be unidirectional with respect to positive flow; possible flow
reversals can be modeled by assigning an additional reverse direction link between
two nodes;
All inflows, demands, system gains and losses must accumulate at nodes; increasing
the density of nodes in the network thereby increases simulation accuracy, but also
increases computer time and data requirements;

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Each reservoir is designated as a spill node for losses from the system proper. Spills
from the system are the most expensive type of water transfer, such that the model
always seeks to minimize unnecessary spills. Spills may be retained in the network
by specification of an additional release link from a reservoir which can be labeled as
a high cost link

B. MODSIM 8.0 GUI for Network Creation and Editing

The graphical user interface (GUI) for MODSIM 8.0 as shown in Fig. 2 provides
spatially-referenced database capabilities allowing users to create and link river basin
network objects on the display, and then populate data for that object by right-mouse
click to activate the object and open a database form associated with that object. Lengthy
time series data for streamflows, demands, etc., can be loaded by copying data from
EXCEL or database management software to the Windows clipboard, and then pasting
the data into the appropriate Node Properties form. Time series data can also be loaded
automatically through development of custom code, as discussed subsequently. All
MODSIM input data are stored in a command-oriented ASCII text file *.xy where each
line of input begins with a command that the input parsing code associates with a model
construct, with data values relevant to the modeled feature following the command.
The main Menu Bar for MODSIM is located at the top of the Network Editor Window in
the interface, along with a Toolbar below the Menu Bar with single click access to
several menu items. The menu items are used to load and save a MODSIM network,
import and export data, select English or metric units, search for specific nodes and links,
Fig. 2. Graphical user interface for K-MODSIM

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run the model, select and display graphs; create, edit and generate tabular reports; access
various utilities, print out the network, and more. The interface contains icons in the
Node Palette Window for creating various types of nodes in the network by simply
dragging them into the Network Editor Window, or left-button mouse clicking on the icon
and then clicking on the desired location in the Network Editor Window. Links or arcs
are created in the Network Editor Window by moving the cursor onto the origin node
until a pointing hand icon appears, holding down the left-mouse button, and then
dragging the pointer to the desired ending node, which also sets the flow direction for that
link. The Network Overview Window is useful for large networks where the display
window of any size can be panned over any portion of the network.

Clicking on any node object in the Network Editor Window makes that object active,
which is indicated by the node being highlighted in a yellow box. Once a node is located
in the Network Editor Window, it can be easily moved by left-button mouse click and
hold, and then dragging it to the desired location. All links connected to that node will be
moved along with the node. Any actions within the Network Editor Window can be
undone by the user by selecting Edit >Undo in the Main Menu Bar. Right-button mouse
click on any node in the Network Editor Window displays a context
menu with several items. Cut allows the node to be pasted at another
location, whereas Delete removes the node without paste retrieval.
Copy To allows all of the attributes of the selected node to be copied to
another user-specified node, whereas Copy From allows all properties
of another node to be copied to the current selected node. Hide Label is
useful for removing excess notation in the Network Editor Window for
nodes where labels are not important for display. Selecting Properties opens the
database form for that node, allowing the user to enter and edit all of the data and
attributes associated with that object. The Properties Form can also be directly activated
by double clicking on the node object. After a MODSIM run is executed, right-button
mouse click on a node again opens the context menu, but with an added item: Graph,
which allows rapid display of output results.

Clicking on any link object in the Network Editor Window makes
that object active, which is indicated by display of yellow square-
shaped break point markers along the link, as well as yellow
diamond-shaped markers at the link beginning and end points.
Break points can be moved by simply clicking on them and
dragging, thereby allowing users to change the shape of the link.
By default, when a link is first created a single break point is
inserted in the center of the link, but additional break points can
be inserted by the user. Similar to nodes, right-button mouse
click on links also opens a context menu with items Delete, Copy To, Copy From,
Insert Point, Remove Segment, Convert to MultiLink, and Properties. Similar to the
node context menu, once a MODSIM run is completed, the Graph item is added to the
link context menu. Insert Point allows users to introduce additional break points in the
link, thereby changing its shape as connected line segments. Remove Segment performs
the opposite operation by removing any segment. Convert to MultiLink allows the user

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to specify any desired number of separate links
connecting the same two nodes, and Properties opens
the database form, allowing the user to enter and edit
all data and attributes associated with that link object.
Once a link object is converted to a MultiLink, it is
displayed as a double arrow in the Network Editor
Window. In addition, for simulations using a daily
time step, any link can be specified as a channel
routing link in the Link Properties Form, which
changes the color of the link to orange. As with nodes,
the Link Properties Form can
also be directly activated by
double clicking on the link object.
Similar to the Node Properties
Form, the Link Properties Form
is tabbed for each data category,
with spreadsheet-style data entry
for tabular data.

Under the Edit Pull-Down Menu,
a number of useful operations on
network objects are available,
such as Undo, Cut, Copy, Paste,
Delete, Resize Nodes and Links,
Node and Link Search, and
various Select options. Node
Search and Link Search is
particularly useful for large
networks, where a particular
node and link can be selected
from a scrollable list or directly
entered by name or number,
where each network object created in MODSIM is automatically assigned a unique
number. The network display then shifts to the region surrounding the selected node or
link, which is highlighted as an active object. Select Nodes and Select Link is useful for
output of results for only those objects of interest in the simulation.

The View Menu Option on the Main Toolbar provides a number of additional features,
including Zoom operations, Messages for display of information concerning the status of
the MODSIM run, and Snap to Grid, which when activated, snaps created or moved
objects in the Network Editor Window to a finite grid for ease of alignment of objects.
Unchecking Snap to Grid allows objects to be moved to any location in the Window.


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Once the system network has been created and the database populated, the MODSIM
model can be executed from the interface under MODSIM>Run MODSIM. A number
of useful Extensions are included with MODSIM, including the Storage Rights
Extension, Back-Routing Extension, Water Rights
Extension, and Last-Fill Extension. MODSIM>Custom
Runs invokes the Custom Code Editor for creating
customized versions of MODSIM developed from user-
supplied code written in VB.NET or C#.NET. Customized
versions of MODSIM can be compiled and executed from the
interface. A convenient template is provided in the Custom
Code Editor for guiding users in the preparation of
customized code. The customized code can interface with
MODSIM at any desired strategic locations, including data
input, execution at the beginning of any time step, processing
at intermediate iterations, and model output. Users are provided direct access to all of
public variables, parameters, and object classes in MODSIM for development of
knowledge-based operating rules, linkage with on-line database management systems,
customized output reports, and color-coded graphical displays.

Output Control provides an extensive variety of graphical and text output options are
available for any combinations of network objects and output data types. In the
production of output results, the user can specify the number of time steps held in
memory. Retaining output results over several time steps in main memory generally
results in faster execution speed, but
also requires larger

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C. Network Flow Optimization

Links and nodes in MODSIM are not confined to representing physical and hydrologic
features of a river basin system, but are also used to symbolize artificial and conceptual
elements for modeling complex administrative and legal mechanisms governing water
allocation. In addition to the links and nodes defined by users, several artificial nodes
and links are automatically created by MODSIM, as shown in Fig. 3. These artificial
nodes and links are essential to insuring mass balance is satisfied throughout the entire
network. It should be noted that MODSIM users are only responsible for defining the
physical flow network. All artificial nodes and links are added automatically by the
model.

MODSIM simulates water allocation mechanisms in a river basin through sequential
solution of the following network flow optimization problem for each time period t =
1,...,T :







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minimize
k k
k A
c q

(1)
subject to:


( ) for all nodes
i i
k it
k O I
q q b i N

= q (2)

( ) ( ) for all links
kt k kt
l q u k A q q (3)

where A is the set of all arcs or links in the network; N is the set of all nodes; O
i
is the
set of all links originating at node i (i.e., outflow links); I
i
is the set of all links
terminating at node i (i.e., inflow links); b
it
is the (positive) gain or (negative) loss at
node i at time t; q
k
is the flow rate in link k ; c
k
are costs, weighting factors, or water
right priorities per unit flow rate in link k; and l
kt
and u
kt
are specified lower and upper
bounds, respectively, on flow in link k at time t. Note that parameters b
kt
, l
kt
, u
kt
are
defined as functions of the flow vector q in the network. These nonlinearities are due to
flow dependent calculation of evaporation (based on flow in the carryover storage
artificial arcs shown in Fig. 3), groundwater return flows, channel losses, and instream
flow requirements, and are primarily associated with the artificial arcs. A successive
approximations solution procedure is adopted whereby an initial set of flows q are
Fig. 3. Illustration of MODSIM network structure with artificial nodes and links
Active Storage Zone n
Stream
Depletion
3
4
GW
SP
M
D S
Initial
Storage
plus
Inflow
Local Inflow
Total Inflow plus
Initial Storage
Evaporation
Flood Storage
Active Storage Zone 1

Return
Flow
Spill
Mass Balance
Demand
Storage
Pumping
Infiltration
Channel
Loss
Seepage
1
2
3
1 2

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assumed, resulting in initial estimates of the flow-dependent parameters b
it
, l
kt
, u
kt
. Eqs.
1-3 are then solved with the highly efficient Lagrangian relaxation algorithm RELAX-IV
(Bertsekas and Tseng, 1994), which is up to two orders of magnitude faster than the
revised simplex method of linear programming. The flows q produced from this solution
then serve to update estimates of parameters b
it
, l
kt
, u
kt
, and the network flow
optimization repeats until convergence. Optimization is primarily conducted as a means
of accurately simulating the allocation of water resources in accordance with operational
priorities based on system objectives, operational experience, water rights, and other
ranking mechanisms, which may include economic factors.

The network topology and object characteristics are defined by the sets N, A, I
i
, and O
i

and arc parameters [l
kt
, u
kt
, c
k
] for each arc or link k, for each period t. Since solution of
Eqs. 1-3 is executed period by period, rather than as a fully dynamic optimization, flows
in the carryover storage arcs (Fig. 3) become initial storage levels for the next period
optimization.


IV. GENERAL SETTINGS FOR MODSIM 8.0 SIMULATION

A. Accuracy and Units

Network Settings under MODSIM on the main menu bar allows users to specify a number
of options. The desired accuracy for data input and flow results can be either integer
accuracy or 2-place decimal accuracy. Users can select either English or metric units,
with the units used for storage, flow, head, net evaporation rates and hydropower
specified.



19

20
B. Time Steps and Scale

MODSIM>Network Settings allows monthly, weekly, or daily time steps specified.

Users can enter Start Date and End Date for time series data entered into MODSIM,
which must be the same for all data including inflows, demands, reservoir storage targets,
etc.

21
However, a particular MODSIM simulation run can start and end at any intermediate
dates, as shown under the General Tab under MODSIM>Network Settings. This is
useful, for example, for critical period studies covering only drought sequences within the
entire historical hydrologic data set. Notice that MODSIM provides a convenient
calendar for specifying these dates.

V. HYDROLOGIC AND ADMINISTRATIVE COMPONENTS

A. Unregulated Inflows

Native or unregulated hydrologic inflows are input to MODSIM from measured flow data,
watershed runoff models, forecasts, drought scenarios, or stochastic generation of
streamflows. Unlike other river basin models, the inflows supplied to MODSIM are
unregulated, incremental, or localized inflow gains to a river reach. River basin models
such as TAMUWRAP (Wurbs and Walls, 1989), WIRSOS (State of Wyoming, 1992)
and STATEMOD (State of Colorado, 1999) require the user to develop virgin or
undeveloped flow conditions in the basin prior to application of the model, which are
often difficult to synthesize. Larson (2003) applied the SAMS software package (Salas,
et al., 2002) for stochastic generation of streamflow gains to the Snake River basin for a
MODSIM application, and Labadie, et al. (2005) applied SAMS to stochastic generation
of streamflows for application of MODSIM to the Geum River Basin, Korea.

Inflows are assigned as right-hand-side constants in Eq. 2 for both storage and nonstorage
nodes, with initial storage for the current period added to the inflows for storage nodes.

for storage node
it it it
b S I i = +
for nonstorage node
it it
b I i =

where
it
I is local inflow to node i during period t and
it
S is storage in reservoir node i at
the start of period t.

22
Double-clicking any NonStorage Node in the Network Editor Window displays the
NonStorage Properties Form, allowing unregulated inflows to be entered, as shown in
Fig. 4. Data can be entered manually, or right-button mouse click on the heading of the
inflow data column heading produces a context menu allowing data to be copied from a
spreadsheet, database, or ASCII text file into the Windows Clipboard to be pasted into
this form. Alternatively, lengthy database files may be automatically loaded into
MODSIM using custom code written in one of the .NET languages. As seen in Fig. 5, an
option available in the NonStorage Node Properties Form is to generate a graphical plot
of the time-series data entered in the Form. This is useful as a visual means of scanning
the data for obvious outliers and inconsistent data. Holding down the left-button mouse
and dragging a box clockwise over the graph will zoom in to the selected portion.
Dragging a box counterclockwise through the origin will return the graph to its original
resolution.

B. Reservoir Operations

Reservoir Storage Zones. Reservoir maximum volume S
i,max
, minimum volume S
i,min
,
initial volume S
i0
, and reservoir priority number are entered into the General Tab of the
Reservoir Node Properties Form, as seen in Fig. 6, where the artificial carryover storage
link cost is calculated as:
Fig. 4. Properties form for inflow data at nonstorage node.

23

( ) 50000 10
i i
c OPRP = (4)

where OPRP
i
is a priority ranking from 1 to 5000, with lower numbers indicating a
higher ranking, resulting in a negative cost. Notice that minimization of negative costs in
Eq. 1 is equivalent to maximizing flows to the higher ranked water uses. Rather than
their absolute values, it is the relative order or ranking of the negative costs that
determines how MODSIM allocates network flows. Fig. 7 shows the artificial carryover
storage links for each storage zone originating at each reservoir and accumulating at
artificial carryover storage node S. The link or arc parameters are displayed in Fig. 7,
where (negative) costs for the storage zone arcs are incremented from the negative cost
associated with maintaining the active storage target in the reservoir.

Fig. 5 Graphical display of inflow data at nonstorage node.

24

The bounds on the zone carryover storage links represent the incremental storage in each
zone as defined by the user in the MODSIM GUI, where S
i,min
is minimum allowable
storage in storage node i, S
i,max
is maximum storage, T
it
is ideal target storage level
for storage node i for current period t,
i
is the fraction of either maximum capacity or
target storage defining zone layer i, and c
i
is the corresponding incremental (negative
Fig. 6. Reservoir capacity, initial storage and priority
S
i,max

S
i,min

S
i0

OPRP
i

Fig. 7. Link parameters for zone carryover storage arcs.

S
2 1
0 1 < < <
1 2
0 c c > >
,min 2 2
, ,
i i i
S T c c

+


( )
1 2 1
0, ,
i i
T c c

+


( )
1
0, 1 ,
i i
T c




,max
0, , 0
i i
S T

,min i
S
,max i
S
i
T
1 i
T
2 i
T
Flood Pool
Zone 1
Zone 2
Zone 3
Active
storage
Dead
storage
i

25
cost) for zone i, which are entered into the Reservoir Node Properties Form as shown in
Fig. 8. To achieve balanced storage among several reservoirs in a basin, each
reservoir should have the same OPRP
i
priority and similar incremental costs c
i
.

Flood Operations. Although MODSIM is not designed for flood operations studies,
flood pool zones are defined above the target storage levels in reservoirs, as seen in Fig.7.
These target storage levels can vary seasonally for securing increased space during the
flood season. As seen in Fig. 7, the flood carryover storage link is assigned a zero cost in
MODSIM. In conjunction with the flood space, the final terminal node in a river basin
should be a Network Sink Node, as shown in Fig. 9. The Network Sink Node is
assigned a default priority number of 4999, resulting in a small negative cost of -10 on
1
100
2
100
3
100
3
c
2
c
1
c
T
it
Fig. 8. Reservoir target storage levels and reservoir layer properties.

26
the artificial demand link conveying flows out of the basin (Eq. 4). A high demand is
assigned to the Network Sink Node, assuring feasible network solutions under high flow
conditions. Since the artificial flood zone carryover arcs are assigned a zero cost, any
temporary storage in the flood zone is released downstream as soon as sufficient
conveyance capacity is available. In addition, as seen in Fig. 3, high cost artificial spill
links convey excess flows out of the basin only if available flood space is filled and
downstream conveyance channels are at maximum capacity. If it is desired to retain
excess spill flows in the basin, parallel, high cost links can be created downstream to
represent overbank flooding.

Conditional Operating Rules. Target storage levels
it
T can be input as a time series of
ideal storage levels, as shown in Fig. 8, or as a set of rules conditioning target storage
settings on user defined hydrologic state information at the current time step. The former
approach is often utilized for calibrating MODSIM by specifying target storage levels as
measured historical data and then adjusting various parameters in MODSIM to match
available stream gage records. The use of hydrologic state information is valuable for
management simulation runs of MODSIM after calibration is completed. MODSIM
computes hydrologic states by considering current reservoir storage levels and current
period inflows to a certain user specified subset of reservoirs in the system that are
Fig. 9. Network sink node located at basin outlet.

27
Dry
B
1m
B
i-1,m
B
im
B
n-1,m


Ave.
Hydrologic State R
tm

Wet
Fig. 10. Definition of Hydrologic States (assuming
period t is in calendar month ).

T
a
r
g
e
t

S
t
o
r
a
g
e


T
i

t

indicative of hydrologic conditions in the basin. Several different hydrologic state subset
designations may be specified as needed. Associated with each of these states (which
may be classified as average, dry, wet, etc.) is a corresponding set of reservoir operating
rules with associated ranking priorities. These hydrologic states are computed at the
beginning of each period for the user selected reservoir subset through the following
analysis:


[ ]
m
tm it it
i H
R S I

= +

(5)

,max
m
m i
i H
W S

=

(6)
where H
m
is the set of node numbers of reservoirs in a specified subset defining
hydrologic state designation m; t is the current period of operation; I
it
is the
unregulated inflow to reservoir i for period t ; S
it
is the beginning storage in reservoir i,
period t; and S
i,max
is the storage capacity for reservoir i.

The ranges for each hydrologic state designation are defined by user input boundary
factors
i m
(i = 1,,n-1) as fractions of total subsystem storage capacity for seasonal
period (i.e., calendar month for monthly time steps in the simulation), where

1 1,
0
m i m n m


< < < <
Boundaries dividing the hydrologic state ranges are then calculated as:
(7)


where n is the number of hydrologic states in designation m;
i m
B

is the upper bound on

hydrologic state i for period .

As shown in Fig. 10, the n
hydrologic state ranges for seasonal
period are defined as:


1
1,
1,
: 0
:

:

tm m
i m tm i m
n m tm
Dry R B
Medium B R B
Wet B R

where period t is assumed to be in
calendar month and reservoir
targets
it
T are constant with these
hydrologic states. Conditional target
storage levels can only vary within a
computational cycle (i.e., one year
for monthly analysis), although
for 1,..., 1
i m i m m
n m m
B W i n
B W

= =
=

28
separate target storage levels can be specified for each hydrologic state. MODSIM also
allows differing priorities to be specified for any reservoir node corresponding to
hydrologic state conditions as calculated by the above procedure.

Notice in Fig. 11 that when Conditional Rules is selected as Run Type in the Network
Settings Form, a new Hydrologic State Tab is displayed, which displays a list of the

existing Hydrologic State Tables (Fig. 12), and from which new tables can be created.

Fig. 11. Run Type option: Explicit Targets or Conditional Rules.
Fig. 12. Creation and editing of Hydrologic State Tables.

29
Clicking Create Table or Edit Table displays the Hydrologic Table Form (Fig. 13)
which allows designation of the hydrologic state subsystem of reservoirs for conditional
rules, as well as the boundary factors defining the range of each hydrologic state.
Boundary factors
i m
may be > 1 since reservoir operating targets are conditioned on
total current storage plus total inflows for reservoirs in the designated hydrologic state
subsystem. Since upper bounds
i m
B

are calculated by multiplying boundary factors

i m
by total storage capacity W
m
, without inclusion of inflows, higher boundary factors
account for the volume of unregulated inflows entering the reservoir.

Once hydrologic state tables have been created, the desired Hydrologic Table is easily
selected from the drop down list in the form activated by clicking the General Tab in the
Reservoir Node Properties Form. As shown in Fig. 14, varying priorities can be
specified for each hydrologic state. The conditional reservoir operating targets can then
be input for each hydrologic state into the form activated by clicking the Targets Tab, as
shown in Fig. 15. Again, these targets are only applied to the seasonal time steps, i.e., the
calendar months of each year. However, since it may be preferred that some reservoirs in
H
1

Subsystem
designation
n

1m

2m

3m

Fig. 13. Designation of Hydrologic State subsystem and boundary factors.

30
the system are operated with explicit rather than conditional target storage levels, the
Varies By Year checkbox allows input of explicit targets for each time period.

Inflow Forecasts. It is possible to utilize the hydrologic state option in for incorporation
of seasonal inflow forecasts in specification of reservoir target operating rules. This is
accomplished by adding a dummy reservoir with zero capacity to the network, but not
directly connecting it to the network proper. As can be seen in Fig. 16, a dummy
reservoir HeiseFor is created for the Upper Snake River Basin in Wyoming, USA which
is disconnected from the rest of the network. Seasonal runoff forecasts are entered into
the form activated by the Runoff Forecast tab. Seasonal forecasts are associated with the
dummy reservoir, but the runoff forecasts do not provide actual inflow to this node. This
dummy reservoir may be included in the hydrologic state subsystem designation of
reservoirs and used for developing conditional reservoir operating targets based on
anticipated future inflows entering the system. This allows operating rules to be based on
forecasts of runoff conditions, such as information obtained from snow pack surveys in
the watershed. Data entered into the Runoff Forecast form represents seasonal forecast
information that would be available at each time period of operation.

If desired, Runoff Forecasts can be entered into actual reservoirs that are directly
connected to the network. Again, these forecasts do not provide actual inflows to the
reservoir, but can be used to include that reservoir in a hydrologic state designation which,
in this case, would also include the current storage in the reservoir. Because these Runoff
Forecast data are not provided as actual inflows to the system, they can be represented as
subjective indices, such as 1: representing low flows, 3 representing average flows, 5:
representing high flows, etc.
Fig. 14. Selecting Hydrologic Table Name for conditional reservoir operating targets.

31
Fig. 15. Specification of reservoir target storage levels conditioned on each
Hydrologic State.

32

Evaporation and Seepage Losses: Users enter net evaporation rates in the Reservoir
Node Properties form, which are defined as evaporation rates minus rainfall rates. As
seen in Fig. 17, negative entries signify that rainfall rates exceed evaporation rates for
that time period. MODSIM accepts a variable number of elevation-area-storage-
hydraulic outlet capacity data points for any reservoir, as shown in Fig. 18, which are
interpolated to calculate reservoir surface area corresponding to any current volume in the
reservoir. Evaporation loss is calculated in MODSIM as a function of average surface
area in a reservoir over the current period.


, 1
0.5 ( ) ( )
it it i it i i t
EV ev A S A S
+
( = +

(8)
where ev
it
is net evaporation rate (i.e., evaporation rate less rainfall rate) for reservoir i
(e.g., feet per month) for the current period t; A
i
(S
it
) is the interpolated calculation of
surface area from the elevation-area-storage-hydraulic outlet capacity table for reservoir i,
and S
it
is storage at the beginning of the current period. Since average surface area in a
reservoir is unknown until calculations are completed for the current period, an iterative
process is required for accurate calculation of net evaporation loss whereby net
evaporation loss
it
EV is initially calculated using surface area based on the beginning
Fig. 16. Incorporation of runoff forecast information in Reservoir Node Properties form.

33
Ft.
(Evaporation Rainfall)
Fig. 17. Net evaporation rates entered into the Reservoir Node Properties form.
Fig. 18. Area-Capacity-Elevation-Hydraulic Capacity table.

34
storage volume in the reservoir. With calculation of the ending storage volume for that
period
, 1 i t
S
+
(or beginning storage volume for the next period), an updated estimate of
net evaporation loss
it
EV is calculated based on
( )
, 1 i i t
A S
+
and a new network solution is
obtained based on the updated evaporation loss term. This procedure is repeated until the
net evaporation loss calculations converge to stationary values within a desired order of
accuracy.

Seepage losses from reservoirs are calculated in an iterative process similar to that of
evaporation losses, except that seepage is assumed to be a function of average volume in
the reservoir over the current period and the seepage loss rate is assumed to be constant:


, 1
0.5
it i it i t
SL sl S S
+
( = +

(9)

where sl
i
is the seepage loss fraction for reservoir i and SL
it
is the total volume of
seepage loss during period t. In contrast with evaporation losses, a portion of reservoir
seepage may be designated as contributing to downstream return flows, as discussed
subsequently. The seepage loss fraction is entered in the form activated by the
Groundwater Seepage tab in the Reservoir Node Properties form, as seen in Fig. 19.

C. Hydropower

High-Head Power Plants. MODSIM computes both power capacity and energy
generation in high-head power plants using the basic power equation:


( )
,max
,
it it it i it it i
P K Q H e Q H P = (10)

where P
it
is mean power output during period t (KW); Q
it
is turbine release
(volume/time period);
it
H is mean effective head for time period t;
( )
,
i it it
e Q H is overall
plant efficiency, which can be entered as a table of values as a function of discrete release
rates Q and heads H ; K is conversion constant based on selected units; and
,max i
P is the
maximum capacity of the powerplant. The Power tab in the Reservoir Node Properties
form activates the form for input of power plant information, as seen in Fig. 20.
Fig. 19. Input of reservoir seepage rate in the Reservoir Node Properties form.

35
Mean effective head is calculated as:


( )
, 1
0.5 ( ) (
it i it i i t
H H S H S
+
= + (11)

and effective head ( )
i it
H S is defined as: (water surface elevation) (power plant
elevation) (tailwater head loss), where water surface elevation is interpolated from the
Area-Capacity-Elevation-Hydraulic Capacity table as in Fig. 18 for the current storage
level in reservoir i, and tailwater head loss is calculated as:

tailwater head loss = max (0., tailwater elevation power plant elevation) (12)

Users can enter tables relating tailwater elevation to discharge for calculation of
tailwater head loss, as shown in Fig. 20.
102000
0
Fig. 20. Power plant information

36
On-Peak Energy Generation. Energy generation (MWH) is calculated as:


it it it
E P T = (13)

where
it
T is total hours of on-peak generation in time period t, as entered into the
Generating Hours form as shown in Fig. 21. MODSIM assumes that hydropower plants
are operated primarily for on-peak energy generation, where for monthly time periods,
the monthly plant factor is defined as:


,max

it
i it
E
plant factor
P T
=

(14)
The Power form under the Reservoir Node Properties form (Fig. 20) includes a check
box: Peak Generation Only. Clicking this checkbox signifies that discharges from the
reservoir only occur during the on-peak hours of generation. In effect, discharge rate
during the on-peak hours only is now calculated as:

p t
it it
it
H
Q Q
T
=

(15)
where
it
Q is the average discharge rate through the power plant in reservoir i during
period t;
t
H is the total hours in period t; and
p
it
Q is the discharge rate occurring during
the on-peak hours. This increases power capacity during the on-peak hours according to
the following formula:


( )
,
p p
it it i it it it
P K Q H e Q H = (16)

In this case, it is assumed that water is released through the turbines during on-peak hours
only. For these types of power plants, downstream re-regulation reservoirs with
Fig. 21. Generating hours for on-peak energy production.

37
sufficient capacity for daily carryover storage are generally needed for providing
consistent flow rates downstream. The unchecked Peak Generation Only box instructs
MODSIM that releases can be made during off-peak hours.

Run-of-the-River Power Plants. Low-head or run-of-the-river projects utilize turbines
that require little head for generation. These are modeled in MODSIM by creating a zero
capacity reservoir; i.e., a reservoir with no storage capacity, as seen in Fig. 22. Fig. 23
shows the corresponding area-capacity-elevation table, which has only a single entry with
a nominal elevation value of 1. Notice in Fig. 24 that power plant elevation is set to 0,
which establishes a constant unit valued head and the same power equation as in Eq. 10 is
utilized. Efficiency tables and generating hours can be entered as with high-head power
plants.






Pumped Storage. Pumped storage projects are indirectly considered by simply
increasing the generation hours per period, even beyond the total actual hours in the
period. This corresponds to increasing the load factor for the power plant. Although
load factor is generally defined as power used/peak power, it can also be defined as on-
peak generation hours/total hours. For pumped storage projects, load factor may be > 1.
Fig. 22. Zero capacity reservoir for modeling run-of-the river hydropower plants
Fig. 23. Area-capacity-elevation table for run-of-river hydropower project.

38
In MODSIM, all hydropower plants are assumed to be downstream of storage projects.
Hydraulic outlet capacity can be entered as a function of water surface elevation, as
shown in Fig. 7, which allows discharges to be restricted to hydraulically feasible flows
based on available head on the outlet works.

D. Demands

Consumptive Demands. MODSIM automatically creates artificial demand links
originating at each demand node and accumulating at a single artificial demand node D.
The parameters for the artificial demand links are defined as [0, D
it
, c
k
] for artificial
demand link k = [i,D] originating from demand node i, where demands D
it
may be
defined as: historical diversions, decreed water rights, predicted agricultural demands
based on consumptive use calculations (performed outside the model), or projected
municipal and industrial demands. Link weights or costs on the artificial demand links
are calculated as:

( ) 50000 10
k i
c DEMR = (17)
where, similar to reservoir priorities, the user selects priorities
i
DEMR between 0 and
5000, with lower numbers representing higher priorities; i.e., larger negative costs.
Fig. 24. Power plant efficiency for run-of-river projects.

39
Consumptive demand nodes are selected as in Fig. 25, with entry of the demand priority
number in the Demand Node Properties form. Clicking the Time Series tab displays the
Time Series form as in Fig. 26 for entry of consumptive demands, and the Groundwater
tab, allows entry of infiltration fractions as shown in Fig. 27. Although these demands
Fig. 25. Specification of consumptive demand and priority in Demand Node Properties form.
Fig. 26. Input of demand time series in Demand Node Properties form

40
are designated as consumptive, it is rare that 100% consumption occurs. The fraction of
actual water delivery that infiltrates to groundwater is the infiltration fraction, which
equals (1 - efficiency). These fractions are allowed to vary seasonally. The remainder of
this form provides specification of information related to portions of the infiltration
contributing to groundwater and appearing as downstream return flows, possibly at
multiple locations. Details on stream-aquifer interactions, including both return flows
and stream depletions due to groundwater pumping to supplement water supply to the
demand node, are discussed in a subsequent section of this Manual.

Instream Flow Demands. MODSIM also provides for non-consumptive flow-through
demands that are applied to instream flow uses such as navigation, water pollution
control, fish and wildlife maintenance and recreation. The use of flow-through demands
for minimum streamflow requirements has two primary advantages: (i) the flow-through
demand can be assigned a priority similar to any other demand in the basin, and (ii)
simply setting a fixed lower bound on the link corresponding to a minimum streamflow
requirement can result in the MODSIM network algorithm prematurely terminating at an
Fig. 27. Entry of seasonal infiltration fractions into the Groundwater form.

41
infeasible solution if there is insufficient flow available to satisfy the minimum
streamflow requirement. The flow-through demand can receive a shortage similar to any
other demand, depending on the relative ranking of the water right priority assigned to it.
An additional advantage of the flow-through demand is that it may be used to divide flow
according a predetermined fractional distribution, rather than according to water
allocation priorities.

As illustrated in Fig. 28, flow-through demands operate by iteratively removing flow as a
demand from the network, but then replacing the flow at one or more specified (usually
the next downstream) node(s) in the next iteration, which essentially corresponds to a
demand with 100% return flow which is unlagged. The superscript k in Fig. 28
represents an iteration counter, since flow-through demand returns must be calculated
through a successive approximations procedure. In the first iteration, the instream flow
demand D
2
is treated as a consumptive demand and flow is delivered according to
priority through solution of the network algorithm. At the next iteration, the flow
( 1)
2
k
q

D

actually delivered in link [2,D] in the previous iteration is then added as an inflow to
node 3, and the network is solved once again, but with the bounds on link [2,D] adjusted
to only remove additional flows above what was already flowing (i.e.,
( 1)
23
k
q

) in the
instream flow reach [2,3] in the previous iteration. In this case, link [2,3] is referred to
as a bypass credit link, since it is only necessary to augment the streamflow above the
Fig. 28. Illustration of Flow-Through Demands
D
( 1)
2
k
D
q

( 1)
2 23 2
0, ,
k
D q c
D
1 2 3

( )
23
k
q

42
current flow level so as to satisfy the minimum streamflow requirement. This solution
process continues until successive estimates of returns to node 3 agree. Note that the
flow in link [2,3] does not actually represent the total instream flow. Flows leaving node
3 would better represent the actual flows in link [2,3], assuming there are no other
demands or inflows at node 3. The output report for demand node 2 properly considers
the actual flow in link [2,3] as related to the instream flow requirement.

Fig. 29 shows an example of a flow-through demand for a network constructed for use in
the Snake River Flow Augmentation Study conducted by the U.S. Bureau of Reclamation
and the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers (USBR, 2000). This study examined potential
scenarios for reallocation of flows to satisfy instream flow requirements for endangered
species in the Snake River basin. A flow-through demand is established at node
AndPowr, which accrues flow back to the river reach at node ANDI in the same time step,
and without consumptive loss. The specified bypass credit link is _39_ANDI such that
the flow-through demand is only used to augment flow in this link in order to satisfy the
minimum streamflow requirement. The time series of instream flow requirements is
entered at the Time Series tab, and the priority associated with these requirements is
entered at the General tab.

Fig. 29. Illustration of flow-through demand in the Upper Snake River basin network.

43
An additional advantage of the flow-through demand is that it may be used to divide flow
according to a predetermined fractional distribution, rather than based on demand
priorities. This is useful for mutual irrigation companies, or other mechanisms for
apportioning flow in a river basin. Flow-through demands are also valuable for model
calibration purposes, where a flow-through demand is located at a streamflow gaging
station site, and the demands assigned to the flow-through demand node correspond to
historical measured flows, which are assigned as the highest priority in the basin.
MODSIM parameters and unknown system gains and losses can then be adjusted until
measured flows at the gaging station are reasonably matched.

Shortage Rules. During higher than normal flow conditions in a river basin, all
demands are generally satisfied, whereas during low flow and drought conditions, severe
shortages may occur. The priority structure embodied in MODSIM distributes available
water supply to high priority uses first. In some river basin systems, the administrative
goals are to produce a more equitable sharing of available water during drought. Simply
assigning the same priorities to all demands in the basin will not necessarily result in an
equitable distribution in a MODSIM solution. Rather, without any priority guidance,
MODSIM will produce inconsistent
solutions and random distribution of
available water. However, similar to
use of hydrologic state tables for
defining conditional reservoir
operating rules, demands can also be
conditioned on hydrologic state
information, allowing development
of shortage rules that attempt to
equitably share flow deficiencies
among water users during periods of
extended drought or low-flow
conditions. As seen in Fig. 30,
basin-wide demands can be reduced
by certain percentages as conditioned
on the hydrologic state, allowing
more equitable sharing of available
water resources during dry periods.

Shortage rules are defined in MODSIM by selecting a Hydrologic Table name in the
General form within the Demand Node Properties form, as in Fig. 31. Click Apply and
OK after selection of the Hydrologic Table, reopen the Demand Node Properties form,
uncheck the Varies by Year box, and specify the shortage rule for each period, as in Fig.
32.





Dry
B
1m
B
i-1,m
B
im
B
n-1,m


Ave.
Hydrologic State R
tm

Wet






D
e
m
a
n
d


D
i

t

Fig. 30. Shortage rules conditioned on Hydrologic
state.

44

In some cases, it is desirable to use reservoir operating rules that specify conditional
release rules rather than conditional storage target rules for each time period. This is
Fig. 31. Specification of Hydrologic Table for shortage rule.
Fig. 32. Specification of shortage rule in Demand Node Properties form.

45
easily accomplished by specifying an additional flow-through demand node downstream
of a reservoir with the desired release levels designated as flow-through demands. These
releases can be dependent on storage levels by using the hydrologic state option for flow-
through demands


VI. FLOW CONVEYANCE AND ROUTING

A. Channel Capacities

As seen in the Link Properties form shown in Fig. 33, MODSIM allows users to input
constant flow capacity limits for each link, or varying daily, weekly or monthly
maximum flow limits for specified variable capacity links. The latter are useful for
considering seasonal influences in canal capacities and maintenance schedules. For
example, the SouthFork link represented by the form in Fig. 33 is a channel located high
in the Rocky Mountains of Colorado. During the winter months, snow and ice restrict
flows in the channel. In other regions, seasonal restrictions may be caused by scheduled
maintenance, growth of algae, etc. In addition, to variable capacity links, seasonal
capacity links can be specified, where the link is constrained to an annual maximum
accumulated flow, perhaps based on water rights. Once the accumulated seasonal flows
exceed the maximum seasonal capacity, link is effectively turned off, and no further
flows through that link are allowed throughout the remainder of the current season.
Seasonal flow capacities are then reinitialized to the specified seasonal capacity at the
beginning of the next season. All links in the network must be bounded from above and
below in MODSIM. Constant minimum flow capacities may be assigned to any link in
the network, but care must be taken to avoid infeasible solutions. Improperly assigned
minimum and maximum flow capacities on links are the major reasons for network
solutions terminating in infeasibility errors. For minimum streamflow requirements, it is
best to utilize the flow-through demand construct, as discussed previously.

B. Channel Losses:

A successive approximations iterative procedure is employed in MODSIM for calculating
channel losses, as illustrated in Fig. 34. First, network flows are initiallysolved via the
Lagrangian relaxation algorithm with no losses assumed. The losses in each link are
computed by multiplying the loss coefficient by the current flow
(0)
k
q in link k, where the
superscript 0 is an iteration counter representing initial flow in the iterative process
calculated without removal of channel losses. This loss is removed during the next
iteration by an artificial link terminating at the artificial groundwater GW node with both
lower and upper bounds set equal to the amount of loss. The network flow algorithm is
then solved again. If current flows in the reach agree with those found in the previous
iteration, then convergence has occurred. Otherwise, the procedure is repeated with
channel losses defined on the bounds of the artificial link updated to reflect current flows
in the real link. This process continues until successive link loss estimates agree within a
specified error tolerance.


46
Since the user-specified loss coefficient
k
cl represents the fraction of flow at the head of
link k that is lost during transition through the link, then during any iteration , the current
flow
( )
k
q is the net of losses removed in the channel. That is:


( )
( )
. . =

k
ch loss ch loss
k
cl q
or

( )
( ) ( )
.
1

(
= =
(
(

k
k
k
ch loss
k k
cl
q q
cl
(18)
Coefficient
k
is then applied to current link flows
( )
k
q for calculating link losses.



Fig. 34. Specification of channel capacity in Link Properties form.

47

C. Multilinks

The multi-link structure of MODSIM allows certain kinds of nonlinear functional
relationships to be included in the network model. For example, Fig. 35 shows an
example where channel losses in a reach change in a nonlinear relationship with flow rate
in the channel. This nonlinear relationship is approximated with a piece-wise linear
function, with each linear segment represented as a link connecting the same two nodes i
and j. The capacities of each link represent the incremental flow change in that segment,
and small unit costs are assigned to each link, with costs increasing with increasing flow.
These costs, or perhaps better represented as penalties, are small enough that it is unlikely
they will influence the overall distribution of flows in the network. However, they
guarantee that link 1, associated with piece-wise segment 1, will fill first, followed by
link 2, and finally link 3, as a result of solution by the minimum cost network flow
algorithm employed in MODSIM. The accumulated flow in all three links represents the
total flow in the channel connecting nodes i and j. It should be noted that any costs
assigned to network links are treated directly as costs, and not priorities which are
translated into costs using Eq. 4 or Eq. 17.

Clinking Convert to Multilink on the context menu for any link allows creation of any
number of links connecting the same two nodes, as in Fig. 35. Editing of the parameters
of each link is easily accomplished, such as shown in Fig. 36 for link 1 in the above
Fig. 34. Successive approximations procedure for channel loss calculations.
Channel Loss Link j
( ) k
j
q


(
(


( 1) ( 1)
, ,0
k k
j j
j j
q q
link loss
( )
=
1
j
j
j
cl
cl
iteration no.
GW

48
example, where the flow increment for that segment of the piece-wise linear function is
set as the maximum flow in that link, the link cost is set to 0, and the channel loss
coefficient (slope of linear segment 1 in Fig. 35) is specified under the Channel Loss tab.

For certain problems where it is desirable to include pumping costs, MODSIM allows
direct entry of unit costs in the Link Properties form for any link in the network.
Negative costs can be entered to represent benefits, such as from low head hydropower
production, since MODSIM solves a minimum cost network flow optimization problem.
If these costs are nonlinear functions of flow in the link, the multilink method described
previously for nonlinear channel loss functions can be similarly applied. In this case, the
cost functions must be convex (i.e., with increasing slope) and benefit functions
(represented as negative costs) must be concave (i.e., decreasing slopes in order to insure
correct minimum cost solutions by the network flow optimization algorithm. Costs or
penalties (positive or negative) can be directly assigned to any link by the user to
discourage or encourage, respectively, flow in that particular link according to predefined
operational criteria. It must be remembered, however, that if water right priorities are
included in the network, then any link costs introduced by the user must be set at small
1000 1800
k
q
. Ch Loss
1
k
cl
2
k
cl
3
k
cl
i j
[ ]
0,1000,0
( )
0, 1800 1000 ,1 (

[ ]
0,9999,2
[ ]
, ,
k k k
l u c
1
k
cl
2
k
cl
3
k
cl
Fig. 35. Illustration of piece-wise linearization of channel loss as
nonlinear function of flow using a multilink.

49
relative values that will not disrupt the distribution of flows according to the water right
priorities.

D. Channel Routing

For simulation of daily streamflow, it may be necessary to consider channel routing. This
is accomplished in MODSIM by designating a network link as a routing link. Inflow to
this link is distributed over time in accordance with routing coefficients calculated by
MODSIM using the Muskingum formula. Alternatively, the user may directly input any
desired routing coefficients and lagging factors. An iterative process similar to
calculation of flow-through demands is employed, except that returns to the channel are
distributed according to the routing coefficients over the current and future time steps.
Assuming that the flow entering routing link k during time step t is
kt
q , then routed
outflow from link k is:
Fig. 36. Specification of flow increment, unit cost and channel loss
coefficient for link 1.
k
cl

50

0 1 , 1 2 , 2
= + + +
kt kt k t k t
q c q c q c q (19)

where
kt
q is the ordinate of the outflow hydrograph at time t;
, j t
q is the ordinate of
the inflow hydrograph at time t for = 0,1,; and
0 1
, , c c are routing coefficients.
The routing coefficients may be calculated by MODSIM based on the Muskingum
routing equations by selecting Model Generated under Groundwater Lag Factors in the
Network Settings form, as shown in Fig. 37. Selecting the User Generated option and
specifying the Maximum Number of Lags assumes that users will enter the routing
coefficients directly.

The Muskingum routing coefficients are calculated by MODSIM as follows:

( )
( ) ( )
0
2
2 1

=
+
t XK
c
K X t
(20)

( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( )
2 1 2
2 1
+
=
+
K X t t
c
K X t
(21)

( )
( ) ( )
1 0
2
2 1
+
= +
+
t XK
c c c
K X t
(23)

1
for 2

=
i i
c c cc i (24)
where users enter weighting factor X as a dimensionless number usually between 0 and
0.5 representing the relative influence of the inflow in determining the prism storage
volume in reach k. Parameter K is in units of days (or fraction of a day) in this case,
representing travel time through the reach, and t is generally set to 1 for daily time
increments. To avoid negative coefficients, the Muskingum parameter K should be
within the following limits:
Fig. 37. Selection of User Generated groundwater lag factors or Model
Generated (Muskingum method).

51

( ) ( )
2 2 1
t t
K
X X

<

(25)

An iterative process is employed in MODSIM for routing daily flows, as illustrated in Fig.
38, where the superscript is an iteration counter. At iteration = 0, an initial MODSIM
solution is found that temporarily ignores flow routing. This results in flow
(0)
kt
q in
routing link k during current time t. An artificial link is then created that removes the
portion of this flow appearing downstream in future time steps, with the remaining flow
passing downstream representing the portion of the routed link outflow that occurs in the
current time step t. The routed outflow appearing in future time steps is then placed back
into a return node immediately downstream of the ending node of the routing link (node
n+1 in Fig. 38). Again, these flows will not appear until future time steps. Notice that
the link parameters on the artificial link specify that exactly the flow specified by the
upper and lower bounds must be removed from the river reach and subsequently added
back in downstream. The iterative process continues until iteration when
( ) ( 1)

kt kt
q q
within a user specified convergence tolerance.

Fig. 39 gives an example of data entry for a routing link in the daily operations network
for the Geum River basin, Korea. It is important to note that the downstream node for a
routing reach should not be assigned as a demand node since it will interfere with the
routing calculation. In addition, routing links should not be connected in direct
succession in the network configuration. Fig. 40 shows entry of user specified lag factors
or routing coefficients in the Link Properties form.

Fig. 38. Successive approximations procedure for channel routing.
( ) ( )

(

(


0 0
( 1) ( 1)
1 , 1 ,0
kt kt
c q c q
( )
kt
q
Routed
Flows from
Previous
Periods
Iteration No.

=
,
1,2,...
k t
c q
GW
Routing Link

52
Fig. 40. User specification of routing coefficients.
Fig. 39. Selection of Channel Routing link in Link Properties form.

53
E. Backrouting in Daily Reservoir Operations

Overview. The channel routing procedure in MODSIM temporarily disconnects the
network at each routing link due to the iterative solution procedure that is employed.
Because of this, a lower priority water use upstream of a routing link may receive flows
in lieu of deliveries to higher priority downstream uses. To overcome this problem, an
innovative backrouting procedure is incorporated in MODSIM to insure that water
deliveries occur in the correct priority. A look-ahead approach is adopted whereby water
delivery decisions for time step t are based on knowledge about future water system
requirements using several network runs over future concurrent time steps. Downstream
demand time series are backrouted upstream to represent flows in the current time step t
required to pass through the routing link to satisfy future downstream water requirements
without unnecessary shortages and spills.

General Procedure. MODSIM implements network optimization using the Lagrangian
relaxation solver, with each time step solved as a separate problem, since network
optimization is utilized in MODSIM to simulate the allocation of available water
resources according to prespecified priorities and rules. The network optimization
progresses from the starting simulation date to the ending simulation date without any
knowledge about future events or demands in the system. As described previously,
channel routing in MODSIM over daily time steps is accomplished by defining a routing
link with appropriate Muskingum routing coefficients or user-defined lag coefficients.
The flow routing is accomplished by removing a portion of the flow from the upstream
node defining the routing link, which is then returned to the downstream node of the
routing link in future time steps according to the routing coefficients. Iterations in the
current time step are repeated until successive network solutions match according to
prespecified convergence criteria.

The normal streamflow routing procedure employed in MODSIM will produce correct
solutions as long as there is sufficient water to satisfy all demands, whether they are of
low or high priority. Difficulties arise when there is insufficient water available to meet
all demands, and priorities exist on allocation of water. Under water shortage conditions
and priroties on demands, routing time steps longer than one day can cause downstream
demands to pull water from upstream reservoirs, although they do not receive this water
immediately. This causes unnecessary releases of additional water from upstream
reservoirs that are in excess of downstream demands. A backrouting methodology has
been implemented in MODSIM to overcome the problem of excessive reservoir
drawdown associated with longer routing periods.

In this approach, water delivery decisions for time step t are based on knowledge about
future water system requirements that are calculated using several network runs over
future concurrent times. The concept of concurrent time networks is based on the fact
that in time step t, only a fraction of the water available at any location in the network
will actually reach the farthest downstream region of the network during the same time
step. For example, in Fig. 41, none of the water available in link A will reach the farthest
downstream node during period t, and only 50% of the water flowing in link B will reach
the farthest downstream node during the current time step, with the remaining 50% of the

54
Fig. 41. Simple real-time K- MODSIM
routing network.

Routing Link (3)
water arriving at the most downstream point in time
t+1. A concurrent time network that represents
only the water available at the same time in the
farthest downstream region is called a downstream
time network. The downstream time network is
constructed by transforming demands, inflows,
groundwater return flows and reservoir storage
targets to the corresponding portions of the flow
available.

Downstream time networks for current and future
time t+ ( = 0,,n), where n is the maximum
number of time lags, combine portions of previous
time flows that reach the most downstream region
in period t+, and the portion of the water available
in the system at time t+ able to reach the farthest
downstream node. Mathematical calculation of the
downstream time network flows is accomplished by
defining regional routing coefficients resulting
combination of the multiple routing effects.
Routing links in the MODSIM network essentially
divide the system into routing regions (Fig. 41)
such that flows in each region are considered to be concurrent in time. The combination
of routing link coefficients from the farthest downstream region that are backrouted to
each upstream region allow calculation of regional routing coefficients
j
r that transform
the flow time series in region j to an equivalent time series in the farthest downstream
region time frame. In this example, Region 1, the farthest downstream region, has a
regional routing coefficient vector composed of the value 1 in the first element, followed
by 0 values in the remaining elements, since all the water in Region 1 will flow to the
farthest downstream region (i.e., itself) in the current time step.


10 10
11 12
1 1
1 1
1 1
0 0

0 0
n n
c r
c r
c r
( ( ( (
( ( ( (
= = = =
( ( ( (
( ( ( (
( ( ( (

c r



and routing coefficients for next upstream region (Region 2) are represented as:


20
21
2
2n
c
c
c
(
(
=
(
(
(

c

55
Fig. 42. Routing regions in K-MODSIM
Network.
Routing Link (3)
c
3
= [0,1]
Routing Link (2)
c
2
= [0.5,0.5]
REGION
3
N
REGION
2
REGION
1
where n represents the position of the first zero
valued element in the vector
2
c after the
lexicographically last positive-valued element (i.e.,
2, 1
0
n
c

> ;
2
0
n
c = ). The regional routing
coefficients for Region 2 are then calculated as a
convolution process:

10 20 20
11 10 21 21
2 1 2
1 1, 1 10 2 2
0 0 0
0 0
0
n n n n
r c r
r r c r
r r r c r

( ( (
( ( (
= = = ( ( (
( ( (
( ( (

r R c

For the example shown in Fig. 42,
2
r would be
calculated as:


2 1 2
1 0 0 0.5 0.5
0 1 0 0.5 0.5
0 0 1 0 0
( ( (
( ( (
= = =
( ( (

r R c

This convolution process continues upstream for
Region j:


1,0 0 0
1,1 1,0 1 1
1
1, 1, 1 1,0
0 0 0
0 0
0
(for 2,..., )
j j j
j j j j
j j j
j n j n j jn jn
r c r
r r c r
r r r c r
j N

( ( (
( ( (
( ( (
= = =
( ( (
( ( (

=
r R c

where N is the total number of the regions and n represents the position of the first zero
valued element in the vector
j
c after the lexicographically last positive-valued element
(i.e.,
, 1
0
j n
c

> ; 0
jn
c = ), or the position of the first zero valued element in the regional
routing vector
1 j
r (i.e.,
1, 1
0
j n
r

> ;
1,
0
j n
r

= ), whichever is larger. For the simple
example of Fig. 42:


3 2 3
0.5 0 0 0 0 0
0.5 0.5 0 0 1 0.5
0 0.5 0.5 0 0 0.5
0 0 0.5 0.5 0 0
( ( (
( ( (
= = =
( ( (
( ( (
( ( (

r R c


56
Let
jt
q represent the time series of inflows, demands or groundwater return flows in
Region j. These time series are routed to the farthest downstream region time using the
computed regional routing matrices
j
R as follows:

0
1 1,0 , 1 , 1
1, 1, 1 1,0 , ,
0 0 0
0 0
0
j jt jt
j j j t j t
j j j
j m j m j j t m j t m
r q q
r r q q
r r r q q
+ +
+ +

( ( (
( ( (

( ( (
= = =
( ( (
( ( (

q R q

where m represents the position number of the first nonzero element in the regional
routing vector associated with the farthest upstream region N. That is, m is defined such
that for
( )
0 , 1 , 1
,..., , , ,...,
N N m Nm N m Nm
r r r r r
+
, elements
0 , 1
0, 0
N N m Nm
r r r

= = = > . The
farthest upstream region is used for defining m since the multiplied effects of downstream
routing will be maximized in the farthest upstream region, which determines the number
of future time networks that will need to be solved.

The downstream time series represent concurrent flows in the downstream time t + ,
where is the index of future time steps. Fig. 43 shows successive downstream network
for two time steps. Notice that there are no routing links in the downstream networks and
all water users and reservoirs compete for concurrent water in a continuous network. At
every sequential real time step t, a series of m+1 downstream time networks over the
current and future time steps are run to calculate current and future water requirements
Fig. 43. Downstream Time Networks Solved at Each Real-Time Step t
Downstream Time t +1
=
31
Node Inflow
At At
q q r
+
+
=

, 1 32
, 1 31
Node Inflow
+
A t At
A t
q q r
q r
=
21
Node Inflow
Bt Bt
q q r
+
+
=
+
, 1 22
, 1 21
Node Inflow

B t Bt
B t
q q r
q r
=
Node Demand
1
Dt Dt
q q
+ +
= +
, 1 , 1
Node Demand
0 1
D t Dt D t
q q q
Downstream Time t

57
for the routing links in the real network. The flows ( )
,
0,1,..., )

+
=
j t
q m calculated in
these network solutions represent flows in routing link j, but translated to downstream
region time t+. These flows are now backrouted to time t using the inverse of the
regional routing coefficient matrix
j
R as follows:

( )
1
1
, 1 , 1 , 1
, , 1 , ,
0 0 0
0 0

j j j
j j j j
j j j
j m j m j j m j m
r q q
r r q q
r r r q q

+ + +
+ + + +

( ( (
( ( (

( ( (
= = =
( ( (
( ( (


q R q

where represents the lexicographically first nonzero element in the regional routing
vector
j
r . Defining the index truncates the regional routing matrix by removing 0
valued columns and rows in the matrix. This prevents the routing matrix from being
singular and therefore allows calculation of the matrix inverse. Since there is no routing
occurring prior to time step t+ (i.e., the regional routing coefficients = 0 for those time
steps), then , for 0,..., 1

= =
j j
q q . Therefore, the final backrouted flows
translated to current time t for routing link j are:


0 0
, 1 , 1
, ,

j j
j j
j
j j
j m j m
q q
q q
q q
q q

+ +

( (
( (
( (
( (
= =
( (

( (
( (
( (

( (

q







In effect, the backrouted flows
0 j
q
represent flows in the current real-time
step t required in the routing link
downstream of Region j to meet future
water requirements without
unnecessary shortages and spills. Note
that even though the entire backrouted
vector
j
q is calculated, only the first
element is actually used in time step t
since future backrouted flows will be
recalculated when the simulation
moves to the next time step t+1.

Invoking backrouting only requires
selection of Backrouting under
Extensions in the MODSIM main menu item (Fig. 44). The same information as required
for channel routing is necessary for the backrouting procedure.
Fig. 44. Selection of backrouting as a K-MODSIM
extension.

58
Backrouting Example. This example attempts to
illustrate the advantages of using the backrouting
procedure to insure that flow routing does not
interfere with the priorities associated with water
allocation in the network, particularly during drought
or low-flow conditions. Fig. 45 shows a simple
network with a low priority reservoir node as a
limited source of water, and two demands separated
by a routing link. The node dem2 has a higher
priority over the node dem1 in the water delivery,
but both have the same water demand of 100 units.

This example represents a case with time lags of more
than one day, where the routing coefficients are zero
in the first time step, 0.20 in the second, and 0.80 in
the third. In order to precondition the network for
previous flow conditions due to flow routing (i.e.,
prior to the starting time step), 80 units of flow are
returned to node ms2 in the first time step, since the
real system will rarely be completely dry in the
downstream section. The lack of returning routed flows in the first time step causes
excessive reservoir releases, thereby moving the solution farther from the real operation.

This example demonstrates the look-ahead capabilities of the back routing algorithm in
the way that MODSIM solves the network. The physical channel routing solution (i.e.,
without backrouting) releases all water from the reservoir in an attempt to satisfy the
senior demands downstream of the routing link. The flow in the link going out the
reservoir is shown in Fig. 46.
Fig. 45. Backrouting example.

Routing
Link
[0.2,0.8]
Routing
Link
[0.2,0.8]
Fig. 46. K-MODSIM Results for Streamflow Routing Case Showing Large
Reservoir Releases

59
It can be seen in Fig. 47 that the senior demand receives water mainly from flows added
to precondition the network for routed flows prior to the current simulation period. Large
shortages are observed for the case where the physical channel routing option is used.

In this solution, the junior demand receives no water, and most of the water is spilled at
the downstream sink node, as seen in Fig. 48.
Fig. 47. Shortages to senior demand under the physical channel routing solution.
Fig. 48. Large downstream spills in the physical channel routing solution.
Routed Flow
Routed Flow,

60
Fig. 49 shows that under the backrouting solution, the model produces the exact reservoir
releases needed to meet demands over the future time steps. In contrast with the solution
under physical channel routing, the junior demand (dem1) is able to receive sufficient flows
to satisfy the demands through the first four time periods, as seen in Fig. 50.

Fig. 50. Correct reservoir releases under the backrouting solution.
Routed Flow
Routed Flow,
Fig. 49. Demand satisfaction for low priority demand with backrouting.

61
Demands for the high priority demand node (dem2) are generally satisfied under
backrouting, although some shortage occurs in the first period since it is physically
impossible for the senior demand to receive water from the reservoir until the second
time step due to the time lags (Fig. 51). The flow through the routing link under the
backrouting procedure is shown in Fig. 52. The benefits of backrouting are demonstrated
by the fact that no spills occur with this solution.
Fig. 51. Demand satisfaction for the senior demand (dem2) under the
backrouting solution.
Fig. 52. Flow through the routing link for the backrouting solution.
Routed Flow
Routed Flow,

62
VII. STREAM-AQUIFER MODELING COMPONENTS

A. Analytical Equations

The stream-aquifer module within MODSIM calculates reservoir seepage, irrigation
infiltration, pumping, channel losses, return flows, river depletion due to pumping, and
aquifer storage. Stream-aquifer return/depletion flows are simulated using response
coefficients calculated using the one dimensional equations developed by Glover (1977).
These are similar to groundwater response coefficients estimated from the stream
depletion factor (sdf) method of Jenkins (1968). Alternatively, as described in Fredericks,
et al. (1998), response coefficients can be generated from the three-dimensional finite
difference groundwater model MODRSP/MODFLOW (Maddock and Lacher, 1991) and
read into MODSIM from external data files. This allows response coefficients to be
calculated based on spatially distributed aquifer characteristics and complex boundary
conditions. Details on calculation of return flows, stream depletion from pumping, and
canal seepage in MODSIM can be found in Fredericks, et al. (1998).


VIII. Storage Accounts, Exchanges and Water Banking

MODSIM includes important administrative features including storage contract
arrangements such as accrual rights, ownership contracts or agreements, water service
contracts, and rental pool or water banking. Fig. 53 highlights Arrowrock Reservoir in the
Boise River basin, Idaho, as a storage account reservoir. Although depicted as an
offstream reservoir, in reality it is an onstream reservoir that includes several storage
accounts with group ownerships. The reservoir bypass link GainArkk__2 represents any
flows passing directly through the reservoir. The reservoir outflow link Arrowrok__2
conveys releases from the storage accounts to downstream storage ownerships or for
exchange purposes. Accrual to the storage account reservoir occurs through natural flow
links originating from the nonstorage node GainArkk which are governed by natural flow
rights and decree amounts. Each storage account in the reservoir is represented by a
unique accrual link, with this account representing space in the reservoir with a priority
date stated in the storage right permit granted by the state water resources department.
Once flow has accrued to the storage accounts, releases are governed by the needs of the
owners of the storage contracts. Normally, the sum of all storage accounts should not
exceed the total active capacity of the reservoir, although there are exceptions. Unused
carryover accrual from the previous year may or may not be allowed, at the discretion of
the model user. For storage account reservoirs, evaporation loss is distributed as a
negative accrual to the storage accounts in proportion to the current total accrued storage
in the account.

Several parallel links conveying flow to a demand node may be defined when the demand
owns several direct diversion or natural flow rights in the river. In these cases, the link
capacity corresponds to the decreed water right amount. Additional links can be created
and designated as storage ownership links, where flows are made available through
releases from storage accounts in reservoirs accruing water from decreed storage rights.

63
MODSIM performs a two step process for river basin management studies that include
storage accounts and ownership:

1. The natural flow step distributes flows based on water right priority, including
accruals to the storage accounts. For the latter, the accrual links are constrained to a
seasonal capacity corresponding to the size of the storage account. During this step, the
reservoir outflow links are turned-off to prevent any releases from storage accounts.
Storage ownership links conveying storage account releases to downstream storage
account owners, such as shown in Fig. 52, are also temporarily closed during the natural
flow step. This step insures that all legal entitlements are correctly maintained.

2. In the storage step, all flows in the natural flow and accrual links are constrained to
exactly deliver the flows allocated during the natural flow step. The reservoir outflow
links and storage ownership links are now opened and the network is solved again to
provide the physical simulation of storage accounting in the basin. Releases from storage
accounts satisfy any remaining demands of the storage ownerships after exhausting their
direct flow or natural flow rights. However, MODSIM maintains a strict accounting to
make sure that drafts are made only if storage is available in that account. In this process,
storage owners may have accounts in several reservoirs, with priorities as to which to
receive first governed by assignment of system numbers. In addition, individual storage
Fig. 53. Example of Arrowrock Reservoir, Boise River basin, as a storage account reservoir.

64
accounts may be owned by ownership groups, with releases equitably distributed to the
individual owners in that group.

MODSIM supports development of exchange agreements between users to encourage
efficient use of water resources. For example, storage account holders may be unable to
physically receive releases from the reservoir in which the account is held. During the
storage step, when the owners storage ownership link is opened, natural flow will be
diverted out of priority in lieu of reservoir releases from the owners storage account
delivered downstream to senior water right holders. Exchanges also improve the
efficiency of reservoir operations by separating theoretical accounting from physical
storage in the system. It may be advantageous to physically store water in an upstream
reservoir and account for the storage fill as if it occurred in the downstream reservoir.
That is, water belonging to a contract holder in one reservoir may be physically held in
another. MODSIM insures that at a user-specified date, the theoretical and physical
storage accounts are balanced in the river basin.

Each link in a MODSIM network has a field for optionally specifying an exchange limit
link. This field is an example of the watch logic incorporated in MODSIM whereby the
flow passing through a specified exchange limit link in a previous iteration is watched,
with the upper bound on the link with the specified exchange limit link is set to that flow
value. Watch logic is a tool to simulate explicitly defined exchanges where the allowed
flow at some location in the network is contingent on flow elsewhere in the network.
Similarly, fields are available in the demand node properties data form for specifying
exchange credit links or exchange credit nodes. MODSIM applies watch logic such that
the flow passing through a specified exchange credit link or flowing into a specified
exchange credit node in a previous iteration overrides the assigned demand for that node.

Rent pool can simulate water banks or water service contracts by allowing storage
ownership to be temporarily transferred to another demand. If a demand has more water
entitlement than needed in a high runoff year, the demand can contribute part or all of the
ownership accrual to the rent pool. Other demands requiring more water than
entitlements dictate can subscribe to the rent pool in a given year (Labadie, et al., 2002).


IX. MODSIM 8.0 OUTPUT PROCESSING AND CUSTOMIZATION

A. Graphical Output and Frequency Analysis

After running the MODSIM network solver, results can be saved for all nodes and links,
or for a group of nodes and links selected prior to model execution. MODSIM output
files are comma-and-quote delimited ASCII text files that are readily imported into
spreadsheet software. MODSIM displays graphical output results in the GUI using the
freeware graphing package TeeChart (Steema Software, SL). In addition to TeeChart,
the PISCES graphing package developed by the U.S. Bureau of Reclamation, Pacific
Northwest Region, can display MODSIM output files. As seen in Fig. 54, PISCES
provides powerful tools for comparative evaluation of several river basin management

65
scenarios, as well as performing frequency analysis and plotting flow-duration curves.

B. Water Quality Management

The customization features of MODSIM and the ease of linking it with other models have
allowed access to modeling capabilities not directly available in MODSIM. For example,
de Azevedo, et al. (2000) integrated MODSIM with the QUAL2E-UNCAS stream water
quality model for evaluating strategic planning alternatives for meeting transbasin
diversion requirements for the city of Sa Paulo, intrabasin water supply needs, and
acceptable water quality according to various reliability criteria. Batch processing was
applied to automating the conversion and transfer of MODSIM network flow results for
input to QUAL2E-UNCAS. This environment allowed adjustment of operating targets
and priorities in MODSIM to achieve integrated water quantity and quality objectives.

The U.S. Geological Survey developed a DSS called SIAM (System Impact Assessment
Model) for the Klamath River basin, Oregon and California, that links MODSIM with the
HEC-5Q reservoir water quality model, an aquatic habitat model, and the SALMOD fish
production model. SIAM was developed to explore the potential for changing system
operations in the Klamath River Basin to improve summer/fall water quality conditions
for the benefit of declining anadromous fish populations (Campbell, et al., 2001). The
SIAM GUI allows users to modify operational data for an existing MODSIM network of
the Klamath River basin, or allows experienced users direct access to the MODSIM GUI
for modifying network features.
Fig. 54 Example display of flow frequency distribution (or flow duration) curves with the
PISCES graphing package for the Upper Snake River Basin

66
The Colorado Water Resources Research Institute sponsored application of MODSIM to
the Lower Arkansas River Basin below Pueblo Dam for identifying opportunities to
improve water quality in the Lower Arkansas River Basin through conjunctive use of
groundwater and surface water by linking MODSIM with the QUAL2E stream quality
model and a groundwater return flow salinity model (Dai and Labadie, 2001). This
application customized MODSIM to execute QUAL2E as MODSIM is running.

C. Economics-Driven Simulation

Although MODSIM is often utilized for water rights evaluation in river basin
management, the U.S. Bureau of Reclamation, Sacramento, California sponsored
application of MODSIM to the San Joaquin River Basin to investigate the use of
economic-based strategies such as increased water prices, tiered water pricing, changes in
San Joaquin River environmental flows, and changes in reservoir operations to improve
water management. This study made effective use of the scripting capabilities of
MODSIM for modeling the complex water pricing structures in the basin (Leu, 2001).



67
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9103804, Dept. of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science, Massachusetts
Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Mass., 1994.
Bertsekas, D. P., Linear Network Optimization, The MIT Press, Cambridge, Mass., 1991.
Bertsekas, D. P. and P.Tseng, "Relaxation Methods for Minimum Cost Ordinary and
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114, 1988.
Bouwer, H., Groundwater Hydrology, McGraw-Hill, New York, 1978.
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Dai, T. and Labadie, J., River Basin Network Model for Integrated Water Quantity/
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127, No. 5, pp. 295-305, 2001.
El-Beshri, M. and J. Labadie, Optimal Conjunctive Use of Surface and Groundwater
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Eschenbach, E., E. Zweifel, T. Magee, C. Grinstead, and E. Zagona, Automatic Object
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Faux, J., J. Labadie, R. Lazaro, Improving Performance of Irrigation/Hydro Projects,
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Fredericks, J., Labadie, J. and Altenhofen, J., Decision Support System for Conjunctive
Stream-Aquifer Management, Journal of Water Resources Plannning and
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Glover, R.E., Transient Groundwater Hydraulics. Water Resources Publications, Ft.
Collins, Colo., 1977.
Graham, L.P., J. W. Labadie, I. P. G. Hutchison, and K. A. Ferguson, Allocation of
Augmented Water Supply Under a Priority Water Rights System, Water Resources
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Jamieson, D. and K. Fedra, The WaterWare Decision-Support System for River Basin
Planning. 1. Conceptual Design, Journal of Hydrology, Vol. 177, Issue 3-4, pp. 163-
175, April 1996a.

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Jamieson, D. and K. Fedra, The WaterWare Decision-Support System for River Basin
Planning. 2. Planning Capability, Journal of Hydrology, Vol. 177, Issue 3-4, pp.
177-198, April 1996b.
Jamieson, D. and K. Fedra, The WaterWare Decision-Support System for River Basin
Planning. 3. Example Applications, Journal of Hydrology, Vol. 177, Issue 3-4, pp.
199-211, April 1996c.
Jenkins, C., Computation of Rate and Volume of Stream Depletion by Wells: Hydrologic
Analysis and Interpretation, in Techniques of Water-Resources Investigations of the
U.S. Geological Survey, Book 4, Chapter D1, U.S. Printing Office, Washington D.C.,
1968.
Kastner, S., Application of MODSIM to the Arkansas River Winter Water Storage
Program, Office of the Colorado State Engineer, Pueblo, Colo., April 2001.
Labadie, J., Baldo, M. and Larson, R., MODSIM: Decision Support System for River
Basin Management, Documentation and User Manual, Colorado State University
and U.S. Bureau of Reclamation, Ft. Collins, Colo., 2002.
Labadie, J., D. Bode and A. Pineda, "Network Model for Decision-Support in Municipal
Raw Water Supply," Water Resources Bulletin, Vol. 22, No. 6, pp. 920-940, Dec.
1986.
Labadie, J., Fontane, D. and Lee, J-H, MODSIM River Basin Management Decision
Support System: Application to the Keum River Basin, Korea, Technical Report for
Korea Water Resources Corporation, Department of Civil Engineering, Colorado
State University, Ft. Collins, Colo., 2004.
La Marche, J., Upper and Middle Deschutes Basin Surface Water Distribution Model,
Open File Report #SW02-001, Oregon Water Resources Department, Portland, Ore.,
2001.
Larson, R., Procedures for Conjunctive Management Analyses in the Upper Snake River
Basin, Working Paper, U.S. Bureau of Reclamation, Pacific Northwest Region,
Boise, Idaho, 2003.
Larson, R. and Spinazola, J., Conjunctive Management Analyses for Endangered
Species Flow Augmentation Alternatives in the Snake River, Proceedings of
Watershed Management and Operations Management 2000, Environmental and
Water Resources Institute, American Society of Civil Engineers, Reston, Va., 2000.
Larson, R., J. Labadie, and M. Baldo, MODSIM Decision Support System for River
Basin Water Rights Administration, Proceedings of the First Federal Interagency
Hydrologic Modeling Conference, Las Vegas, Nev., Apr. 19-23, 1998.
Law, J. and Brown, M., Development of a Large Network Model to Evaluate Yield of a
Proposed Reservoir, in Computerized Decision Support Systems for Water Managers,
J. Labadie, et al. (eds.), American Society of Civil Engineers, Reston, Va, pp. 621-
631, 1989.
Leu, M., Economics-Driven Simulation of the Friant Division of the Central Valley
Project, California, M.S. Thesis, Department of Civil Engineering, University of
California, Davis, Calif., 2001.
Maddock III, T. and Lacher, L., MODRSP: A Program to Calculate Drawdown,
Velocity, Storage and Capture Response Functions for Multi-aquifer Systems, HWR
Report No. 91-020, Department of Hydrology and Water Resources, University of
Arizona, Tucson, Ariz., 1991.

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Miller, S., Johnson, G., Cosgrove, D., and Larson, R., Regional Scale Modeling of
Surface and Groundwater Interaction in the Snake River Basin, Journal of the
American Water Resources Association, Vol. 39, No. 3, pp.517-528, 2003.
Salas, J., Saada, N., Chung, C-H, Lane, W. and Frevert, D., Stochastic Analysis,
Modeling and Simulation (SAMS), Users Manual, Deptartment of Civil Engineering,
Colorado State University, Ft. Collins, Colo., 2002.
Shafer, J. and Labadie, J., Synthesis and Calibration of a River Basin Water
Management Model, Completion Report No. 89, Colo. Water Resources Research
Institute, Colorado State University, Ft. Collins, Colo., 1978.
Sprague, R. and Carlson, E., Building Effective Decision Support Systems, Prentice-Hall,
Inc., Englewood Cliffs, NJ, 1982.
State of Colorado, Documentation for STATEMOD Water Rights Model, Denver,
Colo., 1999.
State of Wyoming, Wind River WIRSOS Users Manual, State Engineers Office,
Cheyenne, Wyo., 1992.
Stillwater, L., Little Butte and Bear Creek Surface Water Distribution Model, Draft
Model Version, U.S. Bureau of Reclamation, Pacific Northwest Region, Boise, Idaho,
2003.
Stillwater, L., Cascade Drawdown Studies Draft Model Documentation and Study
Results, U.S. Bureau of Reclamation, Pacific Northwest Region, Boise, Idaho,
2004a.
Stillwater, L., Water Distribution Model Tualatin Project BA, U.S. Bureau of
Reclamation, Pacific Northwest Region, Boise, Idaho, 2004b.
Salem, T. and Labadie, J., Optimal Conjunctive Use of Surface and Groundwater
Resources in the Lower Nile, Planning Studies and Models Project, Ministry of
Public Works and Water Resources, Cairo, Egypt, 1995.
U.S. Bureau of Reclamation, River and Reservoir Simulation of the Snake River:
Application of MODSIM to the Snake River Basin, U.S. Department of the Interior,
Bureau of Reclamation, Pacific Northwest Region, Boise, Idaho, 2000.
Weiss, P. J. Labadie, and M. Baldo, Environmental Impact Evaluation Using a River
Basin Network Flow Model, Proceedings of the 24
th
Annual Water Resources
Conference, D. Merritt (ed.), Water Resources Planning and Management Division,
ASCE, Houston, Tex., pp. 74-81, Apr. 6-9, 1997.
Wurbs, R. A. and W. B. Walls, Water Rights Modeling and Analysis, Journal of Water
Resources Planning and Management, Vol. 115, No. 4, pp. 416-430, 1989.

70
Appendix A
LAGRANGIAN RELAXATION ALGORITHM FOR SOLVING
MINIMUM COST NETWORKS


A.1 Karush-Kuhn-Tucker (KKT) Conditions
1


Consider the following general optimization problem:

Primal:
subject to:



where functions ( ) f and ( )
i
g are real-valued and differentiable. The Karush-Kuhn-
Tucker (KKT) conditions state that if
*
x solves the above problem, then the following
conditions must hold:





where the Lagrangian function is defined as:



These are only necessary conditions for an optimal solution; that is, they may also be
satisfied at points other than
*
x (e.g., local minima, local maxima, or saddle points).
Note that the complementary slackness conditions are automatically satisfied for
problems with equality constraints, and are therefore not stated in the above conditions.

A.2 Saddle Point Conditions
The following conditions are sufficient conditions; that is, if they are satisfied for a
particular point
*
x , then
*
x must be the solution to the primal problem. They are not, in
general, necessary for an optimal solution
*
x to the primal problem. In some situations,
they may not hold for
*
x . These conditions are called saddle-point (SP) conditions:







1
Bazarra, M., H. Sherali, and C. Shetty, Nonlinear Programming: Theory and Algorithms, John Wiley &
Sons, New York, 1993.
min ( ) f
x
x
1
( ) 0, 1,...,
( ,..., )
i
n
n
g i m
x x E
= =
=
x
x
* * *
1
*
* *
x
( ,..., ) such that:
(i) ( ) 0, 1,..., [feasibility]
(ii) ( , ) [stationarity]
m
i
g i m
L
=
= =
=

x
x 0
* * * * *
1
( , ) ( ) ( )
m
i i
i
L f g
=
= +

x x x
* * * *
1
*
* *
*
and ( ,..., ) such that:
(a) ( ) 0, 1,..., [feasibility]
(b) minimizes ( , ) [optimality]
solves the primal problem
m
i
p p
g i m
L
=
= =
IF x p
x
x x p
THEN x

71
proof:
From (b)
* * *
( , ) ( , ) L L x p x p
and from (a)
* * *
1
( ) ( )
m
i i
i
f p g
=
+

x x
0
*
1
( ) ( )
m
i i
i
f p g
=
+

x x
0

Therefore
*
( ) ( ), subject to (a) f f x x
or
*
x solves the Primal. ||

If the Primal is a convex programming problem, the KKT and SP conditions are exactly
equivalent (since (ii) (b)). In this special case, these conditions are both necessary and
sufficient.

Definition: the
i
in the KKT conditions are called Lagrange multipliers.
Definition: the
i
p in the SP conditions are called generalized Lagrange multipliers, dual
variables, or dual prices.

Note that Lagrange multipliers and dual
variables are not necessarily equivalent, unless
the KKT and SP conditions are both necessary
and sufficient.

A.3 Dual Problem
The SP conditions immediately suggest a
hierarchical strategy if (b) is more easily solved
than the primal problem (it is always easier to
solve an unconstrained problem than a
constrained one). Consider the
following 2 level structure:

A point
* *
( , ) x p that satisfied the
SP conditions is called a saddle-
point. It can be shown that:

* * * *
( , ) ( , ) ( , ) L L L x p x p x p

This problem manipulation is
called dualization since the saddle
point conditions state that:



p
x

( , ) L x p
Saddle Point
Check if (a) and
(b) satisfied.
If not, adjust p
further
Solve condition
(b):
min ( , ) L
x
x p
2
nd
level:
1
st
level:
*
( ) x p
p
( )
* * *
( , ) max ( , )
max min ( , )
=
=
L L
L
p
x p
x p x p
x p

72
We can define the dual function as:


and the dual problem is:


If a saddle point exists, this dual problem will yield
*
p , along with the
*
x that minimizes
*
( , ) L x p , which solves the primal problem.

It can be proved that the dual function ( ) h p is always a concave function with respect to
the dual variables p, even if the original primal problem is nonconvex. This means that a
global optimum can always be found when solving the dual problem. Unfortunately, for
nonconvex problems, there may be some situations where a duality gap exists. That is,
even though
*
p solves the dual problem, the resulting solution
*
x does not solve the
original primal problem. From the saddle point conditions,
* *
( ) ( ) h f = p x if there is no
duality gap. If a duality gap exists, however, then
* *
( ) ( ) h f < p x and the difference
between these two values represents the extent of the gap. If the original primal problem
is convex, then it is guaranteed that no duality gap exists.

A.4 Example
Consider the following problem:


subject to:



The optimal solution to this problem is . Note that we
have added lower and upper bound constraints on the variables, but we will see that the
dual problem is still easily solved in this case.

The dual function for this problem is:





Notice that we have only included the equality constraint in the Lagrangian function, and
not the lower and upper bound constraints on the variables. These bounds are explicitly
included in the above minimization. On the other hand, the equal constraint, by being
included in the Lagrangian function, is no longer an explicit constraint in the dual
problem, and has been relaxed. We will attempt to find the optimal dual price p that
indirectly results in satisfaction of this constraint.

{ }
{ } { }
1 2
2 2
1 2 1 2
0 2
( 1,2)
2 2
1 1 2 2
0 2 0 2
( ) min ( 1) ( 2) ( 2)
min ( 1) + min ( 2) 2
j
x
j
x x
h p x x p x x
x p x x p x p

=

= + + +
= + +
*
(0.5,1.5) and min 0.5
T
f = = x
1 2
2
0 2, 1, 2
j
x x
x j
+ =
=
2 2
1 2
min ( 1) ( 2) x x +
x
*
( ) ( , ) h L = p x p
max ( ) h
p
p

73
We could use any convenient minimization technique to solve the above separable
optimization problems. In this example, it is convenient to use calculus, and the optimal
solutions can be expressed parametrically as functions of the dual variable p:

* *
1 2
( ) 1 ; ( ) 2
2 2
p p
x p x p = =
Inserting these solutions into the dual function gives:

2
( )
2
p
h p p =
which is, as expected, a concave function of p . Again using calculus, solution of the
dual problem:

2
max
2
p
p
p
gives
* *
1 and ( ) 0.5 p h p = = . Instead of using calculus, any efficient gradient-type
search technique could be used for more complex problems. Inserting this solution into
the above parametric optimal solutions for x(p) gives
*
(0.5,1.5)
T
= x . This solution
happens to satisfy the bound constraints on the variables, and also satisfies the equality
constraint. This is the correct optimal solution and indeed
* *
( ) ( ) 0.5 h p f = = x at the
saddle point.

A.5 Lagrangian Relaxation Algorithm for Solving Minimum Cost Networks
2

Problem Formulation. The minimum cost network flow algorithm employed in K-
MODSIM solves a dual problem similar to that described above, but specialized to take
advantage of the linear network structure of the problem. In this formulation, link or arc
(i,j) in K-MODSIM is designated by the node pair (i,j) representing the beginning and
ending nodes of the link, respectively. This notation implies one unique node pair for
each link, and is used for notational convenience only in the following development. The
algorithm is actually capable of considering multiple links for the same node pair. The
objective function is:

( , )
min
ij ij
i j A
c x

x


subject to:
{ } { } ( , ) ( , )

0 , 1,...,
ij ij ij
ij ji
j i j A j j i A
l x u
x x i N


= =

OUT IN


where
ij
x represents the flow rate in arc (i,j) with link parameters , ,
ij ij ij
l u c (

,
ij
c is the
cost per unit flow for arc (i,j), A is the set of all links or arcs in the network, N is the total

2
Bertsekas, D. and P. Tseng, RELAX-IV: A Faster Version of the RELAX Code for Solving Minimum
Cost Flow Problems, Completion Report under NSF Grant CCR-9103804, Department of Electrical
Engineering and Computer Science, MIT, Cambridge, Mass., 1994
i
j
ij
x
j
' j i
x

74
number of nodes, and
ij
l and
ij
u are the link flow lower and upper bounds, respectively.
A transformation can be performed to remove the lower bounds from this problem. Let
or
ij ij ij ij ij ij
x x l x x l = = +
( , )
ij ij ij
u u l i j A =

The transformed objective function is now formulated as:
( , )
min
ij ij ij
i j A
c x l

( +

x

Since the constant term can be removed, the objective is:
( , )
min
ij ij
i j A
c x

x

subject to:
{ } { } ( , ) ( , )
0 ( , )
0 1,...,
ij ij ij ij
ij ij ji ji
j i j A j j i A
x u u l i j A
x l x l i N

=
( ( + + = =



or
{ } { } ( , ) ( , )
, 1,...,
ij ji i
j i j A j j i A
x x s i N

= =



where
{ } { } ( , ) ( , )
, 1,...,
i ji ij
j j i A j i j A
s l l i N

= =



In this formulation, all link parameter data [u
ij
, c
ij
] and s
i
are assumed to be integer
values.

A.6 Lagrangian Relaxation Algorithm
The solution to this problem is based on a Lagrangian relaxation algorithm developed by
Bertsekas (1991). Introducing generalized Lagrange multipliers or dual prices p
i
, the
Lagrangian function is defined as:
{ } { } ( , ) 1 ( , ) ( , )
( , ) -
N
ij ij i i ij ji
i j A i j i j A j j i A
L c x p s x x
=
(
= +
(
(


x p
Note that:
( , ) ( , )
i ji j ij
j i i j
p x p x =



Therefore:
( , ) 1
( , )
N
ij j i ij i i
i j A i
L c p p x s p
=
( = + +


x p
The optimality conditions (b) specify that:
i
j
ij
x
j
' j i
x
i
s

75
*
( , ) 1
1 ( , )
( , ) min
min
N
ij j i ij i i
i j A i
N
i i ij j i ij
i i j A
L c p p x s p
s p c p p x

=

=

( = + +
`

)

( = + +
`

)


0 x u
0 x u
x p

Instead of attempting to directly solve the original minimum cost network flow problem,
the goal is to successively obtain updated dual price vectors p that solve the following
dual problem:
max ( ) h
p
p
where the dual function can be decomposed into separable optimization problems over
each arc:
1 ( , )
( ) ( )
N
i i ij j i
i i j A
h s p h p p
=
= +

p
with
( )
( )
0
( ) min
if

0 if

= +

+ +
=
< +

ij ij
ij i j ij j i ij
x u
ij j i ij i ij j
i ij j
h p p c p p x
c p p u p c p
p c p


Solution of the dual problem results in solution of the original minimum cost network
flow problem. Notice that in the dual problem, the node mass balance constraints are
temporarily relaxed since they are placed in the objective function via the Lagrangian
function; hence, the term relaxation algorithm. The link capacity constraints remain
explicitly accounted for. The objective is to find the optimal dual price vector p that will
result in a solution that fully satisfies the node mass balance constraints. The advantage
of this approach is that the inner minimization problem as defined by ( )
ij i j
h p p is
extremely easy to solve, as seen above.

Solution of the above separable optimization problems results in the following general
arc optimality conditions associated with flow in arc (i,j) for a given dual price vector p:

arc: [ 0] if:
arc: [0 ] if:
arc: [ ] if:
ij i ij j
ij ij i ij j
ij ij i ij j
Inactive x p c p
Balanced x u p c p
Active x u p c p
= < +
= +
= > +


A graphical representation of these arc
optimality conditions is represented as the heavy
line in this diagram.

The optimal solution of the dual problem is
found using a coordinate-wise dual ascent
algorithm. Changes in the dual prices p are
0 u
ij
c
ij
Balanced
Active
Inactive
p - p
x
ij
i
j

76
made along the directional derivative, where:
{ } { }
* *
( , ) ( , )
( )
, 1,...,
ji ij i
j j i A j i j A i
h
x x s i N
p

= + =

p

and the directional derivative is:
1
1 1
( ) ( )
'( ; ) ( )
N
S S
N N
h p h p
y h
p d p d

= = + +

p p
p d p d
Notice that evaluation of the directional derivative implies that the current flows are
optimal. Since the arc optimality conditions specify that optimal flows are positive only
for arcs that are active or balanced. Once a set of nodes i S are identified for possible
dual price changes, the directional derivative is calculated as:
( , ): active, , ( , ): active or balanced, ,
'( ; )
S ji ij i
j i j S i S i j i S j S i S
y u u s

= +

p d
where
1
( ,..., )
S N
d d = d , with
1 if
0 if
i
i S
d
i S

Notice in this formula that the directional derivative is not exactly evaluated, but rather is
an approximation. However, it is a conservative approximation in that the directional
derivative will be positive if a true ascent direction has been found. The first term only
includes active arcs, where flows must be at the upper limits
ji
u in order for the arc
optimality conditions to be satisfied. The second term includes both active and balanced
arcs, with the assumption made that flows in the balanced arcs are also at the upper
bounds
ji
u . This latter assumption may not be correct, but notice that since these bounds
ji
u are subtracted in the directional derivative calculation, then overestimation of these
flows would not indicate an ascent direction that was really a descent direction. That is,
if '( ; ) 0
S
y > p d , then direction
S
d must be an ascent direction.

Define the surplus g
i
of node i as the difference between the total inflow into node i, less
the total outflow from node i:
{ } { } ( , ) ( , )
i ji ij i
j j i A j i j A
g x x s

= +


At the start of an iteration, an integer flow-node price pair (x, p) is assumed to be
available which satisfy the arc optimality conditions, but not flow mass balance. The
current iteration will indicate if: (i) the primal problem is infeasible (i.e., cannot find a
node surplus g
i
> 0 for some i); (ii) (x, p) is optimal (i.e., g
i
= 0 for all i, implying that
x is feasible and, since the arc optimality conditions are satisfied, is also optimal); or (iii)
a new pair can be found that improves the dual objective function (i.e., g
i
> 0 for at least
one node i). For the latter case, the iteration begins by selecting node k such that g
k
> 0.
The iteration maintains the two sets: S and L ; where S L . At the initial iteration, set
{ } S = and { } L k = . A label is also maintained for all nodes , L which is an incoming
arc to that arc.


77
The goal is to maximize the dual objective function, which will result in solution of the
original minimum cost network flow problem. A dual ascent direction is defined for
node prices for those nodes contained in set S. Since set S usually contains a single node,
the search procedure generally proceeds in one coordinate direction at a time of the node
price vector p. Dual prices are changed in the dual ascent direction so as to increase the
dual objective function. Since the goal is to eventually achieve a solution where all g
i
=
0 , a flow augmentation step occurs in the algorithm where a path through the network is
defined from a node k where g
k
> 0 to a node j , where g
j
< 0. This means that flow
can be increased along that path, resulting in improved node surplus conditions for both
nodes.

A.7 Typical Relaxation Iteration

0. Initialization
Initially start with flows 0 ( , )
ij
x i j A = and 0 , 1,...,
i
p i N = = . Select a
node k with node surplus g
k
> 0 [if no such node can be found, then the
solution is optimal or infeasible]
{ } { } ( , ) ( , )
k jk kj k
j j k A j k j A
g x x s

= +


Let the set of labels { } L k =
Let the direction vector set { } S =
1. Choose a Node to Scan
If: S L = (i.e., we are sure of an ascent direction);
GOTO Step 4 and perform price change
Else: Select node i which is contained in the current set of labels, but not in
the current direction vector set; i.e., select i L S
{ } : S S i =
GOTO Step 2

2. Label Neighboring Nodes of i
Check the directional derivative of the dual objective:
( , ): active, , ( , ): active or balanced, ,
'( ; )
S ji ij i
j i j S i S i j i S j S i S
y u u s

= +

p d
where direction vector d
S
= (d
1
,...,d
N
), with
1 if
0 if
i
i S
d
i S

If: ' 0 y > , then current direction d
S
is an ascent direction; GOTO price
change [Step 4]
Else: add to labeled set of neighboring nodes that can eventually result in
identification of a flow augmentation path from node k to node j:
{ } : L L j = + for all nodes j such that:
C arc (j, i) is balanced and x
ji
> 0 [assign label (j, i)], or
C arc (i, j) is balanced and x
ij
< u
ij
[assign label (i, j)]

78
If: for every node j added to L, we have g
j
> 0, then we have
not yet found a flow augmentation path: RETURN to Step 1
Else: Select one of the nodes j with: g
j
< 0; GOTO Step 3

3. Flow Augmentation
A flow augmentation path P has been determined to exist starting at node k and
ending at the node j as found in Step 2. Since g
k
> 0 and g
j
< 0, then flow can
be increased along the path such that g
k
will decrease towards zero, and g
j
will
increase towards zero,
subject to limitations.

Path P is constructed by
tracing labels backward
starting from j , where P
+

is the set of all forward arcs
and P
-
is the set of
backward arcs:

Calculate:
C For all links in P
+
, ADD * to the current flows.
C For all links in P
-
, SUBTRACT * from the current
flows min
( ) ( , )
( , )
k
j
mn mn
mn
g
g
u x m n P
x m n P

C GOTO next iteration

4. Price Change
Set
balanced links ( , ) with ,
0 balanced links ( , ) with ,
ij ij
ji
x u i j i S j S
x j i i S j S
=
=

Let
( ) , ,
min
( ) 0, ,
ij i j ij ij
ji i j ji
c p p x u i S j S
c p p x i S j S

( <

=

( + >

Set
if
otherwise
i
i
i
p i S
p
p
+
=

GOTO Next Iteration


k j
Backward arcs: x > 0: set P
-
Forward arcs: x < u: set P
+
[i.e., can increase flow]
[i.e., can decrease flow]

79
A.8 Example Problem
3


Consider the example network below, where exogenous flows are shown as supply and
demand entering and leaving (respectively) each node. The link parameters are shown on
each link, with all lower bounds set to zero. The objective is to find the minimum cost
flow through the network that satisfies mass balance and all link flow upper bounds.

We begin with an initial solution for the integer flow vector, dual price vector pair as (x,
p) = (0, 0). Notice that this solution satisfies the arc optimality conditions, but violates
feasibility since node surpluses 0
i
g .


3
Bertsekas, D., Linear and Network Optimization, The MIT Press, Cambridge, Massachusetts, 1991.
1
2
3
4
3 4
2
1
[u
ij
, c
ij
]
[2,5]
[1,2]
[2,1]
[3,4] [2,3]
[5,0]

80
ITERATION #1

Arc
x
ij
u
ij
s
i
s
j
c
ij
p
i
p
j
g
i
g
j
State
(1,2)
(1,3)
(2,3)
(2,4)
(3,2)
(3,4)
0
0
0
0
0
0
2
2
3
1
2
5
3
3
2
2
-1
-1
2
-1
-1
-4
2
-4
5
1
4
2
3
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
3
3
2
2
-1
-1
2
-1
-1
-4
2
-4
INACT
INACT
INACT
INACT
INACT
BAL
Dual Objective Function = 0 + 0 = 0
Step
0. { } 1 L = ; { } S =
1. Select i L S ; { } : S S i = ; so i = 1 and { } 1 S =
2.
active active or balanced
'
ji ij i
i S
y u u s

= +


= 0 - 0 + 3 > 0 [indicates that we can increase
1
p ]
4 . No
ij
x adjustment is made at this iteration, since this is only done for
balanced arcs; calculate
ij
- c
j i
p p
[ ]
0 0 5
min = 1 for arc(1, 3)
0 0 1

+
=

+

i
i
[this assures we dont go too far]
ITERATION #2

Arc
x
ij
u
ij
s
i
s
j
c
ij
p
i
p
j
g
i
g
j
State
(1,2)
(1,3)
(2,3)
(2,4)
(3,2)
(3,4)
0
0
0
0
0
0
2
2
3
1
2
5
3
3
2
2
-1
-1
2
-1
-1
-4
2
-4
5
1
4
2
3
0
1
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
3
3
2
2
-1
-1
2
-1
-1
-4
2
-4
INACT
BAL
INACT
INACT
INACT
BAL
Dual Objective Function = 0 + 3 = 3
Step
0. { } 1 L = ; { } S =
1. Select i L S ; { } 1 S =
2. y' = - 2 + 3 = 1 > 0
4. Arc (1,3) is balanced--
set
13
x = 2
( = 0 - 1 + 5 = 4 (for arc (1,2) );
therefore, p
1
= 1 + 4 = 5
0 u
ij
c
ij
p
i
- p
j
x
ij
arc [1,3]
arc [1,2]
all other arcs

81
ITERATION #3

Arc
x
ij
u
ij
s
i
s
j
c
ij
p
i
p
j
g
i
g
j
State
(1,2)
(1,3)
(2,3)
(2,4)
(3,2)
(3,4)
0
2
0
0
0
0
2
2
3
1
2
5
3
3
2
2
-1
-1
2
-1
-1
-4
2
-4
5
1
4
2
3
0
5
5
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
1
2
2
1
1
2
1
1
-4
2
-4
BAL
ACT
INACT
INACT
INACT
BAL
Dual Objective Function = 2 + 5 = 35 - 8 = 7
Step
0. L = {1};
1
g > 0 ; so { } S =
[Note: node 1 is still selected, even though g
2
is a greater--arbitrary]
1. S = {1}
2.
active or bal, ,
' 4 3 0
ij i
i S j S i S
y u s

= + = + <

[no improvement by increasing
1
p ]
L: = L + {j}
L = {1,2}: outflow link and balanced and
ij ij
x u <
Check if
2
0 g > [yes!] [have not yet found flow augmentation path]
RETURN TO Step 1:
1. S = {1} ; L = {1,2}
Select i 0 L - S ; i = 2 ; S = {1,2}
2. ' 2 5 0
i
i S
y s

= = + >

[we can increase

2
p ]
4. = min {[
j ij i
p c p + ] for arcs (2,3), (2,4)}
= min {4,2} = 2
Therefore,
1
p = 5 +2 = 7;
2
p

= 0 +2 = 2 [for all nodes { } 1, 2 i S = ]



82
ITERATION #4

Arc
x
ij
u
ij
s
i
s
j
c
ij
p
i
p
j
g
i
g
j
State
(1,2)
(1,3)
(2,3)
(2,4)
(3,2)
(3,4)
0
2
0
0
0
0
2
2
3
1
2
5
3
3
2
2
-1
-1
2
-1
-1
-4
2
-4
5
1
4
2
3
0
7
7
2
2
0
0
2
0
0
0
2
0
1
1
2
2
1
1
2
1
1
-4
2
-4
BAL
ACT
INACT
BAL
INACT
BAL
Dual Objective Function = -62 + 37 + 22 = 13
Step
0. L={1}; keep selecting node 1 since
1
g

> 0
1. S={1}
2. y' = (-2 -2) + 3 = -1< 0
L: = L + {j}
L = {1,2}
Check if
2
g > 0 [Yes!]
RETURN to Step 1
1. S = {1,2}; L = {1,2}
2. y' = -2 - 1 + 5 = 2 > 0
4. Does
ij ij
x u = for all balanced arcs OUT?
Yes!--arc (2,4)
Therefore, set
24
x = 1

{ }
min for arc (2,3) 2
j ij i
p c p ( = + =


Therefore p
1
= 7 + 2 = 9; p
2
= 2 + 2 = 4


0 u
ij
c
ij
p
i
- p
j
x
ij
arc (1,3)
arcs (1,2),(3,4),
arc (3,2)
(2,3),and (2,4)

83
ITERATION #5

Arc
x
ij
u
ij
s
i
s
j
c
ij
p
i
p
j
g
i
g
j
State
(1,2)
(1,3)
(2,3)
(2,4)
(3,2)
(3,4)
0
2
0
1
0
0
2
2
3
1
2
5
3
3
2
2
-1
-1
2
-1
-1
-4
2
-4
5
1
4
2
3
0
9
9
4
4
0
0
4
0
0
0
4
0
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
-3
1
-3
BAL
ACT
BAL
ACT
INACT
BAL
Dual Objective Function = 2 + 2 + 9C1 + 4C1 = 17
Step
0. L={1}; g
1
> 0
1. S={1}
2.
active or balanced
' ( 2 2) 3 0
ij i
i S
y u s

= + = + <


L: = L + {j} with label (1,2)
L = {1,2}
Check if g
2
> 0 ; Yes!
RETURN to Step 1
1. S = {1,2}; L = {1,2}
2.
active/balanced OUT
' ( 2 3 1) 5 0
ij i
i S
y u s

= + = + <


L = L + {j} with label (2,3)
L = {1,2, 3}
Check if g
3
> 0 ; Yes!
RETURN to Step 1
1. S = {1,2}; L = {1,2, 3}
Select i 0 L - S = 3
2.
active/balanced OUT
' ( 1 5) (3 2 1) 0
ij i
i S
y u s

= + = + + <


L: = L + {j} with label (3,4)
L = {1,2,3,4}
Check if g
4
= < 0 ; Yes! = -3; GOTO Step 3: Flow Augmentation
3. Path of flow augmentation P is 1-2-3-4
[all forward arcs] ; so P
+
= P

1
4
12 12
23 23
34 34
1 [ ]
( 4) [ ]
2 [ ] min 1
3 [ ]
5 [ ]
g
g
u x
u x
u x

= =

i
i
i
i
i


1
2
3
4
+1
+1
+1
Flow Increase
Along Path

84
ITERATION #6

Arc
x
ij
u
ij
c
ij
p
i
p
j
g
i
g
j
State
(1,2)
(1,3)
(2,3)
(2,4)
(3,2)
(3,4)
1
2
1
1
0
1
2
2
3
1
2
5
5
1
4
2
3
0
9
9
4
4
0
0
4
0
0
0
4
0
0
0
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
-2
1
-2
BAL
ACT
BAL
ACT
INACT
BAL
Dual Objective Function = 5 + 2 + 4 + 2 + 4 = 17
Step
0. L = {2}; { } S = ; node k = 2
1. S = {2}; i = 2
2.
active/balanced OUT
' ( 3 1) 2 0
ij i
i S
y u s

= + = + <


L = L + {j} ; add node 1 [label (1,2)] and node 3 [label (2,3)]
L = {1,2, 3} ; check g
1
= 0 and g
3
= 1 [both > 0]
RETURN to Step 1
1. set L - S = {1,3}
Select node i = 3
Therefore: S = {2,3}
2.

L = L + {j} ; add node 4
Check g
4
= -2 < 0 ; GOTO Step 3: Flow Augmentation
3.





Path P: 2-3-4
All forward arcs--
Therefore, P P
+
=





y
)
'
j
active IN
u
ji
&
j
active/balanced OUT
u
ij
%
j
i 0S
s
i
' 2 & 5 % (2 % 1) ' &2 < 0
2
3
4
+1
+1
Flow Increase
Along Path
2
4
34 34
23 23
1 [ ]
2[-g ]
min =1
4 [ ]
2 [ ]
g
u x
u x

i
i
i
i

85
ITERATION #7

Arc
x
ij
u
ij
c
ij
p
i
p
j
g
i
g
j
State
(1,2)
(1,3)
(2,3)
(2,4)
(3,2)
(3,4)
1
2
2
1
0
2
2
2
3
1
2
5
5
1
4
2
3
0
9
9
4
4
0
0
4
0
0
0
4
0
0
0
0
0
1
1
0
1
1
-1
0
-1
BAL
ACT
BAL
ACT
INACT
BAL
Dual Objective Function = 5 + 2 + 8 + 2 = 17
Step
0. L = {3} ; { } S = ; node k = 3
1. S = {3} ; node i=3
2.
active IN active/balanced OUT
' 2 5 1 4 0
ji ij i
i S
y u u s

= + = + = <


L: = L + {j} ; add node 2 [label (2,3)] and node 4 [label (3,4)]
L = (2,3,4}
Check g
2
= 0 ; g
4
= -1 [both < 0]
4. Path P
+
= 3-4 ;
node k = 3 ; node j = 4
* = min {1 [g
3
], 1 [-g
4
], 3 [u
34
- x
34
]} = 1



FINAL SOLUTION

Arc
x
ij
u
ij
c
ij
p
i
p
j
g
i
g
j
State
(1,2)
(1,3)
(2,3)
(2,4)
(3,2)
(3,4)
1
2
2
1
0
3
2
2
3
1
2
5
5
1
4
2
3
0
9
9
4
4
0
0
4
0
0
0
4
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
BAL
ACT
BAL
ACT
INACT
BAL


Notice that 0
i
g = for all nodes. Therefore, dual objective = primal objective and all
complementary slackness conditions are satisfied. [primal: 5 + 2 + 8 + 2 = 17]


86
Appendix B
STREAM-AQUIFER MODELING IN K-MODSIM


B.1 Analytical Equations

The mathematical flow equation for general two dimensional flow in an unconfined
groundwater aquifer can be derived from Darcy's Law and the principle of mass
continuity. The resultant equation is a nonlinear, second-order partial differential
equation known as the Boussinesq equation (Willis and Yeh, 1987):


x y
h h h
K b K b Q S
x x y y t
| | | |
+ + =
| |

\ .
\ .
(B.1)

where K
x
, K
y
are hydraulic conductivities along the x,y axes, respectively (
1
Lt

); h is
potentiometric head (L); Q is net groundwater withdrawal per unit area (
1
Lt

); S is
storage coefficient; and t is time (t).

Where variation in saturated thickness is small and the specific yield/storage coefficient
is assumed constant, the governing groundwater equation can be written as a linear form
of the Boussinesq equation:


2 2
2 2
h h h
T Q S
t x y
| |

+ + =
|

\ .
(B.2)

where T is transmissivity = Kb (
2 1
L t

), K is hydraulic conductivity (
1
Lt

), and b is
saturated thickness (L).

Maddock (1974) showed that if the ratio of drawdown to saturated thickness is less than
20 percent, then for a nonlinear free-surface model (i.e., the Boussinesq equation), the
linear contribution is between 75 to 100 percent of drawdown due to pumping. Accuracy
of the linear model increases as the drawdown to saturated thickness ratio decreases. If
the ratios are large, the Dupuit assumptions and the nonlinear flow equations are invalid.

Since the governing groundwater equation is linear and time invariant, linear system
theory can be applied via the principle of superposition (Bear, 1979). This principle
states that the presence of one boundary condition does not affect the response produced
by the presence of other boundary conditions and that there are no interactions among the
responses produced by the various boundary conditions. It is then possible to analyze the
effect of individual events and then linearly combine the results.

Glover and Balmer (1954) and Glover (1968) presented an analytical procedure for
determining depletion of flow in a nearby stream caused by pumping a well. Depletion
flows were calculated using the distance of the well from the river, the properties of the

87
aquifer (i.e., storage coefficient and transmissivity), time of pumping and time from start
of pumping. The following assumptions apply:

1. Aquifer is unconfined, homogeneous, isotropic, and of infinite extent
2. River is straight, fully penetrates the aquifer and is a constant head source.
3. Water table is initially horizontal and water is released instantaneously from
storage.
4. Well fully penetrates the aquifer.
5. Pumping is steady and drawdown is small compared to aquifer thickness.
6. Residual effects of previous pumping are negligible.

According to Glover (1968), the ratio of the rate of stream depletion to the rate of well
discharge is:

1
4 /
s
w
Q
a
erf
Q tT S
| |
=
|
\ .
(B.3)

where Q
s
is rate of stream depletion (
3 1
L t

); Q
w
is rate of well discharge (
3 1
L t

); a is
perpendicular distance from well (L); t is pumping time ( t ); T is transmissivity (
2 1
L t

);
S is specific yield; and erf (z) is the error function.

Glover (1977) extended the analytical approach to include bank storage, line source,
return flows from irrigation, and intermittent well operation. Willis and Yeh (1987)
presented a list of fifteen analytical response equations. Warner et al (1989) reviewed
various analytical solutions to the artificial recharge problem, including Glover (1960),
Hantush (1967), Rao and Sarma (1981), and Hunt (1971). The Hantush and Glover
solutions were shown to be identical and were highly recommended for rectangular
basins. It was also suggested that solutions for circular basins may be replaced by
solutions for square basins with equivalent area. Madsen (1988) concluded that
analytical models are not ideal for verifying the influence of existing wells on stream
depletion, but are suitable as a tool for estimating impacts of new wells on streamflow
depletion. Madsen (1988) also showed that analytical methods often overestimate stream
depletion by failing to account for resistance near the stream.

The major disadvantage of the analytical method is that nonpoint sources of flow are
often approximated as point sources (Warner et al., 1986). Other limitations of analytical
methods such as Glover's method include (Morel-Seytoux and Zhang, 1990):

Method of averaging transmissivities over a heterogeneous aquifer is arbitrary;
Procedure for calculating depletion from a certain reach (not the entire river) is
inconvenient, involving numerical integration, or inaccurate because of steady state
assumptions;
In most cases, the river is not straight


88
Qazi and Danielson (1974) used a computer program based on the Glover equations to
evaluate augmentation plans for wells, recharge lines, and pit operations in an alluvial
aquifer. Contributory effects of only those pumped wells or recharge sources requiring
evaluation are determined, and are independent of other interactions already in process
such as: effects of precipitation, surface water application, evapotranspiration, or other
wells, reservoirs, and ditches. Labadie, et al. (1983) used analytical solutions embedded
in a conjunctive use model to consider groundwater pumping (Glover, 1977), reservoir
seepage (Glover, 1977), canal seepage (McWhorter and Sunada, 1977), irrigation
recharge (Maasland, 1959) and bank storage (Glover, 1977). Hantush and Marino (1989)
developed a chance constrained stream-aquifer management model based on the Hantush
(1959) analytical solution. Male and Mueller (1992) used the equations of Jenkins (1968)
to develop a groundwater management model for prescribing groundwater use permits in
Massachusetts.

B.2 Discrete Kernel/Response Functions

Most groundwater management scenarios require information only on select events in an
aquifer. Extraneous information on drawdown and flow rates at noncritical locations is
not only unnecessary but computationally prohibitive. Applying linear system theory to
the groundwater equation allows the use of Green's function to solve the resulting non-
homogeneous boundary value problem (Maddock, 1972). Response of the groundwater
system due to external excitations such as pumping, recharge, or infiltration at any point
in space and time can be expressed as a set of unit coefficients independent of the
magnitude of the excitation. Integrated with a finite difference groundwater model,
resultant flows can be superimposed to determine net effects at a single location due to a
series of excitations or at a series of locations due to a single excitation.

It is convenient to express the Boussinesq equation in terms of water table drawdown:


p
s s s
T T Q S
x x y y t
| | | |
+ + =
| |

\ .
\ .
(B.4)

where T aquifer transmissivity (
2 1
L t

); s is water table drawdown (L); Q

p
is
groundwater withdrawal rate per unit area at well p (
1
Lt

) ; S is storage coefficient; t is
time (t); and x,y are horizontal coordinates (L).


This equation can be solved using Green's function (Maddock, 1972):

0
( ) ( ) ( )
t
w wp p
s t t Q d =

(B.5)
where s
w
(t) is drawdown at aquifer point w due to a single well pumping Q
p
at point p
(L); and
wp
is the kernel function (Green's function) of aquifer drawdown at point w due
to a unit impulse excitation at p. The discrete form of the convolution equation for a

89
heterogeneous aquifer with finite boundaries is (Maddock, 1972; Morel-Seytoux and
Daly, 1975):


1 1
( ) ( 1) ( )
P t
w wp p
p
s t t Q

= =
= +

(B.6)

where t are now discrete time periods; s
w
(t) is drawdown from an initially horizontal (or
initially steady) water table at any aquifer point w at the end of the period t (L); Q
p
() is
the mean pumping rate per unit area from well p during the period (pumped volume for
the period) (
1
Lt

); P is the total number of excitation points or wells; and

wp
(t) is the
discrete response or kernel coefficient representing the drawdown at the end of period t if
a unit volume of water is withdrawn during the initial period from well p, with well
pumping terminated indefinitely thereafter.

Maddock (1972) first introduced the concept of a response function for a groundwater
system, with drawdown in response to pumping stress modeled by a two-dimensional
linear partial differential equation. This allowed an explicit coupling of a groundwater
simulation model with a quadratic programming management model to optimize an
economic objective of minimizing pumping costs subject to satisfying specified demands.
Maddock (1974) used Green's function to extend this approach to the case of stream-
aquifer interactions.

Again, based on linear system theory and the Green's function, Morel-Seytoux and Daly
(1975) developed a finite difference model to generate any aquifer response as an explicit
function of pumping rates, which they referred to as a discrete kernel generator. The
discrete kernel method has been utilized extensively as a tool for solving complex
groundwater management problems (Morel-Seytoux, et al., 1981; Illangasekare and
Morel-Seytoux, 1982; Illangasekare and Brannon, 1987; and Illangasekare and Morel-
Seytoux, 1986).

B.3 Parallel Drain Analogy for Stream-Aquifer Systems

The interaction of a water table aquifer receiving recharge from irrigation and
precipitation, and an interconnected stream, can be modeled utilizing the method
developed by Maasland (1959). This method was developed for a parallel drain system
and can be applied to a stream-aquifer system as well. The idealized parallel drain
system is shown in Fig. B.1.

90

The nonlinear partial differential equation for one-dimensional groundwater flow is

( )
h h
K d h S
x x t

+ =

(B.7)

where K is permeability of the aquifer (
1
Lt

); d is original saturated thickness (L); S is

specific yield; h is height of the water table measured from the assumed original stable
water table level (L); d is depth measured from the assumed original stable water table
level to the impermeable boundary (L); x is distance measured along the path of flow
(L); and t is time.

By assuming h is small compared to d, the linearized form of Eq. B.7 is:


2
2
h h
t x

=

(B.8)
where
T
S
= ; T is transmissivity, which equals K d; and the boundary conditions are:
h = 0 when x = 0 for t > 0
h = 0 when x = L for t > 0
h = H when t = 0 for 0 < x < L

Maasland (1959) obtained the solution as:


2 2
2
1,3,5...
4 1
exp sin
n
H n t n x
h
n L L

=
| |
| |
=
|
|
\ .
\ .

(B.9)
Drain
h
d
H
Fig. B.1 Parallel drain analogy for stream-aquifer systems.
Drain
L
Water Table
Ground Surface
Barrier
x
K S

91
where H is initial uniform height of recharge water from an initial event and L is
spacing of the parallel drains.

The volume per unit length of water remaining to be drained (L
2
) is


0
L
d
V S hdx =

(B.10)
and the fraction remaining to be drained is


d
V
F
V
= (B.11)

where initial drainable volume is

V S H L = (B.12)

Therefore

0
L
S hdx
F
S H L
=

(B.13)

Assuming H = 1 represents a unit initial recharge event, substitution of h from Eq. B.9,
and integration results in:


2 2
2 2 2
1,3,5...
8 1
exp
n
t
F n
n L

=
| |
=
|
\ .

(B.14)

representing the fraction of the total initially drainable volume due to the unit recharge
event that is in the aquifer at the end of time t and available for flow to the drains. For
any time t from the beginning of the recharge event, F can be predetermined. The
difference of successive F values over two adjacent discrete time periods represents the
flow fraction to the drains during that time interval.

( )
2 2
1 2 2 2
1,3,5...
2 2
2 2 2
1,3,5...
8 1
exp
1
8 1
exp
k k
n
n
k t
F F n
n L
k t
n
n L

=
| |
=
|
\ .
| |

|
\ .

(B.15)
Define


1 k k k
F F

= (B.16)


92
where
k
is a unit response coefficient or discrete kernel for a unit recharge rate at initial
time interval k = 1. Note that the recharge rate is idealized as being uniformly
distributed over the width of spacing between drains.

B.4 Return Flow Calculations

Consider the idealized stream-aquifer system as shown in Fig. B.2. The river is assumed
to be located at the center of the valley. The solution described above can be applied
directly with L equal to the valley width. The analogy is applicable since the middle
section of the parallel drains is a no-flow boundary and is analogous to either the left
boundary or the right boundary of the stream-aquifer system. If the parallel drain system
is divided in half at the no flow boundary and rearranged to bring the drains into
coincidence, the direct analogy with the stream-aquifer system is evident. The drains are
replaced by the river and the flow to the drains represents return flow to the river.
For cases where the river is not located at the center of the valley, the above solution (Eq.
B.14) is still applicable with L equal to twice the width W of either side of the valley (i.e.,
L
2
= 4W
2
. Fraction F can be determined for each side of the valley and return flows
computed separately. Again, it is idealized that recharge events are uniformly distributed
over each side of the valley.

Let N be the total number of time intervals of length t and I
k
the recharge rate during
the k-th time interval, where k < N , as shown in Fig. B.3. For any demand node i and
current time period k, the total return flow IRF
ik
from the current and previous time
periods due to groundwater recharge is calculated using linear superposition:

, 1 , 1
1
; = 0 for 1
k
ik i i k i k
IRF I k N

+ +
=
= + >

(B.17)
L
Water Table
River
Ground Surface
Barrier
x
d
h
K S
Fig. B.2. Idealized stream-aquifer system (Glover, 1977).

93
where
ik
IRF is the infiltration rate at node i, period k , and
, 1 i k

+
is the response or
discrete kernel coefficient defined for node i, period k - +1.

In K-MODSIM, upper bounds on return flow links (Fig. 3) are adjusted iteratively as
follows: (1) all upper bounds are first set equal to the return flows computed from
previous activities; (2) K-MODSIM is next run for the current period using these bounds,
with return flows from all sources recomputed using available link flows obtained from
this solution; (3) if current return flows agree with previous estimates, the process
terminates; otherwise, return to step 2 and repeat until convergence is achieved.

B.5 Stream Depletion from Pumping

The same approach used for calculating return flows is also applied to calculation of
stream depletion due to pumping PSD
ik
, where

, 1 , 1
1
; = 0 for 1
k
ik i i k i k
PSD P k N

+ +
=
= + >

(B.18)
In the case of groundwater withdrawal
i
P

, the same principles described above are

applicable to determining response coefficient kernels
, 1 i k

+
, but for river depletion
rather than return flows. Again, it is idealized that pumping withdrawals are uniformly
distributed over each side of the valley, rather than attempting to model individual wells.
Since the computation is sequentially carried out period by period in K-MODSIM, the
current period stream-aquifer interactions are contingent upon stresses during previous
periods. Therefore, it is recommended to run K-MODSIM for an initial N periods for
start-up or initialization purposes, such that after N periods, the model output can be
trusted to properly account for past history. Specification of N is left to the user.



R
e
c
h
a
r
g
e

R
a
t
e



I
k

Time Interval k
1 2 3 . . . k-2 k-1 k . . . N-2 N-1 N
Fig. B.3 Series of recharge events

94
B.6 Canal Seepage

Seepage from a canal or a stream is assumed to correspond to a line source of recharge
water. For a one-dimensional line source in an infinite aquifer, as shown in Figure B.4,
the governing flow equation is (McWhorter and Sunada, 1977):


2
2
q q
t x

=

(B.19)

where x is the Cartesian coordinate in the horizontal plane (L) and q is the flow rate or
Darcy velocity (
2 1
L t

), calculated as:


h
q K
t

(B.20)

The solution is (McWhorter and Sunada, 1977):

x
erfc
2 4 t
I
q

| |
=
|
\ .
(B.21)
where I is the one dimensional magnitude of the source (
1
Lt

), with erfc(z) representing

the complementary error function:
( )
2 2
erfc
u
z
z e du

=

(B.22)

assuming the following boundary and initial conditions:

at 0
2
0 as
0 as 0; for all
I
q x
q x
q t x
= =
=
= =
(B.23)
x
Water Table
Ground Surface
Barrier
K S
h
q
C
k

d
Fig. B.4. Illustration of line source for canal seepage.

95
Define
0
2
I
q = as the applied line source flow rate in the aquifer at the line source
location. Note that the denominator of two is necessary since q flows in two horizontal
directions. Integrating Eq. B.20 from zero to t results in the ratio of the volume of return
flow to the stream and the line source volume of seepage applied up to time t:


2 2
0
2
1 erfc exp
2 4 4 4
v x x x x
q t t t t t
( | | | |
| |
= +
( | |
|

\ . (
\ . \ .

(B.24)

This solution is for a continuous application of a line source. After termination of the
source, the residual effect still contributes flow to the stream. The residual is taken into
account by assuming an imaginary pumping source at the same location and initiating
pumpage at the same rate as the recharge source from the time recharge terminates. The
volume ratio at any time after recharge ceases is the difference between the volume ratio
obtained if recharge had continued and the volume ratio obtained from pumping of the
imaginary pumping source. For a discrete time interval, if the applied line source volume
equals one, the volume ratio is in essence the unit response of line source or canal
seepage.

Let represent the unit response of canal seepage. Then for canal link , the total return
flow CRF
k
from canal seepage C
1
,,...,C
k
during each time interval k is:


, 1 , 1
1
; = 0 for 1
k
k k k
CRF C k N

+ +
=
= + >

(B.25)

B.7 Point Source Water Application

Reservoir seepage RS
ik
is defined as a point source application for storage node i , time
period k. The effect on the stream corresponds to the effect of a recharge well, which in
turn has the same absolute flow magnitude as a pumping well, with the flow direction
reversed. This solution turns out to be exactly the same as that for the line source
solution (Glover, 1977). Therefore, C

is replaced with RS
i
in Eq. B.24, with the
resulting return flow defined as RRF
ik
. Again, there is little error in assuming reservoir
seepage as a point source, as long as the reservoir surface area is small in comparison
with the area of the subsystem containing it.

For reservoir i during time period k, the total return flow RRF
ik
from reservoir seepage,
based on current and previous period seepage, is

, 1 , 1
1
; = 0 for 1
k
ik i i k i k
RRF RS k N

+ +
=
= + >

(B.26)




96
B.8. Stream Depletion Factor Method (sdf)

Jenkins (1968) solved the Glover equation graphically by developing dimensionless
curves and tables to compute the rate and volume of stream depletion by wells. The
stream depletion factor (sdf) was arbitrarily chosen as time in days where the volume of
stream depletion is 28% of the volume pumped during time t, and can be expressed as:

2
a S
sdf
T
= (B.27)

where a is perpendicular distance from the pumped well to the stream (L); S is specific
yield of the aquifer (dimensionless); and T is transmissivity (
2 1
L t

).

In a complex system, the value of sdf at any location depends on the integrated effects of
irregular impermeable boundaries, stream meanders, aquifer properties, areal variation,
distance from the stream, and hydraulic connection between stream and aquifer. The
basic assumptions are similar to those associated with the Glover equation:

Moulder and Jenkins (1969) introduced the sdf concept to a digital model and the USGS
used it to generate groundwater response coefficients for developing regional models
(Taylor and Luckey, 1972; Hurr, 1974; Hurr and Burns, 1980; and Warner et al., 1986)
and groundwater sdf contour maps (Hurr, et al., 1972).

B.9. Response Functions from Finite Difference Groundwater Models

The Boussinesq partial differential equation for groundwater flow in a heterogeneous and
anisotropic medium (Eq. B.1) can be solved using finite difference or finite element
numerical approximation methods (Willis and Yeh, 1987). Finite difference methods
require that a regular Cartesian grid be defined over the domain of the region to be
modeled. The groundwater basin is spatially discretized into a grid structure represented
by a finite number of rectangular cells. Differential terms in the partial differential
equation are replaced with numerical approximations calculated from differences in
potentiometric head at the cell locations. All aquifer parameters, heads and hydrologic
data are assumed to be constant and homogeneously distributed within a grid cell. This
numerical approximation results in replacement of the original partial differential
equation with a system of simultaneous linear difference equations. The most popular
finite difference groundwater modeling system is MODFLOW, developed by the U.S.
Geological Survey (Harbaugh, et al., 2000). The finite element method is another
approach to numerical modeling of groundwater basins, but is less popular and generally
more computationally time consuming than the finite difference method, although it
offers the advantage of more accurate representation of irregular aquifer boundaries.

Application of numerical models such as MODFLOW allow relaxation of most of the
idealized assumptions associated with analytical modeling approaches such as the Glover
method. Hartwell (1987) compared results from a model based on the Glover solution,
the sdf method, and a finite difference model for a recharge site along the along the South
Platte River, Colorado. Use of the finite difference model was recommended in this

97
study since it provided more accurate return flow calculations than the other methods.
Sophocleous et al. (1995) also compared the Glover analytical solution with MODFLOW,
concluding that the latter was preferred for more accurately treating irregular boundary
conditions, streambed aquifer hydraulic conductivity, partial stream penetration into the
aquifer and heterogeneity of the aquifer porous media.

Numerical groundwater flow models such as MODFLOW provide more accurate
modeling of stream-aquifer systems, but also require extensive field data collection and
observation well records for model calibration and verification. Once calibrated,
attempting to link MODFLOW with K-MODSIM would be computationally intractable.
However, use of the linear form of the Boussinesq equation (Eq. B.2) allows application
of Greens function to solve the resulting nonhomogeneous boundary value problem
(Maddock, 1972). Response of the finite difference groundwater modeling system due to
external excitations such as pumping, recharge, or infiltration at any point in space and
time can be expressed as a set of unit response coefficients independent of the magnitude
of the excitation. These response coefficients are similar in concept with those calculated
via the Glover model in Eq. B.16, but incorporate more realistic assumptions associated
with the MODFLOW model. Although the linear form of the Boussinesq equation is
only valid for confined aquifers where transmissivity does not vary with head, it can be
applied to unconfined aquifers with reasonable accuracy as long as h/H < 0.10, where
h is the change in groundwater elevation and H is saturated thickness of the aquifer.

Although a calibrated MODFLOW model can be applied to generating response
functions for stream-aquifer interactions, Maddock and Lacher (1991) developed
MODRSP as a variation of MODFLOW designed specifically for calculating response or
kernel functions for stream-aquifer interactions. Transient, spatially distributed stream-
aquifer response coefficients are automatically generated using MODRSP for allocating
groundwater return/depletion flows to multiple return/depletion flow grid cell locations.
MODRSP calculates responses for one well or recharge site at a time over the total
simulation period, assuming a unit stress has been applied during the first period and
discontinued for the remainder of the simulation. Response functions calculated in this
way incorporate all of the complex characteristics of the stream-aquifer system into a
unique cause-effect relationship.

Since MODRSP is a modification of the USGS MODFLOW finite difference
groundwater model, it uses many of the same input data and file structures as
MODFLOW. This means that MODFLOW can initially be applied and calibrated for
the study area, allowing application of powerful packages such as GMS (The Department
of Defense Groundwater Modeling System) (EMRL, 2005) that provide powerful
geographic information system (GIS) tools for preparation of MODFLOW data sets.
The MODFLOW input data sets developed from application of GMS can, for the most
part, be directly utilized in MODRSP, although MODFLOW must be applied in
conjunction with the constant transmissivity assumption associated with the linear form
of the Boussinesq equation. Additional assumptions that must be adhered to in applying
MODFLOW for application of MODRSP include:


98
The MODRSP river package does not require data on river stage height and the head
at the bottom of the streambed. For return flow/depletion responses in river reaches,
MODRSP assumes uniform water levels over each stream reach that are constant over
each stress period. Flow conditions in the stream are assumed to vary insignificantly
during stress periods. If streams go dry or overflow their banks during a stress period,
it is assumed such events are of short duration and have negligible effect on long-term
stream-aquifer interaction.
Since all starting heads are set to zero in MODRSP, a starting head input file is not
required.
Since MODRSP is a linear model, transmissivity and storage coefficients are
considered constant and must be entered as input data.
It is unnecessary to prepare a well package since pumping data are not read into
MODRSP.
Response coefficient output data generated by MODRSP can be formatted to include
well/recharge grid location, response grid location, stress period, and calculated
response coefficient for that period. Typical database structure for response
coefficient output data is presented in Table 2.

The following modifications were made to MODRSP by Fredericks and Labadie (1995):

The program was modified to allow dynamic array dimensioning up to available
RAM memory.
The modules RRIV.FOR and RPGM.FOR source code were modified to reduce
unnecessary output to a river response file. In line 1 of the RRIV input file, field 41
to 50, a decimal value for the variable, RDROP, can be input. Response coefficients
Table 2. River Capture Response Functions from MODRSP

RIVER CAPTURE RESPONSE FUNCTIONS
________________________________

RIVER PUMP
REACH WELL TIME
# K I J # K I J PER RF [0]
_______________________________________________________

1 1 2 2 1 1 5 10 1 .1644417E-02
2 1 2 3 1 1 5 10 1 .2860665E-02
3 1 2 4 1 1 5 10 1 .3791862E-02
4 1 3 4 1 1 5 10 1 .4539182E-02
5 1 4 4 1 1 5 10 1 .5317831E-02
6 1 4 5 1 1 5 10 1 .6792709E-02
7 1 4 6 1 1 5 10 1 .8866128E-02
8 1 4 7 1 1 5 10 1 .1095925E-01
9 1 4 8 1 1 5 10 1 .1415163E-01
10 1 4 9 1 1 5 10 1 .1891528E-01
11 1 4 10 1 1 5 10 1 .2429373E-01
12 1 4 11 1 1 5 10 1 .1800508E-01
13 1 3 11 1 1 5 10 1 .1408879E-01
14 1 3 12 1 1 5 10 1 .1173625E-01
15 1 3 13 1 1 5 10 1 .9830805E-02


99
lower than this value will not be printed to the river response output file, thereby
reducing the size of the river response output file by eliminating zero value response
functions.
The modules RRIV.FOR and RPGM.FOR were modified to terminate a processing
loop for a specific well when the calculated response coefficient values fall below a
specified lower limit.
The modules RRIV.FOR and RPGM.FOR were modified to read in a river reach file
that assigns a specific river reach value to each river reach grid cell and then sums the
response coefficients by river reach.
The module RPGM.FOR was modified to read in a recharge site file that assigns a
recharge site number to each well grid cell number.
An example finite difference grid for modeling a portion of the South Platte River
basin in Colorado is shown Fig. B.5 (Fredericks, et al., 1998). For this case study,
two different sets of response coefficients were generated: numerical coefficients
calculated using the MODRSP finite difference groundwater model and analytical
coefficients calculated with the Glover equation using predefined sdf values. The
Aquifer
Boundary
South Platte
River
0
0
140
370
DENVER
Scale in Miles
0 10 20 30
Finite-Difference Grid
140 x 370 cells
(1000 ft x 1000 ft)
N
Fig. B.5 MODRSP finite difference grid for numerical groundwater model.

100
response functions for a particular river reach in the study area are compared in Fig.
B.6. It was found that use of the analytically-based sdf coefficients produces
significantly lower net river return flow values when compared with coefficients
derived from the numerically based finite difference model.


Fig. B.6 Comparison of MODSRP and sdf computed response functions.

101
References

Bear, J. Hydraulics of Groundwater, McGraw Hill, NewYork, 1979.
Environmental Modeling Research Laboratory, GMS Version 6.0, User Manual,
Brigham Young University, Provo, Utah, 2005.
Fredericks, J. and J. Labadie, Decision Support System for Conjunctive Stream-aquifer
Management, Open File Report No. 10, Colorado Water Resources Research
Institute, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, Colo., 1995.
Fredericks, J., J. Labadie, and J. Altenhofen, Decision Support System for Conjunctive
Stream-Aquifer Management, Journal of Water Resources Planning and
Management, ASCE, Vol. 124, No. 2, 1998.
Glover, R. E., Mathematical Derivations as Pertaining to Groundwater Recharge,
Agricultural Research Service, USDA, Ft. Collins, Colo., 1960.
Glover, R.E., The Pumped Well, Technical Bulletin No. 100, Colorado State
University Experiment Station, Fort. Collins, Colo., 1968.
Glover, R.E., Transient Groundwater Hydraulics, Water Resources Publications, Fort
Collins, Colorado, 1977.
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Colorado State University, Fort Collins, Colo., 1987.
Hunt, B. W., "Vertical Recharge of Unconfined Aquifers," Journal of the Hydraulics
Division, ASCE, Vol. 97, No. HY7, pp. 1017-1030, 1971.
Hurr, R. T. and A. W. Burns, Stream-aquifer Management Model of the South Platte
River Valley, Northeastern Colorado. Preliminary Report, U.S. Geological Survey,
Lakewood, Colo., 1980
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Journal of Hydraulic Engineering, ASCE, Vol. 113, No. 5, pp. 573-582, 1987.
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