WEEK 2 (PARTS OF SPEECH/WORD CLASSES)

WHAT IS A CONJUNCTION? You can use a conjunction to link words, phrases, and clauses, as in the following example: I ate the pizza and the pasta. Call the movers when you are ready.

1) Co-ordinating Conjunctions You use a co-ordinating conjunction ("and," "but," "or," "nor," "for," "so," or "yet") to join individual words, phrases, and independent clauses. Note that you can also use the conjunctions "but" and "for" as prepositions. In the following sentences, each of the highlighted words is a co-ordinating conjunction: Lilacs and violets are usually purple. In this example, the co-ordinating conjunction "and" links two nouns. This movie is particularly interesting to feminist film theorists, for the screenplay was written by Mae West. In this example, the co-ordinating conjunction "for" is used to link two independent clauses. Daniel's uncle claimed that he spent most of his youth dancing on rooftops and swallowing goldfish. Here the co-ordinating conjunction "and" links two participle phrases("dancing on rooftops" and "swallowing goldfish") which act as adverbsdescribing the verb "spends."

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2) Subordinating Conjunctions A subordinating conjunction introduces a dependent clause and indicates the nature of the relationship among the independent clause(s) and the dependent clause(s). The most common subordinating conjunctions are "after," "although," "as," "because," "before," "how," "if," "once," "since," "than," "that," "though," "till," "until," "when," "where," "whether," and "while." Each of the highlighted words in the following sentences is a subordinating conjunction: After she had learned to drive, Alice felt more independent. The subordinating conjunction "after" introduces the dependent clause "After she had learned to drive." If the paperwork arrives on time, your cheque will be mailed on Tuesday. Similarly, the subordinating conjunction "if" introduces the dependent clause "If the paperwork arrives on time." Gerald had to begin his thesis over again when his computer crashed. The subordinating conjunction "when" introduces the dependent clause "when his computer crashed." Midwifery advocates argue that home births are safer becausethe mother and baby are exposed to fewer people and fewer germs. In this sentence, the dependent clause "because the mother and baby are exposed to fewer people and fewer germs" is introduced by the subordinating conjunction "because."

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3) Correlative Conjunctions Correlative conjunctions always appear in pairs -- you use them to link equivalent sentence elements. The most common correlative conjunctions are "both...and," "either...or," "neither...nor,", "not only...but also," "so...as," and "whether...or."

(Technically correlative conjunctions consist simply of a co-ordinating conjunction linked to anadjective or adverb.) The highlighted words in the following sentences are correlative conjunctions: Both my grandfather and my father worked in the steel plant. In this sentence, the correlative conjunction "both...and" is used to link the two noun phrases that act as the compound subject of the sentence: "my grandfather" and "my father". Bring either a Jello salad or a potato scallop. Here the correlative conjunction "either...or" links two noun phrases: "a Jello salad" and "a potato scallop." Corinne is trying to decide whether to go to medical school orto go to law school. Similarly, the correlative conjunction "whether ... or" links the twoinfinitive phrases "to go to medical school" and "to go to law school." The explosion destroyed not only the school but also the neighbouring pub. In this example the correlative conjunction "not only ... but also" links the two noun phrases ("the school" and "neighbouring pub") which act as direct objects.

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Note: some words which appear as conjunctions can also appear as prepositions or as adverbs. PREPOSITION The types of preposition are as follows: 1. Preposition for Time 2. Preposition for Place 3. Preposition for Direction 4. Preposition for Agent 5. Preposition for Instrument 6. Prepositional Phrase

Prepositions for Time. (in, on, at) Prepositions used for time of different natures are in, on at etc. Preposition In Time Nature 1. Month or Year. e.g. in January, in 1985 2. Particular time of day or month or year e.g. in morning, in evening, in first week of January, in summer, in winter 3. Century or specific time in past etc e.g. in 21st century, in stone age, in past, in future, in present On 1. Day e.g. on Monday 2. Date e.g. on 5th of March, March 5 3. Particular day e.g. on Independence Day, on my birthday, At 1. Time of clock e.g. at 5 Oclock, at 7:30 PM 2. Short and precise time

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e.g. at noon, at sunset, at lunch time, at bed time, at the moment, at the same time Examples. He was born in 1945. She will go to New York on 25th of March. The concert will begin at 7 Oclock. He gets up early in the morning. We enjoyed a lot in the summer. The president will deliver speech to public on Independence Day. She received a lot gifts on her birthday. Where were you at the lunchtime? I will call you at 12 A.M

Preposition for Place. (in, on, at) Prepositions in, on or at are usually used for different places.

In is usually used for place which have some boundary (boundary may physical or virtual). On is used for surface At is used for specific place.

Preposition In

Place Nature Place having some boundary (physical or virtual boundary) Examples. In hall In school In a building In a box In a car In library

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In garden In America In room In cupboard On Surface of something. Examples. On a table On blackboard On a page On the wall On the roof On a map At Specific Place. Examples. At the entrance At the bottom of glass At front of the chair At bus stop At the edge of roof Examples She lives in New York. Students study in library. The wedding ceremony will be held in the hall. There are some books on the table. The teacher wrote a sentence on blackboard. He was flying kite on the roof. Her parents were waiting for her at the entrance of school There was a huge gathering at bus stop. His house is at the end of street.

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Preposition for Direction. (to, toward, through, into) Prepositions like to, towards, through, into are used to describe the direction. Following examples will help in better understanding. Examples. She went to the library. He jumped into the river. He ran away when he felt that someone was coming toward him.

Preposition for Agent. (by) Preposition for agent is used for a thing which is cause of another thing in the sentence. Such prepositions are by, with etc. Following examples will help in better understanding. Examples. This book is written by Shakespeare. The work was completed by him. The room was decorated by her. The tub is filled with water.

Preposition for device, instrument or machine. Different preposition are used by different devices, instruments or machines. e.g. by, with, on etc. Following examples will help in better understanding. Examples. She comes by bus daily. He opened the lock with key.

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INTERJECTIONS Interjections are small words that bear no grammatical connection with the sentences in which they are used. They express the emotions or sentiments of the speaker or convey hesitation or protest. They are usually followed by an exclamation mark. Since many interjections are mainly written forms of actual sounds that were produced by humans, they are hardly used in academic or scholarly writing, unless they are a part of a direct quote or otherwise. Ah! Now thats what I call a good shot! Bravo! Both Ah and Bravo are interjections used to show the speakers admiration in the sentence. There are many different uses for various interjections; the following is a list of the common interjections you may hear around you in daily life Interjection Aah Meaning Exclamation of fear Realization acceptance Something cute Acknowledge something as right Question something Something disgusting sweet or or Use Aah! The monsters got me!

Ahh

Ahh, now I see what you mean.

Aww

Aww! Just look at that kitten. Bingo! Thats exactly what we were looking for! So that was all she said, eh? Eww! That movie was so gory. Hmph. I could do that for half the amount he charged.

Bingo

Eh Eww

Hmph

To indicate displeasure

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Oh

I see/ I think

Oh, its been around a week since I saw her. Oops! Sorry I didnt see those skates there. Ouch, that hurt! Stop pinching me! for

Oops

Making a mistake

Ouch

Exclamation of pain

Shh

An

indication

silence Showing dismay Amazement relief Expressing surprise or admiration Congratulatory exclamation Variant of yes For fear or concern (not serious) Exclamation celebration of and/or

Shh! The show is about to start. Uh oh! The teachers caught him. Whew! I cant believe we actually finished it all. Wow! Thats really great news! I cant believe youre actually coming here! Yaay! Yeah, Id love some orange juice. Yikes, my mothers home!

Uh oh

Whew

Wow

Yay/Yaay

Yeah

Yikes

Yippee

Yippee! We won, lets head to the bar.

Some interjections are used to stall for time or indicate that the speaker is thinking of something. These interjections are also used when someone doesnt know what to say. The following is a list of these sounds or words; they are also called Hesitation Devices -

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Interjection

Meaning Indicates a pause/ need for more time Thinking/Hesitating about something

Use Wait I know this uh is it Ruskin Bond? Hmm, Im not sure this colour is the best for this room. I dont thinker wait let me call my boss. Not that I dont believe you but, um, you say its a ghost?

Uh

Hmm

Er

Not knowing what to say

Um

Pausing skeptical

or

being