Mississippi State University Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering

ECE 3614: Fundamentals of Energy Systems (Spring 2013) Instructor: Dr. Masoud Karimi (karimi@ece.msstate.edu) Analysis of AC Circuits and Systems

Contents
1 Concept of Phasor 2 Concept of Impedance and Admittance 3 Connection of Impedances 4 Real and Reactive Powers in a Single Phase ac Circuit 5 Powers in terms of Impedances 6 Examples 7 Per-Unit (pu) System 8 Three Phase Systems 9 Three Phase Source Connections 10 Phasors and Phasor Diagram of Three Phase Systems 11 Three Phase Load Connections 12 Analysis of a Three Phase Circuit 13 Powers in a Three Phase Circuit 14 Numerical Examples 15 Power Measurement of a Balanced Three Phase Load 2 2 4 4 8 9 12 14 15 16 17 19 19 21 23

Concept of Phasor

In an alternating current (ac) circuit with a given frequency, all the signals are sinusoidal in the steady state and they all have the same frequency. The function u(t) = 2U cos(t + ) (1) represents time variations of each signal in the steady state in an ac network where U is the rms value and 2U is the peak value of this signal. The root1 u(t)2 dt. Practically, mean-square (rms) value theoretically means U = T T it means that the average power transferred by the ac voltage to a resistive load is equal to the power that a dc voltage with the rms value delivers. It is also called the eective value.

Given the fact that is normally known to good accuracy in a practical power system, the knowledge of doublet (U, ) is adequate to represent u. The phasor combines these two pieces of information into one complex number as follows. U = U ej = U cos + jU sin (2)

The concept of phasor removes the variable t. Thats why a phasor is also called the frequency-domain representation as opposed to the time-domain representation. Phasor representation implicitly assumes a reference for time or for comparing phase angles and that is the phase angle of cos(t). Therefore, in phasor analysis, all angles are given with respect to a reference value. In practice, it is up to your decision to choose any of the signals as the reference.

Concept of Impedance and Admittance

In a dc network, the main circuit component is a resistor. For a resistor with resistance R, the Ohms law establishes the relationship between its voltage and current as v (t) = Ri(t) for all t. In an ac circuit, two more types of passive components exit. They are inductor and capacitor. In an inductor with inductance L, the relationship between the voltage and current is expressed as v (t) = L di dt

and in a capacitor with capacitance C , the relationship is i=C dv . dt

Now, lets study what happens to the voltage/current relationship of dierent circuit components in terms of phasors. Resistor: In a resistor of R, we have v (t) = Ri(t) for all t. Therefore, rms of voltage is R times rms of current and they have the same phase angle. This means that V =RI.

Capacitor: In a capacitor of C , we have i(t) = C dv dt for all t. Therefore, if v (t) = 2V cos(t + ), then i = C 2V sin(t + ) = C 2V cos(t + + 90 ). This means that I = C V ej 90 = C V (cos 90 + j sin 90 ) = jC V .

di Inductor: In an inductor of L, we have v (t) = L dt for all t. Therefore, if i(t) = 2I cos(t + ), then V = L 2I sin(t + ) = L 2I cos(t + + 90 ).

This means that V = L I ej 90 = L I (cos 90 + j sin 90 ) = jL I . Denition: The Impedance Z of a circuit element is a phasor quantity and is dened as V Z = I where V is the voltage phasor across that element and I is its current phasor. It is obvious from the above discussion that for a resistor, Z = R, for an inductor, and for a capacitor Z = jL, Z = 1 . jC

Impedance is direct extension of resistance. Therefore, it is measured by unit of Ohms. Denition: The Admittance Y is dened as reciprocal of impedance that is 1 Y = . Z

Connection of Impedances

When two circuit components are connected in series, they have the same current and their voltages add up. Therefore, their impedances add up: Series connection of resistor and inductor (called series RL): Z = R + jL 1 Series connection of resistor and capacitor (called series RC): Z = R + jC 1 Series connection of inductor and capacitor (called series LC): Z = jL + jC Series connection of resistor, inductor and capacitor (called series RLC): Z = R + jL + 1 jC

When two circuit components are connected in parallel, they have the same voltage and their currents add up. Therefore, their admittances add up: 1 1 Parallel connection of resistor and inductor (called parallel RL): Y = R + jL 1 + jC Parallel connection of resistor and capacitor (called parallel RC): Y = R 1 + jC Parallel connection of inductor and capacitor (parallel LC): Y = jL Parallel connection of resistor, inductor and capacitor (called parallel RLC): 1 1 Y = + + jC R jL

Real and Reactive Powers in a Single Phase ac Circuit

Consider a single phase ac circuit comprising a source and a load as shown in Fig. 3. Assume the voltage and current waveforms are v (t) = 2V cos(v ), i(t) = 2I cos(i ) where V and I are the rms values. The phase angles can be written as = t + where is the frequency (in rad/s) and is the initial phase angle

i
+

v -

Load

Figure 1: A simple source-load connection at time zero. The instantaneous power supplied by the source (and received by the load) is given by p(t) = v (t)i(t) and its dimension is watts (W). In a dc circuit, power is constant and it ows from source to load at all times. In an ac circuit, however, the power is not constant and is not necessarily owing only from source to load! With the above polarity for the voltage and the shown direction for the current, if p(t) > 0, power ows from source to load at time instant t, and if p(t) < 0, power ows from load to source at time instant t. The instantaneous power may be written as p(t) =v (t)i(t) = 2V I cos(v ) cos(i ) =V I cos(v i ) + V I cos(v + i ) =V I cos(v i ) + V I cos(v i ) cos(2v )+ V I sin(v i ) sin(2v ) =P [1 + cos(2v )] + Q sin(2v )

where P = V I cos(), Q = V I sin(), = v i . Case (i): v = i (resistive load) P > 0, Q = 0 p(t) = P [1 + cos(2v )] > 0, for all t. Power ow is unidirectional from source to load. Power has pulsation at double frequency. Figure 4 shows that voltage, current and instantaneous power waveforms for a resistive load connected to an ac source. This pulsation of power, which does not exist in a dc system, may be considered as a disadvantage of an ac system. Although it does not cause visible icker in 5

20 10 0 10 20 v i 10

f =60 Hz, V =10 V, I =4 A

20

30

40

t (ms)

80 60 40 20 0 20 Figure 2: Voltage and current waveforms (top) and the instantaneous power (bottom) for a resistive load. lighting systems (due to its high frequency) but it may cause stress on dierent loads. Case (ii): v > i (resistive+inductive load) P > 0, Q > 0 Case (iii): v<i (resistive+capacitive load) P > 0, Q < 0 In Case (ii) and Case (iii) where Q = 0, p(t) can become negative at some instants of time. This means that the ow of power becomes from load to source at those instants. Indeed, inductor and capacitor act as energy storage which store energy during some period of time and return it during other times. This exchange of energy does no work. The term Q sin(2v ) is caused by inductive or capacitive loads. This term has zero average over one cycle of ac signal which means an oscillation of energy t (ms) p

10

20

30

40

with no net transfer over a cycle of signal. The term reactive is used to describe this component of power as opposed to the term real or active which is used for the unidirectional component: p(t) = P [1 + cos(2v )] + Q sin(2v ) instantaneous instantaneous instantaneous = + power real power reactive power The real power is formally dened as the average of the instantaneous power over one cycle of the signal: Real power:
1 T T 0

P [1 + cos(2v )]dt = P

The reactive power is dened as the peak value of the reactive component of power: Reactive power: Q The dimension of reactive power is volt-ampere-reactive (VAR). The complex power combines both quantities in one complex number: S = P + jQ = Sej . The apparent power is dened as the magnitude of the complex power: S= P 2 + Q2 = V I.

The dimension of complex and apparent powers is volt-ampere (VA). = arctan( Q P ) = v i is called the power angle. S

Power triangle:

jQ P

Power Factor is dened as: P = cos(). S A lower PF at a given real power means a larger S (and a larger Q), and thus a larger current. Larger current means larger transmission capacity and larger transmission losses. PF = 7

PF is a gure of merit and its desired value is unity (corresponding to no reactive power). PF does not convey the inductiveness or capacitive-ness of the load. Its value is often accompanied with terms leading (when is negative) or lagging (when is positive). In other words, leading means the current leads the voltage, and lagging means the current lags the voltage. Most industrial loads (including induction motors) are lagging loads.

Powers in terms of Impedances

For every circuit component with given phasor voltage and phasor current, the complex power is S = P + jQ = V I cos + jV I sin = V Iej = V ejv Ieji = V I where

is the complex conjugate.

For a circuit element with impedance Z , and voltage and current phasors of V and I , the complex power is S = V I = Z I I = Z I 2. Or in terms of voltage phasor, V V2 2 S = V I = V ( ) = = Y V . Z Z These two equations can be used to calculate powers in terms of circuit com ponents. For example, consider a series RL element. Its impedance is Z = R + jL, therefore, its complex power is S = Z I 2 = (R + jL)I 2 = RI 2 + jLI 2 . And consequently, P = RI 2 , Q = LI 2 .

As for a second example, consider a parallel RL element. Its admittance is 1 1 Y =R + jL , therefore, its complex power is 1 1 V2 V2 S = Y V 2 = ( + )V 2 = +j . R jL R L 8

And consequently, P =

V2 , R

Q=

V2 . L

This method may be used to calculate real and reactive powers for any combination of circuit components.

Examples

Example 1
Consider the 60 Hz ac circuit shown in Figure 3 comprising a source, a transmission line and a load. The transmission line is a series RL and its parameters are R = 0.01 and X = 0.05 . The load is a parallel RL and comprises RL = 3 and XL = 4 . Assume that the load voltage rms value is equal to 240 V. R + Vs jX + V RL jXL C

Figure 3: Circuit of Example 1 1. What is the load real power? Solution: PL =

2 VL RL

2402 3

= 19200 W

2. What is the load reactive power? Solution: QL = Solution: SL =

2 VL XL

2402 4

= 14400 VARs

3. What is the load apparent power?

2 + Q2 = 24000 VA PL L

4. What is the load complex power? Solution: SL = PL + jQL = 19200 + j 14400 VA 5. What is the load power factor? Solution: PFL = Solution: I =
SL VL PL SL

19200 24000

= 0.8 lagging

6. What is the total load current rms? =

24000 240

= 100 A 9

7. What is the line real power? Solution: P = R I 2 = 0.01 1002 = 100 W 8. What is the line reactive power? Solution: Q = X I 2 = 0.05 1002 = 500 VAR 9. What is the line apparent power? Solution: S = P2 + Q2 = 509.9 VA

10. What is the line complex power? Solution: S = P + jQ = 100 + j 500 VA 11. What is the source real power? Solution: Ps = PL + P = 19300 W 12. What is the source reactive power? Solution: Qs = QL + Q = 14900 VAR 13. What is the source apparent power? Solution: Ss =
2 + Q2 = 24382 VA Ps s

14. What is the source power factor? Solution: P Fs =

Ss I Ps Ss

19300 24382

= 0.792 lagging

15. What is the source voltage rms value? Solution: Vs = =

24382 100

= 243.82 V

16. Calculate the transmission power loss. Solution: P = R I 2 = 0.01 1002 = 100 W 17. Find the capacitor C that improves the power factor to unity.
V V = X Xc = XL Solution: Qc = QL X C L 1 4 = 6 . 63 10 = 663 F 42 60 V Z 240 3
2 2

1 C

= L = 4 C =

18. What is the transmission power loss after compensation? Solution: after compensation: I = 0.01 802 = 64 W = = 80 A, P = R I 2 =

Example 2
Consider the single phase 60 Hz ac circuit of Fig. 4 where the line parameters are R = 0.1 , X = 1 and the load is RL = 8 , XL = 6 . Consider the load voltage as the reference for phasors.

10

jX

+
+

RL

Vs = 120 V

VL jXL

Figure 4: Circuit of Example 1. 1. Calculate the phasor of current. Solution: ZL = 8 + j 6 = 1036.9, Ztot = 8.1 + j 7 = 10.7140.8, I= 120 = 11.21 A I = 11.21(36.9) 10.71

2. Calculate the phasor of load voltage. Solution: VL = 11.21 82 + 62 = 112.1 V and V = 0. 3. Calculate the phasor of source voltage. Solution: Vs = 120 V and Vs = I + Ztot = 36.9 + 40.8 = 3.9 . 4. Draw the phasor diagram showing load voltage, load current, source voltage, and the voltages across line components. Solution: The phasor diagram is shown in Fig. 5.
Vs jX I I VL R I

Figure 5: Phasor diagram of Example 2. 5. Calculate the real power, reactive power, complex power, and apparent power of the load.

11

Solution: Complex power is

S = VL I = 112.1 11.21 ej 36.9 = 1255.536.9 = 1004 + j 753.8 VA,

then the apparent power is S = 1255.5 VA, real power is P = 1004 W and the reactive power is Q = 753.8 VARs. 6. Calculate the power factor of the load? Solution: PF =
P S 1004 1255.5

= 0.8 lagging.

7. Find the value of a capacitor which when paralleled with the load increases the PF to unity. Solution: The load impedance is 8 + j 6 . When paralleled with C , the 1 admittance becomes Y = 8+ j 6 + jC = 0.08 j 0.06 + jC . This needs to be a real value to increase the PF to unity. Thus, C = 0.06, and .06 6 C=0 F=159 F. 377 = 159 10 Other method: the capacitor must supply all the load reactive power. .8 6 Therefore, Qc = 753.8 = CV 2 C = 377753 F. 112.12 = 159 10 8. Calculate the transmission loss before and after load compensation. Solution: P = R I 2 . Before compensation: P = 0.1 11.212 = 12.57 W. After compensation, the load impedance is 1/0.08 = 12.5 and the cur 120 2 rent is I = 0.1+ j +12.5 and I = 8.89 A. Thus, P = 0.1 8.89 = 7.9 W.

Per-Unit (pu) System

In the pu system of analysis, any electrical quantity is expressed as the ratio of the actual quantity and a base value for that quantity. For example, if Vbase = 240 V then a voltage of 120 V is 0.5 pu and a voltage of 480 V is 2 pu. What are the base quantities and how to choose them? Choose two variables from the four main variables of (apparent) power, voltage, current and impedance. Assign base values to those two variables. Calculate the base values for the other two variables from: Sbase = Vbase Ibase , Vbase = Zbase Ibase . Often the two variables of power and voltage are chosen and the base values for them are selected from the rating values of a main component in the system.

Advantages of pu System
It avoids conversion of components across a transformer (will be discussed later). 12

 Simplies analysis of three phase systems. Brings the values of system variables (and components) within a reasonable range regardless of the rating of the equipment. This provides a more convenient framework for comparisons and also for calculations. Notice: pu values are sometimes expressed in percentage.

Example
A generator supplies a load through a feeder whose impedance is Z = R + jX = 1 + j 2 . The load impedance is ZL = RL + jXL = 8 + j 6. The voltage across the load is VL =120 V. Find the real and reactive power supplied by the generator. Solve using ordinary systm of analysis and also using pu system. Circuit diagram is shown below: I R X

+ Vs
+

RL

VL XL

Solution Using Ordinary Approach. Take the load voltage as reference. Then VL = VL = 120 V, and VL 120 I = = 8 + j 6 = 9.6 j 7.2 = 12 36.87 A ZL Vs = VL + Z I = 120 + (1 + j 2)(9.6 j 7.2) = 144 + j 12 = 144.54.76
Qs

Ss = Vs I = (144 + j 12)(9.6 + j 7.2) = 1296 +j 1152 V A

Ps

Ps = 1296 W, Qs = 1152 VAR Solution Using pu Approach. Assume that Vbase = 120 V and Sbase = 1500 VA. 13

Ibase =

Sbase 1500 Vbase 120 = = 12.5 A, Zbase = = = 9 .6 Vbase 120 Ibase 12.5

VL ZL 8 + j6 = 10 pu, ZL (pu) = = = 0.833 + j 0.625 pu VL (pu) = Vbase Zbase 9 .6 VL 1 0 I = = 0.833 + j 0.625 = 0.768 j 0.576 pu ZL Z 1 + j2 = = 0.104 + j 0.208 pu Z (pu) = Zbase 9 .6 Vs = VL +Z I = 1+(0.104+j 0.208)(0.768j 0.576) = 1.2+j 0.1 = 1.2044.76 pu Ss = Vs I = (1.2 + j 0.1)(0.768 + j 0.576) = 0.864 + j 0.768 pu Ps = 0.864 pu = 0.864 1500 = 1296 W Qs = 0.768 pu = 0.768 1500 = 1152 VAR

Three Phase Systems

A balanced three phase ac source is equivalent to three single phase ac sources with equal amplitude and the phase angles displaced 120 apart. It is generated by a three-phase generator whose windings are physically displaced in 120 positions. A balanced three phase system supplies a real power that is three times that of the single phase system while it uses fewer number of conductors (3 or 4 as opposed to 6). Moreover, the total supplied power by a three phase system is smooth with no double-frequency pulsation. The bulk power generation and transmission systems are three phase. Two set of sequences are possible depending on the order of voltages: Positive sequence: 0, -120 , -240 Negative sequence: 0, 120 , 240

The sequence becomes very important in paralleling (inter-connecting) sources to a system. The positive sequence is globally accepted as the standard.

14

Y (or Wye or Star) Connection:

phase-c

phase-a

n (neutral) phase-b b a

(or Delta) Connection:

b c

Figure 6: Schematic diagram of a Y-connected and a -connected source.

Three Phase Source Connections

Depending on how the three windings are connected, two major connections can be obtained: Y and Delta. In the Y-connection, the second terminals of all three windings are connected together making a Y or Star shape. The common connection point of three windings is called the neutral point. In the Deltaconnected, the windings are connected in series and the terminals are taken from the connection points making a triangle or shape. A Y-connected source may have four or three terminal wires depending on whether the neutral wire is used or not. A -connected source has only three wires. The terminologies of three-phase-three-wire system or three-phase-fourwire system correspond to this fact. Schematic diagrams used to show Y and Delta sources are shown in Fig. 6. Consider a balanced Y-connection. The phase (or line-to-ground: LG) voltages

15

are

va = van = 2V cos(v ) vb = vbn = 2V cos(v 120 ) vc = vcn = 2V cos(v 240 ) f =60 Hz 1 va vb vc

10

20

30

40

t (ms)

1 The line (or line-to-line: LL) voltages are vab = van vbn = = 3 2V cos(v + 30 ) vbc = vbn vcn = = 3 2V cos(v 90 ) vca = vcn van = = 3 2V cos(v 210 ) The line voltages are 3 times larger than the phase voltages. Their phase angles are 30 degrees advanced with respect to phase voltages. Exercise: Verify the above equations. The phase currents and the line currents are the same in a Y-connected source. The phase voltages and the line voltages are the same in a -connected source.

10

Phasors and Phasor Diagram of Three Phase Systems

Figure 7 shows the phasor diagram of phase and line voltages in a Y-connected source. They are related according to the following equations: V ab = 3 V a ej 30 , V bc = 3 V b ej 30 , V ca = 3 V c ej 30 Conclusion: A Y-connected voltage source can be transformed to an equivalent -connected voltage source (and vice versa) according to:

16

 Vca

Vc

Vb Va 30

Vab

Vb

Vbc

Figure 7: Phasor diagram showing the relationship between phase voltages and line voltages in a Y -connected source.

V ab = 3 V a ej 30 , V bc = 3 V b ej 30 , V ca = 3 V c ej 30

1 1 1 V a = V ab ej 30 , V b = V bc ej 30 , V c = V ca ej 30 3 3 3

This is a useful result in the analysis of three phase systems as will be discussed later.

11

Three Phase Load Connections

Three phase loads are either originally three phase loads (such as three phase motors, three-phase rectiers etc) or are formed by a number of a number of single phase loads (such as most residential loads) each of which is connected across two lines (or a line to neutral) of the three phase system.1
1 At residential level, 208 V LL and 120 V LG are often available through a three phase transformer. Alternatively, 240 V and 120 V may be available through a single phase transformer whose secondary has three taps.

17

phase-C

ZY

ZY

phase-A

Y (or Wye or Star) Connection:

N (neutral)

ZY

phase-B

B A

(or Delta) Connection:

B C

Question: Under what condition the above two loads are equivalent? Answer: Both loads must behave identically when connected to a voltage source. They must draw equal currents. Assume that the Y-connected load draws IA , IB , and IC . Therefore, VBN VCN VAN IA = , I = , I = B C ZY ZY ZY The line current of the -connected load is VAB VCA VAN VBN VCN + VAN 3VAN VAN IA = IAB ICA = = = = Z Z Z Z (Z /3) Therefore, the condition for both circuits to have equal currents is Z ZY = 3 18

Conclusion: Both source and load entities can be transformed from one connection form to other.

12

Analysis of a Three Phase Circuit

As far as circuit analysis is concerned, a balanced three phase circuit (comprising sources, transmission lines, loads, transformers) can always be broken into three equivalent single phase circuits. To understand this, convert all connected components to Y -connected with a common neutral line connection. The neutral line carries no current in a balanced system. However, the neutral line can be expanded to three lines which carry a three-phase balanced current (sum of which adds up to zero). Therefore, the three-phase circuit can be decomposed into three identical single-phase circuits. The only dierence between those circuits is the 120 degrees phase shift in their corresponding variables. Analysis of one of those single phase circuits provides complete information of the three phase circuit. It is convenient to draw a one-line diagram of a three phase system as shown below (for an example where a Y-connected source supplies energy to a Yconnected load and a Delta-connected load both connected to a common bus). Load 1 GY Load 2 Y

Figure 8: One-line diagram of a three phase circuit.

13

Powers in a Three Phase Circuit

Consider the three phase source-load connection shown in Fig 9 where it is either originally in a Y form or is converted to its equivalent Y form. Let the voltages and currents be denoted by va = van = 2V cos(v ) vb = vbn = 2V cos(v 120) vc = vcn = 2V cos(v 240 ) 19

 Ic

Ia

ZY

ZY

Ib b

ZY

Figure 9: A three phase Y-form source-load connection. Three ctitious lines are also drawn to show how the three phase circuit can be broken into three single phase subsystems. ia = 2I cos(i ) ib = 2I cos(i 120 ) ic = 2I cos(i 240) in = ia + ib + ic = 0 This circuit can be decomposed into three identical single phase circuits. The instantaneous powers corresponding to these three circuits are pa (t) = va (t)ia (t) = = P1 [1 + cos 2v ] + Q1 sin 2v pc (t) = vc (t)ic (t) = = P1 [1 + cos 2(v 240)] + Q1 sin 2(v 240) where P1 = V I cos and Q1 = V I sin and = v i . This means that the circuit transfers a real power of P1 at each phase. The total real power is P = 3P1 = 3V I cos . Each phase also carries a reactive power of Q1 = V I sin . Therefore, we could say that the total reactive power is Q = 3Q1 = 3V I sin . Now, assume that the load is a three-phase induction motor. The total instantaneous power delivered to the motor is 20 pb (t) = vb (t)ib (t) = = P1 [1 + cos 2(v 120)] + Q1 sin 2(v 120 )

p(t) =va (t)ia (t) + vb (t)ib (t) + vc (t)ic (t) =3V I cos(v i ) = 3V I cos() =3 (single phase real power) All the power pulsations cancel out! (Check as an exercise) Smoothness of power (no double frequency pulsation) is an advantage for motor applications because it means smooth output power transferred to the shaft of the motor and thus less stress. Note: V is phase voltage. In terms of line voltage p = Summary of three phase power quantities: V : LG (or phase) voltage, I : line current, : phase angle dierence between V and I : = v i P = 3V I cos(): real power Q = 3V I sin(): reactive power S = P + jQ = 3 V I : complex power S = 3V I : apparent power Power triangle is also valid here. PF= P S = cos(): power factor The number 3 in the above four equations becomes the voltage is used. 3 when the LL value of 3V I cos().

14

Numerical Examples

Example 1.
A balanced three phase Y-connected source of 208 V (LL) is connected to a balanced Y-connected load with per-phase impedance of ZY = 12 + j 9 . The per-phase transmission line impedance is Z = 0.06 + j 0.12 . Find (a) the magnitude of the line current, (b) the magnitude of the load voltage, (c) the real, reactive and apparent powers transferred to the load, 21

(d) the power factor of the load, (e) the real, reactive and apparent power of the transmission line, (f) the real, reactive and apparent power supplied by the source, (g) the power factor at the source terminals. Solution: The single phase equivalent circuit is
I

Z +

+ Vs = 120 V. where Vs = 208 3 (a) Z total = Z + ZY = 12.06 + j 9.12 , I =

V -

ZY

Vs Ztotal

120 12.062 +9.122

= 7.94 A

(b) Load voltage: V = ZY I = 122 + 92 7.94 = 119.1 V LL value of the load voltage: V = 3 119.1 = 206.3 V (c) ZL = 12 + j 9 = 1536.9 = 36.9 PL = 3V I cos() = 3 119.1 7.94 0.8 = 2270 W QL = 3V I sin() = 3 119.1 7.94 0.6 = 1702 VAR SL = 3V I = 3 119.1 7.94 = 2839 VA. (d) PF= P S = cos() =
2270 2839

= 0.8 lagging

(e) P = 3R I 2 = 3 0.06 7.942 = 11.3 W Q = 3X I 2 = 3 0.12 7.942 = 22.7 VAR S = P2 + Q2 = 11.32 + 22.72 = 25.3 VA.

(f) Ps = P + PL = 11.3 + 2270 = 2281.3 W Qs = Q + QL = 22.7 + 1702 = 1724.7 VAR Ss = (g) PFs =
2 + Q2 = 2860 VA. Ps s Ps Ss

2281.3 2860

= 0.798 lagging

22

Example 2.
Repeat Example 1 assuming that the load is -connected with the same value of per-phase impedance. Solution: Based on Y- transformation of load, if Z = 12 + j 9 then 1 ZY = 3 Z = 4 + j 3 . The rest is just repeat of calculations. Answers are (a) I = 23.4 A, (b) V = 202.7 V, (c) PL = 6571 W, QL = 4928 VAR, SL = 8213 VA, (d) PFL = 0.8 lagging, (e) P = 98.6 W, Q = 197 VAR, S = 220 VA, (f) Ps = 6670 W, Qs = 5125 VAR, Ss = 8411 VA, (g) PFs = 0.792 lagging.

15

Power Measurement of a Balanced Three Phase Load

Often the three terminals of a load are available for measurements. The real and reactive powers can be calculated from the measurements obtained from two single phase Watt-meters as shown in Fig. 10. The Watt-meter measures the real power transferred through two terminals. The measured power satises P = V I cos where V is the rms voltage across those two terminals, I is the rms current owing through those two terminals and cos is the power factor seen from the two terminals.

W1

Load

W2

Figure 10: Circuit arrangement to measure three phase real and reactive powers using two single phase Watt-meters With reference to the phasor diagram of Fig. 11, the powers measured by Wattmeters are given by:

23

 VCA

VC

VAB

VA 30 VB IA VBC VAC

Figure 11: Phasor diagram of the three phase system showing the phase and line voltages, and the line current on line a. is the angle between VA and IA . P1 = VAC IA cos(VAC IA ) = P2 = VBC IB cos(VBC IB ) = Therefore, P1 + P2 = 3V I cos( 30 ) + 3V I cos( + 30 ) = 2 3V I cos(30 ) cos() = 3V I cos() = P P1 P2 = 3V I cos( 30 ) 3V I cos( + 30 ) Q = 2 3V I sin(30 ) sin() = 3V I sin() = 3 Which results in 3V I cos( 30 ) 3V I cos( + 30 ).

P = P1 + P2 Q= 3(P1 P2 )

Q = arctan( ) P
24