.

SECTION
I

THE PHYSICS OF LIGHT PRODUCTION

The American Standards Association and the Illuminating Engineering Society define light asiradiant energy evaluated according to its capacity to 'produce visual sensationS Radiant energy of the proper wavelength makes visible anything from which it is emitted or reflected in sufficient quantity
to activate the receptors in the eye.
(

Several concepts of the nature of radiant energy have been advanced. 1

are

They
A.
1

The corpuscular theory advocated by Newton, based on these premises:

That luminous bodies emit radiant energy in particles. That these particles are intermittently ejected in straight lines. That the particles act on the retina of the eye stimulating the
nerves to produce the sensation of
light.

~~

2.

3.

optic

B. The wave theory) based on these premises: 1. That light is the resultant of molecular vibration in the luminous
material.
2.

3.

That vibrations are transmitted through the ether as wavelike movements (comparable to ripples in water). That the vibrations thus transmitted act on the retina of the eye
stimulating the optic nerves to produce visual sensation.

C.

1.
--2.

The electromagnetic theory 2 based on these premises: That luminous bodies emit light as a form of radiant energy. That this radiant energy is transmitted in the form of electromagnetic
,

-_
3.

waves. That the electromagnetic waves act upon the retina of the eye thus stimulating the optic nerves to produce the sensation of light.

D. The quantum theory, a modern form of the corpuscular theory, based on these premises: "~ 1. That energy is emitted and absorbed in discrete quanta. 2. That the magnitude of each quantum is hv, where h 6.547 X 10~ 27 erg sec (Planck's constant)

and
in

frequency in cycles per second.

E. The theory of wave mechanics first proposed by Schrodinger in 1925 an attempt to reach an harmonious compromise between the quantum and the wave theories. 1. It utilizes wave characteristics and quanta particles as the need arises in the solution of problems. 2. The mathematics involved is too complicated for present application to illuminating engineering problems.
Note: References are Listed
at the end of each section.

1-1

1-2

LIGHTING HANDBOOK
or concepts are available the
will

Until such time as

new data

quantum

unquestionably be used as the basis of continued research in light phenomena. The electromagnetic wave theory provides a convenient explanation of those characteristics of radiant energy most frequently of concern to the illuminating engineer. Radiant energy may be evaluated in a number of different ways; two
of these are:
1. Radiant flux the time rate of the flow of any part of the radiant energy spectrum measured in ergs per second. 2. Luminous flux the time rate of the flow of the luminous parts of the radiant energy spectrum measured in lumens.

and the electromagnetic wave theories

Light and the Energy Spectrum

The wave theory permits a convenient graphical representation of radiant energy in an orderly arrangement according to its wavelength. This arrangement is called a spectrum (Fig. 1-1). It is useful in indicating the relationship between various radiant energy wavelength regions. Such a graphical representation must not be construed to indicate that each region of the spectrum is divided from the others in any physical way whatsoever. Actually there is a gradual transition from one region to another.
FREQUENCY
COSM IC RAYS
IN

CYCLES PER SECOND

GAMMA RAYS
HARD
X-RAYS

SOFT
VAC UUM
U.V.

HERTZIAN WAVES

ULTRAVIOLET *

NEAR

INFRARED FAR

DIRECTIONAL RADIO (RADAR)

FM
TELEVISION
VIOLET BLUE GREEN
0.5

YELLOW RED
0.6 IN 0.7

_ SHORT WAVE
0.76

POWER
TRANSMISSION

BROADCAST

WAVELENGTH
I

MICRONS
I

X-UNn"

ANGSTROM
io-8

CM
]

METER
io2

KILOMETER
I0 4 I0 6
I0 8
10'0

,0-12

10 -I0

I0"6

10"4

10"2
IN

WAVELENGTH

CENTIMETERS

FIG.

1-1.

The radiant energy (electromagnetic) spectrum.

limits of the radiant energy spectrum extend over a range wavelengths varying from a few micromicrons (10~ 10 cm) to one hundred thousand miles (1.6 X 10 10 cm). Radiant energy in the visible spectrum has wavelengths betAveen 0.38 X 10~ 4 and 0.76 X 10~ 4 cm. The Angstrom unit (A), the micron (/x), and the millimicron (m/x) are commonly used units of length in the visible spectrum band. The relationship of several units for measuring wavelength is given in Table 1-1.
of

The known

PHYSICS OF LIGHT PRODUCTION

All forms of radiant energy are transmitted at the
in

1-3
rate of speed

same

However, each form differs in (186,300 miles per second). wavelength and thus in frequency. The wavelength and velocity may be

vacuum

altered materially
is

fixed independently of the

by the medium through which it passes, but frequency medium. Thus, through the equation:

where

V = V = n X = v

n\v
velocity of

waves (cm per

sec)

(index of refraction)

wavelength (cm) frequency (c per sec)

it is possible to determine the velocity of radiant energy and also to indicate the relationship between frequency and wavelength. Table 1-2 gives the velocity of light in different media for a frequency corresponding to a wavelength of 0.589 micron in air.

Table
Multiply
of

1-1.

Conversion Table for Units of Length

C/3

Number

&
To Obtain Number of
1

\\

p4

O %
1

en

w fc o PS u
104

w H w
C/3

OS

(A

H
2.540

(J

H W

kJ

g
2.540

S
3.04S
1.609

J S
10 7

w H W g H g
108

Pi

W H W S
w
lOU

ANGSTROMS
MICRONS
MILS

XIO 5
10-4
1

X108
2.540

X109
3.048

XIO"
1.609
103 104

2.540

109

xio
3.937 3.937
1

X104
103

xio*
1.2

X10'
6.336

3.937

3.937

3.937

X10-6

X10-2
3.937
10-3
1

X104
12

XIO 7
6.336

xio
3.937

X102
3.937

X10 7
3.937

INCHES

3.937

xio-

XlO-s
3.281 8.333

XW
1

X10-2
3.281

xio-'
3.281

X104
3.281

FEET
MILES

3.281

8.333

5.280

X10-' 8
6.214

X10" s
6.214

X10-5
1.578

X10-2
1.57S 1.894

X10
X10-4
3.04S
1.609

X10-3
6.214

X10-J
6.214

X103
6.214

XlO-n

X 10-19
10-3

XIO" 8
2.540

XlO-s
2.540

xio-'
1

xio-
10

xio-'
10 6

MILLIMETERS

lO-'

X10-2

X10
2.540

X102
3.048

XIO8
1.609
0.1
1

CENTIMETERS
KILOMETERS

10-8

10-4

2.540

10

XIO"'
10-"
10-9

xio
2.540 3.048

X10*
1.609
io-

2.540

10" s

XIO"'

xio-

X10-4

Table

1-2.

Velocity of Light for a

Wavelength of 0.589 Micron (Sodium D-lines)

AIR
(760

MEDIUM
VELOCITY
(cm per
see)

VACUUM
(2.99776

mm
X

0C)

CROWN GLASS
1.98212

WATER
2.24903X1010

0.00004)

10"

2.99708

lOio

10"

1-4

E S LIGHTING HANDBOOK

Luminosity of Radiant Energy

The apparent differences in character between radiant energy of various wavelengths are in reality differences in ability of various receiving and
detecting devices. 3

The reception characteristics of the human eye have been subject to exThe results may be summarized as follows: tensive investigations. 1. The spectral response characteristic of the human eye varies between individuals, with time, and with the age and the state of health of any indiany individual to act as a standard not scientifically feasible. 2. However, from the wealth of data available, a luminosity curve has been selected for engineering purposes which represents the average human observer. This curve may be applied mathematically to the solution of photometric problems so as to eliminate the disadvantages related to all measurements dependent on the accurate reporting of human sensations. (See also Section 2.) Recognizing these facts, the Illuminating Engineering Society in 1923 and the International Commission on Illumination (I.C.I.) in 1924 adopted the standard luminosity factors of Table 1-3 from which the luminosity curve of Fig. 1-2 was plotted.
vidual, to the extent that the selection of
observer
is

Table

1-3.

Standard Luminosity Factors

(Relative to unity at 0.554 micron wavelength)*'

WAVELENGTH
(micron)

FACTOR
0.00004
.00012 .0004 .0012 .0040 .0116 .023 .038 .060
.091 .139 .208

WAVELENGTH
(micron)

FACTOR
0.503
.710 .862 .954 .995 .995 .952 .870 .757 .631 .503 .381 .265

WAVELENGTH
(micron)

FACTOR
0.175
.107 .061 .032 .017 .0082 .0041 .0021 .00105 .00052 .00025 .00012 .00006

0.380
.390 .400 .410 .420 .430 .440 .450 .460 .470 .480 .490 .500
1

0.510
.520 .530 .540 .550 .560 .570 .580 .590 .600 .610 .620 .630
micron
is

0.640
.650 .660 .670 .680 .690 .700 .710 .720 .730 .740 .750 .760

.323
1.0002 for 0.555

Luminosity factor =

maximum.

The standard luminosity curve represents an average characteristic from which the characteristic of any individual may be expected to vary. Goodeve's data (Fig. 1-3) indicate that most human observers are capable of experiencing a visual sensation upon exposure to radiation of infrared wavelengths (longer than 0.76 micron). It also is known that observers
exhibit a slight response to ultraviolet wavelengths (shorter than 0.38

micron).

PHYSICS OF LIGHT PRODUCTION

VIOLET BLUE GREEN
1.0

1-5

0.9

10-2
0.8

I0"4

0.5

D J >

0.4

<0.3
_l LU <r

0.2

0.1

0.38

0.42 0.46 0.50

0.54 0.58 0.62 0.66

0.70

0.74

0.70

0.75

0.80
IN

0.85

0.90

WAVELENGTH OF RADIANT ENERGY IN MICRONS micron =10,000 angstroms = 1/10,000 centimeter

WAVELENGTH

MICRONS

FIG.

1-3.

Goodeve's investi-

FIG. 1-2. The standard (I.C.I.) luminosity curve shows the relative capacity of radiant energy of various wavelengths to produce
visual sensation.

gations reveal that high flux concentrations of wavelengths just outside the "visible region" are capable of producing visual sensations. 7

Photoelectric Effect

This phenomenon, which

is

may

be observed when a clean metal surface

If the liberation of electrons from the surface atoms. the surface is connected as a cathode in an electric field (Fig. 1-4) the liberated electrons will flow to the anode creating a photoelectric current.

illuminated,

is

An arrangement

of this sort

may

be used as an illumination meter and can

be calibrated in f ootcandles.
CATHODE
(METAL PLATE)""-,

--X

LIGHT

QUANTUM

(ENERGY = hV)

ELECTRON
(ENERGY = Vz

ANODE

mV 2 = hV-E

ENERGY TO-' RELEASE ELECTRON =E

FIG. 1-4. By the photoelectric effect, electrons may be liberated from illuminated metal surfaces. In an electric field these will flow to an anode and create an electric current which may be detected by means of a galvanometer.