VIENNA TEST SYSTEM

MANUAL
TIME/MOVEMENT ANTICIPATION
Test Label ZBA
Version 31 Mdling, July 2011 Copyright 1999 by SCHUHFRIED GmbH Authors of the test H. Bauer, G. Guttmann, M. Trimmel, M. Leodolter & U. Leodolter Author of the manual W. Neuwirth

SCHUHFRIED GmbH, Hyrtlstrae 45, 2340 Mdling, Austria Tel. +43/2236/42315-0, Fax: +43/2236/46597 info@schuhfried.at www.schuhfried.at Sitz: Mdling, FN 104661p Landesgericht Wr. Neustadt, UID Nr. ATU 19273809

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CONTENTS
1 SUMMARY ................................................................................................................ 4 2 DESCRIPTION OF THE TEST ..................................................................................... 6
2.1 Theoretical background ..................................................................................................... 6 2.2 Test structure .................................................................................................................... 7 2.3 Description of variables ..................................................................................................... 7 2.3.1 Test form S1 ................................................................................................................ 7 2.3.2 Test form S2 ................................................................................................................ 8 2.3.3 Test form S3 ................................................................................................................ 8 2.3.4 Test form S4 ................................................................................................................ 9 2.3.5 Test form S5 ................................................................................................................ 9 2.4 Test forms ....................................................................................................................... 10 2.4.1 Long form S1 ............................................................................................................. 10 2.4.2 Short form S2 ............................................................................................................. 11 2.4.3 Linear form S3 ........................................................................................................... 12 2.4.4 Linear form S4 (time anticipation only) ...................................................................... 12 2.4.5 Linear form S5 (screening time anticipation) ............................................................. 13

3 EVALUATION .......................................................................................................... 14
3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 3.5 3.6 3.7 3.8 Objectivity ........................................................................................................................ 14 Reliability ......................................................................................................................... 14 Validity ............................................................................................................................. 15 Economy ......................................................................................................................... 15 Usefulness ....................................................................................................................... 15 Reasonableness .............................................................................................................. 15 Resistance to falsification ................................................................................................ 15 Fairness ........................................................................................................................... 15

4 NORMS ................................................................................................................... 16
4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4 4.5 Test form S1 .................................................................................................................... 16 Test form S2 .................................................................................................................... 17 Test form S3 .................................................................................................................... 18 Test form S4 .................................................................................................................... 18 Test form S5 .................................................................................................................... 18

5 TEST ADMINISTRATION .......................................................................................... 19

5.1 Instruction and practice phase ........................................................................................ 19 5.2 Test phase....................................................................................................................... 19

6 INTERPRETATION OF TEST RESULTS ..................................................................... 21

6.1 General notes on interpretation ....................................................................................... 21 6.2 Interpretation of variables ................................................................................................ 21 6.2.1 Test form S1 .............................................................................................................. 21

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6.2.2 Test form S2 .............................................................................................................. 22 6.2.3 Test form S3 .............................................................................................................. 23 6.2.4 Test form S4 .............................................................................................................. 23 6.2.5 Test form S5 .............................................................................................................. 23 6.3 Additional output of results .............................................................................................. 24

7 REFERENCES .......................................................................................................... 26

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1 SUMMARY
Authors
Herbert Bauer, Giselher Guttmann, Michael Trimmel, Michael Leodolter and Ulrich Leodolter

Application
Estimation of speed and movement of objects in space. Main areas of application: traffic psychology, aviation psychology, sport psychology.

Theoretical background
An important function in many areas of modern life is an individuals ability to imagine the effect of a movement and correctly estimate the movement of objects in space. In traffic psychology, aviation psychology and sport this skill is particularly important. Since the ability to estimate movement is hard to assess by conventional methods, the ZBA test was developed as part of the Vienna Test System.

Administration
A green ball appears on the screen, moving slowly. At an unpredictable moment the ball disappears and two red lines appear. One line passes through the point at which the ball has just disappeared. The other is the target line. Anticipation of time is measured by instructing the respondent to indicate when the ball will reach the target line; he does this by pressing a button at what he considers to be the appropriate moment. To measure anticipation of movement, the respondent is additionally asked to indicate the point at which the ball will cross the target line. This is done by means of two keys that control an arrow on the screen. The respondent receives feedback only during the instruction phase; no feedback is given during the test phase.

Test forms
There is a long form (S1) with 48 items, a short form (S2) with 12 items, a linear form (S3) with 8 items, a linear form for time anticipation only (S4) with 30 items and a screening form for time anticipation (S5) with 18 items.

Scoring
Anticipation of time: the time error is measured as the time difference (accurate to hundredths of a second). Anticipation of movement: the position error is measured as the deviation from the correct position, in pixels. Test form S5 has a special form of scoring: performance scores are reported for the test as a whole and for each item difficulty.

Reliability
Reliabilities (internal consistency) obtained for the long form, particularly for anticipation of time, are very high, ranging from r=0.92 to r=0.98. Reliabilities (internal consistency) for anticipation of movement in the long form are as follows: Median direction deviation overall r=0.76, Median direction deviation for linear path r=0.69, Median direction deviation for complex path r=0.72, Median direction deviation for sinusoidal path r=0.62.

Validity
Validity studies are currently available for a precursor version of the test. The results of an evaluation study involving a driving test show that in real-life traffic situations the overestimation of distance causes more problems than underestimation of distance.

ZBA Norms
Representative norm samples are available for all forms except S5. The size of the norm samples varies, depending on the test form, between N=271 are N=433. Some norms are also available partitioned by age and gender.

Time required for the test

Between 5 and 25 minutes (including instruction and practice phase), depending on test form.

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2 DESCRIPTION OF THE TEST

2.1 Theoretical background
In many areas of modern life and particularly in traffic psychology, space/time orientation is of great practical relevance. An essential component of this is the ability to assess speeds and distances accurately. The assessment of speed in a real-life situation is affected by a variety of variables: the experience of speed is influenced by optical, acoustic, kinaesthetic and haptic perceptions (Bubb, 1977), as well as by factors such as the width and length of the field of motion, the size of the moving object, the structure of the environment, the direction of motion relative to the observer, and the lighting of the field of motion (Meyer-Gramcko, 1980). Field studies of subjects experience of their own speed and that of others have shown that estimates of speed may sometimes deviate significantly from actual speeds (Engels 1981, Evans 1970, Moser 1979, Salvatore 1969). Studies by Maruyama & Kitamura (1961, 1965) and Nagayama, Morita & Miura (1980) have found large inter-individual differences in the ability to estimate speed and distance. There were significant correlations between performance in a speed estimation test administered to a group of drivers in a laboratory situation and their incidence of accidents or previous driving history: individuals who had committed driving-related offences or had had a number of accidents reacted significantly too soon in the test. In other words they overestimated speed to a greater extent than individuals with a low accident coefficient. A similar test is the device developed by the Japanese (Maruyama & Kitamura 1961, 1965). A bright dot moves horizontally and at a constant speed from left to right across the screen. The respondent is required to follow this dot with his/her eyes. After a certain distance or a certain amount of time the dot disappears behind a barrier. The respondent must then indicate, by pressing a button, when the dot will reappear from behind the barrier. The time between the disappearance of the dot and the respondents reaction is used to calculate the respondents skill in speed estimation. According to Nomura (1970) and Takayama, Maruyama, Nomura & Kitamura (1972), this test measures three things: accuracy of speed estimation, harmony of cognition and motor reaction and the tendency to react prematurely. In 1977 the authors of this test (ZBA) were requested by the Austrian army to design a new test battery for the selection of army pilots. Most of the bodies involved in selection were still using conventional paper-and-pencil tests. However, the dimensions of sensomotor coordination and movement estimation are difficult to assess by conventional means. This has led to the use of simulation devices at some locations; these are intended to provide an objective assessment of abilities that cannot be measured by paper-and-pencil tests. These techniques are, however, not without problems, as studies in traffic psychology show: a simulation situation is of necessity very complex, so that in dealing with it a respondent combines a large number of individual abilities. In addition, previous experience in related function areas cam have a highly detrimental effect on test scores; for example, experience as a glider pilot can adversely affect performance in a flight simulator test. Another solution that is often employed has significantly more advantages; this involves testing the individual subfunctions using tests specifically developed for the purpose. Adopting this approach, the authors developed the separate tests Time/Movement Anticipation (ZBA), Sensomotor Coordination (SMK) and Achievement Motivation (LMV).

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2.2 Test structure

The ZBA is a performance test to measure the anticipation of time and movement. In order to measure the anticipation of time, a green ball appears on the screen, moving slowly. At an unpredictable moment the ball disappears and two red lines appear. One line passes through the point at which the ball has just disappeared. The other is the target line. The respondents task is to indicate when the ball will reach the target line. He does this by pressing a button at what he considers to be the appropriate moment. To measure anticipation of movement, the respondent is additionally asked to indicate the location at which the ball will cross the target line. This is done by means of two keys that control an arrow on the screen. In the instruction phase the respondent then receives feedback; he is shown where the dot actually was at the time he pressed the button and how its course continued. In the test phase no such feedback is given. In both the long form S1 and the short form S2 the tasks vary in difficulty. At first the ball moves in a simple, linear direction; later it follows a curvilinear path. Later still the path takes the shape of a sinus curve (see tables in Section 2.4, Test Forms) which is initially constant but then modulates in amplitude or frequency or both amplitude and frequency.

2.3 Description of variables

Regardless of test form, the time error is measured as the time difference, in seconds (accurate to hundredths of a second). The position error in test forms S1 to S3 is measured as the deviation from the correct position, in pixels. The medians of the deviation times and direction deviations are absolute values. The following variables are recorded in the individual test forms:

2.3.1

Test form S1

Main variables
Median deviation time total The median of the time deviations for all items. The time deviation is the difference between the anticipated time of the ball crossing the second line and the actual time at which it does so. Median direction deviation total The median of the direction deviations for all items. The direction deviation is the difference between the anticipated point of the ball crossing the second line and the actual point at which it does so.

Subsidiary variables
Median deviation time for linear path The median of the time deviations for all items involving a linear path. The time deviation is the difference between the anticipated time of the ball crossing the second line and the actual time at which it does so. Median deviation time for complex path The median of the time deviations for all items involving a complex path. The time deviation is the difference between the anticipated time of the ball crossing the second line and the actual time at which it does so.

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Median deviation time for sinusoidal path The median of the time deviations for all items involving a sinusoidal path. The time deviation is the difference between the anticipated time of the ball crossing the second line and the actual time at which it does so. Median direction deviation for linear path The median of the direction deviations for all items involving a linear path. The direction deviation is the difference between the anticipated point of the ball crossing the second line and the actual point at which it does so. Median direction deviation for complex path The median of the direction deviations for all items involving a complex path. The direction deviation is the difference between the anticipated point of the ball crossing the second line and the actual point at which it does so. Median direction deviation for sinusoidal path The median of the direction deviations for all items involving a sinusoidal path. The direction deviation is the difference between the anticipated point of the ball crossing the second line and the actual point at which it does so.

2.3.2

Test form S2

Main variables
Median deviation time The median of the time deviations for all items. The time deviation is the difference between the anticipated time of the ball crossing the second line and the actual time at which it does so. Median direction deviation The median of the direction deviations for all items. The direction deviation is the difference between the anticipated point of the ball crossing the second line and the actual point at which it does so.

2.3.3

Test form S3

Main variables
Median deviation time The median of the time deviations for all items. The time deviation is the difference between the anticipated time of the ball crossing the second line and the actual time at which it does so. Median direction deviation The median of the direction deviations for all items. The direction deviation is the difference between the anticipated point of the ball crossing the second line and the actual point at which it does so.

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2.3.4

Test form S4

Main variables
Median deviation time total The median of the time deviations for all items. The time deviation is the difference between the anticipated time of the ball crossing the second line and the actual time at which it does so. Median deviation time from right The median of the time deviations for all items involving movement of the ball from right to left. The time deviation is the difference between the anticipated time of the ball crossing the second line and the actual time at which it does so. Median deviation time from left The median of the time deviations for all items involving movement of the ball from left to right. The time deviation is the difference between the anticipated time of the ball crossing the second line and the actual time at which it does so.

Subsidiary variables
Number of exact estimates The number of the respondents estimates that do not differ from the actual point at which the ball crosses the line by more than 9 pixels. Number of underestimates This is the number of premature responses i.e. responses involving underestimation of the time required by the ball to cross the line. The variable describes the number of responses for which the ball was between 10 (>9) and 200 pixels short of the line at the moment the respondent pressed the button. Number of overestimates This is the number of delayed responses i.e. responses involving overestimation of the time required by the ball to cross the line. The variable describes the number of responses for which the ball had already moved between 10 (>9) and 200 pixels away from the line at the moment the respondent pressed the button. Number of extreme over- and underestimates The number of the respondents estimates that differ from the actual point at which the ball crossed the line by more than 201 (>200) pixels.

2.3.5

Test form S5

Main variables
Mean deviation time total The mean of the time deviations for all items. The time deviation is the difference between the anticipated time of the ball crossing the second line and the actual time at which it does so. This value is calculated for all items.

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Mean deviation time slow movements The mean of the time deviations. The time deviation for a particular item is the difference between the anticipated time of the ball crossing the second line and the actual time at which it does so. This value is calculated for the first six items, in which the ball moves slowly. Mean deviation time medium-fast movements The mean of the time deviations. The time deviation for a particular item is the difference between the anticipated time of the ball crossing the second line and the actual time at which it does so. This value is calculated for the middle six items, in which the ball moves moderately quickly. Mean deviation time fast movements The mean of the time deviations. The time deviation for a particular item is the difference between the anticipated time of the ball crossing the second line and the actual time at which it does so. This value is calculated for the last six items, in which the ball moves fast. Maximum deviation time slow movements The maximum deviation for the first six items. Maximum deviation time medium-fast movements The maximum deviation for the middle six items. Maximum deviation time fast movements The maximum deviation for the last six items.

2.4 Test forms

2.4.1 Long form S1
The long form consists of 48 items. The difficulty of the items varies as follows: Initially the ball follows a simple, linear path. Later it traces a sinusoidal curve. Table 1 shows the direction and type of movement for each item.
Table 1: Direction and type of movement Item number 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 Function type linear linear sinusoidal linear sinusoidal linear linear complex linear complex complex complex complex linear complex complex sinusoidal Direction left - right right - left left - right bottom - top top - bottom right - left left - right bottom - top top - bottom top - bottom left - right right - left bottom - top bottom - top bottom - top right - left bottom - top

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18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 complex linear complex complex complex complex sinusoidal complex complex sinusoidal complex complex complex complex complex sinusoidal complex complex complex complex complex complex complex complex complex complex complex sinusoidal complex sinusoidal complex right - left top - bottom top - bottom left - right top - bottom left - right right - left left - right bottom - top bottom - top right - left bottom - top bottom - top bottom - top bottom - top left - right right - left top - bottom left - right left - right top - bottom right - left right - left top - bottom top - bottom top - bottom right - left right - left left - right top - bottom left - right

2.4.2

Short form S2

The short form consists of 12 items. These are items number 18, 34, 5, 21, 9, 1, 3, 2, 4, 23, 29 and 31 of the long form. Table 2 shows the direction and type of movement for each item. (Numbers in brackets are the item numbers in Table 1.) The items that follow a simple path are numbers 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 and 9 of the long form. The items that follow a complex path are numbers 18, 21, 23, 29, 31 and 34 of the long form.
Table 2: Direction and type of movement Item number 1 (18) 2 (34) 3 (5) 4 (21) 5 (9) 6 (1) 7 (3) 8 (2) 9 (4) 10 (23) 11 (29) 12 (31) Function type complex complex sinusoidal complex linear linear sinusoidal linear linear complex complex complex Direction right - left right - left top - bottom left - right top - bottom left - right left - right right - left bottom - top left - right bottom - top bottom - top

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2.4.3

Linear form S3

The linear form consists of 8 items. These are the linear items number 1, 2, 4, 6, 7, 9, 14 and 19 of the long form. Table 3 shows the direction and type of movement for each item. (Numbers in brackets are the item numbers in Table 1.)
Table 3: Direction and type of movement Item number 1 (1) 2 (2) 3 (4) 4 (6) 5 (7) 6 (9) 7 (14) 8 (19) Function type linear linear linear linear linear linear linear linear Direction left - right right - left bottom - top right - left left - right top - bottom bottom - top top - bottom

2.4.4

Linear form S4 (time anticipation only)

This form contains a total of 30 linear items; six of these items are practice items presented during the instruction phase. Table 4 shows the side on which each item starts.
Table 4: Starting point of individual items Item number 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 Starting point left left left right right right right left right left right left right left left left left right left left right left right right right left right right right left

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2.4.5

Linear form S5 (screening time anticipation)

This form contains a total of 24 linear items; six of these items are practice items presented during the instruction phase. Table 5 shows the side on which each item starts.
Table 5: Starting point of individual items Item number 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 Starting point right left left right left right left left left right right right right left right left right left right left left left left right

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3 EVALUATION
3.1 Objectivity
Administration objectivity
Test administrator independence exists when the respondents test behaviour, and thus his test score, is independent of variations (either accidental or systematic) in the behaviour of the test administrator (Kubinger, 2003). Since administration of the ZBA is computerised, all respondents receive the same information, presented in the same way, about the test. These instructions are independent of the test administrator. Similarly, test presentation is identical for all respondents.

Scoring objectivity
The recording of data and calculation of variables is automatic and does not involve a scorer. The same applies to the norm score comparison. Computational errors are therefore excluded.

Interpretation objectivity
Since the test has been normed, interpretation objectivity is given (Lienert & Raatz, 1994). Interpretation objectivity does, however, also depend on the care with which the guidelines on interpretation given in the chapter Interpretation of Test Results are followed.

3.2 Reliability
Table 6 shows the internal consistency of the test (Test Form S1), calculated as Cronbachs Alpha at item level.
Table 6: Reliability (Cronbachs Alpha) of the norm sample Sample Median deviation time total Median direction deviation total Median deviation time linear path Median deviation time complex path Median deviation time sinus path Median direction dev. linear path Median direction dev. complex path Median direction dev. sinus path Total 0.98 0.76 0.92 0.98 0.92 0.69 0.72 0.62 age <40 0.98 0.76 0.91 0.72 0.90 0.98 0.90 0.66 age 41-50 0.99 0.74 0.96 0.99 0.95 0.69 0.78 0.47 age >50 0.94 0.65 0.75 0.93 0.78 0.65 0.48 0.42 Men 0.98 0.67 0.90 0.97 0.89 0.72 0.64 0.61 Women 0.99 0.79 0.93 0.98 0.93 0.61 0.77 0.61

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3.3 Validity
Validity studies are currently available for a precursor version of the test. The results of an evaluation study involving a driving test (Bukasa, Wenninger & Brandsttter; 1990) show that in real-life traffic situations the overestimation of distance causes more problems than underestimation of distance.

3.4 Economy
Being a computerised test, the ZBA is very economical to administer and score. Because the instructions at the start of the test are standardised and raw and norm scores are calculated automatically, the test administrator does not need to spend time giving instructions or calculating raw and norm scores. Since the test requires a maximum of 25 minutes to complete, the demands made on the respondents time are reasonable; the quality criterion of economy can therefore be regarded as met.

3.5 Usefulness
"A test is useful if it measures an ability for the assessment of which there is a practical need. A test therefore has a high degree of usefulness if it cannot be replaced by any other test (Lienert 1994, p.13, translated). The practical usefulness of the ZBA arises from the need to identify errors in anticipating time and movement; this is of use in traffic psychology as well as other areas.

3.6 Reasonableness
Reasonableness describes the extent to which a test is free of stress for the respondent; the respondent should not find the experience emotionally taxing and the time spent on the test should be proportional to the expected usefulness of the information gained (Kubinger, 2003). The time required to complete this test is relatively short and the tasks are so designed that only basal cognitive functions are required. This test is not normally over-taxing for the respondent; the criterion of reasonableness can therefore be regarded as met.

3.7 Resistance to falsification

A test that meets the meets the quality criterion of resistance to falsification is one that can prevent a respondent answering questions in a manner deliberately intended to influence or control his test score (e.g. Kubinger. 2003). It is clear from the nature of the demands that the ZBA makes on the respondent that respondents cannot influence their test scores to their own advantage. The criterion of resistance to falsification is therefore met.

3.8 Fairness
If tests are to meet the quality criterion of fairness, they must not systematically discriminate against particular groups of respondents on the grounds of their sociocultural background (Kubinger, 2003). As far as can be judged from findings to date, there are no indications that this test is unfair that is, that it discriminates against particular respondents. It is also unlikely that individuals without computer experience are disadvantaged.

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4 NORMS
The norms were obtained by calculating the mean percentile rank PR(x) for each raw score X according to the formula (from Lienert & Raatz, 1994):

PRx = 100

cum fx fx 2 N

cum fx corresponds to the number of respondents who have achieved the raw score X or a lower score, fx is the number of respondents with the raw score X, and N is the size of the sample.

4.1 Test form S1

Norm sample
Norms are available for a sample of N=271 individuals. 131 respondents (48%) are male and 140 (52%) are female. Table 7 and Figure 1 show the age distribution of the sample.
Table 7: Age distribution of the norm sample Age group 15 - 20 21 - 25 26 - 30 31 - 35 36 - 40 41 - 45 46 - 50 51 - 55 56 - 60 61 - 65 66 - 70 71 - 75 76 - 80 81 - 85 86+ Observed frequency 14 27 41 59 16 26 14 20 20 10 6 7 9 2 0 Expected frequency 8 22 30 30 24 24 19 24 22 16 16 14 8 8 5

Note: Observed frequencies are the frequency within the norm sample. Expected frequencies relate to data gathered in the national census.

For each sub-sample the expected distribution was calculated on the basis of data from the Austrian census of 1991 (Volkszhlung 1991: Hauptergebnisse I - sterreich vol. 1.030/10 of Beitrge zur sterreichischen Statistik, published by sterreichisches Statistisches Zentralamt, Vienna 1993) and data from Germany collected in a census that took place after reunification. These are the expected frequencies shown in Table 6.

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Age distribution of the norm sample

Age in years
Figure 1: Age distribution of the norm sample

The sample has been divided into subsamples on the basis of gender and of four age groups (up to 40, 41-50, 51-65, 66 and older); these subsamples differ significantly from each other. The mean age of the sample is 43 with a standard deviation of 17.4 years. The youngest respondent is 18 years old and the oldest is 85. 0 individuals (0%) individual have not completed compulsory schooling, 40 individuals (14.8%) have completed compulsory schooling but have not completed vocational training, 119 individuals (43.9%) have completed vocational training, 89 (32.8%) have a school-leaving qualification at university entrance level and 23 (8.5%) have a university degree. The data was collected during norming studies carried out in the research laboratory of SCHUHFRIED GmbH in Vienna between 1999 and 2001.

4.2 Test form S2

Norm sample
Norms are available for a representative sample of N=301 individuals. 152 respondents (50.4%) are male and 149 (49.6%) are female. The mean age of the sample is 42 with a standard deviation of 17.1 years. The youngest respondent is 18 years old and the oldest is 85. 0 individuals (0%) individual have not completed compulsory schooling, 44 individuals (14.6%) have completed compulsory schooling but have not completed vocational training, 128 individuals (42.5%) have completed vocational training, 99 (32.9%) have a schoolleaving qualification at university entrance level and 30 (10%) have a university degree.

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4.3 Test form S3

Norm sample
Norms are available for a representative sample of 271 individuals consisting of 131 (48.34%) men and 140 (51.66%) women aged between 18 and 85. 40 (14.76%) individuals have completed compulsory schooling but have not completed vocational training, 119 individuals (43.91%) have completed vocational training or a course at a technical college, 89 (32.84%) have a school-leaving qualification at university entrance level and 23 (8.49%) have a university degree. The data was collected during norming studies carried out in the research laboratory of SCHUHFRIED GmbH in Vienna between 1999 and 2001.

4.4 Test form S4

Norm sample
Norms are available for a representative sample of 433 individuals consisting of 230 (53.1%) men and 203 (46.9%) women aged between 16 and 91. The average age is 45.15 with a standard deviation of 17.33 years. Four (1%) individuals have not completed compulsory schooling, 57 (13.2%) individuals have completed compulsory schooling but have not completed vocational training, 177 (40.9%) individuals have completed vocational training or a course at a technical college, 167 (38.6%) have a school-leaving qualification at university entrance level and 28 (6.5%) have a university degree. The data was collected in a norming study carried out in the research laboratory of SCHUHFRIED GmbH in Vienna in 2003 and 2004.

4.5 Test form S5

At present no norm sample is available for Form S5; the raw scores are simply reported.

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5 TEST ADMINISTRATION
The ZBA consists of an instruction and practice phase and the test phase itself. The monitor must be at the same height as the response panel. It is particularly important not to position the monitor on top of a desktop computer.

Figure 2: Positioning the monitor

5.1 Instruction and practice phase

Instructions for the time anticipation task are given first. A green ball appears on the screen, moving slowly. At an unpredictable moment the ball disappears and two red lines appear. One line passes through the point at which the ball has just disappeared. The other line is the target line; the respondent must indicate the time at which the ball will reach this line. He does this by pressing a button at the moment when he thinks the ball will reach the second line. In the instruction phase of test forms S1 and S2 all four directions of movement are demonstrated. In forms S3 and S4 only linear tasks are shown. In test forms S1 and S3 instructions for the movement anticipation task are then given. After pressing the response key the respondent moves an arrow to indicate the position at which the ball will reappear. In the instruction phase the respondent then receives feedback; he is shown where the dot actually was at the time he pressed the button and how its course continued. Test form S4 does not involve anticipation of movement. There are eight practice items in test form S1, six in S4 and S5, five in S2 and two in S3. After working these items the respondent moves on to the test phase.

5.2 Test phase

The test phase is presented in the same way as the practice phase; the only difference is that feedback is no longer provided. In forms S1 and S2 the difficulty of the items varies as follows: Initially the ball follows a simple, linear path. Then curvilinear paths appear. These are followed by sinusoidal curves, which are at first constant but later modulate in amplitude, frequency or both amplitude and frequency. The test ends after 48 items (long form S1) or 12 items (short form S2).

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Form S3 consists of only the linear items of Form S1; this version of the test ends after eight items have been presented. Form S4 also consists only of linear items; in this form changes in speed influence the item difficulty. Form S4 ends after 30 items have been presented. Form S5 also consists only of linear items, with the items being varied by changes in speed. This test form involves three different speeds. The test ends after 18 items have been presented.

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6 INTERPRETATION OF TEST RESULTS

6.1 General notes on interpretation
A percentile rank of <16 can in general be regarded as below average. An individual with such a result can be regarded as having below-average ability in comparison to the reference population used. A percentile rank of 16 24 can be regarded as below average to average. In comparison to the reference population used, an individual with a percentile rank in this range demonstrates below average to average ability. A percentile rank between 25 and 75 is an average score. The ability of an individual whose score is in this range is in broad terms typical of that of the reference population. Percentile ranks between 76 and 84 indicate average to above average ability in comparison to the reference population used. Percentile ranks >84 reflect a clearly above average result. In comparison to the reference population, individuals with percentile ranks in this range demonstrate above average ability.

6.2 Interpretation of variables

6.2.1 Test form S1

Interpretation of main variables

Median deviation time total This variable describes the respondents ability to anticipate time. Individuals with a high score (PR>84) on this variable are very good at estimating the time required for movements in space. Median direction deviation total This variable describes the respondents ability to anticipate movement. Individuals with a high score (PR>84) on this variable are very good at estimating the course of an objects movement in space. If the respondents score on one of the two main variables (Median deviation time total and Median direction deviation total) is below average (PR<16), the variables Median deviation time for linear path and Median direction deviation for linear path should be inspected. If the scores on these two variables are average or above average in comparison with the reference population, the description of the respondents ability to anticipate time and movement can be regarded as applying only to linear trajectories.

Interpretation of subsidiary variables

Median deviation time for linear path This variable describes the respondents ability to anticipate time where linear movements are involved.

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Individuals with a high score (PR>84) on this variable are very good at estimating the time required for linear movements in space. Median direction deviation for linear path This variable describes the respondents ability to anticipate movement where linear movements are involved. Individuals with a high score (PR>84) on this variable are very good at estimating the course of linear movements in space. Median deviation time for complex path This variable describes the respondents ability to anticipate time where complex movements are involved. Individuals with a high score (PR>84) on this variable are very good at estimating the time required for complex movements in space. Median deviation time for complex path This variable describes the respondents ability to anticipate movement where complex movements are involved. Individuals with a high score (PR>84) on this variable are very good at estimating the course of complex movements in space. Median deviation time for sinusoidal path This variable describes the respondents ability to anticipate time where sinusoidal movements are involved. Individuals with a high score (PR>84) on this variable are very good at estimating the time required for sinusoidal movements in space. Median direction deviation for sinusoidal path This variable describes the respondents ability to anticipate movement where sinusoidal movements are involved. Individuals with a high score (PR>84) on this variable are very good at estimating the course of sinusoidal movements in space.

6.2.2

Test form S2

Interpretation of main variables

Median deviation time This variable describes the respondents ability to anticipate time. Individuals with a high score (PR>84) on this variable are very good at estimating the time required for movements in space. Median direction deviation This variable describes the respondents ability to anticipate movement. Individuals with a high score (PR>84) on this variable are very good at estimating the course of an objects movement in space.

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6.2.3

Test form S3

Interpretation of main variables

Median deviation time This variable describes the respondents ability to anticipate time. Individuals with a high score (PR>84) on this variable are very good at estimating the time required for movements in space. Median direction deviation This variable describes the respondents ability to anticipate movement. Individuals with a high score (PR>84) on this variable are very good at estimating the course of an objects movement in space.

6.2.4

Test form S4

Interpretation of main variables

Median deviation time total This variable describes the respondents ability to anticipate time. Individuals with a high score (PR>84) on this variable are very good at estimating the time required for movements in space. Median deviation time from left/right The variables Median deviation time from right and Median deviation time from left enable the respondents performance to be analysed in more detail. Individuals with a high score (PR>84) on these variables are very good at estimating the time required for movements that travel either from right to left or from left to right. The individual subsidiary variables can be used to identify the frequency and direction of the respondents misjudgements and to analyse the quality of his test performance.

6.2.5

Test form S5

Interpretation of main variables

Since this form has not yet been normed, it is at present only possible to make a direct comparison of raw scores. There is no means of relating these to a reference population and it is therefore not possible to make any statements about above-average, average or belowaverage performance in comparison to a reference population. Mean deviation time total Using this variable it is possible to make a statement about the respondents ability to anticipate time. Individuals with a low raw score on this variable are very good at estimating the time required for movements in space. Mean deviation time slow movements Using this variable it is possible to make a statement about the respondents ability to anticipate time where relatively slow movement are involved.

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Individuals with a low raw score on this variable are very good at estimating the time required for slow movements in space. Mean deviation time medium-fast movements Using this variable it is possible to make a statement about the respondents time anticipation ability where medium-fast movements are involved. Individuals with a low raw score on this variable are very good at estimating the time required for medium-fast movements in space. Mean deviation time fast movements Using this variable it is possible to make a statement about the respondents time anticipation ability where fast movements are involved. Individuals with a low raw score on this variable are very good at estimating the time required for fast movements in space.

6.3 Additional output of results

Profile
Profile - Norm sample: T
20 30 40 50 60 70 80

Median deviation time Median direction deviation

PR
0.1 2.3 15.9 50.0 84.1 97.7 99.9

The profile is a diagrammatic representation of the normed test scores; it enables the respondents performance to be compared easily with the selected reference sample. The grey area indicates the average range; it covers the mean +/- one standard deviation. Scores in the white area to the left are below average; those in the white area to the right are above average. The respondents score is indicated by a point. The range marking to the left and right of this point indicates the range within which the respondents performance lies with a reliability of 95%.

Results chart
Progress:
0.20 0.15 0.10 0.05 -0.00 -0.05 -0.10 -0.15 20 0

Deviation time (seconds)

Total direction deviation (pixels)

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

Item

The results chart enables individual items to be analysed in detail. The upper diagram in the results chart shows the deviation time in seconds. Positive values indicate that the respondent underestimated the time required to reach the second line and pressed the response key too soon. Negative values indicate that the time required was overestimated

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and the response key was pressed too late. The lower diagram in the results chart shows the direction deviation in pixels; the direction of the deviation is not indicated.

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7 REFERENCES
Bubb,H. (1977). Analyse der Geschwindigkeitswahrnehmung im Kraftfahrzeug. Zeitschrift fr Arbeitswissenschaft, 31, 2, 103-111. Bukasa B, Wenninger U & Brandsttter CH (1990). Validierung Verkehrspsychologischer Testverfahren. Vienna: Literas Universittsverlag. Engels,K. (1981). Zur Problematik des Geschwindigkeitserlebens der Kraftfahrer. PolizeiTechnik-Verkehr, 12, 417-420. Evans,L. (1970). Speed estimates from a moving vehicle. Ergonomics, 13, 219-230. Kubinger, K.D. (2003). Gtekriterien. In K.D. Kubinger & R.S. Jger (Eds.), Schlsselbegriffe der Psychologischen Diagnostik, 195-204. Weinheim: Beltz. Lienert, G.A. (1969). Testaufbau und Testanalyse. Weinheim: Beltz. Lienert, G.A., Raatz, U. (1994). Testaufbau und Testpraxis. Weinheim: Beltz. Maruyama,K.,Kitamura,S. (1961). Speed anticipation test: A test for discrimination of accident proneness in motor drivers. Tohoku Psychol. Folia., 20, 13-20. Maruyama,K. & Kitamura, S. (1965). Speed anticipation reaction test as applied to bus drivers. Tohoku Psychol. Folia., 24, 46-55. Meyer-Gramcko, F. (1980). Die Schtzung der Fahrgeschwindigkeit. Der Sachverstndige, 1, 3-12. Moser, L. (1979). Einflsse der Geschwindigkeit auf die Wahrnehmung vor Verkehrsunfllen. Der Verkehrsunfall, 3, 48-52. Nagayama, Y., Morita, & T., Miura, T. (1980). Speed judgement of oncoming motorcycles. Paper presented at the International Motorcycles Safety Conference, Washington May 1980. Nomura, T. (1970). The relationship between cognitive system and reactive system in speed anticipation reaction tests. Graduation thesis, Tohoku University. Takayama, T., Maruyama, K., Nomura, T. & Kitamura, S. (1972). Reaction methods and the speed anticipation reaction time. Tohoku University.

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